Meaning () probability (B) Nonprobability Sampling Method: oO Mixed Sampling pus 7 Need for $ mpling ‘ fundamentals of Sampling ‘ principles of Sampling Aims of Sampling «Factors Influencing Decision to Sample + How Large Should a Sample Be? > Methods of Drawing Random Samples simple Random Sample stratified Random Sample (A) Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling (B) Disproportionate Stratified Random Sampling + Area (or Cluster) Sampling + Quota Sampling + Purposive or Judgemental Sampling + Accidental Sampling «Snowball Sampling + Saturation Sampling and Dense Sampling + Double Sampling * Mixed Sampling * Requisites of a Good Sampling Method * Common Advantages of Sampling Methods * Sampling Distribution Sampling Error ences, MEANING AND TYPES OF SAMPLING . nonexperimental—i" the pee bee sociology and education—draw 5 Neath '’ all researches—experimental wa basis of some select pant " eat in the fields of psychology, 3 8.2 well-specified and identifiable grouP on the so oe ane ellspecifi Cified and i eS dl iro ‘ns identifiable group ' know! 20 onc eralized con iple. The ge! oe ‘et ; Nu of perso, ‘ ;, my iT ns or objects is known as 2 54 Nas the statistical f Jation, therefore, " YO ys, all college ang statistical inferences. A POPU | teachers: ¢ be finite inn SPecifi es aE All primary sch0° vation may Uni sty ied group of individuals. All P popula i courted’ a infin’! inf udents, all housewives, etc., are tl he 15 Cal where ite 7 “a finite population is oneVy 366 Tests, Measurements and Research Methods in Bebavioural Sciences ited and therefore, its members cannot be counted ple ofa finite population and the population off tion because the former can be counted when Sth population is one whose size is unlimi population of university teachers is an exam| ina river is an example of an infinite populat latter cannot be counted. imaginative—a real population is one which Likewise, a population may be real or ii e a o e exists and an imaginative population Is one which exists only in the imaginay psychological and educational research, on many occasions, the population is imagi measure based upon the entire population is called a parameter. Asample is any number of persons selected to represent the population according to som rule or plan. Thus, a sample is a smaller representation of the population. A measure baseq ig asample is known asa statistic. - Before we define the different types of samples (or the methods of sampling), itis essential, define the tern ‘probability’, which is the base of sampling theory. The general meaning probability is less than certain and for which there exists some evidence. In sampling theory i, term ‘probability’ is used as equivalent to the relative frequency. Thus when we say that ih. probability of a tail on a single toss of a coin is V2, itis meant that when we make several tose, the relative frequency of a tail will be about 1/2 or 0.5. If one says that the probability of havin, of a male child is 0.8, it is meant that on previous occasions the relative frequency of the birth of a male child has been 0.8. Probability may be expressed in terms of a fraction or in decimal numbers. Following Blalock (1960), most sampling methods can be categorized into two— (A) Probability Sampling Methods (B) Nonprobability Sampling Methods Adiscussion of these two is given below. actual tion, Native. (A) Probability Sampling Methods Probability sampling methods are those that clearly specity the probability or likelihood of inclusion of each element or individual in the sample. Technically, the probability sampling methods must satisfy the conditions given below. (i) The size of the parent population or universe irom which the sample is to be taken, must be known to the investigator. (ii) Each element or individual in the population must have an equal chance of being included in a subsequent sample. (iii) The desired sample size must be clearly specified If, for example, a researcher knows that the population which he is going to study contains 500 elements, or individuals, and if he knows that all the elements (or individuals) are accessible and may be included in a subsequent sample, it can be said that each element (or individual) i the population has an equal chance, that is, 1/500 of a chance of being selected. This constitu the probability sampling method. In practice, however, sometimes researchers are not able (0 know for certainty that conditions (i) and (ii) will be satisfied. Sometimes the population studied so large as to be considered infinite and unknowable for all important and practical purposes: The positive point of the probability sampling method is that the obtained samples *° considered representative, and hence, the conclusions reached from such samples are wort generalization and are comparable to similar populations to which they belong. Be a eprint peer ernte ss error refers to the degree to watich ihe oe stefan of the entire population. ris the parent Bopulation Th 1e sample characteristics approximate the character! . The smaller the sample, the greater the sampling error. 2major probability sampling meth tre mpl random sampling t stratified random sampling s ‘a) Proportionate stratified random (b) Disproportionate Stratified rand, 3. Area or cluster sampling Nonprobability Sampling Methods 6) robability sampling is one method in which there vofement or group of elements of the Population bein the > ‘ay of ASsessing the i : probability ¢ te robability sampling methods are those that provide no bas a amp le mater ny haracteristics of a samp! Fe oereimate the Parameters of the Populatic ‘tome he ey d 4 been obtained. This is because Nonprobability Samples do, the ot Mich the ve otng: Important techniques of Nonprobability s, : n't Use the , ampling methods are: "echniques of rander 1. Quota sampling 2. Accidental sampling 3. Judgemental or purposive sampling 4. Snowball sampling 5. Saturation sampling 6. Dense sampling (C) Mixed Sampling © Systematic sampling Ods are the Sampling ap following WO 36 Sampling lom Sampling 'S No way tly the Figure 14.1 presents the details of Classification of sampling. — [ Probability samp ing 4 Nonprobability sampling Mixed sampling TJ = pote ness | Simple randan> re —- ‘Systematic sampling Simple random Stratified random Cluster Eee __ Sampling |___ sampling sampling | ——— T | Posorionaie stated | Quota ee —__sampling | sampling | Sorted oo Oo sampling Disproportionate sirath [Asckdantal |_| — ied) Perera " i L__sampling J" 1! sampling | ——_ tal Saturation | woo | LT Sine | purposive = sampling s of sampling Fig. 14.1: Details of types of samp! NEED " Fi mentioned be Samp OR SAMPLING « aportant reasons are me ee np i is Needed for a variety of reasons Some atthe based of samp aie ) Samp i: . b study aoe nased upor o xd =Mplin ‘ A researc dy based ned an . Saves s money. : a study ual ; = time as well a 5 expenditure than conducted by eli ti) 4 €sser time and incurs les : generally aasurement & & "esearch Study based upon sampling 's accuracy in mes Perien, 2 a fl ides 'Nvestigators, As such, it provi368 Tests, Measurements and Research Methods in peharioural Scuences so needed because It enables the researc her to estimate the sare, nformation regarding some character ee i) Sampling is al it helps in getting " and that way, population. (iv) Sampling is needed because it remains the only way when 2 population contains infinitely many members. 7 (y) Sampling helps in making correct and which generalization 1s to be made after scientific judgement about the pop the completion of the study. _ FUNDAMENTALS OF SAMPLING lamental concepts related to sampling that need to be explaincs « There are some fund important fundamental concepts are universe/population, sampling frame. sampling 4. sampling error, sampling distribution, statistic(s) and parameters), confidence interyas significance level. The meaning of universe/population, samp ng error and sampling dist ‘elsewhere in this chapter. Consequently, we shall discuss the hea . ' pon sample, whereas parameter is the numerica) opulation. For example, when we calculate mean from a sample, this is ca describes the characteristics of a sample When the same mean is calcul meter because it describes the characteristics of populatio . he estimate of a parameter from a statistic. (1) Statistic(s) and Parameter(s) 5 a numerical value based u A statist based upon p' statistic because it from population, it is cal led para’ sampling analysis aims to obtain t! (2) Sampling frame The elementary units form the units, A list containing 2) such sampling unit said that the sampling frame consists of a list of items trom which sampling isto be finally dra In some cases, it becomes impossible to draw a sample directly trom a population. As such frame is constructed by the researchers for the purpose of the study or it may Consist of som existing list of population. For example, the researcher can use 3 telephone directory as a ftane for conducting an opinion survey Ina particular town. such units are called samplisz basis of the sampling process and frame. |n other words, it can te s is called a sampling (3) Confidence interval and Significance level expected percentag' nits. For example, it we 95 chances in 100 th a specified precision range again ates the likehood that the answer w | fall within te level that indicates the li ehood ths 5% then the significance level's —99, thal of times stipulat ng that the actual value ke a confidence interval of 95%, ther the sample results present the te st 5 chances in 100th! The confidence interval is the fall within the stated precision lin obviously, it means that there are characteristics of the population wit it does not. Thus confidence interval indic precision range. Significance level, on the other hand, is the I fall outside that range. If the confidence level is9 the answer wi 100 - 95 = 5% or .05 and if the confidence level is 99%, the significance level is 1 00 . a 1%. It would not be out of place to mention here that the area of the normal curve #1 precision limits for the specified confidence level constitutes the acceptance region, and the are? of curve outside these limits in either direction constitutes the rejection regions. (4) Sampling design Bya sampling design, we mean a plan for obtaining a sample from the sampling frame- In ote! words, it refers to the procedure the researcher would adopt in selectin jing ign must possess from which inferences about the population is drawn. A good sampling desi following characteristics:the sample design must provit ation. Provide a sample which Se led SN would be the tr vm ¥ le desir should be such that it may result i Tue repres ig must allow for controlling s Min small sampli design must be usable in light of oes bias in the om must be such that the ar oe betes | of the sam Tesearch iple stud) popul e Native Of the study, (wy) The sample design general for the population with a reasonable confi qhere are two broad types of sample designs: ae level Tense canning THO wa rps iscussed in detail later oni ae sampling and. sonprobab | : lity CIPLES OF SAMPLING There are three principles srsampling that guide the theory of sampl ing. These princi iples are asunder: In most €4 arame| there will be difference be tween sam istic reputable to the selection of unl ESSE aniiehme ple, ses of sampling, take an example. Suppose there are five ter and this is atl better way, let us populate” 1 Jo explain this principle ina individuals and you know their age- Individuals Age (in years) A 20 B 22 i 19 D 20 E = 44 Total = 105 105_, Mean age 5 2iyears Now let us SuPPO** jurther that you want to select 4 sample of two persons for making an estimate of the mes? ape of these IVE persons (population ear orparamerer mean yous! the theory of probability there can be 10 possible ¢ ombinations of 10" 'AB, AC, AD, AE, BC, BD. BE, CD, CE and DE. No’ jet us calculate the average (OF mean) age of each of these pais. Difference between sample mean and population mean 1 A+B =20422 = 4222! 0 2. A+C=20419 39 2=19.5 As 5 As D=20+20=402=20 -l 4. A+E=20+24= 442 1 5 BeCa22+19 = 412 = 205 0.5 6, B+D=22+20 = 42/2 =21 0 BBE 2 3. x 9 C+D=19+20 = 39/2 =195 - C+ b= 19424 = 43/2 =215 0.5 2? 1 10. D+E=20+ 24 = 44/2” 370 Tests, Measurements and Research Methods in Bebavioural Sciences Now look at the average ages calculated on the basis of the sample of If you make comparison of these averages with mean ot average tv f Of the jon mean, that is, 21 years), you will find that only in Case of (sample statistics). individuals (popula combinations, that is, AB and BD, there is no difference between the mean of th © samy le mean of the population. In case of remaining eight combinations, there j difference is known as sampling error whose size varies markedly. This anal S differen the first principle of sampling stated above. YSIS we 2. The second principle is that the greater the size of sample, the mare acc estimate of the population value or parameter. Uae Will beg This principle of sampling obviously relates the size of the sample with th estimate af the population mean. To illustrate this principle, let us carry the above.) Hate ow let ut take a bigger size of sample, that is, of three individuals in plact’=" individuals and see what happens. There can be seven possible combination? of ty, individuals, out of a population of five individuals. Hons oft! wy Difference between sample mean and population mean 1. A+B 4 C=20422+19 =61/3 = 203 -0.7 2. A+B+D=20+22 +20 =62/3 =206 0.4 3. A+ B+E=20+22+24 = 66/3 =22 1 4, B+ C+ D=224+19+20=61/3 =203 -0.7 5. B+D +E =22 420+ 24 = 66/3 =22 1 6. B+ C+ E=22+19+24 = 65/3 =216 0.6 0 7. C+D 4+E=19420+24 = 63/3 =21 Now, make a comparison uf the differences when the sample size was of two individualst the differences when the sample size is of three individuals. Difference between sample mea and population mean in case of sample size of two individual lies in between 0.5 to 2.00 whete in case of the sample size of three, it is clear that with enhancement in sample size, the sampling error is reduced and accuracy c estimate to population mean i enhanced. 3. The third principle is that the gre population for a given sample size, the greater the difference between sample satistics and true population parameter. This principle clearly states that when the population is heterogeneous or markedly vars with respect to the variable under study, there w be the difference between sample statst and population true value. Let us take an example to lustrate this. Suppose we know that of te five individuals, the age of A is 20 years, that of B is 30 years, that of Cis 25 years, that of Dis years and that of Eis 45 years. Then the average age of these tive individuals who markedly dite in terms of age will be ater the difference in the variable under study ina will be the sampling error, that is, greater willl Individuals Age (in years) A 20 years 30 years 25 years 40 years 45 years Total = 160 years moos 160 Mean age = = 32 years- take a sample of two individuals, their mean age and d age and difference we pation mean (32 years) will be as under por" Ditterences between sample scanvitin ii mean and population mean 1 Ae B= 204 50/2 = 25 7 5 At C 220425 = 45/2 = 22.5 95 3 A+D=204 40 = 60/2 = 30 2 - 4 Aa b= 20445 = 65/2 = 32.5 0. 5, B+C=30425 55/2 = 27.5 4 6, B+ D=30+4 40 = 70/2 = 35 3 > B+ E=304 45 =75/2 =375 55 55 C+D =25 + 40 = 65/2 = 32.5 05 9, C+ E=25+ 45 = 70/2 =35 3 10, D+ E= 40445 = 85/2 = 42.5 10.5 {you look at the difference, it varies from 0.5 to 10.5, thus producing a bigger sampling cmoy, This happens because of the fact thai the individuals inthe population differ markedly in ams of variable under study, that is, age. When they were more or less of the same age, as we ter st principle, the range of difference was in between 0.5 to 2.00 only find in the example of the thus showing a lower degree of sampling error. AIMS OF SAMPLING There are certain aims in selecting a sample. These aims are: To achieve maximum precision in estimating about population values within a given sample size To avoid selecting a sample that bias in selecting a sample occurs in the following ituations is, when sampling is influenced by The common observation is (a) When sampling is done by nonrandom method, that i human choice, the bias occurs. (b) When a section of population r (¢) When the sampling frame does not cover the whole population efused to cooperate or somehow is not available FACTORS INFLUENCING DECISION TO SAMPLE Any behavioural researcher takes some decision regarding formulating the research design. His decision to sample is influen 1. Size of the population 2. Cost involved in obtaining the elements 3, Convenience and accessibility of the elements These three may be discussed as follows: the sampling plan at the time of ced by at least three factors: 1. Size of the Population ion. lf the population is small in his yy influenced by the size of the popu f 300 individuals, the nvestigator May decide to include al study and, therefore, sampling may not be done. On the other hand, if the size of the population is large, say, it consists of 10,000 individuals, he may decide to select a limited number of individuals from the population of 10,000 individuals. Obviously, then it can be said that as the Population of elements (or individuals) becomes larger, sampling becomes increasingly very Decision to sample is directh say, for example, it consists 0!Behavioural Sclence 72 Tete Mevterrements and Reconreh Methods ant. Hi may also be mentioned here that the size af the population is 4 Telative r, . Ng her may regard alter ab vestigator regards as a large population, the ot! ay regard it as a cena) one iny v on A Jear-cut guidance exists for making dist n between large population anc gm, ast Involved in Obtaining the Elements The investigator is also influenced by the cost likely to be incurred in obtaining the we iN a the population. If sampling involves a bigger cost which investigator can’t meer » dee to sample may be postponed. On the other hand, if sampling involves 4 COs! he investigator can readily meet, the sampling work is greatly facilitated 3, Convenience and Accessibility of the Elements The decision to sample is also influenced by the convenience and accessibility OF the eer, Sometimes the investigator may have to deal with a problem with respect to wh ny, Ch the Cheeta, may not be conveniently available. For example, if the problem deals with investiga causes of premarital sex relationship among college girls, the investigator rm, d 2Y TEA fine convenient to trace out such girls who could readily tell about their affairs OpENY. In sues sampling may be faulty. On the other hand, some investigators may have access to far is ay staff where a large amount of data could be easily handled, These investigators dare Samples, in those cases where the resulting data are complicated and complex, Obviously, the decision to sample effectively is influenced by the size of th anticipated cost of the study and the convenience and accessibi ity associated ee © POpulation « With the Clemens HOW LARGE SHOULD A SAMPLE BE? Itis often asked by student, “how large the size of sample be in my study?” The best answer 't depends upon many factors, In fact, a 800d researcher's decision about the best sample depends upon three factors. (a) Degree of accuracy required (b) Degree of varial se ity in the population (c) Number of different variables examined simultaneously in data analysis Other things being equal, the researcher needs larger samples if he wants higher degrees accuracy, if the population has a great deal of heterogeneity or if he wants to ‘examine may variables in the data analysis simultaneously. Smaller samples are considered good when is acceptable, when the population homogeneous or when the researcher wants: few variables only to be examined at a time. In general, the best principle of determining sme size is that if the population is small, a bigger sampling ratio has to be for an accurate sane Larger sample permits smaller sampling ratios for equally good samples because a % Population size grows, the returns in accuracy for sample size shrink. Let us take an example § small populations (under 1,000), a researcher Must have a larger sampling ratio (that s, abou! least 30%). ut 300 is required for a high degree of accurae. moderately large populations (10, a sampling ratio of about 10 per cent is needed & i . For larger populations, = aL is, T per cent may yield equally accurate results e are, however, approximate sizes and practical limitabo® eC, also play a role in taking a decision by the researcher. Till the second decade of the 20th Century, statisticians believed that samples shoulde 8 £2 atthe normal probability table could be easily wet imate sampling exror eee by Central fimit theorem. However, the ‘esearch work of Sealy Gosset in 1915 clearly OS® data on the probability distribution at small sample means (Student's t distribution) that ed 160,000) a smaller sampling ratio, th sample of 1600 can be accurate Thes such as cost, time,Sampling 373 neral, samples of 30 are usually considered large sarnples ed small samples. At sample size of 40, the vom rode of all samples come nearer to the Z critical values of the nornal eo babil a _ Samples that are larger than necessary may also produce probl : a well as administrative and logistic problem. da tervals and Confidence Limits nferential statistics 15 the estimation of parameters of population _ Traditionally, this has been very important in survey amples. In g€ are consider he One statistics calculated np radi yt from h but in recent years, it is also becoming impor y tin experimental research and can even e 38 an alternative approach to hypothesis testing. In fact, this problem involves two serve 25 problem (a) Point estimation (b) Interval estimation we researchers parameters using single sample value, these estimates are Thus in point estimation, a single sample value drawn from a t estimates. des an estirnate of the population parameter. The question is: how good such an that if the population mean is known to be 80, would a sample mean of 60 of 50, 75, 100, 105, etc? Under what ‘onstitute 4 good estimate? What about sample mean conditions do we consider an estimate good? Since the researcher knows that population grameters are virtually never known and that we generally use samples to estimate these parameters is there any means to determine the amount of error the researcher is likely to make? A way to get at this question is to put another related que: : how much do means from 2 distribution of means vary? Une indication of such variation is to compute the standard deviation of the distribution of means. Like any standard deviation, how much scores (here sample means) in the distribution typically vary. Since the interest of the researcher is in making an estimate of the population mean, any variation can be easily taken as an error. The researcher can also estimate the range of possible values that he confidently believes includes the population parameter. In other words, we can also estimate the range of possible means that are likely to include the population mean. This is known as interval estimation. Social scientists generally preter interval estimates over point estimates. Let us illustrate the meaning of interval estimation with the help of day-to-day example. Suppose you are forced to guess the weight of aman based on physical inspection. Since you don’t know the population value (the man’s true weight), you are likely to base your impression on his close physical inspection. You may say that the man weighs 60 kg. If you are asked, “How confident you are that he weighs exactly 60 kg?”, you would probably reply, “! doubt that he weighs exactly 60 kg. However, lieel nt that he weighs between 55 kg to 65 kg.” In fact, in doing this, you have e man in terms of interv known aS point pulation provi estimate is? Suppose reasonably contidet estimated the weight of thi opened here is that the greater the size of the inte ris! hypothests ‘ encompassed between these limits. The interval within wl enable is called as confidence interval and limits defining the interval are rerer as coniidence limits. estimating let us look at a sample problem and apply our statistical concepts to the interval Now in ar confidence levels. Suppose mean of asample is 120 with standard error of mean 6. 34:1 prob a situation if the researcher randomly takes a mean from this distribution, there isa probability that mean will be between 120 and 126 (one standard error above 120). This dard error is ! standard hapy pens | deat ie the distribution of means is a normal curve, stan on that curve and we know that 34% of a normal curve is between mean and | that another 34% standard devi lev iation above the mean. Likewise, the researcher could also reason al between 55 kg to 65 kg. One important point rval, the greater is the feeling of certainty that hich we consider the red to374 Tests, Measurements and Research Methods in Behavioural Sciences standard error below 120). Putting these two logethe the should be between 120 and 114 (1 that he is 68% confident to include population i, rcher has a range of 114 to | 26 nth reseal sample was randomly taken from this population. We call it 68% confidence interya| upper confidence limit here is 126 and the lower confidence limit is 114. Normally, how. and the ants to be more than 68% confident about the estimates. The standard nace the leg j researcher W: use 95% or even 99% as confidence intervals. For the 95% confidence interval, the re. Sto al curve on each side between mean and z-score that includes 47 Seach normal curve table clearly shows this to be at 1.96z. In terms of z-scores, the 95% co, cy The interval is from -1.96 to +1.96 on distribution of means. If we change these z-scores to online inthe above example, the lower limit would be (~1.96)(6) + 120 = 11.76 + 120 108.24 Score upper limit would be (1 96)(6) + 120 = 11.76 + 120 = 131.76. This shows that the true po me UP forthe given sample isbetween 108.24 and 131.76. Likewise for 99% confidenc Paulaton the researcher uses the z- score for the middle 99% of the normal curve. This comes to bes sv Changing this to raw scores, the 99% confidence interval will be from 104.64 to 135,36, %5 METHODS OF DRAWING RANDOM SAMPLES ts in sampling, particularly, probability sampling (Peatma 1947). Randomness means that all elements in a given population have an equal a independent chance of being included in the sample. There are several methods through whic the investigator maintains randomness in his sampling plans. Some of these methods are given below. 1, Fishbowl Draw Method 2. Using Table of Random Numbers 3. Method of Computer-determined Randomness discussion on these methods is given below. wants an area in norm Randomness is one of the vital poin 1. Fishbow! Draw Method This is a very simple method through which the randomly. In this method the entire elements ( individuals) of the population are numbered on slips of paper of equal size, colour, ete. Allthese slips are folded in one d the same way and ate put in a container or bowl. After mixing the slips thoroughly, the investigator, in a blindfolded elements from the population can be selected the desired sample size is obtained. position, selects one number at a time t Although this method is very simple for random s ) This method can’t be applied where the population is large. It would bea cumbersome and tedious task to number each element of a population of, say, fifteen thousand cases, Moreover, mixing them in the « wl will also pose a big problem. a) This mete of random selection is too simple a method to be considered as a scientific one. Here the , e. Here the investigator may select some numbers of slips irom the bowl while purposelUl'y excluding the others. ction of samples, it has some limitations. ainer 2. Using the Table of Random Numbers. For random sampling the use ot the table of random numbers is considered appropriate, easy numbers which don’t appear i numbers consists of a continuous row-column sequence a eal ine nv ape ; any particular sequence, nor does any number appea" ya frequent than the cer on. Fr using thetable of random numbers the researcher species number of elements in then pu son and then, numbers them from 1 to N where Nis the Of GAA 50 cases andor eee te eee poli size i of 500, and he intends” sl 50 ass randomly om this population. He would enter the table a any poi ues y to the right, left, up, down or diagonally, skipping the numbers that aret@?those that have already been drawn. (This | Id thus keep on moving systematically — eee den DURA the table an als Oe wou ia onal dom sample of 50 elements. 12 meet an y,arandom selection of 30 cases from a population ¢ in ne jiustrated- twelve numbers have been omitted. Numbers at. Numbered fron ores een pecause they exc eed 80 and numbers 03, 74 and 12 h, 3 85, B4, 97 and 95 have pee” mitt on slicated the previous selections. Number 00 has eee been omitted bers e f, - en omitte a he aon Sumber starts from 01 Omitted because popu qable 14.1 Table of random numbers and its illustrati ive use ee 83885 84122 25920 17696 — 6475 10302 52289 77436 34430 38172 oi? 98495 o1s0e 50374 66591 goo'2 55605 88410 34879 79655 sample (N = 30 has been ta ken from a serially numbered population of 80) 64 23 28 R 85 55 5 20 97 71 03 60 58 17 74 01 74 38 69 36 79 66 85 61 34 84 59 84 03 43 95 16 12 02 03 51 00 22 52 81 30 12 umbers is that it is easily accessible to the t. However, the disadvantage is that it can’t population exceeds 5 digits. . The advantage of using the table of random ni ores and requires no formal training in using i sily and constructively used when the size of the 3. Meth f lethod of Computer-determined Randomness. This method obtain a cate used when the size of the population is la! investigators ar number of elements corresponding to t Ofthese th, fe that this method is easier to adopt when computer ree e methods, the use of the table of random numbers is more popular for Fandoy ness in the m the electii ethod of selecting a sample. the computer to ge. The data is fed in population The he elements in the facilities are available ensuring SIMP| Sings RANDOM SAMPLE Dihich ondOm s. : 7 ample (also known as an unrestricted random sample) may be defined as one ion has an equal chance of being included 1" selection of thee, reac Sample sngnd every individual of the populat Bade individual te selection of one individua on separ isting of 40 example, if we are to select a sample Svbsequat® Slips of students, we can write the name (or roll number) 0! ntly, they tet al equal in size and colour—and fold the ay be placed in a box and reshuffled thoroughly. A blindtolded penn is in no way dependent upon the of 10 students rom the seventh ach of the 40 students m in a similar was ~SpO 'Y 376 Tests, Measurements and research Methods in Behavioural Sciences ked to the probability of each slip being Select; ree ig the slip and noting the name vty oxi slip, he again nay it the box. In this case, the probability of the second slip being se! eee again 1/40. But ithe areturn the first sip to the box, the probability of the secon slip becomes 1/39, yp, element of the population is returned to the population pai ing selected, Tis calleq Say a with replacement and when it is not returned, it is calle sampling without replac ema Sampling with replacement 's wholly feasible except in certain situations where it is Seldom y 7 (Cochran, 1963, 19). If sampling with replacement is used, the chance of the same case i selected more than once is increased. In such a situation, the repeated cases may be ignore ing done if a table of random numbers is used in making a selection of cases. Thus random ssi i may be defined as one in which all possible combinations cof samples of fixed size have an aa probability of being selected. ; The major difference between sampling with replacement and sampling replacement is mai ly concerned with the number of possible samples of size n that COU be theoretically drawn. In the case of sampling with replacement, the number of possible samples) size n would be greater than the number of possible samples of the same size (from same population) in case of sampling without replacement. This difference can be illustrated through an example. Suppose the size of the population consists of 4 person who are named as 4,8, ¢ and D. Further, suppose that the investigator wants to select samples of size 2 through the procedure of sampling without replacement. In such a situation, the investigator can maximal draw six samples of size 2 from the population of 4. This could be accomp shed with the hep g the following equation: ick up one slip. Here, 4) thou (N ) _ (a) (N ms where, N=the size of parent population n=the size of the sample = factorial In the above example where N= 4 mum number of sample size a2 would be 6 as under: 4 Ax3x2x1_ 24 t ‘ 2xIa2xl 4 ) samples of size 2 as shown: 5 5! 120 2° (5-2)12! But from the same population, we can have 5 samples ot size 4 as under: 5__ 5! _5x4x3x2x1_ 120, 4° (5-44! Ix4x3x2x1 24 sampling wih replacement, he can derive the likely numb i ih then ofthe following equation er of samples from the given population w! rc (142) (where mea f “e meaning of Nand nis identical to the meaning in the case of Equation 14.1) rm i pose the size of the population is 4 and the size of the sample is 2. In sucha situation’ investig, i 16 igator, following the technique of sampling with replacement, can maximal y draw >is, 4 = 4x4 =16.If th les, that 15, 2 le four m omoen samples of size 2 would be embers of Population “rata a ri a ' AA AB Tenamed as A, 8 ¢ BA Bi AC mang AD, CA cB 7 aD DA De a oo he case of AA, BB, CC and DD « % Cc ' rene ‘an element or individual o Combinations reflects th ee replee 1 nce drawn can be drawn ., fact that in . cases are ignore’ drawn again. in actual nth There are a sdvantages and disadvantages of si Practice, such aavantages of simple rancom) sampling are given ahead ple random sampling. The . major 1. Asample prepared on the basis of simpl . i. le I native of the population from which it ple random sampling plan is P was drawn, This i eparded as thi ‘Il the elements in the population have an equal i 8 because in such a sampling ded in the sample. A sample drawn in such a way that ane independent chance of being elements t0 be included in the population, rather increases oF de Ensiife esual chan for ai element being included, the resultant sample is called a biased sample. the Welbog ofan 2, Insimple random sampling, the investigator h , r need ulation beforehand. Such a sample theoretically valeos al ate rents tthe population. important characteristics and 3. With a view to understanding and applicati i plication, simple randor and simplest technique of all probability sampling plans. mn sampling the eases 4, Simple random sampling serves as a foundation upon which all other types of random sampling are based because this method of sampling can be readily applied in conjunction with allother probability sampling plans. 5. Insimple random sampling, the sampling, can easily be assessed. 6. In simple random sampling, the investigator does not commit classification errors because he need not know thoroughly the population characteristics prior 10 selection of the sample. Classification error means the error which results from the improper classification of population characteristics or segments. However, simple random sampling has also some disac i 1. One of the major disadvantages '6 that simple ranco tes elements which exist in small numbers 1? the populati Mple. This is a very serious limitation. Suppose, in a popu! Persons pos: i js to draw only 5 Sess » investigator is to ara) Fb the X trait and the invests; ing the trait X in his s an, inclu error associated with any given sample drawn Jvantages as given below. dom sampling does not ensure that ion will be included in the given lation of 1,000 people, only 12 0 cases from 1 000 people. I the ample, chances are very iny dng Wants to include some persons possess! fat such persons would be drawn. 1g is that it does not fully exploit the tno Another disadvantage of simple random sampling a opulation Su pn es ledge the investigator has concerning the Be ies and females SES sind me the investigator knows the proportion “i ra ns. eons dawin tion of duates, propor?” mation wT" if juates, P i = Se a ae te can't utilize these moe ing draw is great , etc., Y ~ ay the $2! size nis Be * This mars the quality of representatives . ro ing evror of 2550 reer ape oe \ «og the sam ‘ ified 11 n the & cy. Inthe case of simple random sampling he case of 4 stale is ate il ret jo! « m| incurre’ of aran , the sa! e to some omy a Se spe with the sampling error iNCUTE case 2. This is because the heteroZenclY IM ried OM My Ie le se its more nt beg he case of a stratified random ae . jatio! es Somewhat typical of the popurhods in Bebarioural Si sts and Resear? 378 esis. Measurem ct is ignored in simple rando, lation, This fact is ignores samp known characteristics of the pop —_ g erfor increases. thesanpling er tations, simple random sampling has been preferentially yg Despite i ferent experimental conditions inp. h " f elements randomly to s Psycholo, assignment of ere ing anon sample for genctalizng the obtained fini 8 experiments as STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLE 4 In stratified random sampling the population is, Wie aes pee ae more strats, which my bye based upon a single criterion such as sex, yielding Female, or yon! eo aee ction of two of mote criteria such as sex and graduation, yielding four strata, Pately male undergraduates, male graduates, female undergraduates and female graduates, These divided” populations are called subpopulations, which are nonoverlapping. and togane constitute the whole population. Having di ided the population into two or more strata, which are considered to be homogeneous internally, a simple random sample for the desired number taken from each population stratum. Thus in stratified random sampling, the stratiticaon oy population is the first requirement. There can be many reasons for stratification in a populaten. Two of them are mentioned below. 1. Stratification tends to increase the precision in estimating the attributes of the vhole population. if the whole population is divided into several internally homogeneous units, te chances of variations in the measurements from one unit to another are almost nil, In such a situation a precise estimate can be made for each unit and by combining all these estimates, ve can make a still more precise estimate regarding the population. 2. Stratification gives some convenience in sampling. When the population is divided ino several units, 2 person or group of persons may be deputed to supervise the sampling survey in each unit. Or, the possibilty is that the institution conducting the sampling survey may have flé branches to supervise the survey in each part or unit of the population. Stratified random sampling is of two types. (A) Proportionate stratified random sampling (8) Disproportionate stratified random sampling A discussion of these two types of sampling plans is given below. (A) Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling AAS its name implies, in this sampling plan the researcher stratifies the population according to the known characteristics of the population and, subsequently, randomly draws te individuals in a similar proportion from each stratum of the population. Suppose, the investiga kos the CMTION O'E Popular than of probability ca ane’ juste mpling MING experiments PliNg. Such samp cl nerally, geographical divisions of te pare made on a Map and a certain number or tigator or interviewer proceeds to i That is the reason why this method of sy 1 r ,, states, 7 ali ole. The inves sar or clusters. investigator wants tO a8se5s the attitude of the people of Tan POM ng, For this, it will be convenient forthe investigatortohavenaenn Nee Ovards amily Pan then divide it into various sections according to. ya? Tamil Nad, fim rincsdrasin across th-ftal area, He vil then numbereact ai he total number of sections. With the help ofthe tablet a Mec! mine of sections to consitae the semple that he wl ee da 3 el then interview all persons or members of families ing ath Se The ine rion contains extremely different types of families, again, a randow es an jo ose ales can be done and finally iterviowed nis way, aeorig geo 2ther apdivision and selection of samples can be done at difetent stages thi « called rul-stage sampling: Asgiven hereunder, area sampling has many research utilities or applications, 9 vertical and ction from 110 N, porzontal ‘Om numbers, he will peing equal 0! {Large-scale surveys of politcal, religious and social behaviour ae easly conduc by area sampling (id Where somehow lists of specific individuals are unobtainable or ae inaccessible, aa sampling becomes the best method of sampling {i) Public opinion polls are easily and smoothly conducted using aea sampling Area sampling has some advantages and disadvantages. The important advantages ave given below. 1. When larger geographical areas are to be covered, its easier to use area sampling than ary other method of probability sampling. It is easier in the sense thatthe investigator need not have the list of the individuals inhabiting a given area. He simply draws some geographical Scions randomly; and. subsequently, he interviews all the families or persons living in the ty y : fatomly drawn sections. in this sense, area sampling is easier than the ates two paces thods of probability sampling 4 5 if ants within ise Se sampling, respondents can readily be substituted for other respondents wit Fandom section. This is permitted because clusters of elements ate sampled al beindividuals, . This is permitted because clusters of ele Area t r| 1 te fry eth inne specif in Saves both time and money. The investigator ean concent ise 1 fe8i0n and, thus, can save time, The cost of such sampting # mel) Wes “PARES 10 the ie i atigator need Nal HIT er methods of probability sampling, The investigator neednis and Research Methods Behavioural Sciences iduals residing at random points in a certain Reopen, OR hic it of flexibility. | 4. area (or clustet) sampling possesses the rd ity. In 2 multi-stage area, ean successully employ different forms of sampling in seyora gS stages. For example, afer drawing sever sections andl i the firs stage, the Sage may decide to stratify each of the firststag select sections rom some < vraratitute the second-stage units: The investigator may use 2 third type of sampling pte? third or fourth stage. a 5. Still another advantage ‘of area sampling is that the respondents can ye, substituted for other respondents within the same random section. This further inet & degree of flexibility inthe area sampling 355, Area sampling has some disadvantages too. The important disadvantages ate given bel 1. Inarea sampling, the degree of sampling err is usually high. This makes thes oy, much less fruitful or dependable in comparison to ocher methods of probability sampling: 2. Inarea sampling, there is no correct way to ensure that each sampling uni included anarea sample will be of equal size. In fact, here the researcher has little control over the sie. ‘each cluster. This introduces bias into the samples. ae 3, Inarea sampling, itis also difficult to ensure that the individuals included in one clu are independent of other randomly drawn clusters. It may be that an individual - one cluster and next morning he travels to another area that f selected sectic terviewed jp, Is within another random) Despite these disadvantages, area sampling is a common and popular method ofsamping in behavioural researches. QUOTA SAMPLING is one of the important types of nonprobability sampling methods which's apparently similar to stratified random sampling, In quota sampling the investigator recognss the different strata of population and from each stratum, he selects the number of individuds arbitrarily, This constitutes the quota sample Suppose the investigator knows that the population of the individuals he is going to study three strata in terms of SES (socio-economic statuss)—high, middle and low. Further, suppose knows that there are 1,000 people in high SES, 7,000 people in middle SES and 2,000 peosle's lower SES. Thus, the population consists of 10,C00 individuals. If he wants to select 1,000 individuals and, finally, selects 100 individuals from high SES, 700 from middle SES and 200" lower SES, according to his convenience (and not randomly), this constitutes quota sample. It is obvious that there is similarity between quota sampling and proportionate sa random sampling withthe only difference that in the former the final selection of individu * not random, whereas in the latter the final selection of individuals is random. Keeping in vie this similarity, quota sampling is sometimes reterred to as ‘the poor man’s proportionate strated sample’, because such sampling seeks to ensure that specific elements are included and represented in subsequent collection of them Quota sampling has some advantages and disadvantages. The major advantages of 2 sample are stated below. 1 dete Quola samples are the most satisfactory means when quick and crude re a Th oi is method of sampling is convenient and less costly than many other eto! sampling. whether probability or nonprobal Quota sampling, to 2 greater extent, cap ie ve strata of POPU! lation. e ane jowevels 1, Inquol salt (ejity or generalizability ent pling, the investigat in quota sam ig8tOrs oF Interviewers pet esse individuals nfluencing their frends and ela” GPPoRUY see the wii duals may not be typical of the population they are going to sua Such readily accessible 7 ota sampling is amenable to classifica ' ee bases his asifiaton of respondents on the St Hee the inner rte he possesses NO knowledge concerning the way respon foc He Porrremains ignorant of many important variables wet ein ll these tend to make quota sampling se In quota sampling, the researcher, to a greater extent, ce, ete but he can't control ether variables that may on se ce, This mats the dependability of quota sampling, Hpepite these limitations, quota sampling i a popular mahod ‘ seta sampling, because enables te acer ned Soman research plan purPOSIVE OR JUDGEMENTAL SAMPLING purposive sample, a Kind of nonprobabilty samp ves 10 be included in the sample. The investigator has some belie thatthe sample being handpicked is typical of the population or is a very good representative of the population. A purposive sample i also known as judgemental samele because the vexgtr on thebssa fis impression makes a judgement regarding the concert cass, which ae thought to be typical of the population, For studying attitudes towerds any vaional sue a sale o jpumalists, teachers and legislators may be taken as ar example of pposve samples because they can more reasonably be expected to represert the corect atiude than other classes of persons residing in the country. Before the start of general electors, puposve samples ae often Faken in an attempt to forecast the national elections, The investigator sles the persons fron those states whose election results on previous polls have apreneated the atl rests and thus, have been typical of the whole population. ng has some advantages and disadvantages. The important advantages are Contos one variable such as sex have both theoretical or practical Purposive sai Bien below. ; 65, it is 1. Since purposive sampling does not involve any random selection proc somewhat less costly and more readily accessible to the inve igator. ved to other is a very convenient method oF =P i as compat ry sampling, te inc 3. Purposive sampling guarantees that those individuals uch guarantee nan ver ie are relevant tothe research design. The investigator does 128 "*hods of nonprobability sampling. Purposive sampling has some disadvantages also i. "ese This in 2. Purposive sam Methods of nonprobal luded in the sample as given below ample . gure that the $2! In purposive sampling, there is 10 W2Y "© ET sample bY ite ie ive of the population despite the its his ability to generalize the findings twly random oF estigalarionaredl Sclences npling. Once he h assess wt vod will be minin mple scope tho case of purposive Samp I because, under criticism also applies (0.0 TAL SAMPLING ACCIDEN also known as incidental sampling, is another popular my 1g plan. It refers to a samp! eal in which the invested et he sample selected consists of vesons according to his convenience. Here tl ate va ea ae ad suitable to take part and are the members of the target rong aie has called such sample as opportunity sampling. Here the inves igtor 1g the people with some specific or designated trait, rather he ig wii wuided by convenience and economy. Heiman (1995) has named it as convenience samp, Bertie a crude method of sampling, and the investigator knows that litle can be generalized ge the sample thus drawn. ‘an investigator may take students of class X into the research plan because the class eacyy ofthat class happens to be his friend. This illustrates accidental sampling “Accidental sampling has some advantages and disadvantages. The important advantages Accidental sam nonprobability sam a Selec, given below ; 1. Accidental sampling is the most convenient method of sampling. 2. This method of sampling possesses the trait of economy. This method saves time, mong and labour of the investigator. However, accidental sampling has some disadvantages as well. 1. From accidental samples, nothing can be generalized with confidence because thy samples remain no longer representative of the population. 2. In accidental sampling, the investigator gets ample opportunity to show his bias and prejudice in selecting the individuals. As such, this method of sampling is not much dependable In accidental sampling, the probability of sampling error is high. Therefore, the validity lity of this method are badly affected. not be an exaggeration to say tha sampling is frequently used and relial Despite these disadvantages, i and sociological researches this method » many psychologial SNOWBALL SAMPLING Snowball sampling, which is a nonprobability sampling method, is basically i sociometric. It is a process of selecting a sample using networks of friends and known defined as having all the persons in a group or organisation identifying their friends who in tun identify their friends and associates until the researcher observes that a constellation 0! friendships converges into some type of a def social pattern. Some selected behav usually used as the basis of contact and/or associatic ne used for obtaining an impression of informal soci reality is that Sometimes the researcher seeks to study a ‘hidden’ p identifiable, as when he deals with drug addicts, hardened crim such cases, snowball sampling is used. Here the researcher iden from him, he obtains the name and addresses of $ other subjects an es one pote from them, he obtal Ah of the sam successfully ans. The purpose was to determine jy nas jugs and related supplies. Snowball er i ~ Besides, such sampling can al; mplin; 50 locate jon isrevealed. I may answer questions such as: renals or hear about itn some medical seminc convention, whom do they contact among their about a given drug spread among physiiat ey ay friends lows, Sy J organizations. sampling has some advantages and di gnowball samp lisadvantages. The iny yen below: Portant advantages are Byer snowball sampling, which is primarily a sociom vy impatant and is helptul in studying a smal informal soe ve eal organizational structure "Snowball sampling reveals communication pattern in concepts like community power; and decision-making canals be su sampling technique. 3, The method of snowball sampling is amenable to various scientic sami procedures at var ous stages such as use of random numbers or computer detemnination ® Despite these advantages, sowbal sampling has some limitations lo as described below 1. Snowball sampling becomes cumbersome and dificuk when N is lage or say i exceeds 100. 2. This method of sampling does not allow the researcher to use probatilty ttsical methods. In fact, the elements included in sample are not randomly drawn and they ate dependent on the subjective choices of the originally selected respondents, Ths introduces some bias in the sampling. Despite these limitations, snowball sampling is used in the study of difusion of some formation and social changes. Community organization idied with the help of such spe SATURATION SAMPLING AND DENSE SAMPLING Coleman (1959) has emphasized these two types of sampling techniques which are used less fr iently as compared to other techniques of sampling. Saturation sampling is defined as lements or individuals having characteristics of interest to the investigator. Drawing ns having at least the age of 45 (from a small community) would be called saturation sampling. Dense sampling is a method of sampling which lies somewhere between simple fandom sampling and saturation sampling, When the researcher selects 50% oF more fst the Pop and takes a majority of individuals having speci .d traits or characteristics whicl i OT interest to him, itis called dense sampling, For example, ifthe researcher selects 500 to Students from a population of 1,000 students all having distinction marks in any one examination Papes it will constitute dense sampling. saad The advantage of saturation sampling and derse sampling is that sn hee Methods of sampling where N of the population does not exceed 1,000. In case it , "athods of samp ing become cumbersome and inconvenien|.Methods Research Measurements 386 Tess DOUBLE SAMPLING aa s defined as drawing a sample of individu, g, asits nat mplins domly draws a sample of 1,000 f i Double sam?! » investigator ran! TOM a ye Ny cane ofthe, SupPOA ie ‘ fae viduals, he again randomly draws a sample gr hi ing N= 100" 09 having N=!0 4 is » sampll her study. This is cal led double samp Me «ig studying the attitude of newly married couples . her is studying the attitu ly bes oan uestionnaire. For this, he mailed 1,000 questionnaires to Ne the 3 =. He finds that only 40% (that is 400) questionnar wis, he draws randomly a sample of 100 and maja Se pth knowledge towards the different techniquey oj ami From an, returned. From these 400 pet : yet their i tionnaire to get t Aranning. This is called double sampling: " ing to be an effective part of t Deginning should maximize the represe ethod has the disadvantage of 2 resea al thatthe san "es8 of the nda much time and ee 4 mi drawn subseque' the researchers. MIXED SAMPLING: Mixed sampling is one where the charact sampling are mixed. Systematic sampling is one such samp! sampling may be defined as drawing or selecting every th person fn 3 rents or individuals. Selecting every Sth roll number in a class of) fematic sampling, Likewise, drawing every 8th name from a telephans directory is an example of systematic sampling. If we pay attention to the systematic samplig plan, it becomes obvious that such a plan possesses certain characteristics of randomness fig flement selected is a random one) and at the same time, possesses some nonprobabiliy tis such as excluding all persons between every nth element chosen Systematic sampling has some advantages and disadvantages. The important advantagesar mentioned below. 1. Systematic sampling is relatively a quick method of obtai the investigator has a short time schedule, this method of sampling el othenwise taken in different methods of sampling. 2. Systematic sampling makes it very easy to check whether every nth number or namehis been selected. In case there occurs any error in counting, that is, if the investigator select 6 number instead of Sth number, his sample will not be seriously 3. Systematic sampling is very easy to use. In fact, it is much simpler than having t 2 table of random numbers for drawing the sample or fixed quota from each stratu! Population in order to have proportional representation Despite these advantages, there are some limitations of systematic sampling as nO! below. s of both probability sampling and nonprebaiy Systema predetermined list of elem students will constitute syst ng a sample of elements inates several ses fected 0 empl mm oft —_ jiovs Systematic sampling ignores all persons between every nth element chosen. Ovo" then, itis nota probability sampling plan. cul 24 ‘ oe ay. he as Sampling, the sampling error increases ifthe list is arranged in # ee any, Oe list increases or decreases with respect to some trait such as a8 a: se moe income, caste, etc. in such a individuals ate fiely to be eno 2 bias will be introduced in the sample PE igs drawn from one group, particularly from that g/OuP most frequently on the group. Such type lock 1972 TES OF A GOOD SAMPLING METHOD, acquis! samp! as 1g proper must ensure the representativeness of the sample ling method 10 be good and scien I must ensure the adequacy of the sample, rst requirement 2 popula A gampling method is that the selected samples. must he n. What is meant by represent v /eness of th Ordinarily, representative means to be typi ina ee The representative o oikel oni al ofa population thar orrempity he characteristics of the population... In research a represen ee athe sample has approximately the characteris ofthe population elevates a cl question.” Truly speal vestigator cannot be certain about the Tepresentativeness. as sample unless the entire population is tested. But this is ordinarily net feasible - Hence, he must satisfy himself otherwise, A sample can be regarded as being represntatve of the popl when it possesses all the relevant characteristics ofthe population in about the same proportion as is in the population. If sex is the relevant characteristic of a population of students of a Es the population has a malesfemale ratio of 60:40, a representative sample would be one where the ratio of males and females is also 60:40. For ensuring representativeness of samples itis also essential that the population should be clearly defined and a suitable and appropriate definition of the observations, which are to constitute samples, be framed. An observation must be defined in the light of the definition oj population; otherwise the result will be a biased sample. Suppose that the population is defined es all those females who are widows. Further, suppose that the observation is defined in terms of selection of those who admit that they are widows. In this case, the resulting samples will not be representative ones because observation has heen defined differently from the population. Obviously, this definition of observation will automatically exclude those who refuse to admit that they are widows and therefore, the sample will be a biased one, The second requirement of good sampling is that the samples must be adequate. A sample is said to be adequate when ient size. There is no rigid rale regarding the size of a sample. But a larger samp! s preferred because it tend to reduce the error, which is the diflerence between the population value and the sample value. The mean ofa sample taken oma population will not ordinarily be equal to the mean of that population. The aon — te size of the sample and the error, as defined above, ' nee he ilcearaeey a aire i ee the error and vice versa. The negative wean ines the o ne error is demonstrated in Figure 4 2. When t wn approxi wre the statistics of the sample distribution become ae reper, Buta? large Sample ot" Hence, the error is reduced and theretore, alargesomp oO somaimes, Ble may not yield that result because it tends to create several PIOPIEN®:in Boi 1 Mell iy os ys sro 5 Large ze of sample ip beaweon the Se OF SAMNPHEIN HE eiog Relationship be Fy 2 ETHODS F SAMPLING M\ VANTAGES OI COMMON AD) «procedure Is 10 make sampling, more ficient he pos of an sound sani Ei *opuason i 9 amined and an eng any behavioural eSea7e) ON da on the basis of the characteristics of the sample dy characteristics of population * T™ typon samples and the conclusion is generalized the population. Investigators 1) i, sampling has some addtional advantages, serving this function Of gen 4; When one is entrusted with examining sample (ang “a 1, accuray mest volume of the work is reduced. Conseqwenly, one gt a population null 9p esampie ae the results can also be analyzed with greacae Supe eH rained personne can be wized at a lower cost when the nupt only I reread is HC The overall results of al his shat he ScCUTacy of hein casesto | Anat ie in increased. reduced: When the data are to be collected from a limited number of cases ray, 2. Costis ion, tis naturlly entails 2 reduced cost the iWvestigator Neo than from a larger oes of the data is also reduced. When one is dealing wither) this the tne he chances f accidental error in’ statistical caledatye i jimited num : also minimised. ‘eased: When the data are collected from a sample rather than from te wise state Imager can do his work speedily without doing, any injustice tte investigation. This is one ofthe vital considerations, specially when the information about te sample is needed urgently. SAMPLING DISTRIBUTION In any sampling situation, three types of distributions are of common interest to the research investigator: the sample distribution, the population distribution, and the sampling seis The meaning of and distinction between these three types of distributions may be exp through an illustration, Suppose in a small town, the total number of graduate parents is 30,000. Suppose fut that we ae interested in knowing the mean fentlity ‘ate among these parents. Owingta ines money considerations, we cannot examine the whole population and therefore, we deci | Gxamine only @ random sample of 300 parents. The observed data may be arranged, a fetuency distribution and the desired stastics may be calculated. This type of serteae known asthe sample disitution because it shows the distribution of data obtained i sample drawn randomly fom the pop a chan pulation, Now, if with the help of any social organiza insttion wear ableto record thefertity roe of Aistbution, this dist ane 0,000 parents and arrange them In a ribution is termed as the population distribution. tn reality, the form Saemptiny $4 1a population are NOL ordinarily Kresyn, 1 F ahe population is made on the fh jes of relore, an ol thet estimate aon these wer Vinee Sue an al partners of the sar eign. the ; orimal, we expect that the ar gadation will abo be nota the moan we ae bs 0g prackate Parents Me 3.89 ane 19 Q the : foun of the spectanty atthat destin of the fey yet ation ob the popUTatiON GALTON are al 4) seh aaNet mean ae te {an ples a Been size Gn this example: Loar gona ea ‘ose Tew et liferent sompledistiitionn Fe iusration wah eas each ye taken tutions that is, 100 different means and 100 diffe tent \ wed acy et edi meanss ancl the 100 standard dewatic iat. we st ions separately, we " standard deviation, alice dsaribution, which is obtained if Te Population Thus sampling dsibion ce all the possible samples ofa specific sive omy y ples cons ons inte frequency disrity 27M sampling distribution of mean and the sampling te tn will get samplings distribution is a theoretical or ide, 15 EM jes of the given size are taken from the ses Tr statistics obtained by selecting tribution © poration SAMPLING ERROR s reader twsst have gathered by now, sampling refers tothe Ao ol eases ffOM a population, Whatever the samy rum Process of drawing a limited \ pling procedure used, the sample must recent, a5 ar 38 possible, all characteristics of the population that ae eat toe an ee tide sty static mesure caleulted rom a sample known 5 sativa the conesgoning cae, which is usually unknown and is based diectly upon the population, & har remote A statistic is frequently reterred to as an obtained! mea ra calculated {rom a sample of a population i called ‘sats Tsed directly upon the population is known as ‘parameter fierence between the parameter and the statistic. As Lindgul Ire or ‘derived measure’. A wean’ and the value of mean, f mean’. A sampling error is the st (1968, 8) has put it, “A sampling ero is the difference between a parameter and an estimate of that parameter which i derived from asamnple.” A sampling problem is said to exist whenever the conclusions obtained on the basis of a limited number of individuals (called the sample) are applied to a larger number of individuals {called the population), Such generalized conclusions are known as slaistical inferences, The higher the sampling ettor, the poorer the statistical inference. The term ‘sampling ertr’ does not suggest any mistake in the process of sampling itself, rather it merely suggests the chance \atiations which are inevitable when a number of randomly selected samples are taken from the same population. Due to this sampling error, making an estimate about the population characteristics from the sample characteristics no longer remains an exact process. It has been observed that a sample statistic does nit ordinarily agree with that obtained from the second, ‘hidor fourth sample or with the population parameter, The amount of fluctuation (or the sample error) depends upon the following two factors. (i) Variability in the population Gi) Size of the sample the nature of the population is such that i is not stable and tends to vary, naturally the Successive samples taken from the same population over time will tend to die, Generally : fandom sample provides a good approximation to the population and the any of “PptoXImation depends upon the size of the sample. As the size of the sample is ices be ‘om and the statistics of the sample distribution come nearer to those of the oe ‘ han.. 7 “simple, when the size of the sample is 100, the distribution as represented by the frequencysbonvonnul S tesuyarels Metords 401 HELE vaments ein Rese! yo Tests, Meer ery clear idea about the aly moth enough «0 BET ry he fomy of the Is usu polygon ist population distribution There are certain statisties WI to iene sting error is Jess. For exam Py Fane the samp rattles han other measures of « antral tendency and mo, and the standard deviation Tn more reliable than other similar measures because gy ‘of variability. Hence, these * ose * ccomesponding population parameters nd Hence, tend 6 yey, babes f and thus produce the least sampling error ate ple there ate three types of important distibutions Which ag gp concenn to the reader in orderto have a clearcut ide ao u wri tio of the sampling eroy, They are: the sample distribution, the population distribution and the sampling distribution, The throo terms may be explained with an example. Suppose, we wish 10 know the mean wese rs inthe age range of 20-45 yews) in the Tata tom and Stel fy al number of workers in this given age range is 30,000, Owing toting to Lake Fandom sample of 100 and adminierg ay endized tet of intelligence, The obtained scores on the test by 300 workers expressed ig frequency distribution will be called the sample distribution. Thus, the sample distribution isan beurved distibution which can be described by any descriptive statistics, Hence, sample distribution is the concrete distribution in any sampling situation However, il wedecide to administer the est of intelligence on the whole population, thatis, oon 30,000 workers, we shall be getting a set of 30,000 scores. If we convert this set into frequency distribution, this will be known as the population distribution, Ordinarily, the form and the parameters of the population distribution are not known, However, we ean infer them on the basis of the sample distribution, If the sample distribution is normal, it can be inferred thatthe population distribution is also normal, ascribing any itregularities in the sample distribution to others in successive end to fluctuate fess th Samples. sling, rom a normal distribution ihe Pn ‘sures approximate Jess frony sample to SM inmost sampling situations, Intelligence score of work' Further suppose that the tot ‘and money considerations, we may decid the sampling fluctu, The inferences drawn regarding. population distribution on the basis of the sample distribution may not be correct due to sampling ertors. In the above example, we do not have the fixed mean and the fixed standard deviation which would be obtained again in the second o third sample of 300 irom the population, Ifwe were to take, say, 100 samples of 300 each, we would be getting 100 different means, 100 varying standard deviations. It all the 100 means and 100 standard deviations are grouped in frequency distribution separately, we would have an exact sampling distribution of mean and the standard deviation in the population. As this isnot done, sampling distribution isa theoretical or idealized distribution which may be thoughtofasa seated eu be obtained if the values of a given statistic were computed in all Sof a sample of given size actually taken from the population Stevie loca the sampling distribution of the we of dena hae ates taken from the normal population. When the sampling Frequency wih whic dae: iti possible forthe investigator to determine the reli aia gle values tend to occur in random sampling fom thereat requency, the mah Ne some of them assumed oF hypothesized, After knowing value has resulted rom the sampling i So Koo the prbbaisiifyihat 2 patio am Probability Figure, he wil be able ek tectuations or chance. Ultimately, by knowing Te the statistics in a population iudge the soundness of a hypothesis regarding the value Wat do you mean by Simpliog? Discuss the fac th Rei Qari Haetors that influence to sample i the deeision What is sampling distribution? Discuss the methoxls of nethods of drawing random xi relative advantages and vot mples, discuss the mplingg methods, Citing some probability» distdvantages of any two Citing some examples, discuss the tektiv honprobability sampling methods Wes and clissdvs es of any wes What is “systematic sumpling? Hovy et ? How cloes it differ from relative advantages and disadvantages of sea ries oe systematic sampling Explain the importance of sampling in research Disease * sampling? Discuss the any two method What are the requisites of a good sample? hods of simpling. scientific research, ple? State the acy, What is the gre: When is cluster antages oF random wien an test anger in Using accidental sample research? ampling likely to be preferred most Why would a researcher choose stratified random s: sampling? npling instead of simple random +