This is actually nothing lol

Biology Notes
Page 1: Cell Structure and Function

1. The Cell Theory

 All living things are composed of cells.

 The cell is the basic unit of life.
 All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

2. Types of Cells

 Prokaryotic Cells: Simple cells without a nucleus (e.g., bacteria).

 Eukaryotic Cells: Complex cells with a nucleus (e.g., plant and animal cells).

3. Cell Organelles and Their Functions

 Nucleus: The control center of the cell, contains DNA.

 Mitochondria: The powerhouse of the cell, produces energy (ATP).
 Ribosomes: Sites of protein synthesis.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
o Rough ER: Studded with ribosomes, helps in protein synthesis.
o Smooth ER: Involved in lipid synthesis and detoxification.
 Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for storage or
transport out of the cell.
 Lysosomes: Contain digestive enzymes to break down waste.
 Chloroplasts (in plant cells): Sites of photosynthesis.
 Cell Membrane: Controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell.
 Cell Wall (in plant cells): Provides structure and protection.

Page 2: Genetics and Inheritance

1. DNA Structure

 DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) is the molecule that carries genetic information.

 It has a double helix structure made up of nucleotides (Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine,
Guanine).

2. Mendelian Genetics

 Gregor Mendel: The father of genetics, discovered how traits are inherited.
 Genes: Units of heredity, made up of DNA.
 Alleles: Different versions of a gene.
 o Dominant Allele: Expressed if present (e.g., A).
o Recessive Allele: Expressed only if both alleles are recessive (e.g., a).
 Genotype: The genetic makeup of an organism (e.g., AA, Aa, aa).
 Phenotype: The physical expression of the genotype (e.g., purple flowers, white
flowers).

3. Punnett Squares

 Tool used to predict the probability of inheriting traits.

 Monohybrid Cross: A cross between individuals focusing on one trait.
o Example: Aa x Aa.

4. Genetic Disorders

 Caused by mutations or alterations in DNA.

 Examples:
o Cystic Fibrosis: Affects the respiratory and digestive systems.
o Sickle Cell Anemia: Causes red blood cells to become misshapen.

Page 3: Evolution and Natural Selection

1. Charles Darwin and the Theory of Evolution

 Darwin proposed that species evolve over time through natural selection.

2. Principles of Natural Selection

 Variation: Individuals in a population vary in their traits.

 Overproduction: More offspring are produced than can survive.
 Adaptation: Traits that increase survival and reproduction become more common in the
population.
 Descent with Modification: Over time, species evolve and new species arise.

3. Evidence of Evolution

 Fossil Record: Shows changes in organisms over time.

 Comparative Anatomy:
o Homologous Structures: Similar structures in different species indicating
common ancestry.
o Analogous Structures: Different structures with similar functions indicating
convergent evolution.
 Embryology: Similar early development in different species.
 Molecular Biology: DNA and protein similarities among different organisms.

4. Speciation
 The formation of new and distinct species in the course of evolution.
 Mechanisms:
o Geographic Isolation: Physical separation of populations.
o Reproductive Isolation: Different behaviors or physical characteristics that
prevent breeding.