1 Tran Dang2020

This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been
fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/JIOT.2020.2971736, IEEE Internet of
Things Journal
IEEE INTERNET OF THINGS JOURNAL, VOL. XXX, NO. XXX, JANUARY 201X 1
Towards the Internet of Things for Physical

Internet: Perspectives and Challenges
Hoa Tran-Dang, Member, IEEE, Nicolas Krommenacker, Patrick Charpentier, Dong-Seong Kim, Senior
Member, IEEE.
Abstract—The Physical Internet (PI, or π) paradigm has been things gather and share information [5]. By embedding the
developed to be a global logistics system that aims to move, latest ICT such as Radio Frequency Identification (RFID),
handle, store, and transport logistics products in a sustainable Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN), Global Positioning System
and efficient way. To achieve the goal, the PI requires a high
level interconnectivity in physical, informational, and operational (GPS), and embedded modules (e.g., intelligent chips, radio
aspect enabled by an interconnected network of inter-modal hubs, frequency wireless transceivers, middleware, etc.) the things
collaborative protocols, and standardized, modular, and smart including physical and virtual entities, actors, and systems are
containers. In this context, PI is a key player poised to benefit transformed to be smart objects [6], [7]. The transformation
from the Internet of Things (IoT) revolution since it potentially enables these smart things to communicate ubiquitously and
provides an end-to-end visibility of the PI objects, operations, and
systems through ubiquitous information exchange. This paper is universally. Thus the logistics systems can leverage such
to investigate opportunities of application of IoT technology in the pervasive communication to realize the end-to-end visibil-
PI vision. In addition, an IoT ecosystem (π-IoT) encompassing ity, transparency, and traceability that, in turn, facilitate the
key enabling IoT technologies, building blocks, and a service- operational decisions of logistics services, thus reducing the
oriented architecture (SoA) is proposed as a potential component processing time and increasing the efficiency of processes [8].
for accelerating the implementation of PI. The major challenges
regarding the deployment of IoT into the emerging logistics There is a number of other studies claiming the potential
concept are also discussed intensively for further research. benefits gained from the application of IoT. For example, the
adoption of IoT enables the logistics to achieve a complete
Index Terms—Internet of Things (IoT), IoT Services, IoT Tech-
nologies, Service-Oriented Architecture (SoA), Physical Internet, integrity, which ensures that shipments have been handled
Logistics System, Logistics Operations, Sustainability. adequately according to predefined contractual agreements in
practice [9]. Accordingly, the positions of logistics items and
assets can be tracked in real time by the built traceability
I. I NTRODUCTION systems based on RFID and GPS technologies. In parallel,
Practically, information and communication technologies WSNs ensure that the products not have been exposed to any
(ICT) play an important role in improving the information harming environmental conditions (e.g. temperature, light, and
sharing and processing in the collaborated and complicated humidity) due to the real time sensing features of sensors.
logistics industry [1]. An increasing pursue in developing such A case study on the application of IoT in logistics [10]
technologies enables actors within the logistics system and the conducted by the leaders in the domains of IoT (CISCO1 ) and
chain to receive and share the relevant electronic information logistics (DHL2 ) showed that IoT can also improve organi-
in a reliable, accurate, and real-time manner. Such exchanged zation capabilities for monitoring, controlling, managing, and
information can be exploited to improve the performance of lo- optimizing almost logistics activities. As a result, these lead
gistics operations and then increase the business profit. For ex- to a significant improvement of operational efficiency in terms
ample, the collected valuable information allows complicated of fleet and traffic management, inventory control, resource
decision making to be resolved effectively, thus providing and energy monitoring, equipment and employee monitoring,
quicker responses, shorter lead times and lowering the costs safety, and security.
for logistics services providers [2]. Meanwhile, the adoption The advanced ICT, particularity the emerging IoT technolo-
of ICT brings about multiple benefits for retail businesses such gies are switch points for innovation of the logistics operations
as increased sales, decreased inventory holding and carry cost which step by step can shape a sustainable and efficient global
[3]. Therefore, the ICT will be a key factor to increase the logistics in the future. As a result, many logistics paradigms
competitiveness of logistics enterprises [4]. have been proposed and developed to move towards the vision.
Nowadays, the Internet of Things (IoT) is recognized as For example, the intelligent (smart) logistics [11], [12] is an
an ultimate solution revolutionizing the way that the evolved approach which augments the intelligence characteristics of
the system by embedding the advanced ICT to every part
Tran Dang Hoa is with department of IT Convergence Engineering, Kumoh of logistics system such as freight-transportation [13], [14],
National Institute of Technology, Korea, e-mail: hoa.tran-dang@kumoh.ac.kr.
Nicolas Krommenacker, Patrick Charpentier are with Center Research
1 CISCO IoT, https://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/solutions/internet-of-things/
on Automatic Control in Nancy (CRAN), University of Lorraine, e-
mail:{nicolas.krommenacker, patrick.charpentier}@univ-lorraine.fr overview.html
Dong-Seong Kim is with department of IT Convergence Engineering, 2 DHL IoT, https://www.logistics.dhl/global-en/home/
Kumoh National Institute of Technology, Korea, e-mail: dskim@kumoh.ac.kr. insights-and-innovation/thought-leadership/trend-reports/
Manuscript received January 11, 201x; revised April 19, 201x. internet-of-things-in-logistics.html
2327-4662 (c) 2019 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
Authorized licensed use limited to: University of Canberra. Downloaded on April 28,2020 at 01:16:41 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/JIOT.2020.2971736, IEEE Internet of
Things Journal
intelligent cargo [15], [16], [17], intelligent containers [18], several alliances including MHI3 and ALICE4 have declared
and intelligent trucks [19]. By this way, the overall efficiency the PI as a long-term vision for an end-to-end global logistic
of this logistics paradigm is improved significantly in terms of network and promoted the PI implementation in practices.
operation decision makings, flow management, and automation According to the planned roadmap, the goal by 2020 is to
of processes. Green logistics [20], [21], [22] is another efficient obtain a full interoperability between involved partners, stake-
model that mainly aims to reduce the impact of logistics on holders, businesses, and networks in the logistics sector. To
the environment perspectives such as greenhouse gas (GHG) realize the objective, the PI requires a hyper-interconnectivity
emissions, and noise in green cities [23]. The proposed solu- in physical, informational, and operational aspect so that the
tions are based on the optimization approaches of operation π-containers under the efficient control of collaborative π-
research (OR) models [24], [25] to minimize the environment protocols are moved through an interconnected network of π-
impact by optimizing flows of materials. The reverse logistics nodes smoothly. In this context, the PI is a key player poised
is part of the circular economy logic and creates a closed-loop to benefit from IoT [39] revolution since IoT can provide
logistic to cope with the environment concern by re-utilizing a means for obtain the interconnectivity and data exchange
logistics resources/assets effectively and efficiently [26], [27], among the involved operations and actors. Thus, it ensures a
[28], [29], [30]. Although these paradigms partially can resolve complete operational visibility and allows for the best real-
the logistics related issues, a complete assessment to overview time decisions in the logistics processes. In addition, huge
the global logistics situation is required. benefits can be gained from the capabilities of IoT through
intelligent services and applications to improve the logistics
In this sense, a comprehensive investigation regarding issues
efficiency and sustainability. However, much of the PI and IoT
of current logistics operations was conducted by Professor
literature, to date, has been largely disjointed without much
Montreuil and reported in [31]. In this study, he claimed
emphasis on theory or practical applicability [40]. This paper
that the global logistics system faced with a grand challenge
examines the trends of IoT applications in the PI and uncover
characterized by unsustainability and inefficiency in terms
various issues that must be addressed to transform this logistics
of economy, environment, and society aspect. In addition,
paradigm through the IoT innovation. In this regard, the main
he proposed and described Physical Internet (termed as PI,
contributions of paper are summarized as follows:
or π) as a novel logistics model to resolve the challenge
• A state-of-the-art review related to the development of
effectively. Accordingly, to obtain the global sustainability and
efficiency the PI requires a tremendous innovation encompass- key components of PI and applications of IoT in the
ing application of advanced technologies for infrastructure, logistics are highlighted.
• An IoT ecosystem encompassing key enabling technolo-
high level cooperation and collaboration in both horizontal
and vertical sectors, strategic planning and management to gies, building blocks, and an associated service-oriented
reshape the current logistics to be a global logistics system architecture is presented as a proposition towards the IoT
[32]. Originally, by taking advantage of features from the application in the PI.
• While the IoT vision has the potential to accelerate the
Digital Internet, the key components enabling the PI include
π-containers, π-nodes, and π-protocols [33]. Accordingly, the PI realization, the ecosystem is still very much in its
PI does not manipulate the physical goods directly but uses infancy due to uncovered barriers. This paper intensively
π-containers that encapsulate physical merchandise within investigates the significant obstacles that may further
them. In addition, like the data packets in the Digital Internet open research and development studies.
these containers are standardized globally in terms of physical The rest of the paper is organized as follows: Section II
specification (i.e., smart, green, and modular) and functions presents briefly an overview regarding to IoT concept, PI
[34]. In parallel, the π-nodes such as distribution centers or paradigm with its key components, and the state-of-the-art
warehouses play a role as smart interfaces ensuring smooth development of IoT applications used in the existing logistics
input/output flows of materials and information. The π-nodes systems. Towards an IoT ecosystem (π-IoT) for PI, Section III,
heavily rely on π-movers consisting of innovated material IV, and V describes key enabling IoT technologies, building
handle systems to accomplish their tasks efficiently [35]. blocks, and a SoA, respectively. After that, Section VI intro-
Lastly, the π-protocols like the TCP/IP protocol in the Digital duces challenges of IoT deployment in the PI. Finally, Section
Internet control and manage the flows reliably based on the VII concludes the paper and proposes further developments.
standardized rules, and contracts.
II. BACKGROUND
The PI has emerged as an innovative concept in logistics that
can be a potential replacement of the existing logistics system. A. Internet of Things
Several researches and studies since 2011 have developed and To date, there exists a number of perspectives with respect to
demonstrated proof-of-concept prototypes for assessing a fea- the definition of the Internet of Things concept in the litera-
sibility of PI implementation. The key performance indicators ture. Generally, the IoT paradigm can be viewed from four
of PI in various scenarios have been investigated through both
3 MHI, the largest material handling logistics, and supply chain association
experimental studies [36], [37] and simulation frameworks
[34], [38]. The primary demonstration results reported in [33] in the U.S., has created a community of industry thought leaders called the
U.S. Roadmap for Material Handling & Logistics.http://www.mhi.org/
imply various positive impacts of the PI on all three sustainable 4 ALICE (Alliance for Logistics Innovation through Collaboration in Eu-
aspects, viz., economy, environment, and society. In this sense, rope), http://www.etp-logistics.eu/
Things Journal
visions: thing-oriented, Internet-oriented, semantic-oriented, [39] suggested three major layers for IoT systems, which
and service-oriented perspective. In the things-oriented vision, include perception layer (or sensing layer), network layer, and
things including physical and virtual entities are focused and service layer (or application layer). Similarly, the work in [50]
IoT is considered as a technology making them become smart. proposed a three-tier organizational structure for practical IIoT
Smart things that are capable of seeing, hearing, thinking, systems is proposed, which consists of three layers: a sensing
sharing information, coordinating decisions, and performing layer, relay layer, and convergence layer. Such architecture
tasks are enabled by embedded emerging technologies such was developed to support real-time data routing in the IoT
as RFID, sensors, computing, and communication [41]. In the systems. In a widely accepted IoT architecture introduced
IoT systems based on the Internet-oriented vision a bias is in [51], three layered networks were exploited to enable
towards development of IP (Internet Protocols)-based networks the connection of three industrial tiers: edge, platform, and
which enable things to connect and communicate together. For enterprise tiers. Meanwhile, Liu et al. [52] designed an IoT
example, IPSO (IP for Smart Objects) alliance has developed application infrastructure based on the traditional OSI model
an IP stack as a light-weight protocols to connect a large that contains the physical layer, transport layer, middleware
number of smart objects [42]. The emergence of semantic- layer, and applications layer. In [53] a four-layered architecture
oriented visions is resulted in from the fact that there is a composed of four layers: the sensing layer, networking layer,
huge volume of data from sensors or smart objects exchanged service layer, and interface layer are applied in systems for the
in the IoT systems. In addition, such data are generated by the perspective of offering functionalities, intelligent services, and
heterogeneous devices with a vast amount of information in applications. Meanwhile, the International Telecommunication
nature. Thus, it arises interoperability issues of understanding Union (ITU) defines a more complex architecture of IoT
data among the things. In this context, semantic technologies including five layers, viz., sensing, accessing, networking,
associated in the IoT system are solutions to extract the sets of middleware, and applications.
raw data into homogeneous and heterogeneous formats, and
then process it into meaningful representation and interpre- B. Physical Internet
tation [43], [44]. The authors in [45] introduced a service-
1) Basic Concept: The PI paradigm has been developed
oriented vision that concentrates on developing IoT intelligent
as a mean to solve the grand challenge of exiting logistics
services and applications based on the three perspectives
systems. To achieve the goal, a corresponding ecosystem is
mentioned above.
remodeled and innovated. Taking the Digital Internet as a
Regardless of multiple views, however, the principle of IoT
metaphor to design, the PI is viewed as a network of logistics
is to interconnect the heterogeneous things by a single Internet
networks enabled by an interconnection and interoperation of
protocol and to exploit the shared information through this
π-nodes and standard π-protocols for handling, transporting,
connection to support the decision making and provide and
and storing π-containers using corresponding π-movers. Fig. 1
develop intelligent services and applications. Thus, to enable
illustrates principle operation of PI network to transport freight
the interconnectivity IoT ecosystems are built as a global
from the plant 1 to the distribution center (DC) 2 through
network infrastructure that is constructed based on emerging
π-node 1, π-node 3, and π-node 4 following the associated
technologies. In fact, the IoT-based systems are composed of DC 2
π-protocol.
Plan 1
several key blocks which are responsible for different functions
to the systems such as sensing, identification, actuation, com-
PI network
munication, processing, computing, and analyzing. Various
survey studies have summarized the enabling technologies of -node 1
IoT based on different classification points of view. For ex- -node 5 DC 1
Plant 2
ample, four main domains including application, middleware,
networking, and object domain are presented in [45] to list
various hardware, software, and technologies according to the -node 3
specific functionalities and capabilities. For more detail, the
key IoT enabling technologies mentioned in [46] are classi-
fied into thirteen groups such as identification, architecture, -node 2 -node 4
communication, network, and so on. Meanwhile, the authors
in [47] predict the development trends of IoT technologies for Plant 1 DC 2
composing
the future Internet including embedded intelligence for smart
objects, connectivity, and interaction among smart objects. -containers composite -container
Besides target applications, an architecture of IoT system
Fig. 1: A typical landscape of freight transportation based on
is one of significant factors impacting on the selection of
the PI network.
appropriate enabling technologies that are constructed on.
As viewed from different perspectives, there has been no
common architecture of IoT agreed by practitioners univer- Along with selecting the next hop (i.e., π-node), the π-
sally. For example, an IoT-based system introduced in [48] protocol assigns type of π-movers (e.g., π-trucks, π-trains)
simply consists of four parts: sensor nodes, gateways, the for each hop transportation. Indeed, to optimize the utilization
public Internet, and the final applications. The works in [49], of π-movers, the freight is handled, stored, and transported
Things Journal
in forms of efficient unit loads (i.e., composite π-containers)

created by composing algorithms.
The open and shared features of the PI enable any stake-
holder or parties to join and exploit the network for freight
transportation, storage, and handling at any level connection
such as from plants to π-nodes, from π-nodes to another π-
nodes, from π-nodes to DCs (e.g., retailers, supermarkets), or
a whole logistics chain (i.e., from plants to DCs). Since the
implementation of PI paradigm redefines the structure of logis-
tics systems, it requires an unified and standard methodology Fig. 2: Prototype of M-box (H-containers) designed by MOD-
in designing the four key components (i.e., π-containers, π- ULUSHCA project for handling FMCG.
nodes, π-movers, and π-protocols) in order to optimize the
operation efficiency.
2) Key Components of PI: This section presents briefly the
characteristics of four key elements including π-containers, π-
nodes, π-movers, and π-protocols as well as the state-of-the-art
proposition designs that enable the PI implementation.
a) π-containers:
By mimicking the advantage features of data packets routed
efficiently in the Digital Internet network, the π-containers are
designed to be world-standardized, smart, green, and modular
[31]. With such characteristics, they can be moved, handled,
Fig. 3: The physical encapsulation concept enabled by the
stored, and transported smoothly through an open global logis-
modularity of π-containers helps in facilitating the compo-
tic infrastructure constructed for the PI network. To mitigate
sition and decomposition processes in the PI vision [35].
issues associated to the diversity of boxes and containers in the
existing logistics, the π-containers can be differentiated into
three categories: transport, handling and packaging containers
(termed as T/H/P-containers respectively) characterized by In particular, the modularity of dimensions enables the
specific functions and associated dimensions [54]. Accord- physical encapsulation to be applicable in the three types of
ingly, the P-containers with smallest sizes are used to pack π-containers. In such manner, a number of P-containers can be
directly the physical goods. Meanwhile, the H-containers with composed to be a composition block (composite π-container)
medium sizes are used for handling purposes such as moving, so that its size fits perfectly with the internal space of a H-
carrying, and storing temporarily a set of P-containers to container.
facilitate the associated logistics operations. Finally, the T- In addition to the physical aspect, the PI also emphasizes
containers with largest sizes carried by large vehicles, ships, or on the importance of informational instrumentation to make
transport airplane are used for transporting a huge volume of the π-containers smart. Moreover, since the π-containers can
H-containers and/or P-containers across cities, countries, and be involved in a chain of activities (e.g., composing, loading,
continents. Although, the dimensions of π-containers must be moving, etc.) and proceeded by different actors the smartness
subject to an international standard committee as well as sizes nature provides a source of relevant information to optimize
of products, the modular dimensions of π-containers can be the operation performance. As exposed in [31], [33], the π-
expressed in height, width and depth through combinations containers have key information:
of the following dimensions: 0.12m, 0.24m, 0.36m, 0.48m, • Unique identifiers: Each π-container is associated with
0.6m, 1.2m, 2.4m, 3.6m, 4.8m, 6m, 12m and 18m. The best some unique identifiers that are required for adequately
container sizes are obtained from a mathematical optimization tracking, tracing, and handling by any involved stake-
model developed by the partners of CELDi PI project [55] holder in the global PI network. The identifiers include a
to maximize space utilization at the different unit load levels unique worldwide identifier of π-container like the MAC
[34]. Based on this result, MODULUSCA project designs M- address in the Digital Internet network, an identifier of
box (i.e., H-containers) as illustrated in Fig. 2, which are used client using the π-container, an identifier of logistics ser-
for handling fast moving consumer goods (FMCG). vice provider. In this context, any customer or stakeholder
In addition, with the modularity and interlocking structure, can refer the identifiers to get the real-time information
the physical encapsulation concept [32] is applicable to create (e.g., position, state) about the ordered shipments by IoT-
efficient unit loads that enable material handling processes enabled applications. Especially, the historical data can
such as moving, loading, storing, or transporting to be fa- be further retrieved by the tracing functions and then
cilitated. Fig. 3 illustrates such encapsulation concept realized analyzed by the advanced data processing technologies
by composing nine smaller π-containers (i.e., ci , i = 1, ..., 9) (e.g., big data analytics, machine learning, artificial intel-
to create a composite π-container as an efficient unit load. In ligence) for improving the decision makings of logistics
addition, the stacked π-containers can be decomposed easily activities.
in the reverse process (i.e., decomposition). • Specification information: Such information encompasses
Things Journal
the important description of π-container such as dimen-

sions (i.e., volume and weight), and functionality (i.e.,
transport, handling, or packaging).
• Monitored conditions: Each π-container is capable of
monitoring the ambient environment (i.e., temperature,
humidity, etc.) to ensure and adjust the suitable condition
for the content. Advanced capabilities of a smart π-
containers include monitoring the integrity of content
(i.e., openings), and detecting theft. (a) π-lift-truck (b) π-mover
By applying information and communication technologies
such as RFID, and WSNs, the smart requirements of π- Fig. 4: Examples of π-mover prototypes designed to exploit
containers can be realized. For example, any object can be aug- the modular dimensions of π-containers and to facilitate π-
mented with intelligent abilities characterized by identification, container handling [35].
ambient sensing, communication, and computation to become
intelligent object [6]. When interfaced with professional sensor TABLE I: Key π-nodes with their specific functionality in the
boards (e.g., humidity, temperature, etc), the sensing capability PI.
of the sensor node allows the ambient environment condition π-node Primary functionality
of the container to be monitored periodically [56], [57]. With Transferring π-carriers from inbound π-vehicles to
π-transits
such abilities, the π-container is able to identify its state and outbound π-vehicles
Unimodal transfer of π-containers from an incoming
report it, compare its state with predefined threshold, and send π-switch
π-mover to a departing π-mover
information (e.g., warning) when certain conditions are met. One-to-one multi-modal transfer of π-containers from
π-bridge
A framework proposed in [31], [58] used smart tags exploiting an incoming π-mover to a departing π-mover
RFID and GPS to support identifying, routing, condition Receiving π-containers from one/multiple entry points
π-sorter and having to sort them so as to ship each of them from
monitoring, and routing through logistics operations. The a specified exit point, potentially in a specified order
smart π-containers can provide increasing capabilities to make π-composer
Constructing composite π-containers from specified sets
them active [59]. The activeness allows the smart π-containers of π-containers
π-store Storing π-containers within a specific time duration
interact together or communicate with management systems Receive π-containers and release them so they
for information exchange and efficient decision making. π-gateway
and their content can be accessed in a private network
b) π-movers: π-hub
Transfer of π-containers from incoming
π-movers to outgoing π-movers
In the PI vision, π-movers refers to all material handling
equipment and systems used to move π-containers from one
place to some destination. In addition, moving is a generic
term used to cover a set of logistics processes such as tional, and operational level. Table I summarizes the key π-
transporting, conveying, handling, lifting, storing, and manip- nodes designed for the PI network [35]. Although the π-node
ulating. The main types of π-movers include π-transporters types vary in terms of mission orientation, capabilities, and
(e.g., π-trucks, π-trailers, etc. ), π-conveyors, and π-handlers capacities their main function is to process inputs efficiently
(e.g, π-lift-trucks, etc.) [35]. to satisfy the requirements of output. For example, π-gateways
Since the π-movers deal directly with the π-containers, they enable efficient and controlled entry of π-containers into the
are innovated to exploit as best as possible the features of π- PI as well as their exit from the PI so that the sojourn time is
containers to facilitate the corresponding activities and thus within a predefined period. In addition to the requirement of
improve the overall performance. For example, dimensions time completion, the output layouts of composite π-containers
of π-movers are designed to take advantage of modular composed by the π-composers must match perfectly with the
dimensions of π-container so as moving such containers or desired ones regarding orientation, and staked positions (see
composite π-containers is facilitated. Fig. 4 illustrates the Fig. 3). The management of π-nodes play an important role in
model designs of π-movers that account for the modular sizes the PI since most of complicated logistics operations are taken
of π-containers to facilitate the associated handling activities. place in these places. Furthermore, a π-node can possess a
In similar innovated design, the widespread adoption of set of π-movers and/or other embedded π-nodes permanently
ICT enables the π-movers act as active agents, which can or temporarily, which are collaborated for joint purposes
interact with π-containers and a Physical Internet management of material handling (e.g., composing π-containers, moving
system (PIMS) for exchanging the relevant information such composite π-containers, storing composite π-containers, etc.).
identifiers, dimensions, and final destination. In addition, the In particular, the usage of π-movers exposes significant con-
information is exploited by the π-movers to make adequate cern regarding scheduling approaches to improve or optimize
decisions. the utilization and the efficiency of π-nodes. For example,
c) π-nodes: heuristic, meta-heuristic and multi-agent-based methods were
Similar to the existing logistics systems, π-nodes in the PI developed [60] to optimize the distance traveled by each π-
vision encompass transit centers, cross-docking hubs, distri- container to the dock, as well as the number of π-trucks
bution centers, and warehouses, which are smart interfaces to used for moving these π-containers in the road-rail π-hub.
enable the seamless interconnectivity at the physical, informa- Optimizing the operation schedule of π-trucks to minimize the
Things Journal
Layer Digital Internet Physical Internet

energy consumption was taken into account in the work [61] 1 Physical Physical
to improve the efficiency and sustainability of π-hub. From 2 Data Link Link
designing perspective, these optimization methods supports 3 Network Network
in constructing the layouts of real π-nodes, which arrange 4 Transportation Routing
5 Session Shipping
functional sites appropriately. For instance, Fig. 5 shows the 6 Presentation Encapsulation
prototype design for a rail-road π-hub that optimally allocates 7 Application Logistics Web
storages sites, rail-road sorter, road-rail sorter, and rail-rail
TABLE II: The analogy of layer structure models between the
sorter and parking area of π-movers (e.g., π-trucks) [60].
Digital Internet and Physical Internet [33]
As the layer takes into account for these services solely, they
are developed so that the quality of services is maximized.
For example, as illustrated in Fig. 6, to construct an efficient
π-protocols for transporting the FMCG, three factors jointly
considered include: (i) selection of π-container type (e.g., H-
or P-containers or combined), (ii) composition of π-containers,
and (iii) best route of the freight flow (i.e., selection of π-nodes
along the entire transportation path) [64].
Fig. 5: A typical prototype of road-rail π-hub designed for

supporting efficient π-truck scheduling [60].
However, to adequately model and formulate the optimiza-

tion problem, real-time information about the state of π-nodes,
π-movers, and π-containers must be available. In this context,
information management systems applying the emerging tech-
nologies in information and communication domains like IoT
technology are efficient solutions since they can provide an
end-to-end visibility of the logistics assets in the π-nodes as
applied in Supply Hub in Industrial Parks (SHIP) [62], [63]. Fig. 6: Considerations for designing π-protocols used in PI-
d) π-protocols: supported FMCG transportation in France [64].
Complementary to the standard physical facilities (i.e.,
π-containers, π-movers, and π-nodes), the PI relies on π-
protocols consisting of sets of standardized rules, agreements
C. Preliminaries of IoT-based Applications in Logistics Sys-
to move, handle, store, and transport π-containers to achieve
tems
the maximal efficiency and sustainability. Similar the Digital
Internet, the π-protocol is a virtual entity inheriting the features Generally, IoT-based solutions improve decision making in
of the TCP/IP protocol defined in the Open Systems Intercon- the presence of uncertainty by exploiting the shared informa-
nection (OSI) model to sustain the smooth flow of products tion among IoT devices, systems. In such a way, decision mak-
and operations in the logistics network [33]. In this way, the ers of the logistics industry can benefit from this technology
π-protocols define network services which are also structured for efficiently handling and correcting the problems related to
into layers proposed by the Open Logistics Interconnection the logistics operations such as warehousing operations, freight
(OLI) to apply for the PI. Accordingly, the OLI model is transportation, and last-mile delivery. This section aims to
composed of seven layers: physical, link, network, routing, review the state-of-the-art development of IoT-based solutions
shipping, encapsulation and logistics web each of which in the industrial logistics sector.
provides specific services to support the particular logistics ac- From the business perspective, bountiful opportunities can
tivities such as procurement, handling, realization (production, be exploited by logistics providers to increase productivity,
assembly, finishing, etc.), storage and transportation. Table II optimize logistics processes and provide new services through
presents the layered structure of two models OSI and OLI leveraging IoT in their organizations. However, such signif-
[33]. icant benefits will ultimately rely on how well the logistics
The benefit of layering the services is to distribute the logis- assets such as containers, vehicles, and systems are intercon-
tics management then the efficiency of logistics activities is op- nected along the entire supply chain and how efficiently the
timized [33]. For example, the physical layer is responsible for interconnectivity is exploited. This is achieved by applying
ensuring the physical movement of π-containers smoothly. The IoT and embedding the accompanying technologies such as
layer provides information relating to the handling equipment RFID, and wireless sensor networks (WSNs). With such
(π-trucks, π-mover, etc.) and then guarantees the physical ICT integration, the logistics infrastructure become smart IoT
conditions (mechanical, electric) to accomplish the logistics objects [6] having basic capabilities such as identification,
activities of this layer (e.g. unloading, storing, composing). ambient sensing, computation, and communication.
Things Journal
The current food supply chain (FCS) is getting compli- the end-to-end visibility of shipment flow is improved by a
cated extremely in all dimensions including geographical and cargo tracking system [15], [16], [17] capturing the real time
temporal scale, operation processes, and a large number of information relating to the location, time and status of the
involved stakeholders. Such complexity has led to significant vehicles and carried iCargo. In this way, the logistics processes
issues in ensuring the food quality as well as improving such as asset management, routing path of freight can be
the operation efficiency and sustainability. Applying the IoT optimized to avoid empty trucks or congestion.
technologies is considered as an effective solution to address As a critical sector of FSC industry, supply chain for
such problems since it can enhance decision making and perishable food (SCPF) is frequently faced with challenges
control actions through monitoring, tracking the status of characterized by degradation of perishable food quality over
food in real-time fashion [65]. A comprehensive framework time and the cross-regional logistics activities [70]. To address
in [66] introduced an IoT system to monitor and control the these challenges, a conceptual model of an IoT-enabled SCPF
entire FSC in farm-to-plate manner from precise agriculture, to is proposed in [71] to transport perishable goods timely and
food production, processing, storage, distribution, and finally safely by exploiting two IoT-based Supply Hub in Industrial
consuming at the end consumers. As typical IoT systems, Parks (SHIP) [62], [63] to realize the real-time information
the proposed model consists of three major components: the sharing among different roles in the supply chain. The case
field devices with WSN nodes, and RFID tags/readers; the study demonstration is derived to show the overall perfor-
backbone system with databases, and computing servers; and mance improvement of SCPF.
the communication infrastructure including WLAN, cellular, Warehouses play an important role in distributing, routing,
and satellite networks. In particular, to efficiently handle and storing items correctly in the logistics and supply chain
exploit the vast amount of data exchanged within the system, systems. The complexity of warehouses characterized by
a three-tier information fusion architecture was developed. a huge number of logistics assets (e.g., goods, vehicles,
Accordingly, the system applied the advanced technologies material handling equipment, etc.) and logistics operations
in data processing such as big data, and cloud computing to (e.g., loading, offloading, picking, composing, etc.) leads
accelerate the data processing, improve the prediction accuracy to challenges including lack of space, offloading delays,
of food life-cycle, and support re-planning the supply chain in improper space utilization, limited scope for improving
real time. The feasibility of prototype framework was proved revenues, and a dearth of visibility into partially used
through the implementation of field trials. Since fresh food locations. In this context, developing IoT-based systems is an
and vegetable are extremely sensitive to ambient environment efficient solution to manage the distribution centers since a
such as temperature, humidity, and light guaranteeing their full visibility of inventory benefited from the connection of
quality along the FSC requires a supervision system that can smart objects enable the logistics processes to be optimized
monitor the status of items and then control the surround [72]. Such a system was developed and presented in [73] using
conditions in real time manner. The work in [67] presented RFID technology to perform dynamic data updating and real
a survey on the IoT-based systems designed to support the time search operations of inventory. Basically, the products
real time remote sensing and controlling in the cold chains. In are attached physically with RFID tags. The associated RFID
such systems, the key components include sensing and com- readers are deployed in the stockroom to frequently read
munication infrastructure [68]. The information about food the tags. To support delivering the read data of inventory to
quality is reported continuously by sensors embedded in the a central server (Raspberry Pi 3 platform), the readers are
intelligent packages to the local hubs via local networks, and interfaced with IoT platforms (NodeMcu). The platform can
finally to the central system for further processing, decision communicate with the server via Internet or Wifi. In addition,
making. In the same method, intelligent containers like InBin 5 a web server was developed as an interface to display the data
enabled by IoT technologies such as RFID, WSN are capable of products and facilitate the real time searching of items in
of identification, ambient sensing, computation, and commu- the warehouse. In similar method, the work [74] introduced
nication. In addition, an intelligent monitoring system using PhyNetLab as a real large-scale warehouse testbed made
RFID tags, sensors, and wireless communication technology of cyber-physical objects and smart sensing devices (i.e.,
can be formed inside the container to monitor and adjust PhyNodes [75], [76]) developed for important applications
the ambient condition such as temperature, humidity, and in the warehouse management such as the inventory control,
light. Another project named TRAXENS6 has been developed and material handling. In this testbed, each smart containers
smart multi-modal containers that can achieve a huge gain is attached with a corresponding PhyNode at its front that
in efficiency, service, and protection of the planet since the can communicate wirelessly with the infrastructure including
visibility of cargo containers is obtained in real time. Recently, access points (AP), a central server. The results from the
the intelligent cargo (iCargo) has been developed to be ca- implementation of testbed show that the IoT-based system
pable of self-identification, context detection, service access, can reduce the delay of material handling processes such as
status monitoring and registering, independent behavior and order picking or sorting, thus to improve the efficiency of
autonomous decision making [69]. With such a capability, warehouse management. The authors in [77] have proposed
a newly fashioned real-time locating system using active
5 inBin RFID for asset management in indoor environments, i.e., the
project, http://www.industrie40.iml.fraunhofer.de/en/ergebnisse/
inbin.html iLocate system, for the IoT. To eliminate the RFID RSSI
6 TRAXENS project, http://www.traxens.com/en/ noise, iLocate employed the frequency-hopping technique.
Things Journal
To achieve the fine-grained localization accuracy, it took packages perform sensing environment inside the vehicles and
advantage of the virtual reference tags and the tag-tag frequently transmit the sensed data to the gateway placed in
communication protocol. To apply the proposed approach the vehicles. The gateway, in turn, can communicate with a
in a large-scale RFID network, iLocate used ZigBee-based customer’s legacy data analytics and management system via
networks. The associated experimental results and the real an API firewall for further receiving the decision making. Sim-
project have shown the superiority of the proposed system. ilarly, simple Links8 is developed as an alternative framework
Recently, collaborative warehouses are widely used in supply of intelligent logistics. The project conducted by the consumer
chains since they allow several manufacturers and distribution good forum aims to create, manage and analyze digital links
companies share physical spaces and logistics information between items and their containers as a dynamic hierarchy,
to enhance overall performance. To efficiently manage then to infer item-level tracking and monitoring information
such complex facilities, the authors in [78] proposed a for any item based on searching the hierarchy for the best
dynamic bottom-up approach to improve warehouse visibility, available track, monitor and prediction data at a given time.
traceability, and transparency. The method significantly is The objective of project is enabled by an underlying principle
supported by a developed IoT infrastructure based on RFID, that make items and their containers communicate together to
ambient intelligence, and multi-agent system. One of critical share information all along the logistics links by using low
issues in warehouses management refers to inherent risks of cost identification technology (i.e., QR code). The primary
hazardous accidents due to incompatibility of products. Such demonstration results of the project imply the positive impact
issue is mainly caused by human errors, misplacement of of project since it supports both ecological and economical
products, and unplanned movements of products within the value end-to-end.
warehouses. To avoid the risk, an efficient plan is introduced As the last phase of the entire freight transportation way to
in [79] to optimal the product allocation with respect to the end customers, last mile delivery is the most cost intensive
the compatible constraints of products. The plan used IoT and inefficient since it faces several significant challenges
technologies encompassing RFID, WSN, communicating regarding to security and delivery ability [83]. Practically, a
object paradigm and multi-agent system methodology to delivery operation is unsuccessful in the case that no customers
synchronize perfectly the virtual view of products placements is available for receipt confirmation. For security reason, a
in centralized warehouse management system (WMS) and re-delivery with addition cost si required since leaving the
the real situation in the facility. In this way, any risk in the parcels is prevented by regulations or residential policies.
warehouse is detected and controlled in the real time manner. Efficient solutions must take the need satisfaction of both
the customers and delivery service providers into account to
Freight transportation is constituted as a crucial part of address such issues. Intelligent lockers or smart mailboxes
the entire logistics chain since it is responsible to deliver provide alternative delivery locations [84], [85] so as the
the products from one point to another point. Practically, the consumers can schedule package delivery at an established
efficiency of delivery operation in terms of delivery speed, time to a specific location for quick retrieval. IoT-based mobile
service quality, operation cost, and facility utilization depends apps such as United Parcel Service (UPS)9 or MailHaven10
heavily on the state of public transportation systems such as enable the users to track purchases and receive exclusive deals
traffic congestion, road conditions, and so on. In addition, the from retailers.
management of logistics transportation is facing a significant
challenge regarding to the lack of information synchronization III. K EY T ECHNOLOGIES FOR π-I OT R EALIZATION
of freight across modes of transportation and globe. Such a gap The IoT technologies have been summarized in a number of
can be closed by IoT-based systems that enable information survey literature to date for a variety of IoT-based applications
sharing through interconnection among logistics assets (i.e., [45], [86], [87], [88], [89], [90], [91]. From the business
products, and vehicles) and systems. For example, by equip- perspective, the authors in [92] predict a data-driven approach,
ping the physical objects with IoT technologies (e.g., RFID which will be widely applied to build the IoT ecosystems for
tags, GPS, sensors), logistics stakeholders can exploit the enterprises. Based on this vision, the key data-driven IoT tech-
intelligent transportation systems [13], [14], [80] to conduct nologies for π-IoT can be grouped into four functional blocks:
real-time monitoring of object movement from an origin to a data acquisition (identification, sensing, tracking), connectiv-
destination [81]. Furthermore, the vehicles with powerful ca- ity, data processing (advanced computing), and middleware as
pabilities including sensing, networking, communication, and shown on Table 7. This section elaborates key enabling IoT
data processing share under-utilized resources in the parking technologies for shaping the π-IoT framework and emerging
space or on the road [82]. Such a smarter freight management IoT technologies that aid in accelerating the π-IoT realization.
system developed by Intel7 enables real-time location and
integrity monitoring and management of high-cost, high-risk A. Enabling Technology for π-IoT
shipments through smart sensor tracking and real-time edge 1) Data-Acquisition Technology:
analytics. In this system, the smart sensors attached to the
8 Simple Links project introduction, https://www.theconsumergoodsforum.
7 Smart Freight Management System, https:// com/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/CGF-Simple Links White Paper.pdf
9 https://www.ups.com/us/en/services/individual-shipper/
www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/industrial-automation/
smart-freight-technology-powered-by-the-internet-of-things-solution-brief. ups-access-point-deliveries.page
html?wapkw=smart+freight+technology+powered+by 10 https://mailhaven.co/cgi-sys/suspendedpage.cgi
Things Journal
Functional Block Enabling Technologies

Classification Examples of key technologies
Data-Acquisition Identification RFID, 2D-QR, Bar-Code, NFC
Data-Dr iven Technologies for -I oT
Generate and acquire Sensing Sensors (i.e., bio-sensors, humidity, temperature sensors)
relevant IoT data
Tracking GPS, GPRS (General Packet Radio Service)
Connectivity Global coverage Cellular (2G, 3G, 4G, 5G), satellite
Transmit IoT data to IoT Long range coverage LPWA (Low Power Wide Area) (Sigfox, LoRa, NB-IoT, LTE-M)
devices and Cloud
Short range coverage Wi-Fi, Zigbee, Bluetooth, BLE (Bluetooth Low Energy)
Data Processing Cloud Computing: The whole big IoT data is processed at the remote and powerful Cloud
Filter, classify, sort, Edge/Fog Computing: Sets of IoT data are processed at edge IoT devices or Fog nodes near
analyze IoT data to get to the data sources (IoT gateways, routers) to improve performances (e.g., reduced latency,
insights into it balanced traffic load)
Big Data Analytics: Relevant algorithms are used to analyze the IoT data to improve
decision makings
M iddleware Regardless the IoT characteristics (i.e., heterogeneity, complex structure), middleware relies
Integrate a set or whole only the IoT data to create applications, and services ultimately. Middleware is build on from
IoT data to create a set of approaches such as event-based, agent-based, resource-based, service-oriented,
applications and services database-oriented, and application-specific perspectives.
Fig. 7: Taxonomies of key enabling technologies for π-IoT.
• Identification Technology ternet Protocol at the global scale can exploit such
Major identification technologies including RFID, NFC, information for improving decision making in logistics
bar-code, or QR code systems play a pivotal role in operation management. Particularly, the real-time infor-
the IoT-based system and naturally are indispensable in mation sharing brings about multiple benefits for the
the logistics related applications. Basically, identification logistics management such as reduction of labor cost,
systems consist of a set of smart tags (i.e., RFID tags, business process simplification, improved accuracy of in-
bar-code labels, and NFC cards) attached permanently ventory control and management, and business efficiency
to the physical objects and a set of readers located at improvement.
affixed gates or movable equipment like trucks, and fork- To take the advantages of identification technology, all
lifts to scan and read data stored in the tags. With the physical infrastructure of PI (e.g., π-containers, and π-
capabilities to identify, trace, and track physical objects, movers) can be equipped with the smart tags that en-
the identification systems play an crucial role in IoT able achieving a higher level of visibility and real-time
network as a means of communication and data supplier. tracking in the logistics operations. In addition, the iden-
To connect the identification system to the Internet, the tification systems, particularly RFID-based systems can
standalone readers (e.g., RFID, and bar-code readers) be further exploited to provide more valuable services.
or the reader-integrated devices (e.g, PDA, and smart For example, the SmartLocator system introduced in [93]
phones) are connected to an Internet-connected system combined the RFID system with infrared radiation (IR)
such as a server, or an access point. Fig. 8 illustrates technology to track the assets in real time. In another
an architecture in which the identification system is proposition in [94], a system made use of passive RFID
connected to the Internet. tags to localize the pallets in the warehouse. In the similar
method, π-IoT can apply this system in π-nodes for
searching the physical π-facilities efficiently.
Data Request To localize a specific π-container in larger H-containers
Standalone Redears or T-containers, a system as proposed in [95] provides
Server
Data Response such position information in three dimensions. Recent
RFID tags/ Labels/ Internet
NFC cards
development of the RFID technology focuses on the data
Reader-integrated devices Access Point transmission mechanisms and technology of managing
(PDAs, Smart Phones) RFID applications [96]. Since the π-containers are ma-
Fig. 8: Connecting the identification systems to IoT. nipulated worldwide by all stakeholders, the information
relating to their physical status and context must be
The identification data becomes most valuable in the captured, coded, protected and transferred accurately. The
logistics IoT systems since multi-party, multi-stage, and EPCglobal standard provides a solution that allows iden-
multi-logistics processes interconnected by a single In- tifying π-containers uniquely. Concretely, the container
Things Journal
code is created in line of RFID tag with the EPC standard. workplace conditions (e.g., indoor/outdoor environment, and
Thus, when the code is put into service, the information obstacles influencing the connectivity), technical specification
fed to an EPC Information Service (EPCIS11 ) is shared (e.g., coverage, data rate, and bandwidth), investment cost, and
among stakeholders. so on.
• Sensing Technology For example, the outdoor activities such as the freight trans-
As a central functionality and utility component of the portation and fleet management on the ground with the large
IoT systems, sensing modules embedded in smart objects π-assets (e.g., π-trucks, and π-ships) require the technology to
provide data relating to the status of objects and state provide a wide, even global coverage. The traditional cellular
of surrounding environment conditions through detect- technology (2G/3G) has been best suited since it ensures a
ing events or sensing changes in a specific quantity of continuous and reliable connectivity as these logistics assets
ambient environment (e.g., pressure, temperature, and are transported across urban or rural areas of countries [100].
humidity). In addition, as the sensors are empowered Other significant advantage that the cellular technology pro-
by communication modules, the sensed data can be vides is a ubiquitous interoperability since it is the interna-
shared with other smart objects or delivered to the cloud tional communication standard. In addition, the mobile M2M
(directly or via a gateway) for advanced services such communication enabled by cellular connectivity can provide
as monitoring, controlling the status of objects/assets or additional logistics benefits such as decreased operational cost
maintenance predictions of equipment. Therefore, com- in a long-term run due to exploitation of existing infrastructure
plementary to the identification data, the sensed data and its longevity feature, increased visibility, and reduced loss
helps in ensuring the complete visibility and integrity of of vehicles and containers [101], [102]. Furthermore, cross
whole logistics operations. With such features, the sensor communications among π-trucks or between π-trucks with π-
technology is extremely important component of π-IoT. nodes remotely can be effective to get instant and adequate
Nevertheless, recent advance technologies in microelec- decision makings. Especially, the latest development of cellar
tromechanical system (MEMS) can create microscopic generation (4G, NB-IoT, LTM-M, and 5G) provides value-
scale sensors [97], [98], [99] which are small enough to added services including multimedia transmission such as
be embedded into every π-infrastructure including small- video streaming, which, in turn, improve significantly the deci-
size P-containers. In particular, the emerging wireless sions. For instance, a π-truck can deliver a part of inventory to
intelligent sensor technologies, such as electromagnetic another nearby π-trucks directly instead of storing it in some
sensors, biosensors, and off-board sensors further facil- π-nodes to achieve a high inventory flexibility and optimize
itate the sensor implementation and deployment in IoT the performance efficiency. For air freight transportation using
applications. solely π-aircraft, the satellite technology is used perfectly to
• Tracking Technology enable the visibility through the air-to-ground communication.
In reality, tracking is one of most important and vital op- In addition, the satellite communication with long range also
erations in the logistics management. Therefore, deploy- allow the nodes on the ground networks to remain connected
ing the tracking enabled system is indispensable in the π- in the absence of cellular connectivity.
IoT ecosystem. The identification or sensor technologies Apart from the large assets working in outdoor environment,
can be exploited to monitor the location of objects in most of logistics assets with lower values are involved in
limited spaces such as π-nodes, H/T-containers. The indoor execution processes. To interconnect such things, short
professional satellite technologies such as GPS (Global range communication technologies such as the acquisition
Positioning System), GPRS (General Packet Radio Ser- technologies are first effective options. While the identification
vices), and GIS (Geographic Information System) are technologies enable the unidirectional communication (i.e.,
required to track the transportation means with higher data is sent only from the tags to the readers), the sensor
quality services (e.g., fine-grained positioning, real time, technology can allow bidirectional interaction between objects
global reach, and reliability) in significant activities such with built-in radios (e.g., Wi-Fi, Zigbee, Bluetooth, and BLE).
as monitoring the valuable assets and fleet. LPWA networks can be another economical connectivity op-
2) Connectivity Technology: Connectivity is a huge chal- tion that track such a large number of widely dispersed objects
lenging facet of π-IoT ecosystem since it encompasses a through the integrated sensors.
variety of heterogeneous networks operating under different Since π-IoT can contain a number of heterogeneous net-
protocols and standards. In addition, the challenge is amplified works, usage of IoT gateways is mandatory to enable data
by mobility nature of almost π-objects including π-containers, communication of various things over the Internet [103],
π-movers that impact strongly to the reliability of D2D/M2M [104], [105]. In addition, depending on workplaces (e.g., π-
communication. To date, there are a overwhelming number of nodes, inside T-containers, etc.) of π-IoT the deployment of
possible options to connect devices to other devices (i.e., D2D, gateways need to be optimized with respect to multiple factors
and M2M) and to the Internet (ie., cloud), viz., cellular, satel- such as quantity, placements, and cost. As an integral part
lite, WiFi, Bluetooth, RFID, NFC, and LPWAN. Therefore, of π-IoT ecosystem, the functionalities of smart gateways
there are a set of significant aspects taken into account within can be extended. For example, these devices can derive the
the selection of suitable connectivity technologies such as optimal solutions to complicated tasks related to networking
and communication issues after executing the optimization
11 EPCIS, GS1 standard, https://www.gs1.org/epcis/epcis/1-1 algorithms based on network awareness such as topology, and
Things Journal
operation protocols [106], [107], [108], [109], [110], [111]. provide π-IoT services with stringent QoS requirements such
3) Data Processing: Practically, the daily activities in the as a real time and reliable response. In this context, fog and
logistics sector such as picking, loading, transporting by their edge computing have been emerged as alternative solutions
own generate a huge volume of data. The data is significantly to overcome the shortcomings by enabling the IoT data to be
needed to process by a certain way so that the managers processed at nearby sources or even at edge devices [126],
can get insight from the outcomes to improve the decision [127]. In principle, the edge devices or fog nodes such as
makings. Since the local database servers fail to meet the in- access points, IoT gateways, routers, switches, and handheld
creasing requirements regarding the data process, the existing devices are capable of processing the IoT data, performing
logistics businesses have relied on cloud-based services (i.e., algorithms, and producing intelligent services as efficient re-
Platform-as-a-Service (PaaS), Software-as-a-Service (SaaS), placements of remote cloud servers. For example, adoption of
and Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS)) to solve the problems fog computing in logistics distribution centers is investigated
efficiently [112], [113], [114]. In addition, from business in [128]. Especially, mobile devices such as handheld devices,
perspective multiple benefits can be gained from the cloud smart phones, or PDAs can serve as fog nodes that can use
computing such as cost efficiency, management simplification, relevant data acquired from embedded sensors to execute an
flexibility, visibility, scalability, and sustainability [115], [116], algorithm to create and display a three-dimension (3D) layout
[117]. (see Fig. 9) [56], [129]. Since the retrieved layout is perfectly
π-pallet (πP) or
As the PI is transformed into IoT revolution the limitations reflecting the equivalent
real spatial arrangement of π-containers on a
H-container
of IoT devices (e.g., low computation, low power, and low πP (i.e., π-pallet), it is used to validate the accuracy of
memory) in π-IoT vitally requires a deployment of cloud- composition process as well as detect the incompatibly of
based platforms (i.e., cloud computing) to store and process neighboring π-containers to avoid possible risks.
an ever growing and complicated influx of IoT data [118].
Basically, the IoT data is transmitted to the central cloud
databases, processed there, and then the desired outcomes
Data request
are delivered to the subscribed applications. The fast growing
amount of data generated in π-IoT can be viewed as a Data response
form of big data concept which typically is characterized by 3D layout
PDA, Smart Phone,
three Vs: velocity, variety (i.e., structured, unstructured, and Embedded sensors Handheld Device π-pallet or equivalent
semi-structured data format), and volume [119]. The rise of H-container
big data on the cloud computing opens the opportunities to Fig. 9: An example of using a handheld device as a fog node
combine these two emerging technologies [120]. While the to perform a computing task in π-IoT.
cloud provides the services for data processing, big data helps
in enterprises to optimize the decision making by sophisticated 4) Midleware: The potential benefits of IoT-based systems
analytic algorithms [121], [122], [123], [124]. For example, can be gained by exploiting the valuable information shared
a case study reported in [125] found that adopting big data among the physical objects and systems to offer valuable
analytics (BDA) and IoT helps in supporting strategies of large applications. As an integral component of IoT systems, the
logistics business to improve driver safety, lower operating main role of IoT middleware is to coordinate between IoT
costs, and reduce the environmental impact of their vehicles. components and distribute resources (i.e., hardware, data, and
Similarly, UPS used the big data analytic methods to analyze functional software) appropriately to develop and manage a
the captured IoT data (e.g., real-time GPS data, weather data, set of IoT services for the final applications [46], [130]. In
road maintenance data, and fleet and personnel schedules) to this regard, the IoT middleware solutions can be referred to
optimize the transportation routes 12 . The optimization results as IoT platforms, which not only enable communication but
introduced a ”no-left-turn-policy” that can be applied for all also facilitate it [131]. In addition, sitting directly below the
truck drivers of UPS efficiently to improve the transportation application layer in IoT systems the middleware layer helps
performance and overall logistics operations. in hiding the complexity of lower layers such as operating
The unlimited capabilities of cloud computing has proved systems, network, and heterogeneous physical devices. De-
its essential role not only in processing big data effectively pending on the specific utilities, the information exchange
but also enabling the scalability for π-IoT. However, the is different in modes including which information should
centralized computing method exposes critical drawbacks of be sent, which objects or systems should be received, or
cloud-based platforms such as longer latency, heavier network which routes are chosen to deliver the data. In this sense,
load, and low security. In addition, relying merely on the the middleware uses relevant software to abstract from the
central data servers to process a set of mobile IoT data information about the devices, hardware, networks, protocols.
generated by the mobile π-assets might lead to an additional Based on the abstracting process, the information is accessed
latency as well as unreliable quality of services (QoS). The easily by the sophisticated software, algorithms to get the
low performance practically inhibits the cloud-based platforms insight from it and provide intelligent services, applications.
to be applicable in scenarios, which require the systems to For example, the authors in [132] developed a sensor tag
12 ”No-left-turn-policy”
middleware architecture, namely middleware for monitoring
of UPS, https://theconversation.com/
why-ups-drivers-dont-turn-left-and-you-probably-shouldnt-either-71432? containers (MMC) as an interface to ubiquitously collect and
utm source=datafloq&utm medium=ref&utm campaign=datafloq process heterogeneous data from RFID and sensors inside the
Things Journal
containers. In particular, the middleware incorporates char- logistics-related activities and organizations. Moreover, if π-
acteristics of standard EPCglobal middleware with several IoT framework is totally in place, integrating some advanced
unique features such as reader abstraction, integration, high ICT technologies such as software-defined networking (SDN),
performance and scalability. To support the IoT devise in big data analytics (BDA), machine learning (ML), artificial in-
providing Web services, a middleware approach was proposed telligence (AI), and BlockChain (BC) in the π-IoT might help
in [133] to solve the logistics service composition. In addition, in achieving unprecedented efficiency in logistics management
a decentralized coordination mechanism was incorporated in by maximizing simultaneously the performance of both IoT
the method to monitor and find component services with and PI network. In this context, these emerging technologies
satisfied QoS requirements. As a result, the composite service are considered as crucial driving forces to speed up the π-
which is aggregated from the component services can be IoT realization. This section provides an in-depth investigation
provided to the IoT-enabled devices such as mobile phones, regarding major roles of such technologies in the acceleration
handheld devices with few required resources [134]. process.
Depending on the requirements and characteristics of IoT 1) Software-Defined Networking (SDN): IoT-based systems
systems, there are a variety of approaches to develop the obviously present a multi-dimensional complexity with respect
suitable middleware for specific applications [131]. A survey to communication and networking characterized mainly by a
[135] presents a comprehensive list of methods to design huge number of heterogeneous IoT devices, different types
middleware used in various IoT-based applications, viz., event- of networks, a diversity of IoT applications/services with
based, agent-based, resource-based, service-oriented, database- various QoS requirements. Such situation certainly implies a
oriented, and application-specific approach. To support the unsuitability of traditional network technologies to deal with
IoT ecosystems featured by heterogeneity, mobility, scala- the growing complexity in the IoT-based systems. The SDN
bility, multiplicity, and security, two well-known approaches technology with many advantage features has emerged as an
to develop the suited middleware include service and agent efficient solution to response to the aforementioned issues
orientation [136]. Despite important advantages such as decen- [141]. The fundamental of SDN is separation of traffic flows
tralized multi-agent systems, context awareness, and intelligent into data plane and control plane to dispense the dependence of
elements, the agent approach still holds some obstacles with software on hardware in the traditional network infrastructure,
respect to the interoperability of IoT subsystems since the thus enabling system flexibility and scalability. In addition,
heterogeneous IoT devices, networks use different standards such traffic division enables the operators and users to access
in protocols and data formats. the IoT devices remotely as well as make informed decisions
In the context of π-IoT, the middleware which is developed regarding network control and management.
based on the SOA approach promises an ultimate effective The SDN could be deployed efficiently in three types
solution. On the one hand, from the interoperability point of of networks: access network, core network, and wide-area
view the service orientation is superior to the agent orien- network (WAN) between the edge and the core in the IoT-
tation since it enables subsystems to inter-operate efficiently based systems [142], [143]. The deployment of SDN in the
through three provided functionalities: service discovery, ser- access network aims to address the QoS and network reliability
vice composition, and service access [137], [138]. On the issues for mobile IoT devices or vehicles. Meanwhile, the SDN
other hand, from logistics perspective since the complexity in the core network is exploited to optimally coordinate traffic
of logistics system is characterized by a huge number of or services for different purposes (e.g., to reduce the amount of
physical facilities involved in a vast and dynamic number of traffic being sent to the could, to improve the resource utiliza-
associated operations, managing it through the corresponding tion at the edge, to balance the workload of edge network,
services is recognized as an efficient way. In addition, SOA or to save consumption energy). Notably, software-defined
is considered suitable for data-driven logistics chains since wide area networking (SD-WAN) technology has emerged
it can integrate logistics process and information, and then in recent years with the aim to simplify the complexity of
share such information to create a better environment for enterprise networks in the whole IoT system by introducing
data exchange, responsiveness, collaboration, synchronization, more flexible, programmable network architectures that can
and visibility across the entire logistics chain in real-time meet the changing requirements of users. More importantly,
fashion. These implications expose a focus on designing SoA- the deployment of SD-WAN also aims at preventing potential
based middleware to provide such valuable IoT services. security threats at access points.
For example, the well-known Hydra middleware [139] was These benefits gained from the SDN adoption can poten-
developed for three IoT-enabled application domains including tially share with the IoT-based PI network. That eventually
building automation, health-care, and agriculture [140]. Hydra contributes as a driving force to accelerate the π-IoT frame-
enables the IoT devices act as service providers, thus the end work.
users can interact with the edge nodes and access the services 2) Advanced Data Processing: BDA, Machine Learning
through web-services interfaces. (ML), and Artificial Intelligence (AI): The π-IoT framework
with the accompanying infrastructure enables the evolution
of decision support systems (DSS) in the PI scenarios by
B. Technological Trends for π-IoT Realization Acceleration generating and delivering logistics related big data. Due to
The proposed π-IoT framework realized by the engagement the complexity of big data, it certainly cannot be handled
of IoT and PI potentially promises multi-fold benefits for and made full use of by traditional database management
Things Journal
tools but rather by advanced data processing technologies, and coordinate the transactions. In particular, the BC with
specifically BDA, ML, and AI. As illustrated in Fig. 10 these four key features, namely, data transparency, data security,
technologies creates the layer above the IoT infrastructure and asset management, and smart contract is worthily studied and
gradually optimizes the system performance by performing adopted in IoT-based supply chain and logistics networks,
their exclusive roles. which are recognized as completely untrusting environments
[149], [150]. The application of BC in such context offer a
Machine Learning (ML)/
variety of benefits. Most of use cases recognize the BC as an
Artificial Intelligence (AI) efficient solution to address security and trust issues, which
Data-based mining & learning
are imposed during real-time information exchanges between
IoT devices and companies [151]. In addition, the BC can
help in improving transparency and traceability capabilities
Big Data Analytics
Data storage & analysis for the logistics stakeholders since any change of state of
IoT object is recorded and triggered instantaneously by the
interconnected databases of involved parties [152]. Extending
the implementation of BC in the PI, the work [153] introduces
Internet of Things (IoT)
Data collection & pre-processing a conceptual framework of BC to support four levels of
interactions: π-organizations and governance at the highest
Fig. 10: Relationship of IoT, BDA, ML, and AI technologies level, π-nodes, π-movers, and finally π-containers at the lowest
and their roles in optimizing the performance of IoT-based level. In a similar methodology as suggested in [154] the
system. secure data exchange capability of BC technology can leverage
the ubiquitous and (near) real-time exchange of information
flow enabled by π-IoT to accelerate significantly the physical
Accordingly, the data pushed from the IoT layer is an- flow and financial flow in the PI context since the secure data
alyzed by various advanced analytical techniques to extract sharing of BC can mitigate many fiction regulations of global
patterns and trends. These well-analyzed information then is logistics stakeholders.
used by ML algorithms and AI to accelerate time to get
valuable insights, which eventually is exploited to support
IV. B UILDING - BLOCKS OF π-I OT
the decision makings in the logistics activities. Therefore, the
integration of BDA, ML, and AI into IoT implies extreme The huge potential of IoT is morphing from smart concept
benefits for the implementation of IoT-based logistics systems to reality such as smart cities, smart grids, and smart factories.
[144], [145], [146]. For example, the study [147] developed Considered as a smart system, π-IoT can be built on three key
an architecture integrating BDA to IoT for support real-time building blocks including smart objects, smart networks, and
analysis of high-speed data in the supply chain environment. smart PIMS.
The model deals with a set of data-based processes including
generation, extraction, and ingestion of data from IoT layer
and the relation database management system (RDBMS) in A. Smart Objects
Hadoop distributed file system (HDFS). The data is visualized Similar to the general IoT systems [155], π-IoT can be
and analyzed in real-time through ML models to generate founded on the smart objects enabled by relevant technologies.
knowledge and informed decision-makings. Notably, a recent The term ”smart object” refers to all physical equipment,
work [148] proposed a BDA framework that is applied in devices, machines, or logistics assets used to carry out the
the PI-based manufacturing shop floors. Through deploying logistics activities in the PI such as π-containers, and π-
IoT and wireless technologies, typical production resources movers.
including workers, machines, materials, and order are trans- By embedding the advanced technologies in information
formed into smart manufacturing objects (SMOs), which then and communication domain, the objects can be transformed
generate an enormous amount of logistics data to reflect their into smart objects, which are able to perceive and interact to
behaviors along the production processes. A BDA framework proximity including the surrounding environment and other
was introduced in the study to process, analyze, and harness smart objects [6], [156]. Fig. 11 illustrates four main mod-
such big data for visualizing the whole logistics trajectory and ules of smart objects in π-IoT ecosystem: data acquisition,
evaluating the efficiency of logistics operations in the shops. connectivity, power, and processing module.
In particular, the analysis and evaluation outcomes can be The main function of data acquisition component is to
translated into managerial guidance that is then used to support acquire the relevant data such as environment conditions
efficiently the decision makings in practical logistics activities. (i.e., temperature, and humidity) and the object states through
3) Advanced Security with Blockchain (BC): Fundamen- interaction capabilities enabled by the data acquisition tech-
tally, BC can be referred to as a shared, distributed ledger nologies (i.e., RFID, sensors,and tracking). The processing
technology that can record transactions between parties in a module is the core brain of smart objects which performs a
secure and permanent way. As the participants share databases complicated set of tasks (e.g., data processing, data storage,
the BC enables an elimination of the need for third-parties, etc.) to realize the smart functionality of objects. To enable
which previously act as trusted mediators to record, verify, communication and data exchange among the objects, the
Things Journal
c15 and transmitted to

c6 c15 management system for real time
c2 central P3
controlling.
c7 c16 c13 c9
Data Acquisition Processing R4 Connectivity 3) Telemetry:
S4 The telemetry data includes
C4 information col- L4
Module Module Module
c8 c9 c6
lected by the objects c11
through sensing the surrounding envi- P4
ronment and exchanging data with other objects or systems.
Receiving Site Thanks to theSor ICT integration,
ting Site each smart π-container
Composing Siteis
represented by a corresponding intelligent agent (e.g., a smart
tag, wireless sensor node, etc.) as illustrated in Fig. 12.
Power Module
Fig. 11: A typical structure of smart objects for the π-IoT

vision enabled by four integrated modules. Database
connectivity module encompasses several components includ- PI M S

ing antenna, wired/wireless transceivers, and signal processing
hardware. Finally, the power module with rechargeable or un-
rechargeable batteries is the integral part to provide energy for
every operational modules.
c1 c2
The increasing development of technologies in information,
computation, communication, and augmenting domains en- Communication, inter action
ables the smart object to extend the functionality. For example, Agents (sensor s, smar t tags)
the π-vehicles not only provides their real-time movement Fig. 12: The intelligent agents embedded in the π-containers
information to the fleet management centers through GPS enable them interact together and with other management
systems but also sensed status data such as engine speed, and systems (e.g., PIMS) actively.
temperature to provide early warning or potential maintenance
activities. In addition, the π-trucks not only are sources of
valuable information but also act as fog nodes which is enable Through exchanging significant information the agents help
to carry out computation and communication [157], [158] even in ensuring the identification, integrity, routing, conditioning,
they are in motion. monitoring, traceability and security of each π-container. For
To take full advantage of interconnection among the smart example, in our previous work [159] a gateway or a coor-
objects in the IoT systems, more semantic and valuable data dinator sensor deployed in a π-pallet or a π-truck collected
can be inserted in the memory of smart objects, thus it can the neighboring information of sensor nodes in network to
exploited as best as possible via interaction for improving monitor the locations and states of π-containers carried on it
decision makings. For example, the sensors embedded in π- by a retrieval 3D layout. Fig. 13 illustrates an example showing
e
containers can store two kinds of information: proprioceptive the monitoring
L oading functionality of π-movers (π-pallet (πP) and π-
Site
and exteroceptive to make these devices active [59]. While the truck (πT)) enabled by equipped wireless sensors or gateway.
proprioceptive data is related to the specification of contained
products or the π-containers such as volume, and dimension,
the exteroceptive data is obtained through interaction with Database
the environment or other devices such as temperature, and
humidity. Similarly, to be best consumed and handled by dif-
ferent IoT devices and back-end systems, common categories I tems Id Color Size Final
Destination
I tems Id Color Size Final
Destination
of information exchanged in π-IoT can be grouped into four P1 P100 white [3x2x1] H2 PI M S c1 C100 red [2x1x1] H2
c2 C200 green [2x1x1] H2

P2 P200 white [3x2x1] H2
c3 C300 violet [1x1x1] H2
groups: metadata, state data, telemetry data, and commands. P3
P4
P300
P400
white
white
[3x2x1]
[3x2x1]
H2
H2
c4 C400 blue [1x1x1] H2
1) Metadata: Metadata encompasses the immutable and

fixed specification of smart objects such as identifier (ID), Sensor Coor dinator , I nter net
Sensor Coor dinator
model, manufacturing date, and hardware serial number. Usu- GW
ally, this kind of data is read by using identification systems
(i.e., RFID, NFC, and bar-codes).
2) State information: The state data refers to the current
status of the objects, not of the ambient environment such as
-tr uck (T) or -pallet (P) or
CPU operating temperature, and battery state. This information equivalent T-container equivalent H-container
can be updated through reading or writing process. Since this
information is valuable in a short-term periods the updating Fig. 13: The monitoring functions of πP and πT enabled by
is not frequent. However, to maintain the operating sate of equipped wireless sensors or gateway.
smart objects, the information is required to be monitored
M ounted-computer
Things Journal
In particular, to support routing protocols effectively, routing

information (i.e. previous/next/final destination address) of
the π-container provided by the PIMS is also added to the
memory of the sensor. In this way, such information can be
Back-end systems Remote clouds Database systems
checked using any device such as a computer, tablet or even a
mobile phone for efficiently distributed handling, storage, and WMS TMS ERP ...
moving automation when the π-containers are involved in the
corresponding processes [35].
This information type is the major source used and exploited Fig. 14: A typical structure of smart PIMS.
to develop and provide the IoT-based applications. Therefore,
sophisticated strategies of data processing (e.g., Big Data
analytics) should be applied to get insights from it since a to enable the efficient management of logistics operations and
huge number of smart objects transmits such big data to the resources (e.g., π-containers, and π-movers). Furthermore, the
cloud. PIMS should be active to exploit as best as possible the
4) Commands: Commands indicate actions performed by capabilities of π-facilities in π-IoT. The term ”activeness”
the smart objects after collecting a set of relevant informa- refers to the ability of PIMS in communicating and exchanging
tion and then making decisions. For example, the alarming data with the logistics assets (i.e., smart objects) in real time.
commands are sent by a certain π-container to a nearby Thus, the PIMS can leverage the exchanged information to
management system when it detects a potential risk (e.g., optimize scheduling, processes, and the utilization of assets.
an explosion) caused by a proximity π-container. Additional Fig. 15 illustrates such a smart PIMS developed for manag-
specialized sensors can be deployed depending on the cus- ing a certain π-hub (πH). As defined in Table I the exchange
tomer requirements or contents. For example, for high security of π-containers from carriers to another is the core activity
purpose sensors are used to detect the opening of π-containers of πHs. However, to ensure the efficient and sustainable
preventing theft. Sensitive contents such as perishable food transfer of π-containers through the πH, a set of complicated
requires sensors to monitoring temperature, humidity so as the activities (e.g., receiving, sorting, composing, etc.) needs to be
quality of food maintain viable until reaching the destination. optimized.
Thus alarming commands are triggered once the monitored In this case, the PIMS is distributed into active subsystems,
parameters are over the threshold values. In another example, each of which is responsible for accomplishing its own func-
the PIMS can be alerted when a π-truck is being over-utilized tion by using an assigned set of resources. For example, at
or when an idle π-pallet should be assigned to do other task. the receiving site, all inbound π-movers, and π-containers are
Throughout the open and shared PI network stakeholders, registered, verified and scanned for validation and security
managers, and end customers can access necessary data by purposes. At this stage, the activeness of π-facilities are
interacting with the agents. However, depending on the roles of exploited to cross-check the current incoming inputs against
requesters more restricted data may be required and accessed the information transmitted from πH1. After passing such
to ensure the security and privacy of data. A MODULUSHCA initial processes, π-containers are directed to appropriate lo-
common data model proposed in [160] is composed of four cations for their next involved processes. Usually, moving
data types: business data, shipment data, network data, and the π-containers is supported by π-conveyors or π-carriers
public data, which can be accessed by corresponding actors depending on their next destination and next processes. To
with the granted rights to support exchanging information avoid collisions and balance the loads, the π-containers are
among the partners of the PI. allocated to go in different input lanes. As illustrated in Fig.
15, every four π-containers are scheduled and moved in one
lane (i.e., R1, R2, R3, and R4) to ensure the smooth flow in
B. Smart PIMS both time window and space window [159].
A PIMS refers to a network of computer-based systems In the same way, the other subsystems (i.e., sorting, compos-
including specialized software (e.g., warehouse management ing, and loading subsystems) evolving specific π-containers
systems (WMS), transportation management system (TMS), and facilities assigned by the PIMS manages and take its
and enterprise resource planning (ERP)), back-end systems, function. In addition, an active subsystem is also responsible
database servers, and/or remote clouds that aims to man- for managing a set of PI assets, inventories (i.e., π-containers,
age and control all logistics processes, operations efficiently and π-movers) within a scheduled period to complete its
through the information flow captured by the underlying IoT specific task.
infrastructure (see Fig. 14).
In π-IoT, the PIMS is transformed to be smart so that it
exploits as best as possible the information shared through C. Smart Networks
IoT vision to ensure the synchronization between information To enable seamlessly interconnectivity and interoperability
and material flow. In addition, dealing with a huge number within π-IoT, smart networks are indispensable in π-IoT. Such
of π-containers and logistics assets, and a complexity of networks must be designed to adapt in a flexible way to the
logistics processes in each π-node, the smart PIMS should dynamic change nature of PI operations. Therefore, the smart
be distributed intelligently over a high number of resources networks must provide an availability characterized by reliable
Things Journal
Database Database Database

of H1 of H2 of H3
PI M S PI M S PI M S
of H1 of H2 of H3
A A A A
Subsystem Subsystem Subsystem Subsystem
Receiving Sor ting Composing L oading
c1 c2 c1 c4

R1 S1 C1 L1
c3 c4 c3 c16 P1 T1
c11 c5 c12 c7
R2 S2 C2 L2
c13 c12 c8 c10 P2 T2
c10 c14 c14 c5
R3 S3 C3 L3
c15 c6 c2 c15 P3 T3
c7 c16 c13 c9
R4 S4 C4 L4
c8 c9 c6 c11 P4 T4
Receiving Site Sor ting Site Composing Site L oading Site

Fig. 15: A typical smart PIMS can interact with π-containers, π-movers to facilitate the transfer of materials in a πH2 [159].
and ubiquitous connectivity, value-added service provision, poses a challenging task. The investigation on the connectivity
and convergence. Fig. 16 highlights the features of smart technologies for π-IoT as presented in the previous section
networks in the proposed π-IoT. exposes a necessity of communication redundancy to resolve
the challenge. Accordingly, four major groups of wireless
communication networks including wireless mesh, wireless
LAN, cellular, and satellite must coexist to enable the ubiqui-
Features of Smart Networks in tous connectivity for the smart objects since some of them can
IoT-enabled Logistics Convergence leave or join the networks dynamically in every workplace of
Support communication
Network as of heterogeneous IoT π-IoT ecosystem. Generally, the seamless connection relies
data: voice, media,
a Service wireless, wired heavily on the deployment of network infrastructure (i.e.,
Using edge, fog
computing, big data to
access points, and gateways). Such design takes account not
provide valuable services
Redundancy
only the performance optimization of private stakeholders but
Network redundancy to
also other public network infrastructure. For example, right
ensure reliable and
ubiquitous connectivity networking technologies need to exploit as best as possible
the public network infrastructure to maximize the commu-
nication and networking capabilities such as V2V (Vehicle-
to-Vehicle) [161], IVC (Inter-Vehicle Communication) [162],
Fig. 16: Typical features of smart networks in π-IoT.
V2I (Vehicle-to-Infrastructure) [163], [164], [165], [166], and
Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) [167] communication networks.
From networking perspective, π-IoT involves several profes- As a key block of π-IoT architecture and infrastructure, the
sional networks such as RFID systems, NFC systems, MAN- smart networks provide not only means for data communi-
NETs, VANNETs, and WSNs, which operate with different cation, processing, and sharing effectively and efficiently but
standards and protocols. The diversity of networks is enlarged also intelligent functionalities and services. For example, as
increasingly due to various communication technologies used π-containers with embedded wireless sensors are loaded on
by businesses and stakeholders. In combination with the a π-truck, an ad-hoc network formed from such collaborated
mobility nature of smart objects (i.e., π-containers, and π- sensors can execute algorithms to provide valuable applica-
movers), deploying networks and associated infrastructure to tions such as monitoring conditions at every positions inside
ensure a seamless communication in π-IoT environment im- the π-truck [57], [56].
Things Journal
A smart network is capable of processing data smartly should be met by providing customization functionality under
enabled by computing technologies [168]. Since transmitting a flexible fashion. Thus an SOA is considered an efficient
an overwhelming volume of data generated by the connected method achieve interoperability between heterogeneous de-
devices or sensors to the central base stations or the remote vices in a multitude of way [39], [86], [178]. In addition, SOA
clouds can cause a critical bottleneck on network and a is considered suitable for the logistics sector. In particular,
degraded performance. The smart networks in this context SOA can integrate logistics processes and information; and
can extend functionality right or near to the edge so that sharing such information can help create a better environment
the data can be processed and analyzed locally before it for real-time data exchange, real-time responsiveness, real-
is delivered to the server or the clouds. Edge computing, time collaboration, real-time synchronization, and real-time
fog computing are possible technologies used to allow the visibility across the entire logistics chain. The architecture
smart network to realize such functionality [169], [170]. For provides an end-to-end design of π-IoT ecosystem based on
example, an IoT gateway connecting a WSN and the Internet the enabling technologies, building blocks to realize the final
can employ the fog computing, edge computing techniques to IoT-based applications and services. This section describes
handle a bundle of sensor data locally [171]. This promisingly such an architecture comprising four layers: physical layer,
improves the scalability and the high QoS (quality of services) network layer, service layer and interface layer for π-IoT of
such as quick response time, low bandwidth for any network PI. Fig. 17 illustrates the conceptual design of SOA for π-IoT.
enforcement, especially supports the mobility of IoT systems
[172]. In addition, by combining with the big data analytics A. Physical Layer
the smart networks can offer efficient predictive analysis and
The physical layer involves all the infrastructure including
reporting functions which, in turns, are used to enhance data-
the three key building blocks (i.e., smart objects, smart net-
driven decision makings. For instance, the results obtained
works, and smart PIMS) for π-IoT ecosystem. As the lowest
from the analysis of traffic behavior can help in determining
layer in the four-layer architecture, the main role of physical
the feasibility of network capacity (e.g., bandwidth, residual
layer is to perceive and acquire the IoT data from the smart
energy, and delay) on supporting the data heavy processes.
objects, smart networks through communication among them
In addition, the traffic flows can be prioritized according to
and interaction between them with surrounding environment.
urgency, importance and feasibility
This process is enabled by the acquisition technologies such
IoT data in π-IoT system can be available in a hetero- as RFID, NFC, bar-codes, and WSN [179], [180], [181]. With
geneous set such as text, voice, and media format, which the massive logistics activities, the huge volume of collected
are transferred through the backbone transport networks (i.e., information should be pre-processed, categorized, standardized
both wired and wireless communication networks). In this before it is delivered to the upper layer to reduce the traffic
context, a single converged network is essential to guarantee load of IoT system. For example, the information used to
a hyper level of interoperability and support for providing realize the four classes of activeness of π-container can be
IoT applications and services. Nevertheless, the converged net- classified into four corresponding levels [59], [159]:
work brings about significant benefits for organizations such
1) Passive information: it is collected from static or dynamic
as cost savings, operational simplification, and a consistent
data stored in the RFID tag or sensors. Such information
policy enforcement due to an unified management strategy.
relates to π-container specification and location for pro-
Recently, an IP multimedia subsystem (IMS) has been a well-
viding tracking and traceability function.
developed platform standardized by 3GPP and ETSI to provide
2) Triggering information: This information is perceived
user profile and session control functions for the delivery of
from sensing and detecting by adequate sensors. There-
multimedia services for the next generation networks (NGN)
fore, detected problems are sent to the PIMS as alert mes-
in IoT systems [173], [174], [175]. By integrating the IMS
sage. Such information provides the monitoring function.
the smart networks such as WSNs [176] or wireless actuator
3) Decision process information; This information is ob-
networks [177] provide additional context-aware applications
tained through the interaction and communication among
and services for users.
proximity π-containers. The management of incompat-
ibility between π-containers is an example of services
V. S ERVICE - ORIENTED A RCHITECTURE FOR π-I OT served by such information.
4) Self-organized information: The active π-containers are
Since no architecture standard is agreed universally by the
self-sufficient and are able to provide services based on
businesses, practitioners to implement IoT, a variety of ar-
the information obtained from the π-infrastructure in the
chitectures have been proposed for the according IoT-enabled
previous class.
applications [90]. In the context of π-IoT, the dynamic mobil-
ity nature of logistics assets requires significantly an adaptive
architecture help devices interact with other things in real- B. Network Layer
time manner. In addition, the decentralized and heterogeneous The network layer is responsible for connecting all hetero-
characteristics of IoT requires that the architecture provides geneous things together and allowing them to exchange the
IoT efficient event-driven as well as on-demand services once relevant information with other connected things and systems.
requested. More importantly, the ever-changing demands of In addition, the networking layer serves as a means to transport
businesses and the vastly different requirements of end users the information aggregated from the physical layer to the
Things Journal
to non-robust of the network. Such significant concerns as

clarified in Table III must be taken into account to design
I nter face L ayer an appropriate network layer to meet the requirements of
users/applications for π-IoT.
TABLE III: Key considerations for designing a network layer

Handheld for π-IoT (adapted from [178] )
Devices
Design goals Description
How long can an IoT device operate
Energy
C1 with limited power supply?
Creating & Internet
How much time is need for message
Ser vice L ayer
managing Latency
services propagation and processing?
What is the maximum amount of data
Throughput
C2 that can be transported through the network?
Scalability How many devices are supported
Middleware,
Cloud Topology Who must communicate with whom?
Software,
Security & safety How secure and safe is the application?
Ser vice-Oriented Ar chitectur e for -I oT
Platforms
Practically, no networks can meet all the defined goals. In

C other words, there exists an inherent trade-off regarding the
GW network performances. Therefore, network optimizations pay
Networ k L ayer
a ways to resolve the issues [183] by optimizing a single or a

Wireless LAN
Wireless Mesh set of factors subject to the other constrains.
Internet
C. Service Layer
This layer relies on the associated SOA middleware and
Cloud
advanced data processing technologies (e.g. cloud computing,
BDA, ML, and AI) to integrate multiple stocks of hetero-
Cellular Network Satellite Network
geneous information and create valuable services. The ser-
vices can be on-demand applications, which are requested by
managers to support the facilitation of logistics processes as
well as end users (i.e., customers) to monitor or track their
-pallet (P) or equivalent
Physical L ayer
-truck (T) or equivalent orders. Basic traceability or tracking functions, monitoring,

H-container T-container
scheduling, and routing are typical services of this type in
P the logistics operations. Another type of services include
T notification services that provide valuable and notification
H information for the manager, stakeholders, and actors auto-
-mover & -lift-truck matically. For example, when a π-truck is going to a region
Intelligent Agent
Sensor/gateway/coordintor
of traffic congestion, a service is sent to the truck driver and
notifies the situation. The services can also provide a guide
Fig. 17: The end-to-end Service-Oriented Architecture to regarding the transportation route to avoid the congestion
realize IoT services for π-IoT. region. Another role of service layer is to determine locations
to access the services. Basically, as the smart objects are
equipped with the computing, communication, and storage
capabilities, they can be the service providers. For example,
upper layer. In π-IoT, services provided by IoT devices (i.e., a gateway installed in a π-truck can provide services such as
smart objects) or a collective group of devices (i.e., smart ambient monitoring inside the carried smart container [184]
networks such as ad hoc, mesh networks, and WSNs) will through communicating with the sensors [185], [186], [187].
be brought into and stored in the service Internet (i.e., clouds, As the wireless sensors are deployed inside the containers
database servers) for further accessing and sharing. Therefore, [187] they can actively send the data including the surround
another role of the network layer is to support discovering and environment, and local positions to the base station. Thus
delivering the services as they are requested in any time and the real time conditions at any position of container can be
at any place. Although the deployment of redundant networks monitored effectively even it is in motion. Another important
can ensure a reliable and ubiquitous connectivity in π-IoT service provided by the gateway is logistics asset tracking.
it imposes various network related issues such as resource While the GPS installed in the π-trucks offers the global
management, routing, energy conservation, congestion, het- positions of large assets, the systems based on the acquisition
erogeneity, scalability, reliability, quality of service (QoS) and technologies such as RFID, and WSNs can track the locations
security [182]. In addition, the dynamic changing of network of small and low value assets in indoor environments (i.e.,
topology due to leaving or joining of IoT devices may lead π-nodes, and π-containers) [188], [189], [190], [191]. This
Things Journal
layer relies on the underlying IoT infrastructure to identify and infancy or at an early stage of implementation. Such similar
realize appropriate services, which are then used to support positive impact can potentially be achieved when the π-IoT
the logistics operations efficiently. However the layer faces is realized and exploited in the PI scenarios. However, since
security issues with respect to information exchange and the PI is at an early stage of implementation, the qualitative
storage, database management, search engines (e.g., database impact of π-IoT on the performance of PI with respect to
search, and service search), and communication protocols the economy sustainability is still not assessed thoroughly.
among services [39], [86]. Therefore, security mechanisms In addition, making the π-IoT framework to become reality
must be deployed to mitigate the malicious attacks when they requires certainly a heavy investment for the transformations
request and access services such as authenticated validations in infrastructure, technology, and business model. Therefore,
and certification of applications and users. the proposed framework can only develop if it enables the
PI to offer significantly higher performance than the current
D. Interface Layer practices.
In reality, the inherent heterogeneity of smart objects in π- Generally, IoT brings with it an adverse impact on environ-
IoT poses a critical challenge regarding accessing the services ment sustainability since it uses numerous resources including
since they follow different standards, protocols. The challenge energy supplies, harmful substances and non-renewable mate-
is amplified by an exponential increase in the number of IoT rial, and then generates carbon-dioxide (CO2 ) emissions, e-
devices (i.e., smart objects owned by different stakeholders, waste across the entire life cycle. The negative impact might
businesses) joining π-IoT network. Therefore, the ultimate role become more serious in the activities of logistics sector since
of interface layer is to enable the services to be accessed a huge number of physical infrastructure and logistics-related
and used by any manager or end user through any device operations is involved in running and maintaining the logistics
(e.g., PDA, handheld devices, smart phones, and computers). system. In the context of π-IoT, additional resources are
Such perfect interface is considered as a means that enables consumed to enable the integration of IoT in the PI. For
an universal service access through Universal Plug and Play example, all the physical infrastructure and facilities including
(UPnP) activity [182], [192]. However, the heterogeneity fea- the smart objects, the high-performance computing systems
ture of π-IoT limits the ultimate functionality. Instead, an (i.e., fog nodes, data center, and servers) consume a certain
interface profile can be designed appropriately for a set of amount of energy directly for performing multiple tasks such
services standards associated by the compatible interfacing as sensing, identification, data exchanging, and data process-
methods. For example, Web Services [182] are technologies ing. In addition, due to dynamic nature of logistics activities,
that integrate a set of standards and protocols to exchange real-time services require the smart objects to be active most
data between applications developed in different programming of time for frequent activities, viz., monitoring the surrounding
languages and they can run on any platform. Therefore, the environment and object health status, storing, processing, and
Web Services enable the relevant data and services to be shared exchanging the captured information, thus resulting in an
in both private IoT devices and private networks through the increased energy consumption. Therefore, these issues impose
Internet. an intensive analysis framework to investigate and evaluate
the overall sustainability of system when applying the the π-
VI. K EY CHALLENGES OF π-I OT REALIZATION IoT framework explicitly in the PI scenarios. For example, the
works [195], [196] aim to establish and examine an efficient
The positive impact of IoT in improving the overall perfor- green computing platform that is capable of supporting the
mance, efficiency, and sustainability of logistics operations in provisions of IoT applications. The assessment results of
the PI scenarios has been recognized by many stakeholders studies show that the fog computing in combination with the
[33]. However, the adoption of IoT in the PI still comes with traditional cloud computing will enable a green computing
a wide range of challenges, which according to their area of paradigm with a 40% decrease of mean energy expenditure,
impact can be divided into three main groups, namely, system, and a considerable reduction of CO2 emissions produced by
business, and policy. This section investigates intensively these data centers. Especially, the collaboration paradigm is greener
challenges and associated factors that serve as barriers to the even in the system that supports huge demands of the next
π-IoT realization. generation real-time IoT services.
Concerning the impact of IoT on the society sustain-
A. System-related Challenges ability, batteries, physical connections, energy fields and a
1) System Sustainability: Although the introduction of PI combination of these technologies pose major issues, all of
aims to obtain the efficiency and sustainability of logistics which are shared with the general IoT-based and logistics
activities in three dimensions: economy, environment, and systems. For example, the usage of batteries for the smart
society, application of IoT in such logistics paradigm might objects (e.g., packaging π-containers) can potentially cause
expose severe side effects and thus hindering the goal achieve- critical risks such as explosions of hazardous materials during
ment. handling, storage, and transportation processes [197], [198],
From economy aspect, numerous studies in the literature [199], [200]. Such kind of threats can be additionally caused
examined the impact of IoT on the economic growth [193], by possible reactions of incompatible dangerous goods in the
[194]. The studied findings implied an tangible effect of IoT- PI context since the contents of π-containers (e.g., liquid, solid
based solutions on the economy even if the IoT is still in its bulk, fragile, etc.) are hided to restrict access to the relevant
Things Journal
data [33]. Therefore, any mis-declaration, mis-communication geographic locations of π-nodes as well as multiple logistics
or incorrect documentation with respect to the shipment infor- processes taken place in these transit centers (e.g., loading,
mation could lead to severe consequences. All the mentioned unloading, and sorting π-containers). Therefore, any inefficient
issues pose a high reliability requirement of π-IoT to provide routing protocol certainly leads to an adverse consequence
the adequate and reliable data. Another controversial issue of performance. In addition, the routing protocols must deal
exposed when transporting the smart objects in the airplanes with irregular traffic of π-containers characterized by different
is related to a significant RF interference of smart objects to degrees of variability and uncertainty in terms of arrival
the airplane communication system. Until a new legislative time, contents, quantity, sizes and destination mix [201], [33].
framework is released for a corresponding resolution, the Furthermore, the routing protocols are strongly affected by
problems still act as a significant barrier to the adoption of other perturbations, which come from external and internal
IoT in the PI. environment [202]. The external perturbations refer to factors
2) System Performance Issues: The specific characteristics influencing on one-hop transportation of π-containers. Such
of logistics system negatively affecting the performance of π- crucial factors include bad weathers, transportation status (e.g.,
IoT probably serve as barriers to the convergence of IoT and congestion, traffic jams, accidents, and strikes), which can
PI. lead to an increased delivery time and even a disruption
Regarding communication and networking aspects, although of pre-set scheduling of π-hubs. The internal perturbations
the redundant communication mechanism of the smart net- relate to issues inside the transit centers such as breakage of
works can enable the ubiquitous interconnectivity in the π- some π-movers that affects the service time and transit lead-
IoT vision the communication reliability still faces inherent times. Although the integration of IoT can help in sharing the
challenges. First of all, the presence of high density obstacles real-time information and supporting efficiently the informed
such as steel construction, thick wall of π-warehouses, π- decision-makings, the problems will not solved yet thoroughly
nodes, π-movers, and π-containers certainly cause significant in scenarios with huge number of traffic flows.
signal loss in the wireless communications. In addition, metal
objects (e.g., π-containers covered by metal materials) create B. Business-related Challenges
destructive interference of radio waves due to multi-path
The ultimate goal of PI is to establish an open and shared
reflection. These adverse effects collectively result in high
network that connects all logistics-related actors, stakeholders,
probability of failures of packets at the target receivers, thus
organizations worldwide for optimizing the performance of
reducing the performance of data communications in the IoT
logistics activities. However, until a single commitment is
networks. Besides selecting the appropriate RF technology
agreed by all these actors to exploit the PI network, there still
with receiver sensitivity, selecting materials for the smart ob-
exists a long distance to reach the practical implementation
jects, especially the π-containers must be paid close attention
of PI and IoT in businesses. Especially, small and medium
to mitigate the unreliability of data communication. Secondly,
enterprises (SME), which likely have more limitations on
the crowded frequency bands of multiple networks present
financial, human resources and technical, are likely to have a
as a potential source to cause missed packets due to in-band
higher uncertainty of deploy π-IoT based solutions. Simultane-
interference. For example, a majority of smart objects can use
ously, the realization of π-IoT requires a massive investment
the ISM (industrial, scientific and medical) bands for radio
for the infrastructure transformations and integration of ad-
communication since they are characterized by advantages
vanced ICT technologies that are adequate and suitable to the
features such as license free and low power consumption
business situations. Moreover, integration of the relevant IoT
for communication. Therefore, the unreliability issue becomes
technologies to the existing systems might lead to additional
critical as a vast number of smart objects located in a close
costs used for activities such as training, familiarity to get
proximity workplace shares the same ISM band. The advanced
used to operations, management, and maintenance of systems.
technologies can offer efficient solutions to these problems
Notably, the realization speed of π-IoT is also inhibited by
such as sufficient blocking capability developed for mobile
security issues of the IoT objects, which are prime targets of
phones or tablets. Other methods can come from the sophisti-
cyber-criminals and hackers. Inevitably, such risks translates
cated algorithms for networks (i.e., mesh, ad-hoc, and WSNs)
to monetary impact since any disruption or damage to the IoT
to regulate the operations of radios. For example, reducing the
infrastructure would lead to a significant loss of revenue and
transmission power helps in mitigating the interference range
even safety threats.
to nearby nodes.
Actually, the paradigm shift from the current logistics to
the PI requires substantial transformations in infrastructure, C. Policy-related Challenges
technology, and business model. Besides the nature challenges The ambition of PI paradigm is to form a global network for
in innovating the physical infrastructure of PI (i.e., standard- providing logistics services in which all involved actors (e.g.,
izing π-containers, π-mover, and π-nodes), designing efficient partners, stakeholders, and organizations) in both private and
virtual entities (i.e., routing protocols of π-containers) faces public spheres, and countries are required to share information,
existing challenges. Firstly, unlike routing the data packets protocols, and resources to jointly obtain the maximized
in the Digital Internet, every one-hop move or sojourn of a efficiency and sustainability. However, the diversity of policies
physical π-container at transit centers (i.e., π-nodes) is cost issued by these actors and countries to manage the logistics
intensive and time consuming due to the fact complexity of related activities poses different barriers towards achieving an
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Towards the Internet of Things for Physical

in forms of efficient unit loads (i.e., composite π-containers)

the important description of π-container such as dimen-

Layer Digital Internet Physical Internet

Fig. 5: A typical prototype of road-rail π-hub designed for

However, to adequately model and formulate the optimiza-

Functional Block Enabling Technologies

Fig. 7: Taxonomies of key enabling technologies for π-IoT.

c15 and transmitted to

Fig. 11: A typical structure of smart objects for the π-IoT

connectivity module encompasses several components includ- PI M S

c2 C200 green [2x1x1] H2

1) Metadata: Metadata encompasses the immutable and

In particular, to support routing protocols effectively, routing

Database Database Database

c1 c2 c1 c4

Receiving Site Sor ting Site Composing Site L oading Site

to non-robust of the network. Such significant concerns as

TABLE III: Key considerations for designing a network layer

Practically, no networks can meet all the defined goals. In

a ways to resolve the issues [183] by optimizing a single or a

-truck (T) or equivalent orders. Basic traceability or tracking functions, monitoring,

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