Quaternary International, Vol. 43144, pp. 25-3 1, 1997.

Copyright 0 1997 INQUA/ Elsevier Science Ltd

- -P&ted in Great Britain. All rights reserved.
PII: S1040-6182(97)00017-7 1040-6182/97 $32.00

THE CLIMATE OF MEXICO SINCE THE AZTEC PERIOD

Sarah L. O’Hara* and Sarah E. Metcalfet

*Department of Geography, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, SlO 2TN, U.K.
tDepartment of Geography, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH8 9XP, U.K.

Fluctuations in the climate of Mexico since the Aztec period (1345-1994) are established using a variety of primary and secondary
historical sources. Drought conditions prevailed when the Aztecs entered the Basin of Mexico, but the climate became wetter shortly after
this time and the period 1345-1640 appears to have been relatively wet. From 1640 to 1915 the country experienced a s,eries of prolonged
and devastating droughts which were extremely severe in the mid to late 1700s and the late 1800s. This interval coincides with periods of
adverse weather conditions elsewhere in the world and may represent the period of the Little Ice Age. Since the early 1900s there has been a
shift towards somewhat wetter conditions in Mexico. Variations in precipitation over this period can be explained by changes in the strength
of the summer monsoon. 0 1997 INQUA/ Elsevier Science Ltd

INTRODUCTION CONTEMPORARY MEXIC4N CLIMATE

During the past few decades much attention has
focused on climatic change with a dramatic volume of
literature devoted to this issue. Traditionally, investiga-
tions have concentrated at two very different time scales:
studies of long-term climatic fluctuations inferred from
geological, geomorphological and palaeolimnological
investigations, and short-term, recent climatic change as
inferred from instrumental records. While such investiga-
tions have added substantially to our understanding of
climate change there is growing recognition that if we are
to understand more fully the complexities of climate
change there is a need to reconstruct long term, yet
temporally detailed climate histories. One method of
achieving this is to use historical records as a form of
proxy climate data. The potential of historical records for
reconstructing past climates has been known for some
time (Le Roy Ladurie, 1972; Lamb, 1982), but it is only
recently that their importance has become more widely
recognised (Bradley and Jones, 1992; Diaz and Markgraf,
1992). To date climatic reconstructions based on
historical information have tended to be geographically
specific, so whereas there is a considerable amount of
information pertaining to North America and Northern
Europe, relatively little information is available for the
tropics, interior Asia and the southern continents (Bradley
and Jones, 1992).
In this paper evidence is drawn from a number of
primary and secondary sources to provide a reconstruc-
tion of changes in the climate of Mexico over the last 600
years. While the period of direct meteorological observa-
tions in Mexico is short, there are abundant proxy data
which provide an opportunity for reconstructing climatic
conditions in the central part of the country over the last
few centuries (Florescano, 1980; Swan, 1981; Metcalfe,
1987; Butzer and Butzer, 1993; O’Hara, 1993).
25
Mexico lies in the tropics and sub-tropics. between
32” and 19” N (Fig. 1). It is considered to be
climatically sensitive (Kutzbach and Street-Perrott,
1985; Liverman, 1993) and has experienced changes in
the climate on both long (Bradbury, 1989; Metcalfe
et al., 1991; Lozano-Garcia et ~i!t., 1993) and short
(Garcia, 1974; Jauregui and Klaus, 1976; Jauregui,
1979) time scales. At the present time the country
comes under the influence of two major features of
the atmospheric circulation: the Trade winds and the
sub-tropical high pressure belt. ,4 third feature, the
Westerlies, affects the north western part of the country
during the northern hemisphere winter. The present
day distribution of precipitation throughout the year is
primarily influenced by seasonalshifts in the latitudes
of these major circulation features. During the northern
hemispheresummer the Intertropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ) moves north accompanied by the semi perma-
nent Bermuda Azores and the East Pacific highs
(Fig. la). The flow brings the main rains to the country
between April and October in a monsoon-type circula-
tion. A drier period called the canicula, often interrupts
the rainy seasonduring August becauseof the tempor-
ary disruption of the easterly flows across the country.
The length of the can&da is very important in
determining whether rainfall is above or below average
for any particular year (Toledo, 1980).
In the northern hemisphere winter, the ITCZ is
displaced equatorwards and the country comes under
the influence of the sub-tropical high pressurebelt with
westerly flows aloft (Fig. lb). This results in stable dry
conditions over much of the country. In the late winter
and early spring depressionscalled equipatas can cause
precipitation primarily in the north western part of the
country, and outbreaks of cold polar air, nortes, which
 Sarah L. O’Hara and Sarah E. Metcalfe
- Warm front Line of wave at
ztrnmx I.T.C.Z.
- Cold front - - 500 mb
- Flow at 500 mb A Anticyclonic flow C Gyclonic flow
FIG. 1. (a} Schematic map of the major features of the atmospheric
circulation during summer. (b) Schematic map of the major features of
the atmospheric circulation during winter.
occur during the winter months, can bring rains as far
south as the Yucatan.
Variations in the zonality of the atmospheric circula-
tion are of major importance for the climate of Mexico.
With highly zonal flows in the upper westerlies, and the
ITCZ well to the north during the summer months, strong
trade winds flow across all of Mexico resulting in above
average rainfall (Wallen, 1955). When the area is
characterised by meridional flow blocking the penetration
of moist tropical air associated with the summer
monsoon, dry conditions prevail. In winter, meridional
flow results in more frequent incursions of nortes from
North America with unusually low temperatures, and late
and early frosts. Meridional conditions also block the
westerlies resulting in dry conditions in the North of
Mexico. Thus, changes in the strength of these different
atmospheric features have important consequences for the
prevailing climate.
INSTRUMENTAL CLIMATE RECORDS IN
MEXICO
The earliest description of the climate of Mexico was
that of Francisco Hernandez written in the 167Os,
although the first systematic records were not made until
the 1760s when Felipe de Zufiiga y Ontiveros and
Antonio Alzate compiled tables of climatic conditions
(Zufiiga y Ontiveros, unpublished data; Alzate, 1831). In
general people did not tend to measure temperature and
the records that remain of rainfall from the time of the
Conquest until the late 1800s occur as casual observa-
tions applying only to periods of abnormal rainfall levels.
In 1826 regular reports of temperature and precipitation
appearedin the Mexico City newspaperEl Sol (Metcalfe,
1987), but the longest single record for Mexico comes
from the Tacubaya Observatory which started collecting
data in 1884. The establishmentof the Central Meteor-
ological Observatory in 1877 saw the more widespread
introduction of meteorological stations throughout the
country (Jauregui, 1979), but data collection at many of
these sites was interrupted by civil unrest during the
revolution (1917). In 1921 the Servicio Meteorologico de
Mexico was established with 600 monitoring sites
throughout the country. Despite the subsequentexpansion
of this network, meteorological stations are still sparsein
some areas particularly in the arid north and remote
mountain areas.
HISTORICAL SOURCES OF CLIMATE
INFORMATION IN MEXICO
There are a variety of historical sourceswhich can be
usedto reconstruct climate conditions of Mexico over the
recent past. Some of the oldest source materials are the
few remaining codices and relaciones which provide
information on Mexico from the period immediately prior
to and after the Conquest. The relaciones, written after
the Spanish Conquest, were generally compiled by
members of incoming religious orders, with the help of
local informants, and provide an insight into the
historical, economic, political and geographical aspects
of different parts of Mexico. The reliability of these
diverse sources differs considerably and there is a
tendency for events to be described in very biblical
terms. Fr. Diego Duran (1570), for example, noted that
during the floods of 1499 Mexico City was inundated for
40 days. When events are referred to in two or more
documents, the evidence would appear to be more
credible. However, the propensity of many early biogra-
phers to plagiarise should not be underestimatedand data
from these sourcesshould be used with extreme caution.
Although details of climatic conditions after the
Conquest are more readily available than for the earlier
period, they generally refer to years when abnormal
conditions prevailed. Gibson (1964), for example, noted
that within any one year there was a cycle in prices for
maize reflecting seasonalavailability. The normal cycle
was repeatedly upset by adverse weather conditions,
particularly with respect to temperature and precipitation.
In years of above normal rainfall, the harvest was
generally bountiful and prices remained low. When
drought conditions prevailed the maize harvest was often
significantly reduced, the effects of drought being more
pronounced in those years when frost occurred early in
the growing season.
The close relationship between climate and crop
production is highlighted by a number of factors, such
as images associatedwith rainfall which have played a
very important role in both pre- and post-Hispanic
societies. Like the Aztecs, who made offerings to the
 The climateof Mexico sincethe Aztec period
god Tlaloc for plentiful rain in the growing season,the
Spanishresorted to making appealsto religious images,A
particularly important figure was the Virgin of 10s
Remedios whose statue was moved to the Metropolitan
Cathedral in the centre of Mexico City during periods of
crisis. The decision to move the statue was not taken
lightly and involved discussionsbetween secular and
ecclesiastical authorities and the reasonfor transferral of
the image stated. When the rains failed, appeals were
made to the statueand on occasionswhen the drought was
severe,the statue was taken to the cathedral and remained
there until the rains arrived.
A number of investigations have usedthe link between
climate and agriculture as a meansof inferring climate
conditions over the colonial period. Information on crop
yields and prices have been used by Florescano (1969,
1980) to determine periods of below average rainfall.
Adopting a slightly different approach, Swan (1981) used
the correspondencebetween hacienda administrators and
owners to highlight the severity of climatic conditions in
central Mexico between 1784 and 1812. Unfortunately
such investigations in Mexico are rare.
Another potential source of proxy climate data is
the evidence of lake level fluctuations. Lakes in central
Mexico are known to fluctuate in responseto climatic
change over the long term (Metcalfe ef al., 1994). Over
the historical period lake level changes are indicated
by a variety of sources;relative changescan be inferred
from maps and paintings as well as contemporary
descriptions and, as O’Hara (1993) has demonstrated,it
is also possible to reconstruct quite detailed lake level
curves using historical evidence. Such data are available
because lake basins throughout Mexico have provided
important foci for settlement during both the pre-
and post-Conquest periods (Sanders et al., 1979;
Metcalfe, 1987). The shallow nature of many of these
lakes results in considerable changes in the shoreline
when lake levels change. Whenever prolonged rains
occur, lake levels rise and low lying areas are inun-
dated. Flooding within the Basin of Mexico, for
example, was often so severe that the city would remain
inundated for years. In the 17th century it was
suggestedby a Spaniard that founding the city in such a
flood prone area had been a mistake (Cepeda de
Carrillo, 1637 in Niederberger, 1987). During both the
pre- and post-Conquest period efforts were made to
reduce the effects of flooding in the Basin of Mexico.
These efforts took the form of the construction of flood
protection schemes and the diversion of water away
from the basin. The controversy surrounding such works
is well documented and numerousreferences to hydrau-
lic works affecting Mexico City are available (for
example, see Musset, 1992). Although information
about hydraulic works on other basins is not so readily
available, reference to such work can be found in
regional archives. While rising lake levels result in 10s~
of land, at other times large areas of land bordering
a lake would be uncovered as lake levels fell. Legal
disputes often followed the exposure of new land and
the documents relating to these frequently give accurate
27
details of the position of the shore which allow the level
of the lake at specific times to be determined.
Additional information on shoreline location is avail-
able for those places where the Spanish crown required
that detailed records be made of land associated with
indigenous villages. In the 1780s for example, it was
decreed that villagers were to have sole use of the land
600 varas (505 m) in all directions from their local
church. These measures were taken to protect the
indigenous people from hacienda o’wnerswho often took
land from villagers for their own purposes. In those
instanceswhere there was a natural barrier, such asa lake,
the distance from the church to the. lake shore would be
stated, allowing the position of the shore to be
determined.
THE CLIMATE OF MEXICO SINCE THE AZTEC
PERIOD
While there are considerable and varied sources of
evidence for reconstructing recent climatic change in
Mexico, the majority of information that is readily
accessible relates to the Basin of Mexico and its
immediate environs. The basin hlas a long history of
human occupation and has been an important focus for
human settlement at various times over the last 6000-
7000 years (Sanderset al., 1979). The Aztecs or Mexica,
amongst the best known of the Mesoamerican cultures,
settled in the Basin around 1345, apparently entering the
basin as part of a southwards migration of nomadic
Chichimeca escaping drought conditions in the north of
the country. Reference to adverse weather conditions are
made in a number of documents concerning the Aztec
period. Wet conditions appearto have set in shortly after
the arrival of the Aztecs. In the Anales de Tlatelolco, for
example, it is stated that after year four of the reign of
Acamapichtli (ca. 1382), the city was inundated for 4
years as a result of heavy rains. Moriarty (1968)
concluded that a seriesof extreme wet seasonsoccurred
between 1440 and 1450 leading to the partial destruction
of Tenochtitlan (now Mexico City). Following devastat-
ing floods in 1449, the Aztecs began constructing a
number dykes (including the dyke of Netzahualcoyolt ca.
1450) which were primarily designed to limit flood
damagein the area. The wet years of the 1440sappearto
have been followed by a number of years of acute food
shortages. According to the Codice Ramirez, a severe
drought began in the year Uno-Conejo (ca. 1451) which
lasted three years, during which time “not a drop of rain
fell” and the rivers and springsdried up (cited in Musset,
1992). This drought also coincided with other anomalous
weather conditions, such as severe snow stormsand frost,
resulting in total destruction of the maize crop and
widespreadfamine.
Evidence of fluctuations in the levels of the lakes
occupying the Basin of Mexico in the period immediately
prior to the Conquest is provided by Linne (1948) who
concluded that lake levels rose in the late 1400sbefore
declining in the early 1500sand rising again from 1517
28 Sarah L. O’Hara and Sarah E. Metcalfe
onwards. At the time of the Conquest (1521) the level of
the lake in the Basin of Mexico had risen to such a level
that Cortez had to construct boats for his assault on
Tenochtitlan (Diaz de1 Castillo, 1908-1916). Evidence
from elsewherein Mexico also indicates that this period
was characterised by wetter conditions, O’Hara (1993)
reports that Lake Patzcuaro, in the state of Michoacan,
stood at a very high level in 1522, a level that has not
been reached at any other time following the Conquest.
The wet conditions at the rime of the Conquest were
followed by a series of drier years, with indigenous
people reporting that precipitation regimes had changed
considerably within the first generation of the Spanish
from 60-80 days a year to 30-40 days (Gibson, 1964).
Drier conditions at this time are also indicated by falling
lake levels in the Basin of Mexico which occurred from
1524 onwards. The 1540s also appear to have been
characterisedby dry conditions, Butzer and Butzer (1993)
noting that Lake Cuitzeo, Guanajuato actually dried up in
1543, while Gibson (1964) reports that the mid- 1540swas
a period characterisedby food shortages.
By the early 155Os, the climate of central Mexico
appearsto have been somewhat wetter with the intense
rains of 1555 resulting in widespread devastation in
Mexico City. By the end of the decade, however, dry
conditions once again prevailed with drought associated
with locust plagues in 1557, 1558 and 1559 (Gibson,
1964). Evidence from the Basin of Patzcuaro during this
period is also indicative of a dry period with referencesto
declining lake levels. In the ‘Proceso contra Don Pedro,
Gobemador de Cirostro 1560-1564’ (The case against
Don Pedro, Governor of Cirostro, 1560-1564), for
example, it is stated that: “...the said iands were lake,
and that when it dried he ploughed them up...” (Lydia
Espinoza, pers. commun., 1989). In another document
referring to a land dispute between the people of the
island of La Pacanda and the heirs of Juan Paruata and
Beatriz de Castilleja dating to the period 1609-1612 it is
stated that the level of the lake (Patzcuaro) had dropped
following the death of Antonio Huitzimengari in 1562.
A seriesof mapsthat date from the period 1576-1594
have been used by Butzer and Butzer (1993) to infer
changes in the climate in west-central Mexico over the
latter part of the 16th century. Thesemapsall depict Lake
Cuitzeo and clearly indicate that the lake fluctuated
considerably over this period. The lake was high between
1576 and 1587, but by 1590 had shrunk markedly, drying
out completely in 1591 and recovering somewhat by
1595. This suggeststhat conditions were relatively wet in
the late 157Os-early 158Os,becoming drier in the latter
part of the 158Os+&y 1590s.The 1590sappear to have
been a period of very severe drought conditions
throughout Mexico. Gibson (1964) reports that drought
associatedwith frost occurred in 1594, 1597and 1599 and
that central Mexico experienced plagues of locusts in
1592. This period of severe drought appearsto have been
widespread as tree ring records from northern Mexico
also suggest that this region was subject to very dry
conditions during the last decade of the 1500s (O’Hara
and Metcalfe, 1995).
A return to wetter conditions occurred in the first
decade of the 17th century during which time Mexico
City experienced severe flooding on two occasions: 1604
and 1607 (Rojas et al., 1974). The flooding of 1607 was
SO severethat a canal was excavated through the northern
part of the basin; the first step in the general drainage
(Desague) of the Basin of Mexico. Starting in 1616,
however, drought conditions once again prevailed
culminating in one of the most severe droughts of the
post Conquestperiod in 1624. Appeals were made to the
Virgin of Los Remedioson four occasions (1618, 1621,
1623 and 1624), although her image was not removed to
the city, but in 1629 following a period of above average
rains, Mexico City experienced what is considered to be
the worst flooding since the Conquestresulting in the city
being under water for almost five years (Musset, 1992).
Apart for minor flooding in 1674 and 1707, and heavy
rains in 1691, the period from 1640 to 1720 was generally
characterised by drought, with extremely severe condi-
tions in 1641, 1661, 1663 and 1692 (Gibson, 1964;
Florescano, 1969). The severity of drought during this
period is indicated by the fact that the image of the Virgin
of Los Remedios was taken to the cathedral in Mexico
City in 1641, 1642, 1653, 1663, 1667, and 1668. In 1692
the image was brought to the cathedral and remained
there until 1695. Crop yields in 1695 were disastrouswith
severe food shortagesin Mexico City. This problem was
compounded by frosts in September (early in the maize
growing season)causing food shortagesto continue into
1696 (Gibson, 1964).
The gradual decline in the level of Lake Patzcuaro over
the late 17th-early 18th century is a further indication that
dry conditions characterisedcentral Mexico over this time
interval (O’Hara, 1993). In the 176Os,however, the lake
registered a rapid increasein level which appearsto have
been associatedwith a period of above normal rainfall
which also causedchaos in Mexico City with extensive
flooding in the area (Gibson, 1964).
A return of drought conditions in 1768 was heraldedby
high prices and shortagesof maize, which continued to
affect the area for the next 45 years. During this period
one of the most severe famines in the history of Mexico
occurred. The year of great hunger, as it is known,
covered the period 1785-6, when frost early in the
growing season was followed by prolonged drought
resulting in the almost complete loss of the harvest.
According to Swan (1981) the correspondencebetween
the administrator and owner of the Haciendaof Molino de
Flores, located near Lake Texcoco in the Basin of
Mexico, suggeststhat there was a marked change in
precipitation regimes between the 1770s and 1780s.
Whereas rains occurred from July to November in the
mid-late 1770sthey only came from August to October
by the 1780s.
Maize prices at the turn of the 19th century indicate
that adverse weather conditions still prevailed in the area
and that times were difficult. Drought continued in the
first decadeof the 19th century, intensifying significantly
in the years 1808-181 I, causing acute agricultural
hardship for both crops and livestock. Considering the
 The climate of Mexico since the Aztec period
conditions of extreme deprivation experienced by the
largeiy impoverished Mexican population it is hardly
surprising that they chose this time to revolt against their
colonial oppressors and respond to Hidalgo’s call for
independence.
Periods of prolonged drought over the 17th and 18th
centuries had a considerable impact on the levels of the
lakes in the Basin of Mexico. Whereas at the time of the
Conquest the lakes are said to have covered 60% of the
Basin, when Humboldt visited the area in the early 19th
century he concluded that this had decreased to a mere
10% (Humboldt, 18 11). Although this decline may in part
have reflected engineering works in the basin, climate
will undoubtedly have been an important control. The
diminished lake area had considerable effects on the
distribution of population within the Basin. The wide-
spread desiccation resulted in the depopulation of the
northern drier part of the basin, with the most populous
barrios (settlements) situated near the remaining vestiges
of the lakes.
Following the War of Independence (1821), Mexico
experienced prolonged periods of civil unrest, and records
for this period are not readily available. Although Mexico
City was flooded in 1819, 1855 and 1875 as a result of
severe rains, Florescano (1980) concluded that the 19th
century was relatively dry. In 1823-24 and again in 1834-
35, the severity of the drought was such that the Yucatan
was declared a disaster zone. By the mid-1850s, Lake
Patzcuaro dropped to the lowest level recorded in the 600
years from 1380 (O’Hara, 1993), indicating that condi-
tions were very dry during this period.
From 1884 onwards, instrumental records of precipita-
tion are available. Following several years of above
average rainfall after 1878, the area experienced severe
drought conditions in the early 1890s. According to
Jauregui (1979) intense drought affected central and
northern Mexico between 1892 and 1896. This period of
summer drought was accompanied by very cold winters.
The area continued to receive below average rainfall until
1915. The extremity of the drought resulted in widespread
food shortages and was a contributing factor to the
Mexican Civil War. After 1915 the climate ameliorated a
little, with a peak of wetter conditions in the 1920s. The
1940s and early 1950s were again dry, particularly 1944-
46. Wetter conditions returned at the end of the 1950s and
rainfall totals for the period 1966-70 were amongst the
highest ever recorded in Mexico City (Metcalfe, 1987).
The 1970s and 1980s saw a general decline in rainfall
amount with a number of successive years of drought.
During the early part of the 1990s this trend appears to
have been reversed with rainfall levels once again above
normal.
DISCUSSION
Drawing together the information from different
historical sources it is possible to reconstruct climatic
conditions of central Mexico since the Aztec period
(Fig. 2). When the Aztecs first entered the Basin of
29
Mexico, the country as a whole appears to have been
affected by severe drought conditions resulting in the
southwards migration of different cultural groups from
the more arid northern parts of Mexico. While there is
evidence that periods of severe drought occurred during
the Aztec period (1345-1522), it seems that this time
interval was relatively wet. A number of documents refer
to flooding and heavy rains and there are various
references to the implementation of flood protection
schemes. Certainly the decades immediately prior to the
Spanish Conquest were very wet, with reference to
prolonged rains and high lake levels in both the Basins of
Mexico and Patzcuaro. The generally wetter conditions
over the Aztec period may be indicative of increased
precipitation associated with a strengthening of the
summer monsoon.
A shift to slightly drier conditions occurred after the
Conquest, with the period 1521-1640 characterised by
short episodes of severe drought interspersed with series
of wetter years. The occurrence of drought with frost
suggests that the country was under the influence of a
more meridional circulation with increased incursions of
nortes and suppression of the monsoon. The climate,
however, appears to have been relatively variable at this
time and while the drought was at times severe, such
episodes were relatively short lived. This situation
changed by the 1640s and the period 1640-1915 was
dominated by conditions of drought which intensified
during the mid- to late-1700s and the late- 1800s. During
this entire time interval the country was plagued by
successive crop failures and famines leading to extreme
hardship for the population of the country as a whole.
This period of adverse weather conditions in Mexico
coincides with the Little Ice Age which in Mexico
appears to have been dominated by the prolonged
blocking of the monsoon and an increase in the incidence
of nortes.
Since 1915 Mexico has experienced a shift to slightly
wetter conditions, although during this time interval there
have been periods when rainfall totals have been below
normal (Jauregui, 1979). A general trend of a series of
wetter years, followed by a slightly drier episode, appears
to be very similar to conditions experienced in the country
in the immediate post-Conquest period. Such conditions
are indicative of a strengthening of the monsoon
especially during the 1920s and late-1960s.
Fluctuations in the climate of Mexico over the last 600
years can be explained in terms of changes in the strength
of the monsoon; with drier episodes being associated with
the suppression of the monsoon, the Bermuda High lying
well to the east and the southwards displacement of the
ITCZ (Douglas, 1982). It is evident, however, that the
climate of Mexico is extremely complex, with factors
such as the seasonality of precipitation, the incidence of
tropical storms and the occurrence of ENS0 events
dictating the spatial and temporal distribution of pre-
cipitation (Cavaroz and Hastenrath, 1990). Significant
differences in the climate between north and central
Mexico, for example, have been noted. This was
particularly true of the late 1600s and the 1940s when
30 Sarah L. O’Hara and Sarah E. Metcalfe

J.
I
I

I
I
I
 The climate of Mexico since the Aztec period 31

central Mexico suffered extreme drought, but it would Florescano, E. (1980). Una historia olvidada: La sequia en Mexico.
Nexos, 32, 9-18.
appear that northern Mexico was relatively wet (O’Hara Garcia, E. (1974). Situaciones climaticas durante el auge y la caida de la
and Metcalfe, 1995). One possible explanation for this cultura teotihuacana. Boletin de1 Znstituto de Geograjia, UNAM, 5,
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area. In contrast, central Mexico, which rarely receives Nouvelle Espagne, avec un atlas physique et ge’ographique fond6 sur
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Historical records clearly provide a valuable insight in Mexico in relation to drought. Geofisica Zntemacional, 16, 45-6 1.
Jauregui, O.E. (1979). Algunos aspectos de las fluctuaciones pluviome-
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