UNIVERSITY OF BOTSWANA

COMMUNICATION AND STUDY SKILLS UNIT

PROGRAMME: All Programmes

COURSE: COM 132 & COM 142—Academic & Professional Communication Skills
for Engineering and Science (Student Handout)

WRITING UP AN ACADEMIC (RESEARCH) ESSAY

1. What is research?

Adopting Walsh, 2001; Seliger & Shohamy, 1989: 20, research can be described as the
art of using practical skills and activities to critique evidence in order to create precise
and in-depth knowledge about a phenomenon being investigated. The overall objective
of scientific research is to help debunk (de-emphasize) some generalizations collected
from common sense (i.e., personal / untested conclusions). According to unlike common
sense (untested, taken-for-granted assumptions), scientific research investigation involves
“curiosity about some phenomenon and the posing of testable questions about
relationships among observed phenomena”.

2. Background and reasons for undertaking scientific research investigation

The main rationale for conducting research is to unearth some answers to questions about
an issue or problem that recurs in everyday life (i.e., create better understanding about it).
The research process revolves around a curiosity that have developed in the mind of a
researcher regarding a specific practice. The curiosity gives rise to a number of questions
that the researcher wishes to find answers to through a research process. The
investigation process operates like this:

a. Observation—of a particular practice, in order to determine whether it is

adequately significant to warrant a formal investigation.

Example of possible curiosity: There might be a phenomenon in the prospective

researcher’s country wherein, industry had consistently shown a preference to hire
craftsmen from technical institutions over graduates from the national
universities.

b. General curiosity—Could be anchored around possible cause(s) of the practice.

The researcher then tries to address the possible causes of the practice through
posing several questions:
 
What role does the kind of training plays in facilitating this regard?

To what extent is costing / affordability a contributory factor to the
practice?
c. Formulating a hypothesis—One of the possible explanations could be taken to
have best impacted this practice. Example: A change in the status of the Botswana
Polytechnic into the Faculty of Engineering could have led to the revision of
courses / programmes, resulting in them becoming theoretically-inclined. This
could become the main hypothesis in line with observed facts and perceived
experience. The other hypotheses are then rejected.

2. Characteristics of research

 Is based on empirical data—i.e., answers to the questions are justified through

‘logic and factual / objective evidence’.
 systematic collation and evaluation of data—guarantees validity and reliability
of procedures and methods
 data analysis
 drawing conclusions based on the evidence

The above-referred features allude to what is referred to in the literature as ‘scientific

research’. Several every day activities, however, contains the elements of (and qualify) to
be classified as “formal research”. The pre-conditions for conducting effective formal
research include:
1.
 Awareness by the investigator about the main differences between knowledge or
conclusions reached on the basis of common sense (natural intuitive learning) and
scientific research.
 Realization that the researcher has reached a stage in the research process at
which they could make real reliable conclusions.

Seliger & Shohamy (1989: 10), outline the major factors for some differences between
conclusions arrived at on the basis of common sense and those reached on account of
scientific research:

a. Scientific research—referred to alternatively, as ‘disciplined inquiry’, it is

characterized by the following broad features: ‘organized’, ‘structured’,
‘methodical’, ‘systematic’, ‘testable’.
b. Common sense—is explained as underlined by superstition, superficial responses
to problems, and unexamined beliefs.

3. Objective (s) of research

The research process acts as a valuable roadmap that creates cohesion for the
investigation. The overall aim of research is to produce useful knowledge (underlined by
truthfulness and facts) that ultimately extends the understanding of its recipients. In
many situations, personal opinions and common sense are regarded as inadequate factors
underlying decision making and developing understanding. In contrast, research is
underlined by evidence that comes from observation and experience of the real world.
Thus, it provides valid and reliable information which industry, commerce, education,
government and society can use to address issues, problems and / or challenges that they
are faced with.

It has been pointed out earlier on, that in order to conduct effective scientific
investigation, the researcher ought to be sensitive to the major differences between
research and common sense. Research work is especially motivated by the desire to
explore and find answers to a phenomenon that is not clearly and adequately understood.
Thus, researchers are motivated in their work by a common belief that they are operating
in the ‘period of scientific objectivity’. In universities and colleges, learners are
introduced (and socialized) into the skills and knowledge of conducting scientific
research through the writing up of research essays and / or projects.
.
4. Writing up the research essay

Part of continuous assessment, requires learners to write academic (research) essays on

approved topics. Academic writing is one embarked upon in connection with a
course of study, at university level. The Concise Oxford Dictionary defines an essay as
a ‘literary composition (usu. in prose and short) on any subject’ (1987: 329). At
university level, a number of conventions are laid out as part of a process of socializing
fresh men into the ethos of their new academic community. Like scientific research (or
research in the real world), such essays should be instigated by a need to find answers to
questions about a phenomenon (that occurs in everyday life) and it is targeted at creating
a better understanding of it. That is, after carrying out some observation, the practice was
found to be significant and warranting formal investigation. For instance, it might have
been observed that there exists a trend in which industry prefers to employ craftsmen
from technical institutes rather than engineering graduates from the University of
Botswana. Questions are then raised regarding the rationale for the practice. For
example: What role does the type of training offered play in this phenomenon? Is costing
or affordability a factor in this practice? One of the several possible explanations could be
taken to best impact on this development, such as, the change in the status of the former
Botswana Polytechnic to a Faculty of Engineering at the University of Botswana. The
restructuring might have resulted in revision of the training regime, for example. That is,
this becomes the hypothesis in accordance with both the observed facts and previous
experience. The other hypotheses are then rejected. Further research is then carried out in
a bid to answer this research question.

Notwithstanding the various stipulations, the general requirement is that the essay should
be divided into four main parts, namely:
  Topic—announces the subject matter (i.e., new ideas / areas intended to be
explored in-depth, to assist reader / researcher to become more familiar
with them[generate more knowledge on it). Factors in choosing a title;

 Should be precise, concise and descriptive—These factors help

the audience to read and interpret the content in one way rather
than others.
 Is designed heeding the functional relationship between variables,
in order to indicate the independent and dependent factor (s). For
example;

Change: An investigation of the social media and academic learning in

Botswana.

To: Effects of the social media on academic learning in Botswana.

A relationship of cause (s) and effects is reflected on the second title.

The two features help stimulate the interest of the reader ad predispose
them favourably towards the proposed research.

Example of a topic: Critiquing some major factors in the inequitable

participation of women and girls in scientific and technological
education and professions in Botswana.

 Being a broad thing, the topic implies several sub–topics and multiple comments
about the sub–topics concerned. For instance, negative and positive impacts of
the social media on academic learning in Botswana.

Any chosen topic would, however, remain transitory / temporary until the writing
process has been finalized.

C. Pre-requisites for writing up the essay

 Introduction

Broadly speaking, it could consist of the following:

I. Background information— The sub-section describes the observations

and experiences that have given rise to the writer’s interest in the
phenomenon being investigated. That is, it highlights the issues (current
opinions, views and observations on the subject) so as to stimulate interest
of other people on the problem.
 Example: According to the United Nations Millennium Development Goals
(2003: 12), adequate gender representation on academia and the professions is a
positive step because it offers opportunity for diverse perspective or approach to
research and development. This point of view, notwithstanding, available
evidence (UNESCO, 2012; World Bank Pulse Report, 2017; Monametsi, 2009)
decries that, the world over, there exists a disparity in the representation of the
two genders in favour of boys and men as opposed to women and girls in as far as
educational opportunities and employment prospects are concerned. Further, it
has been reported that gender inequality in disfavour of females has had the
negative implications of limiting them from achieving their potential, as well as,
capacity to effectively contribute towards development challenges. Furthermore,
that, the disparity in question is more prevalent in the general areas of Science and
Technology education and professions. Also, the World Bank Pulse Report
(2017), highlights that the problems associated with gender inequality have
mostly afflicted Sub-Saharan States (SSS) countries wherein the work- force is
described as the list skilled in the world.

II . Describing the parameters or scope of the paper. These are explanatory remarks
laying out the extent to which the study intends to cover the subject matter at hand.

III.May also focus on describing major terms and concepts found on the
Topic (i.e., operational terms). The introduction should be precisely formulated
so as to capture the attention of the reader. Overall, aspects or issues to be dealt
with later on, can be mentioned here. Example:

Topic: Copying During Examinations at the University of Botswana

Introduction:

This study is going to argue that copying is prevalent at the University of

Botswana (UB) and that this mal-practice undermines the integrity of the
institution’s programmes of study. Particularly, the essay discusses the reasons
for and techniques used for copying. Further, it examines possible measures that
could be put in place to combat this discrepant practice.

The introduction, thus, assists to establishes a common ‘frame of reference’

between writer and reader regarding how the topic ought to be approached and
comprehended.

 Body (text)—Detailed exploration of the topic. That is, full and critical
description / discussion of ideas referred to in the title and restated in the first
sentence (i.e., thesis / topic statement). Overall, the main text is prepared heeding
the following;

i. Content should be split into several paragraphs.

 ii. Language—the choice of language is important for the efficient
description of a phenomenon under review. Generally, preference is given
to words phrases, sentences and longer expressions that are concise,
simple, as well as, regarded as common or being in general use. Secondly,
the passive form is preferred over active constructions. By virtue of being
impersonal (neutral), passive forms have the advantage of not overly
directing the actions of audiences.

Examples:

Active: Depress the clutch pedal and engage the next gear.

Passive: The clutch pedal is depressed and the next gear engaged.

The passive form is valued because it places emphasis on action being

described rather than on the agent / performer of the action. Related to
this point, the preferred tense should either be the simple present or
past.
iii. Technique of presenting content— A prominent
technique is to utilize a series of headings, corresponding to the main
topic or subject.

iv. Evidence / Facts—should be based on concrete research data as opposed

to personal opinions or assumptions That is, the researcher ought to
reinforce their propositions with ideas from renowned scholars in the
chosen subject. Thus, whilst the bulk of the writing comprises
of paraphrases, one should nonetheless, from time-to-time, inject
citations into the paper to give added weight to their own voice as
well as, guarding against plagiarism (i.e., academic dishonesty). In
summary, the ideas gathered from research could be presented as a
summary, synthesis, paraphrases, quotations, etc.

 Conclusion—The writer winds up or brings the discussion to a close. The

objective is to highlight the major points raised by a study. Conclusions are an
evaluation (assessment) of the main facts as were discussed in the text. The
evaluation should be free of the writer’s personal opinions. Where applicable,
recommendations should be offered. Recommendations are derived from the
conclusions and represent the suggested programme of action. Both conclusions
and recommendations should correspond with the main description of the
phenomenon being investigated, as was undertaken in the main discussion
section. As a result, this section should normally not advance new ideas. The
writer can also provide an overview of the issues for which no answers have been
found, in order to pave way for future research.
5. THE ART OF WRITING THE PAPER

As previously stated, the general requirement for writing a paper is to divide it into
three parts, namely, beginning, text and end. The major part of this task is the body
(text). Overall, a major precondition for writing a well-organized essay, is that the
actual writing process should be preceded by designing an outline (i.e., a skeleton for
writing the writing process). The actual essay writing enterprise is accomplished,
among others, by narrating facts in a detailed and impartial manner.

The pillars of an effective writing process are often listed as, accuracy, brevity, clarity,
simplicity and readability (cf, for example, Smith, 1999)

a. Accuracy—entailing correctness and completeness, as well as soundness of the

evaluation of material (inaccurate description leads to
misinterpretation and unsuitable reaction).
b. Clarity—unambiguous organization ensures adequate comprehension of the
message by the audience. An organized writing process is
characterized by a logical connection between major topics and sub-
topics that is easily discernible to the reader.

Factors for a logical connection—clarity is achieved through the

following factors:

 Clarity of the whole—is dependent on that of parts (i.e., paragraphs and

individual sentences).

 Unity within paragraphs—it is at the level of a paragraph that logical and

sequential development of ideas can be demonstrated. Well-written
paragraphs will lead into a well-written essay.

What is a paragraph?

It is a “unit of thought developed around a central idea”. A paragraph

consists of a series of related sentences, which develop the central idea. It
is the relatedness of these series of sentences to a main idea that makes the
paragraph a unit. The paragraph is not subjected to any fixed length.
Length is dependent on the subject matter, the availability of time and the
purpose of the writing.

Qualities of a good paragraph

Should have unity, coherence and adequate development:

 Unity means that the paragraph revolves around one main idea.
That is, the content is built around a central thought. The main
theme of a paragraph is indicated by a topic sentence (usually part
of the paragraph or is implied). Many other sentences conveying
 other ideas must bear directly on the topic sentence (extend /
develop central idea). Supporting sentences expand the main idea
by providing details, examples and illustrations.

 Coherence (of sentences)—proper arrangement and linking of all the

sentences in a paragraph so that there is obvious connection between them
and the flow from one idea to the next is smooth. Linking together
sentences in a logical and sequential manner facilitates effective reading
and comprehension, since the reader can see and understand how each
sentence relates to the previous one and to the main idea of the paragraph.
 Adequate development—implies developing each main idea in a
paragraph to give sufficient details that relate to the main idea of the text.
This means that a paragraph contains sufficient illustrations, that is.,
evidence and reasons to make the main idea very clear, comprehensible
and meaningful to the reader.

Example of a paragraph

As implied above, a paragraph is a group of sentences that develop one idea.

A paragraph consists of three main parts;

 Topic sentence—outlines the main idea that is to be elaborated by

the rest of the paragraphs.
 Supporting sentences—develop the topic (i.e., elucidates the topic
sentence in detail).
 Concluding sentence—summarizes the paragraph or adds a final
comment.

Example

Topic: Rationale for the growing use of bicycles in the city

Bicycles are nowadays popularly used in many countries for three

reasons. First, most of the people use bicycles to exercise. To
illustrate, in Botswana, several people think riding a bicycle is a
better way of keeping fit and staying healthy than other sports.
The other reason hinges on affordability. Generally, bicycles are
less expensive to procure and are quite cheap to repair. Finally,
they are suitable for city life. Many people prefer bicycles over
cars because with them one does not have to get stuck in traffic
congestion. In a nutshell, owning a bicycle is beneficial to people
for different reasons.

NB: Transition markers are commonly used in paragraphs as a way of achieving unity,
coherence and adequate development. For example:
 I. in listing points—firstly, then, lastly.
II. showing cause and effect—because, therefore, etc
III. illustrating ideas—for instance, for example, etc

In summary, clarity of a paragraph is determined by;

i. Unifying its content around central theme

ii. Coherence between successive ideas
iii. Choosing individual words precisely

Concise statements

compound nouns—a noun that is made up of two or more nouns joined together. For
example, ‘water-tower’ is a compound noun, where as ‘tall tower’ is not because ‘tall’ is
an adjective and thus serves as a qualifier. Compound nouns supply information in the
shortest or most concise way. Compound nouns occur frequently in scientific and
technical writing because they render the writing its brevity. Compare the length of these
two sentences:
a. A new water-tower is being built in the village
b. A new tower for storing water is being built in the village.

The more technical and specialized the subject becomes, the more frequent would the
possibility of using compound nouns. Scientific journals contains more compound nouns.
Other platforms that make frequent use of compound nouns include newspaper headlines
and scientific adverts.

For example, a shoe factory site announcement.

New low cost diesel engine transmission unit

Day and night weather observation station (Refer to Swales, J. 1971. Writing Scientific
English: p130)
a. Some are joined by a hyphen(-). However, no rule exists to explain the use of this
mark of punctuation. There also exist differences in the ways in which an
individual writer would tend to vary the use and non-use of hyphens with
compound nouns in the same piece of writing. Take, for example, the noun ‘text
book’, it could be written in three possible ways:
 Text book
 Text-book
 Textbook
The acceptable practice is for one to copy the form that they are
encountering in the text they are reading
b. The first half of a compound noun is never a plural
 e.g., a student hostel—a hostel for students. This is the case because the first noun
is in the place of an adjective and adjectives in English are never plural.
c. The relationship between two nouns forming the compound can take many
different forms:

e.g., a gas-jar—jar for containing gas

a gas mask—a mask giving protection against gas.
a gas-meter—a meter for measuring gas
a gas company—a company which supplies gas
gas fumes—fumes composed of gas
Three things to notice about compound nouns

Simplicity—choice of short and ordinary words conveys meaning easily and

more forcefully. Less technical words also weaken meaning.

Readability—Elements for readability are those that revitalize reader interest in a

piece of work, including accuracy, clarity, and simplicity. Another
important factor include variety in the style of presentation, such as
difference in the length and structure of sentences.

CITATIONS AND REFERENCES

Actual writing up of the paper involves paraphrasing the ideas gathered as part of the
research process. Occasionally though, it is a standard requirement to directly infuse
others’ ideas into the writing, so as to strengthen its credibility and / or quality of one’s
paraphrases. Whenever a writer directly incorporates an idea from a source into their
own writing, they should always make a point to distinguish between their own words
from those ideas borrowed verbatim from other sources. This point is made explicit in
the following words:

You must be very careful when you are writing an essay to make it clear
when the words or ideas that you are using are your own and when they
are taken from another writer ( Wallace, 1980:158 ).

A direct quote is thus a piece of text copied word-for-word from its source. The
writer may copy a word, phrase, sentence or entire passage. Failure to give credit to
others for having used their ideas may result in the writer being guilty of plagiarism (i.e.,
academic thieving / dishonesty). In academia, an ultimate penalty for plagiarism is
normally, the disqualification of the paper under review. In addition to preventing
plagiarism, the other function of a citation is to facilitate ease of access to the source from
which an idea or information was obtained, as well as enabling further research into the
idea. Possible sources of information are also numerous, including, books, chapters in
books, websites, newspapers, journals, manuals, software, interviews, correspondence,
archives, etc. There are also several methods of acknowledging or citing sources of
information. The essential point to bear in mind, however, is to adopt anyone of the
recommended methods and use it consistently throughout a specific document.

Overall, there exist two methods of acknowledging information that has been copied
word-for-word (verbatim) from its source, namely, quotation marks and indentation:

1. Quotation marks—“short quotations, “under 40 words, are included in the text

in single inverted commas”
(APA Guide: seventh Edition; Masters Course Student Handbook: University
of Southampton. 1990:13)

2. Indentation—“If the quote is 40 words or more, format it as a block quote”

(APA Guide: seventh Edition). Another source elaborates
“(…) words should be indented (approximately 13mm). No
quotation marks are required here, and the information is
typed in single spacing.”
(Masters Course Student Handbook: University of Southampton.
1990:13)

In each of the above cases, the particulars of the source should be provided in straight
text, as well as being enclosed in parenthesis.

An additional point to note is that in a situation in which one is quoting from an edited
material, the idea should be attributed to the specific contributor of the article and not the
editor(s).

TYPICAL ABBREVIATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH QUOTATIONS

The Latin words and abbreviations below are often used in conjunction with quotations
and footnotes. Although they should generally be utilized sparingly, there are occasions
in which using them becomes inevitable:

Ibid-- indicates that the quotation is from the same author and publication as the
one immediately preceding it, but is located on a different page. The page
number should be provided

Et al-- (and others) used to refer to authors especially in a case where they are more
than two co-authors. eg, Mitchel (et al) explain that….

Op. cit-- denotes that the source of a quotation is a publication that has been referred to
before. In other words, the quotation commands identical particulars as the one
immediately preceding it.
(Sic)—(‘Thus’ or “ So”). This is used when the writer is quoting from a source that
contains an error (eg, spelling, grammar, semantics, etc), in order to draw the
attention of the reader to the fact that the error in question is not the present
writer’s.

cf-- compare

BIBLIOGRAPHY / REFERENCES

This slot provides details of publications that were relied upon in writing up an essay. A
reference list is normally placed towards the end of the work, preferably on a fresh page.
Reference materials are listed down chronologically / alphabetically in terms of authors’
surnames or subject, whichever is applicable.

It is becoming common practice to include in the reference list only sources from which
the writer has directly copied some ideas. This claim is apparent from the assertion that
“a bibliography…includes only works actually referred to in the text” (Brusaw, C.T. et al.
1993: 69) and, “each work specifically cited in the body of the paper is organized here in
alphabetical order by the senior author’s surname”. (Handbook of Information for
Masters In Education Students, University of Botswana. 1993: 23). Books are usually
referenced differently from journals.

Examples

I. Books

Brumfit, C.J. 1984. General English Syllabus Design. Oxford. Pergamon Press.

II. Journals

Scinto, L.F.M. 1990. Business English: An International Survey. in

English for Specific purposes: The ESP Journal.
Vol. 9 / 1. pp8-22.

III. Dissertations and Theses

Nkosana, LBM. 2006.The Impact of curriculum and assessment reforms: The

case of BGCSE in Botswana. Unpublished PhD thesis. University of Melbourne.
REFERENCES

1. Brusaw, C.T. et al, 1993. Handbook of Technical Writing. New York. St Martin
Press.

2. Handbook of Information for Masters In Education Students, University of

Botswana. 1993. Gaborone.University Press.

3. Masters Course Student Handbook. University of Southampton.1990. Southampton.

University.

4. Seliger, H.W. & Shohamy, E. 1989. Second Language Research Methods. Oxford.

OUP .

5. The Concise Oxford Dictionary. 1987. Oxford. OUP.

6. Wallace. M.J.1980. Study Skills In English. London. John Murray.

7. Walsh, M. 2001. RESEARCH MADE REAL: A guide for students. Cheltenham.

Nelson Thornes.

Compiled by Tamucha H Mothudi (Dr)