‭Elijah‬‭DeCoteau‬

‭2022-2023‬

‭Annotated‬‭Source‬‭List‬

‭Crownhart,‬‭C.‬‭(2023,‬‭January‬‭4).‬‭What's‬‭next‬‭for‬‭batteries‬‭.‬‭MIT‬‭Technology‬‭Review.‬

‭https://www.technologyreview.com/2023/01/04/1066141/whats-next-for-batteries/‬

‭This‬‭article‬‭overviews‬‭some‬‭advancements‬‭in‬‭battery‬‭technology‬‭and‬‭how‬‭they‬‭could‬‭shape‬

‭the‬‭future‬‭of‬‭electric‬‭vehicles.‬‭Climate‬‭legislation‬‭in‬‭many‬‭countries‬‭is‬‭pushing‬‭the‬‭automotive‬

‭industry‬‭towards‬‭electric‬‭vehicles,‬‭making‬‭battery‬‭technology‬‭an‬‭important‬‭focus‬‭of‬‭car‬‭companies‬

‭today.‬‭Most‬‭electric‬‭vehicles‬‭today‬‭are‬‭powered‬‭by‬‭lithium‬‭ion‬‭batteries,‬‭but‬‭changing‬‭time,‬

‭capacity,‬‭and‬‭the‬‭need‬‭for‬‭rare‬‭materials‬‭like‬‭cobalt‬‭and‬‭lithium‬‭are‬‭pushing‬‭companies‬‭to‬‭invest‬‭in‬

‭new‬‭technologies.‬‭Solid‬‭state‬‭batteries‬‭use‬‭a‬‭solid‬‭electrolyte‬‭material‬‭instead‬‭of‬‭the‬‭liquid‬

‭electrolyte‬‭used‬‭in‬‭lithium‬‭batteries,‬‭allowing‬‭them‬‭to‬‭be‬‭more‬‭compact,‬‭safer,‬‭and‬‭have‬‭shorter‬

‭charging‬‭times.‬‭However,‬‭this‬‭technology‬‭is‬‭still‬‭in‬‭development‬‭and‬‭won’t‬‭be‬‭used‬‭in‬‭vehicles‬‭any‬

‭earlier‬‭than‬‭2025.‬‭Sodium‬‭ion‬‭batteries‬‭have‬‭a‬‭similar‬‭design‬‭to‬‭lithium‬‭ion‬‭batteries‬‭but‬‭use‬‭much‬

‭cheaper‬‭sodium‬‭metal‬‭in‬‭their‬‭production,‬‭although‬‭they‬‭might‬‭not‬‭be‬‭able‬‭to‬‭deliver‬‭the‬‭necessary‬

‭power‬‭for‬‭electric‬‭vehicles.‬‭Iron-air‬‭batteries‬‭use‬‭a‬‭completely‬‭different‬‭process‬‭to‬‭store‬‭and‬

‭release‬‭electrical‬‭energy,‬‭but‬‭they‬‭are‬‭only‬‭preferable‬‭in‬‭stationary‬‭power‬‭storage.‬‭While‬‭there‬‭are‬

‭lots‬‭of‬‭rising‬‭competitors,‬‭lithium‬‭ion‬‭battery‬‭technology‬‭is‬‭still‬‭improving‬‭with‬‭things‬‭like‬‭lithium‬

‭iron‬‭phosphate‬‭cathodes‬‭and‬‭replacing‬‭graphite‬‭with‬‭silicon‬‭for‬‭ion‬‭storage.‬‭To‬‭accompany‬‭the‬

‭increase‬‭in‬‭EVs‬‭and‬‭the‬‭need‬‭for‬‭more‬‭batteries,‬‭more‬‭battery‬‭recycling‬‭centers‬‭are‬‭set‬‭to‬‭open‬‭in‬

‭the‬‭near‬‭future.‬

‭This‬‭article‬‭provides‬‭lots‬‭of‬‭information‬‭on‬‭emerging‬‭technologies‬‭in‬‭the‬‭battery‬‭sector.‬

‭This‬‭is‬‭useful‬‭for‬‭researchers‬‭trying‬‭to‬‭determine‬‭the‬‭future‬‭viability‬‭of‬‭battery‬‭powered‬‭vehicles‬‭or‬

‭compare‬‭it‬‭to‬‭other‬‭vehicle‬‭types.‬‭This‬‭source‬‭is‬‭credible‬‭because‬‭it‬‭has‬‭links‬‭to‬‭all‬‭of‬‭its‬‭sources.‬
‭Dubey,‬‭L.,‬‭Speirs,‬‭J.,‬‭Balcombe,‬‭P.,‬‭Tariq,‬‭N.,‬‭Brandon,‬‭N.,‬‭&‬‭Hawkes,‬‭A.‬‭(2023).‬‭Future‬‭use‬‭of‬‭natural‬

‭gas‬‭under‬‭tightening‬‭climate‬‭targets.‬‭Futures‬‭,‬‭150‬‭(103158).‬

‭https://doi.org/10.1016/j.futures.2023.103158‬

‭This‬‭journal‬‭analyzes‬‭the‬‭merits‬‭of‬‭natural‬‭gas‬‭and‬‭how‬‭it‬‭is‬‭likely‬‭to‬‭be‬‭used‬‭in‬‭the‬‭future.‬

‭While‬‭future‬‭use‬‭of‬‭natural‬‭gas‬‭is‬‭limited‬‭by‬‭climate‬‭goals,‬‭there‬‭are‬‭still‬‭many‬‭incentives‬‭to‬‭use‬‭it.‬

‭Natural‬‭gas‬‭is‬‭inexpensive,‬‭abundant,‬‭easy‬‭to‬‭transport,‬‭has‬‭a‬‭high‬‭energy‬‭density,‬‭and‬‭produces‬

‭less‬‭air‬‭pollutants‬‭than‬‭other‬‭fossil‬‭fuels.‬‭These‬‭advantages‬‭will‬‭likely‬‭make‬‭it‬‭prominent‬‭in‬‭the‬

‭future‬‭due‬‭to‬‭the‬‭shortcomings‬‭of‬‭carbon‬‭neutral‬‭fuels‬‭like‬‭hydrogen‬‭and‬‭biomethane.‬‭However,‬‭it‬

‭is‬‭still‬‭a‬‭fossil‬‭fuel,‬‭meaning‬‭it‬‭produces‬‭methane‬‭during‬‭its‬‭production‬‭and‬‭carbon‬‭emissions‬‭when‬

‭it‬‭is‬‭burned.‬‭The‬‭authors‬‭of‬‭this‬‭journal‬‭predict‬‭that‬‭natural‬‭gas‬‭use‬‭will‬‭continue‬‭but‬‭at‬‭a‬‭declining‬

‭rate‬‭due‬‭to‬‭climate‬‭goals.‬‭Although,‬‭in‬‭some‬‭scenarios,‬‭natural‬‭gas‬‭use‬‭will‬‭increase‬‭to‬‭meet‬‭rising‬

‭energy‬‭demands.‬‭In‬‭order‬‭for‬‭natural‬‭gas‬‭to‬‭remain‬‭relevant,‬‭there‬‭must‬‭be‬‭advancements‬‭in‬‭carbon‬

‭capture‬‭technology‬‭to‬‭offset‬‭its‬‭emissions.‬‭Advancements‬‭in‬‭other‬‭fields‬‭like‬‭hydrogen,‬‭electric‬

‭vehicles,‬‭and‬‭renewable‬‭energy‬‭will‬‭also‬‭push‬‭natural‬‭gas‬‭out‬‭of‬‭favor.‬‭Overall,‬‭most‬‭future‬

‭scenarios‬‭show‬‭natural‬‭gas‬‭use‬‭dropping‬‭for‬‭a‬‭variety‬‭of‬‭reasons,‬‭and‬‭an‬‭improvement‬‭in‬‭carbon‬

‭capture‬‭technology‬‭is‬‭necessary‬‭for‬‭its‬‭viability‬‭and‬‭sustainability‬‭in‬‭the‬‭future.‬

‭This‬‭journal‬‭article‬‭provides‬‭an‬‭in‬‭depth‬‭analysis‬‭of‬‭possible‬‭future‬‭uses‬‭of‬‭natural‬‭gas,‬

‭which‬‭will‬‭prove‬‭useful‬‭to‬‭researchers‬‭trying‬‭to‬‭determine‬‭the‬‭future‬‭viability‬‭of‬‭natural‬‭gas‬‭or‬

‭compare‬‭it‬‭to‬‭other‬‭fuel‬‭sources.‬‭Other‬‭articles‬‭by‬‭the‬‭authors‬‭and‬‭sources‬‭listed‬‭at‬‭the‬‭end‬‭can‬‭also‬

‭be‬‭used‬‭to‬‭further‬‭research.‬‭This‬‭journal‬‭is‬‭very‬‭credible‬‭because‬‭all‬‭the‬‭authors‬‭are‬‭experienced‬‭in‬

‭this‬‭field‬‭and‬‭all‬‭of‬‭their‬‭sources‬‭cited‬‭at‬‭the‬‭end.‬

‭Fenske,‬‭J.‬‭(2021,‬‭June‬‭2).‬‭The‬‭big‬‭problem‬‭with‬‭synthetic‬‭fuels‬‭[Video].‬‭Youtube.‬

‭https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0d0MPg7DxbY‬
 ‭In‬‭this‬‭video,‬‭Jason‬‭Fenske‬‭talks‬‭about‬‭some‬‭of‬‭the‬‭disadvantages‬‭of‬‭synthetic‬‭fuel,‬

‭showing‬‭that‬‭it‬‭is‬‭not‬‭a‬‭carbon‬‭neutral‬‭solution‬‭to‬‭all‬‭automotive‬‭industry’s‬‭problems.‬‭A‬‭synthetic‬

‭fuel‬‭is‬‭any‬‭fuel‬‭created‬‭100%‬‭by‬‭humans‬‭and‬‭not‬‭pulled‬‭from‬‭any‬‭natural‬‭source.‬‭While‬‭burning‬

‭fossil‬‭fuels‬‭brings‬‭more‬‭CO‬‭2‬ ‭from‬‭underground‬‭into‬‭the‬‭atmosphere,‬‭synthetic‬‭fuels‬‭take‬‭carbon‬

‭from‬‭the‬‭atmosphere‬‭in‬‭production‬‭to‬‭offset‬‭the‬‭emissions,‬‭making‬‭them‬‭carbon‬‭neutral.‬‭An‬

‭advantage‬‭of‬‭synthetic‬‭fuels‬‭is‬‭that‬‭they‬‭can‬‭be‬‭made‬‭identical‬‭to‬‭gasoline,‬‭have‬‭the‬‭same‬‭high‬

‭energy‬‭density‬‭that‬‭hydrogen,‬‭batteries,‬‭and‬‭other‬‭renewable‬‭sources‬‭cannot‬‭even‬‭come‬‭close‬‭to.‬

‭This‬‭makes‬‭synthetic‬‭fuel‬‭a‬‭great‬‭option‬‭for‬‭long‬‭range‬‭needs‬‭like‬‭shipping‬‭and‬‭aviation.‬‭However,‬

‭there‬‭are‬‭several‬‭disadvantages‬‭that‬‭need‬‭to‬‭be‬‭considered.‬‭Synthetic‬‭fuels‬‭must‬‭be‬‭made‬‭with‬

‭clean‬‭renewable‬‭energy‬‭in‬‭order‬‭to‬‭have‬‭any‬‭advantage‬‭over‬‭fossil‬‭fuels.‬‭This‬‭is‬‭not‬‭the‬‭case‬‭with‬

‭electric‬‭vehicles‬‭due‬‭to‬‭their‬‭much‬‭higher‬‭efficiency.‬‭Electric‬‭batteries‬‭and‬‭motors‬‭retain‬‭40-70%‬

‭of‬‭the‬‭energy‬‭put‬‭into‬‭them,‬‭but‬‭synthetic‬‭fuel‬‭production‬‭and‬‭combustion‬‭is‬‭a‬‭long,‬‭and‬‭expensive,‬

‭process‬‭that‬‭only‬‭allows‬‭6-18%‬‭of‬‭the‬‭energy‬‭put‬‭in‬‭to‬‭be‬‭actually‬‭delivered‬‭to‬‭the‬‭wheels.‬‭While‬

‭Frenske‬‭agrees‬‭that‬‭synthetic‬‭fuel‬‭is‬‭still‬‭the‬‭best‬‭option‬‭for‬‭high‬‭energy‬‭density‬‭applications,‬‭he‬

‭believes‬‭its‬‭high‬‭cost‬‭and‬‭low‬‭efficiency‬‭will‬‭make‬‭it‬‭difficult‬‭to‬‭justify‬‭future‬‭use.‬

‭This‬‭video‬‭provides‬‭lots‬‭of‬‭information‬‭on‬‭the‬‭advantages‬‭and‬‭disadvantages‬‭of‬‭synthetic‬

‭fuels,‬‭and‬‭will‬‭be‬‭very‬‭useful‬‭to‬‭researchers‬‭doing‬‭an‬‭extensive‬‭study‬‭on‬‭this‬‭topic.‬‭It‬‭also‬

‭compares‬‭synthetic‬‭fuels‬‭to‬‭other‬‭competing‬‭renewable‬‭energy‬‭sources‬‭like‬‭hydrogen‬‭and‬

‭batteries,‬‭which‬‭is‬‭very‬‭useful‬‭to‬‭researchers‬‭trying‬‭to‬‭compare‬‭gasoline‬‭alternatives.‬‭This‬‭source‬‭is‬

‭very‬‭credible‬‭as‬‭its‬‭author‬‭has‬‭a‬‭bachelor’s‬‭in‬‭mechanical‬‭engineering‬‭and‬‭he‬‭links‬‭all‬‭of‬‭his‬

‭sources.‬

‭Fenske,‬‭J.‬‭(2022,‬‭March‬‭4).‬‭America‬‭was‬‭wrong‬‭about‬‭ethanol‬‭-‬‭study‬‭shows‬‭[Video].‬‭Youtube.‬

‭https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F-yDKeya4SU‬
 ‭This‬‭video‬‭argues‬‭that‬‭corn‬‭based‬‭ethanol‬‭is‬‭not‬‭the‬‭perfect‬‭carbon‬‭neutral‬‭alternative‬‭to‬

‭gasoline‬‭that‬‭congress‬‭made‬‭it‬‭out‬‭to‬‭be.‬‭Ethanol‬‭can‬‭be‬‭added‬‭to‬‭gasoline‬‭to‬‭improve‬‭octane‬‭and‬

‭reduce‬‭emissions;‬‭most‬‭gasoline‬‭contains‬‭10%‬‭corn‬‭based‬‭ethanol.‬‭In‬‭2005,‬‭Congress‬‭created‬‭the‬

‭renewable‬‭fuel‬‭standard‬‭after‬‭they‬‭found‬‭that‬‭corn‬‭based‬‭ethanol‬‭had‬‭a‬‭21%‬‭reduction‬‭in‬

‭greenhouse‬‭gas‬‭emissions‬‭compared‬‭to‬‭gasoline.‬‭The‬‭rationale‬‭behind‬‭this‬‭is‬‭corn‬‭takes‬‭carbon‬

‭dioxide‬‭out‬‭of‬‭the‬‭atmosphere,‬‭then‬‭the‬‭car‬‭puts‬‭it‬‭back‬‭into‬‭the‬‭atmosphere,‬‭creating‬‭a‬‭closed‬

‭cycle‬‭with‬‭no‬‭new‬‭carbon‬‭added,‬‭making‬‭it‬‭carbon‬‭neutral.‬‭However,‬‭in‬‭a‬‭study‬‭from‬‭University‬‭of‬

‭Wisconsin-Madison,‬‭Tyler‬‭Lark‬‭states‬‭that‬‭corn‬‭based‬‭ethanol‬‭creates‬‭24%‬‭greater‬‭emissions‬‭than‬

‭gasoline.‬‭Farming‬‭equipment,‬‭processing‬‭of‬‭the‬‭corn,‬‭and‬‭transportation‬‭of‬‭the‬‭corn‬‭all‬‭contribute‬

‭to‬‭the‬‭high‬‭emissions.‬‭Centuries‬‭of‬‭stored‬‭carbon‬‭are‬‭also‬‭released‬‭into‬‭the‬‭atmosphere‬‭during‬‭the‬

‭preparation‬‭of‬‭fields‬‭such‬‭as‬‭cutting‬‭trees‬‭and‬‭plowing.‬‭While‬‭this‬‭is‬‭only‬‭a‬‭one‬‭time‬‭release‬‭of‬

‭carbon,‬‭it‬‭takes‬‭14‬‭years‬‭for‬‭the‬‭ethanol‬‭produced‬‭to‬‭mitigate‬‭enough‬‭emissions‬‭to‬‭break‬‭even,‬‭and‬

‭some‬‭sources‬‭say‬‭more‬‭than‬‭30‬‭years‬‭are‬‭required.‬‭The‬‭amount‬‭of‬‭carbon‬‭released‬‭from‬‭modifying‬

‭the‬‭land‬‭is‬‭so‬‭high‬‭it‬‭nullifies‬‭any‬‭advantage‬‭in‬‭climate‬‭impact‬‭according‬‭to‬‭Cynthia‬‭Giles‬‭in‬‭a‬

‭Harvard‬‭study.‬‭Ethanol‬‭from‬‭other‬‭sources,‬‭such‬‭as‬‭switchgrass,‬‭could‬‭be‬‭made‬‭with‬‭fewer‬

‭emissions‬‭and‬‭have‬‭a‬‭much‬‭shorter‬‭break‬‭even‬‭point.‬

‭This‬‭video‬‭presents‬‭an‬‭argument‬‭with‬‭substantial‬‭evidence‬‭against‬‭the‬‭use‬‭of‬‭corn‬‭based‬

‭ethanol,‬‭which‬‭could‬‭prove‬‭useful‬‭for‬‭researchers‬‭evaluating‬‭the‬‭effectiveness‬‭of‬‭this‬‭type‬‭of‬

‭biofuel.‬‭There‬‭are‬‭many‬‭sources‬‭linked‬‭and‬‭there‬‭is‬‭information‬‭about‬‭other‬‭sources‬‭of‬‭ethanol,‬

‭both‬‭of‬‭which‬‭can‬‭be‬‭used‬‭to‬‭research‬‭further‬‭into‬‭this‬‭subject.‬‭This‬‭source‬‭is‬‭very‬‭credible‬‭as‬‭the‬

‭creator‬‭has‬‭a‬‭bachelor's‬‭degree‬‭in‬‭mechanical‬‭engineering‬‭and‬‭lists‬‭all‬‭his‬‭sources‬‭in‬‭the‬

‭description‬‭of‬‭the‬‭video.‬

‭Fenske,‬‭J.‬‭(2023,‬‭December‬‭18).‬‭[Videoconference‬‭interview‬‭by‬‭the‬‭author].‬
 ‭It‬‭is‬‭very‬‭difficult‬‭to‬‭accurately‬‭predict‬‭how‬‭the‬‭automotive‬‭industry‬‭will‬‭change‬‭in‬‭the‬

‭future,‬‭but‬‭it‬‭is‬‭safe‬‭to‬‭assume‬‭that‬‭electric‬‭vehicles‬‭will‬‭become‬‭very‬‭prominent,‬‭with‬‭the‬

‭possibility‬‭of‬‭hydrogen‬‭having‬‭niche‬‭uses‬‭as‬‭well.‬‭The‬‭interview‬‭began‬‭with‬‭Mr.‬‭Fenske‬

‭explaining‬‭how‬‭he‬‭got‬‭interested‬‭in‬‭cars‬‭as‬‭a‬‭child‬‭and‬‭how‬‭it‬‭transitioned‬‭into‬‭him‬‭making‬

‭automotive‬‭youtube‬‭videos.‬‭My‬‭second‬‭question‬‭was‬‭how‬‭he‬‭envisioned‬‭cars‬‭in‬‭the‬‭future‬‭due‬‭to‬

‭tightening‬‭legislation‬‭and‬‭emerging‬‭technology.‬‭He‬‭stated‬‭that‬‭it‬‭was‬‭very‬‭hard‬‭to‬‭predict,‬‭but‬‭he‬

‭believed‬‭that‬‭“there‬‭will‬‭be‬‭a‬‭long‬‭but‬‭very‬‭real‬‭transition‬‭to‬‭more‬‭sustainable‬‭options,‬‭and‬‭I‬‭think‬

‭that‬‭electric‬‭vehicles‬‭will‬‭be‬‭the‬‭overall‬‭winners‬‭in‬‭the‬‭end‬‭of‬‭all‬‭that.”‬‭He‬‭does‬‭not‬‭believe‬‭that‬

‭combustion‬‭engines‬‭will‬‭be‬‭gone‬‭anytime‬‭soon‬‭due‬‭to‬‭the‬‭average‬‭lifespan‬‭of‬‭combustion‬‭vehicles‬

‭and‬‭how‬‭new‬‭the‬‭anti-combustion‬‭legislation‬‭is.‬‭After‬‭telling‬‭Mr.Fenske‬‭that‬‭my‬‭research‬‭had‬

‭shown‬‭that‬‭electricity‬‭and‬‭hydrogen‬‭were‬‭the‬‭most‬‭promising‬‭alternatives‬‭to‬‭gasoline,‬‭he‬‭agreed‬

‭that‬‭hydrogen‬‭is‬‭better‬‭for‬‭applications‬‭like‬‭airplanes‬‭and‬‭ships‬‭due‬‭to‬‭its‬‭lower‬‭weight‬‭and‬‭higher‬

‭range,‬‭but‬‭noted‬‭that‬‭hydrogen‬‭has‬‭more‬‭challenges‬‭with‬‭its‬‭infrastructure‬‭and‬‭production‬

‭efficiency‬‭and‬‭believed‬‭that‬‭electricity‬‭would‬‭win‬‭out‬‭in‬‭most‬‭applications.‬‭The‬‭final‬‭question‬‭was‬

‭what‬‭can‬‭the‬‭average‬‭person‬‭do‬‭to‬‭help‬‭push‬‭automobiles‬‭in‬‭the‬‭right‬‭direction,‬‭and‬‭he‬‭said‬‭there‬

‭are‬‭the‬‭routes‬‭of‬‭legislation,‬‭“trying‬‭to‬‭figure‬‭out‬‭rules‬‭and‬‭laws‬‭that‬‭can‬‭benefit‬‭us‬‭all‬

‭collectively,”‬‭and‬‭the‬‭scientific‬‭route‬‭of‬‭making‬‭good‬‭engineering‬‭solutions‬‭such‬‭as‬‭cheaper‬‭or‬

‭more‬‭efficient‬‭vehicles.‬‭These‬‭methods‬‭allow‬‭one‬‭person‬‭to‬‭have‬‭much‬‭more‬‭impact‬‭on‬‭others‬‭than‬

‭just‬‭buying‬‭an‬‭electric‬‭car‬‭for‬‭themselves.‬

‭This‬‭interview‬‭provided‬‭an‬‭expert‬‭view‬‭of‬‭what‬‭the‬‭automotive‬‭industry‬‭could‬‭look‬‭like‬‭in‬

‭the‬‭future,‬‭which‬‭is‬‭useful‬‭for‬‭those‬‭trying‬‭to‬‭justify‬‭their‬‭claims‬‭about‬‭future‬‭technologies.‬‭There‬

‭is‬‭also‬‭information‬‭about‬‭what‬‭the‬‭average‬‭person‬‭can‬‭do‬‭to‬‭help‬‭in‬‭this‬‭crisis,‬‭great‬‭information‬

‭for‬‭researchers‬‭trying‬‭to‬‭determine‬‭how‬‭people‬‭can‬‭have‬‭the‬‭most‬‭impact‬‭on‬‭the‬‭climate‬‭change‬
 ‭crisis.‬‭This‬‭source‬‭is‬‭credible‬‭because‬‭Jason‬‭Fenske‬‭has‬‭a‬‭bachelor’s‬‭degree‬‭in‬‭mechanical‬

‭engineering.‬

‭Hossenfelder,‬‭S.‬‭(2023,‬‭January‬‭14).‬‭Hydrogen‬‭will‬‭not‬‭save‬‭us.‬‭Here's‬‭why.‬‭[Video].‬‭Youtube.‬

‭https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zklo4Z1SqkE‬

‭This‬‭video‬‭discusses‬‭how‬‭although‬‭hydrogen‬‭is‬‭a‬‭promising‬‭fuel‬‭from‬‭the‬‭future,‬‭there‬‭are‬

‭still‬‭many‬‭hurdles‬‭that‬‭it‬‭needs‬‭to‬‭overcome‬‭to‬‭reach‬‭widespread‬‭use.‬‭It‬‭starts‬‭with‬‭Sabine‬

‭Hossenfelder‬‭explaining‬‭that‬‭hydrogen‬‭generates‬‭energy‬‭by‬‭reacting‬‭with‬‭oxygen‬‭to‬‭produce‬‭heat,‬

‭with‬‭water‬‭being‬‭the‬‭only‬‭byproduct.‬‭Storing‬‭hydrogen‬‭is‬‭very‬‭difficult‬‭due‬‭to‬‭how‬‭much‬‭space‬‭it‬

‭takes‬‭up‬‭as‬‭a‬‭gas.‬‭While‬‭hydrogen‬‭fuel‬‭cells‬‭have‬‭existed‬‭since‬‭1839,‬‭they‬‭have‬‭found‬‭little‬‭use‬

‭outside‬‭of‬‭NASA‬‭spacecraft‬‭due‬‭to‬‭the‬‭difficulties‬‭of‬‭storing‬‭hydrogen.‬‭Despite‬‭that,‬‭many‬

‭companies,‬‭like‬‭Green‬‭Hydrogen‬‭International,‬‭and‬‭government‬‭associations,‬‭like‬‭the‬‭EU,‬‭have‬

‭ambitious‬‭plans‬‭to‬‭produce‬‭much‬‭more‬‭hydrogen‬‭and‬‭hydrogen‬‭powered‬‭vehicles.‬‭Hossenfelder‬

‭argues‬‭that‬‭a‬‭large‬‭problem‬‭facing‬‭hydrogen‬‭is‬‭how‬‭it‬‭is‬‭produced.‬‭There‬‭are‬‭multiple‬‭different‬

‭methods‬‭of‬‭producing‬‭hydrogen,‬‭with‬‭each‬‭method‬‭being‬‭referred‬‭to‬‭a‬‭certain‬‭“color”‬‭of‬‭hydrogen.‬

‭Each‬‭one‬‭has‬‭a‬‭different‬‭flaw‬‭that‬‭stops‬‭them‬‭from‬‭being‬‭widely‬‭used:‬‭White‬‭hydrogen‬‭occurs‬

‭naturally‬‭and‬‭is‬‭extremely‬‭rare;‬‭black,‬‭brown,‬‭gray,‬‭and‬‭blue‬‭hydrogen‬‭are‬‭produced‬‭from‬‭fossil‬

‭fuels‬‭and‬‭emit‬‭greenhouse‬‭gasses‬‭during‬‭production;‬‭and‬‭green‬‭and‬‭pink‬‭hydrogen‬‭are‬‭made‬‭from‬

‭climate‬‭friendly‬‭resources‬‭but‬‭are‬‭expensive‬‭and‬‭require‬‭freshwater,‬‭which‬‭is‬‭not‬‭available‬

‭everywhere.‬‭Even‬‭if‬‭hydrogen‬‭was‬‭readily‬‭available,‬‭there‬‭are‬‭still‬‭problems‬‭with‬‭fuel‬‭cells,‬‭such‬

‭as‬‭their‬‭inability‬‭to‬‭function‬‭in‬‭low‬‭temperatures‬‭and‬‭the‬‭rare,‬‭expensive‬‭metals‬‭required‬‭to‬‭make‬

‭them.‬

‭This‬‭video‬‭contains‬‭lots‬‭of‬‭information‬‭regarding‬‭the‬‭strengths‬‭and‬‭weaknesses‬‭of‬

‭hydrogen,‬‭being‬‭very‬‭helpful‬‭for‬‭researchers‬‭questioning‬‭the‬‭viability‬‭of‬‭the‬‭technology.‬‭The‬‭topics‬

‭mentioned‬‭in‬‭the‬‭video,‬‭such‬‭as‬‭the‬‭colors‬‭of‬‭hydrogen,‬‭and‬‭the‬‭sources‬‭in‬‭the‬‭description,‬‭like‬‭the‬
 ‭study‬‭on‬‭blue‬‭hydrogen,‬‭are‬‭also‬‭great‬‭starting‬‭points‬‭for‬‭more‬‭research.‬‭This‬‭source‬‭is‬‭very‬

‭credible‬‭as‬‭the‬‭creator‬‭has‬‭a‬‭PhD‬‭in‬‭physics‬‭and‬‭lists‬‭all‬‭of‬‭their‬‭sources.‬

‭Institute‬‭for‬‭Energy‬‭Research.‬‭Environmental‬‭impacts‬‭of‬‭lithium-ion‬‭batteries‬‭.‬‭(2023,‬‭May‬‭11).‬

‭https://www.instituteforenergyresearch.org/renewable/environmental-impacts-of-lithium-ion-batte‬

‭ries/‬

‭The‬‭article‬‭begins‬‭by‬‭stating‬‭that‬‭electric‬‭vehicles‬‭are‬‭being‬‭pushed‬‭upon‬‭the‬‭American‬

‭public‬‭due‬‭to‬‭their‬‭perception‬‭of‬‭producing‬‭less‬‭greenhouse‬‭gasses‬‭than‬‭electric‬‭vehicles.‬‭However,‬

‭the‬‭lithium‬‭ion‬‭batteries‬‭that‬‭power‬‭most‬‭electric‬‭vehicles‬‭have‬‭issues‬‭related‬‭to‬‭recycling‬‭and‬

‭greenhouse‬‭gas‬‭emissions‬‭from‬‭mining‬‭and‬‭production.‬‭Lithium‬‭ion‬‭battery‬‭production‬‭creates‬

‭more‬‭carbon‬‭dioxide‬‭emission‬‭than‬‭gasoline‬‭production,‬‭and‬‭40%‬‭of‬‭these‬‭emissions‬‭come‬‭from‬

‭the‬‭mining‬‭and‬‭processing‬‭phase.‬‭This‬‭phase‬‭takes‬‭a‬‭large‬‭amount‬‭of‬‭energy,‬‭most‬‭of‬‭which‬‭is‬

‭generated‬‭by‬‭coal‬‭power‬‭plants‬‭in‬‭China,‬‭the‬‭leading‬‭producer‬‭of‬‭electric‬‭vehicle‬‭batteries.‬

‭Disposal‬‭of‬‭used‬‭batteries‬‭is‬‭also‬‭an‬‭issue,‬‭as‬‭they‬‭pollute‬‭landfills‬‭with‬‭toxins‬‭and‬‭heavy‬‭metals‬

‭that‬‭contaminate‬‭the‬‭environment‬‭and‬‭cause‬‭landfill‬‭fires‬‭that‬‭can‬‭burn‬‭nonstop‬‭for‬‭years.‬‭While‬

‭governments‬‭are‬‭passing‬‭rules‬‭to‬‭mandate‬‭battery‬‭recycling,‬‭currently‬‭only‬‭5%‬‭of‬‭lithium‬‭batteries‬

‭are‬‭recycled,‬‭and‬‭due‬‭to‬‭the‬‭process‬‭being‬‭very‬‭hazardous‬‭and‬‭difficult,‬‭it‬‭is‬‭usually‬‭cheaper‬‭to‬

‭purchase‬‭more‬‭minerals‬‭and‬‭make‬‭a‬‭new‬‭battery.‬‭The‬‭methods‬‭of‬‭mining‬‭lithium‬‭are‬‭also‬‭very‬

‭damaging‬‭to‬‭the‬‭environment.‬‭Brine-extraction‬‭is‬‭when‬‭large‬‭amounts‬‭of‬‭water‬‭are‬‭pumped‬

‭underground,‬‭forcing‬‭the‬‭minerals‬‭to‬‭the‬‭surface.‬‭This‬‭process‬‭can‬‭contaminate‬‭the‬‭water‬‭supply‬

‭and‬‭takes‬‭a‬‭huge‬‭amount‬‭of‬‭water,‬‭as‬‭much‬‭as‬‭60%,‬‭from‬‭the‬‭local‬‭supply,‬‭many‬‭of‬‭which‬‭are‬

‭running‬‭low‬‭already‬‭in‬‭lithium‬‭rich‬‭areas‬‭like‬‭the‬‭Andes‬‭mountains.‬‭Other‬‭minerals‬‭in‬‭lithium‬‭ion‬

‭batteries‬‭also‬‭have‬‭issues‬‭relating‬‭to‬‭their‬‭mining,‬‭such‬‭as‬‭cobalt‬‭mines‬‭producing‬‭sulfuric‬‭acid‬‭and‬

‭using‬‭child‬‭labor.‬‭In‬‭conclusion,‬‭lithium‬‭ion‬‭batteries‬‭are‬‭very‬‭energy‬‭intensive‬‭during‬‭production,‬
 ‭difficult‬‭to‬‭recycle,‬‭and‬‭can‬‭cause‬‭environmental‬‭hazards‬‭in‬‭landfills.‬‭While‬‭this‬‭new‬‭technology‬

‭may‬‭seem‬‭perfect‬‭on‬‭the‬‭surface,‬‭there‬‭are‬‭a‬‭multitude‬‭of‬‭issues‬‭plaguing‬‭it.‬

‭This‬‭website‬‭contains‬‭lots‬‭of‬‭information‬‭on‬‭the‬‭negatives‬‭of‬‭lithium‬‭ion‬‭batteries,‬‭which‬‭is‬

‭very‬‭useful‬‭for‬‭researchers‬‭trying‬‭to‬‭determine‬‭the‬‭viability‬‭of‬‭electric‬‭vehicles‬‭or‬‭compare‬‭it‬‭to‬

‭other‬‭technologies.‬‭This‬‭source‬‭is‬‭credible‬‭because‬‭the‬‭authors‬‭link‬‭their‬‭sources‬‭throughout‬‭the‬

‭article.‬

‭Leachman,‬‭J.‬‭(2017,‬‭March‬‭17).‬‭So‬‭just‬‭how‬‭dangerous‬‭is‬‭hydrogen‬‭fuel?‬‭Washington‬‭State‬‭University.‬

‭https://hydrogen.wsu.edu/2017/03/17/so-just-how-dangerous-is-hydrogen-fuel/‬

‭For‬‭various‬‭reasons,‬‭hydrogen‬‭is‬‭nowhere‬‭near‬‭as‬‭dangerous‬‭as‬‭many‬‭believe.‬‭This‬‭article‬

‭starts‬‭with‬‭the‬‭author‬‭explaining‬‭how‬‭people‬‭react‬‭when‬‭they‬‭learn‬‭he‬‭works‬‭on‬‭hydrogen‬‭fuel.‬

‭Many‬‭compare‬‭his‬‭work‬‭to‬‭explosions‬‭or‬‭the‬‭Hindenburg,‬‭not‬‭knowing‬‭that‬‭it‬‭had‬‭a‬‭higher‬‭quality‬

‭sister‬‭ship‬‭Graf‬‭Zeppelin‬‭that‬‭was‬‭much‬‭safer‬‭and‬‭flew‬‭for‬‭over‬‭10‬‭years.‬‭His‬‭work‬‭also‬‭gets‬

‭compared‬‭to‬‭the‬‭Challenger‬‭shuttle,‬‭but‬‭that‬‭disaster‬‭was‬‭caused‬‭by‬‭an‬‭o-ring.‬‭NASA‬‭has‬‭done‬

‭many‬‭tests‬‭to‬‭determine‬‭the‬‭safety‬‭of‬‭hydrogen.‬‭When‬‭liquid‬‭hydrogen‬‭tanks‬‭were‬‭ruptured,‬‭the‬

‭fluid‬‭usually‬‭escaped‬‭without‬‭ignition.‬‭If‬‭ignition‬‭did‬‭occur,‬‭the‬‭fireball‬‭dissipated‬‭quickly‬‭due‬‭to‬

‭hydrogen’s‬‭high‬‭flame‬‭speed‬‭and‬‭low‬‭density.‬‭In‬‭similar‬‭tests,‬‭the‬‭gasoline‬‭flame‬‭stayed‬‭closer‬‭to‬

‭the‬‭container‬‭and‬‭caused‬‭much‬‭more‬‭damage.‬‭When‬‭.50‬‭caliber‬‭rounds‬‭were‬‭fired‬‭at‬‭hydrogen‬‭and‬

‭kerosene‬‭(aviation‬‭fuel)‬‭tanks,‬‭results‬‭from‬‭earlier‬‭experiments‬‭were‬‭confirmed:‬‭hydrogen‬‭is‬‭safer‬

‭than‬‭aviation‬‭fuel‬‭in‬‭certain‬‭aerospace‬‭applications.‬‭These‬‭experiments‬‭paved‬‭the‬‭way‬‭for‬‭bulk‬

‭hydrogen‬‭transports‬‭running‬‭on‬‭U.S.‬‭highways‬‭for‬‭over‬‭50‬‭years.‬‭Similar‬‭tests‬‭by‬‭transportation‬

‭company‬‭AirProducts,‬‭the‬‭UK‬‭Health‬‭and‬‭Safety‬‭Laboratory,‬‭the‬‭U.S.‬‭Military,‬‭and‬‭The‬‭National‬

‭Highway‬‭Transportation‬‭and‬‭Safety‬‭Administration‬‭all‬‭confirm‬‭these‬‭results.‬‭As‬‭shown‬‭by‬‭the‬

‭many‬‭tests‬‭on‬‭the‬‭subject,‬‭hydrogen’s‬‭resistance‬‭to‬‭igniting‬‭and‬‭low‬‭density‬‭make‬‭it‬‭difficult‬‭to‬

‭explode‬‭and‬‭causes‬‭the‬‭fuel‬‭to‬‭disperse‬‭rapidly,‬‭making‬‭suffocation‬‭and‬‭prolonged‬‭flames‬‭very‬
 ‭unlikely.‬‭In‬‭Toyota’s‬‭tests,‬‭their‬‭pressurized‬‭carbon‬‭fiber‬‭tanks‬‭refused‬‭to‬‭ignite‬‭after‬‭being‬‭shot,‬

‭and‬‭didn’t‬‭even‬‭rupture‬‭in‬‭a‬‭vehicle‬‭collision.‬‭In‬‭2017,‬‭there‬‭were‬‭more‬‭than‬‭25,000‬‭fuel‬‭cell‬

‭forklifts‬‭and‬‭7000‬‭fuel‬‭cell‬‭vehicles‬‭on‬‭the‬‭road,‬‭with‬‭no‬‭large‬‭problems‬‭to‬‭report.‬‭This‬‭makes‬

‭hydrogen‬‭even‬‭safer‬‭than‬‭lithium‬‭ion‬‭batteries,‬‭as‬‭damaging‬‭one‬‭cell‬‭can‬‭cause‬‭another‬‭to‬‭catch‬‭fire‬

‭or‬‭explode,‬‭resulting‬‭in‬‭vehicle‬‭infernos‬‭that‬‭can‬‭burn‬‭for‬‭days‬‭while‬‭producing‬‭toxic‬‭fumes.‬‭In‬

‭many‬‭cases‬‭hydrogen‬‭is‬‭less‬‭dangerous‬‭than‬‭gasoline,‬‭batteries,‬‭and‬‭other‬‭fuels.‬‭However,‬‭it‬‭is‬‭still‬

‭very‬‭flammable‬‭and‬‭has‬‭low‬‭ignition‬‭energy,‬‭so‬‭storing‬‭and‬‭handling‬‭it‬‭properly‬‭is‬‭required.‬

‭This‬‭source‬‭provides‬‭in‬‭depth‬‭reasons‬‭why‬‭hydrogen‬‭is‬‭not‬‭as‬‭dangerous‬‭as‬‭many‬‭believe‬

‭and‬‭supports‬‭its‬‭arguments‬‭with‬‭credible‬‭sources‬‭and‬‭a‬‭multitude‬‭of‬‭conducted‬‭tests.‬‭This‬‭source‬

‭would‬‭be‬‭extremely‬‭useful‬‭to‬‭researchers‬‭justifying‬‭the‬‭use‬‭of‬‭hydrogen‬‭by‬‭comparing‬‭its‬‭safety‬‭to‬

‭other‬‭fuel‬‭sources.‬‭This‬‭source‬‭is‬‭very‬‭credible‬‭because‬‭the‬‭author‬‭is‬‭a‬‭professor‬‭at‬‭the‬‭school‬‭of‬

‭mechanical‬‭and‬‭materials‬‭engineering‬‭at‬‭Washington‬‭State‬‭University,‬‭has‬‭a‬‭Ph.D.‬‭in‬‭mechanical‬

‭engineering,‬‭and‬‭links‬‭their‬‭sources‬‭in‬‭the‬‭article.‬

‭LePan,‬‭N.‬‭(2020,‬‭May‬‭19).‬‭6‬‭ways‬‭hydrogen‬‭and‬‭fuel‬‭cells‬‭can‬‭help‬‭transition‬‭to‬‭clean‬‭energy‬‭.‬‭Visual‬

‭Capitalist.‬

‭https://www.visualcapitalist.com/6-ways-hydrogen-and-fuel-cells-can-help-transition-to-clean-ene‬

‭rgy/‬

‭This‬‭article‬‭highlights‬‭the‬‭many‬‭advantages‬‭hydrogen‬‭has‬‭when‬‭used‬‭to‬‭power‬‭vehicles.‬

‭While‬‭most‬‭electric‬‭vehicles‬‭use‬‭batteries‬‭to‬‭supply‬‭their‬‭power,‬‭hydrogen‬‭can‬‭also‬‭be‬‭used‬‭for‬‭this‬

‭purpose.‬‭In‬‭order‬‭to‬‭abide‬‭by‬‭the‬‭UN’s‬‭COP21‬‭Paris‬‭agreement,‬‭the‬‭world‬‭must‬‭reduce‬

‭energy-related‬‭carbon‬‭dioxide‬‭emissions‬‭by‬‭60%‬‭by‬‭2050,‬‭and‬‭hydrogen‬‭is‬‭well‬‭suited‬‭to‬‭allow‬

‭that‬‭to‬‭happen.‬‭Hydrogen‬‭is‬‭safer‬‭than‬‭fossil‬‭fuels‬‭because‬‭it‬‭disperses‬‭quickly‬‭in‬‭the‬‭air,‬‭produces‬

‭low‬‭radiant‬‭heat,‬‭is‬‭less‬‭combustible‬‭than‬‭gasoline,‬‭and‬‭does‬‭not‬‭produce‬‭toxic‬‭emissions.‬‭It‬‭has‬

‭also‬‭been‬‭in‬‭use‬‭for‬‭over‬‭50‬‭years,‬‭so‬‭there‬‭are‬‭many‬‭industries‬‭with‬‭experience‬‭on‬‭how‬‭to‬‭safely‬
 ‭manufacture,‬‭transport,‬‭and‬‭use‬‭hydrogen.‬‭There‬‭are‬‭many‬‭different‬‭ways‬‭of‬‭producing‬‭hydrogen,‬

‭and‬‭it‬‭can‬‭even‬‭be‬‭made‬‭from‬‭water,‬‭ensuring‬‭that‬‭the‬‭world’s‬‭hydrogen‬‭supply‬‭will‬‭never‬‭run‬‭out.‬

‭Hydrogen‬‭vehicles‬‭also‬‭produce‬‭significantly‬‭less‬‭emissions‬‭during‬‭manufacturing‬‭and‬‭fuel‬

‭production‬‭than‬‭battery‬‭electric‬‭vehicles,‬‭one‬‭of‬‭its‬‭main‬‭competitors.‬‭While‬‭both‬‭battery‬‭and‬

‭hydrogen‬‭electric‬‭vehicles‬‭produce‬‭zero‬‭emissions,‬‭have‬‭high‬‭efficiency,‬‭and‬‭are‬‭very‬‭quiet,‬‭there‬

‭are‬‭a‬‭few‬‭differences‬‭between‬‭them:‬‭Battery‬‭vehicles‬‭have‬‭a‬‭low‬‭operational‬‭cost,‬‭are‬‭sustainable‬

‭city‬‭vehicles,‬‭have‬‭low‬‭initial‬‭infrastructure‬‭costs,‬‭and‬‭have‬‭the‬‭highest‬‭efficiency‬‭when‬‭taking‬‭into‬

‭account‬‭fuel‬‭production.‬‭Hydrogen‬‭vehicles‬‭can‬‭drive‬‭further,‬‭can‬‭be‬‭refueled‬‭faster,‬‭and‬‭has‬‭lower‬

‭long‬‭term‬‭infrastructure‬‭costs.‬‭One‬‭of‬‭the‬‭biggest‬‭advantages‬‭for‬‭hydrogen‬‭vehicles‬‭is‬‭their‬

‭significantly‬‭decreased‬‭weight‬‭when‬‭compared‬‭to‬‭battery‬‭vehicles.‬‭Globally,‬‭countries‬‭are‬‭planning‬

‭to‬‭build‬‭over‬‭2800‬‭hydrogen‬‭refueling‬‭stations‬‭by‬‭2025,‬‭and‬‭with‬‭growing‬‭market‬‭acceptance‬‭in‬

‭many‬‭different‬‭vehicle‬‭types,‬‭the‬‭future‬‭of‬‭hydrogen‬‭is‬‭very‬‭promising.‬

‭This‬‭source‬‭provides‬‭lots‬‭of‬‭reasons‬‭why‬‭hydrogen‬‭is‬‭better‬‭than‬‭batteries‬‭for‬‭powering‬

‭electric‬‭vehicles,‬‭which‬‭can‬‭be‬‭used‬‭to‬‭prove‬‭hydrogen’s‬‭usefulness‬‭in‬‭the‬‭future‬‭or‬‭compare‬‭it‬‭to‬

‭other‬‭power‬‭sources‬‭like‬‭batteries.‬‭This‬‭source‬‭is‬‭credible‬‭because‬‭the‬‭author‬‭links‬‭to‬‭all‬‭of‬‭their‬

‭sources‬‭in‬‭the‬‭text.‬

‭Lindwall,‬‭C.‬‭(2023,‬‭November‬‭17).‬‭Electric‬‭vs.‬‭gas‬‭cars:‬‭Is‬‭it‬‭cheaper‬‭to‬‭drive‬‭an‬‭EV?‬‭Natural‬‭Resources‬

‭Defense‬‭Council.‬‭https://www.nrdc.org/stories/electric-vs-gas-cars-it-cheaper-drive-ev‬

‭This‬‭article‬‭explains‬‭that,‬‭in‬‭most‬‭cases,‬‭an‬‭electric‬‭vehicle‬‭will‬‭be‬‭cheaper‬‭than‬‭a‬‭gasoline‬

‭vehicle‬‭in‬‭the‬‭long‬‭run.‬‭The‬‭average‬‭price‬‭of‬‭an‬‭EV‬‭decreased‬‭by‬‭$14,300‬‭over‬‭the‬‭year‬‭of‬‭2023‬

‭according‬‭to‬‭Cox‬‭Automotive.‬‭Prices‬‭are‬‭expected‬‭to‬‭continue‬‭to‬‭drop‬‭in‬‭the‬‭future‬‭as‬‭companies‬

‭invest‬‭in‬‭the‬‭technology.‬‭Tax‬‭incentives‬‭like‬‭the‬‭U.S.‬‭federal‬‭tax‬‭credit,‬‭and‬‭state‬‭tax‬‭incentives‬‭can‬

‭shave‬‭thousands‬‭of‬‭dollars‬‭off‬‭the‬‭price‬‭of‬‭electric‬‭vehicles‬‭as‬‭long‬‭as‬‭they‬‭meet‬‭manufacturing‬

‭requirements.‬‭Home‬‭chargers‬‭also‬‭contribute‬‭to‬‭the‬‭long‬‭term‬‭cost‬‭of‬‭an‬‭EV;‬‭although‬‭they‬‭usually‬
‭cost‬‭around‬‭$2000,‬‭it‬‭is‬‭a‬‭one‬‭time‬‭purchase‬‭and‬‭many‬‭governments‬‭and‬‭utility‬‭companies‬‭have‬

‭programs‬‭to‬‭cover‬‭some‬‭of‬‭the‬‭costs.‬‭Electricity‬‭has‬‭a‬‭major‬‭advantage‬‭over‬‭gasoline‬‭when‬‭it‬

‭comes‬‭to‬‭refueling‬‭costs,‬‭where‬‭a‬‭2018‬‭study‬‭by‬‭the‬‭University‬‭of‬‭Michigan’s‬‭Transportation‬

‭Research‬‭Institute‬‭found‬‭that‬‭the‬‭average‬‭yearly‬‭cost‬‭to‬‭fuel‬‭an‬‭electric‬‭vehicle‬‭was‬‭$485,‬‭while‬‭the‬

‭average‬‭for‬‭gasoline‬‭was‬‭$1117.‬‭More‬‭recent‬‭studies‬‭by‬‭Consumer‬‭Reports‬‭and‬‭Energy‬‭Innovation‬

‭have‬‭confirmed‬‭cost‬‭savings‬‭of‬‭refueling‬‭electric‬‭vehicles.‬‭This‬‭is‬‭mainly‬‭due‬‭to‬‭the‬‭fact‬‭that‬‭EVs‬

‭are‬‭many‬‭times‬‭more‬‭efficient‬‭at‬‭traveling‬‭a‬‭mile‬‭than‬‭gasoline‬‭vehicles,‬‭according‬‭to‬‭the‬‭U.S.‬

‭department‬‭of‬‭Energy.‬‭However,‬‭calculating‬‭cost‬‭savings‬‭is‬‭not‬‭that‬‭simple.‬‭The‬‭actual‬‭efficiency‬

‭of‬‭EVs‬‭varies‬‭from‬‭vehicle‬‭to‬‭vehicle,‬‭impacting‬‭how‬‭much‬‭one‬‭would‬‭need‬‭to‬‭spend‬‭to‬‭charge‬‭it.‬

‭Installing‬‭a‬‭home‬‭charger‬‭increases‬‭one’s‬‭electricity‬‭bill,‬‭and‬‭the‬‭amount‬‭it‬‭increases‬‭depends‬‭on‬

‭where‬‭and‬‭when‬‭it‬‭is‬‭being‬‭charged.‬‭Charging‬‭in‬‭areas‬‭with‬‭excess‬‭electricity‬‭and‬‭charging‬‭at‬‭night‬

‭when‬‭demand‬‭is‬‭low‬‭can‬‭lower‬‭costs‬‭significantly.‬‭A‬‭study‬‭from‬‭2020‬‭calculated‬‭that‬‭EV‬‭owners‬‭in‬

‭Washington‬‭state‬‭can‬‭save‬‭as‬‭much‬‭as‬‭$14,480‬‭over‬‭the‬‭lifetime‬‭of‬‭their‬‭vehicle,‬‭while‬‭EV‬‭owners‬

‭in‬‭Hawaii‬‭should‬‭expect‬‭their‬‭expenses‬‭to‬‭be‬‭$2,494‬‭more‬‭than‬‭a‬‭gasoline‬‭vehicle‬‭over‬‭15‬‭years.‬

‭Public‬‭charging‬‭stations‬‭also‬‭tend‬‭to‬‭be‬‭more‬‭expensive‬‭than‬‭home‬‭charging,‬‭which‬‭can‬‭contribute‬

‭to‬‭rising‬‭costs‬‭over‬‭time.‬‭As‬‭for‬‭maintenance,‬‭electric‬‭vehicles‬‭usually‬‭cost‬‭half‬‭as‬‭much‬‭to‬

‭maintain‬‭than‬‭gasoline‬‭vehicles.‬‭The‬‭author‬‭states‬‭that‬‭one‬‭can‬‭calculate‬‭their‬‭lifetime‬‭costs‬‭by‬

‭combining‬‭the‬‭initial‬‭purchase‬‭price‬‭with‬‭ongoing‬‭costs‬‭like‬‭maintenance‬‭and‬‭recharging.‬‭Overall,‬

‭they‬‭believe‬‭that‬‭while‬‭it‬‭isn’t‬‭guaranteed,‬‭one‬‭can‬‭save‬‭money‬‭over‬‭the‬‭whole‬‭lifetime‬‭of‬‭their‬‭EV,‬

‭and‬‭spare‬‭the‬‭Earth‬‭in‬‭the‬‭process.‬

‭This‬‭source‬‭provides‬‭insight‬‭as‬‭to‬‭how‬‭the‬‭long‬‭term‬‭costs‬‭of‬‭electric‬‭vehicles‬‭compare‬‭to‬

‭gasoline‬‭ones,‬‭which‬‭is‬‭useful‬‭to‬‭researchers‬‭aiming‬‭to‬‭pitch‬‭electric‬‭vehicles‬‭as‬‭a‬‭superior‬

‭alternative‬‭to‬‭gasoline‬‭or‬‭other‬‭fuel‬‭sources.‬‭This‬‭source‬‭is‬‭credible‬‭because‬‭the‬‭author‬‭has‬‭links‬‭to‬

‭their‬‭sources‬‭in‬‭the‬‭text.‬
‭Nikolaidis,‬‭P.,‬‭&‬‭Poullikkas,‬‭A.‬‭(2017).‬‭A‬‭comparative‬‭overview‬‭of‬‭hydrogen‬‭production‬‭processes.‬

‭Renewable‬‭and‬‭Sustainable‬‭Energy‬‭Reviews‬‭,‬‭67‬‭,‬‭597-611.‬

‭https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.09.044‬

‭In‬‭this‬‭scholarly‬‭article,‬‭the‬‭authors‬‭discuss‬‭the‬‭common‬‭methods‬‭of‬‭hydrogen‬‭production‬

‭and‬‭determine‬‭steam‬‭reforming‬‭and‬‭gasification‬‭to‬‭be‬‭the‬‭most‬‭promising‬‭for‬‭future‬‭use.‬‭Hydrogen‬

‭is‬‭carbon‬‭free‬‭and‬‭highly‬‭combustible,‬‭giving‬‭it‬‭a‬‭much‬‭higher‬‭energy‬‭content‬‭than‬‭all‬‭fossil‬‭fuels‬

‭and‬‭other‬‭sources‬‭like‬‭batteries.‬‭It‬‭can‬‭be‬‭stored‬‭as‬‭a‬‭liquid,‬‭gas,‬‭or‬‭solid,‬‭and‬‭its‬‭combustion‬‭only‬

‭emits‬‭water,‬‭making‬‭hydrogen‬‭a‬‭very‬‭appealing‬‭fuel‬‭source‬‭for‬‭the‬‭future.‬‭However,‬‭the‬‭journal‬

‭article‬‭proposes‬‭that‬‭the‬‭main‬‭issue‬‭preventing‬‭hydrogen’s‬‭widespread‬‭use‬‭is‬‭production.‬‭Pure‬

‭hydrogen‬‭is‬‭exceedingly‬‭rare‬‭in‬‭nature,‬‭so‬‭scientists‬‭have‬‭developed‬‭many‬‭different‬‭methods‬‭of‬

‭producing‬‭it.‬‭Hydrogen‬‭can‬‭be‬‭produced‬‭by‬‭removing‬‭carbon‬‭from‬‭fossil‬‭fuels‬‭in‬‭processes‬‭such‬‭as‬

‭steam‬‭reforming‬‭and‬‭partial‬‭oxidation.‬‭These‬‭methods‬‭of‬‭production‬‭are‬‭currently‬‭the‬‭most‬

‭common‬‭and‬‭cost‬‭effective,‬‭but‬‭they‬‭rely‬‭on‬‭fossil‬‭fuels‬‭and‬‭will‬‭create‬‭carbon‬‭emissions‬‭unless‬

‭another‬‭viable‬‭source‬‭of‬‭hydrocarbons‬‭is‬‭found.‬‭Hydrogen‬‭can‬‭also‬‭be‬‭harvested‬‭from‬‭biomass‬

‭using‬‭techniques‬‭such‬‭as‬‭gasification,‬‭combustion,‬‭pyrolysis,‬‭and‬‭liquefaction.‬‭This‬‭method‬‭is‬

‭promising‬‭due‬‭to‬‭its‬‭economic‬‭viability‬‭and‬‭lack‬‭of‬‭dependence‬‭on‬‭fossil‬‭fuels.‬‭Bacteria‬‭can‬‭also‬

‭be‬‭used‬‭to‬‭produce‬‭hydrogen‬‭in‬‭bio-photolysis‬‭and‬‭dark‬‭fermentation.‬‭The‬‭authors‬‭believe‬

‭biological‬‭methods‬‭are‬‭promising‬‭but‬‭will‬‭require‬‭much‬‭more‬‭research.‬‭Lastly,‬‭water‬‭can‬‭be‬‭split‬

‭into‬‭hydrogen‬‭using‬‭electricity‬‭in‬‭electrolysis‬‭or‬‭heat‬‭in‬‭thermolysis.‬‭While‬‭water‬‭splitting‬‭has‬‭the‬

‭potential‬‭to‬‭be‬‭completely‬‭zero‬‭emissions,‬‭it‬‭is‬‭currently‬‭overshadowed‬‭by‬‭other‬‭technologies‬‭that‬

‭are‬‭efficient,‬‭and‬‭it‬‭will‬‭not‬‭likely‬‭be‬‭the‬‭main‬‭method‬‭of‬‭production‬‭unless‬‭carbon‬‭taxes‬‭are‬

‭enforced‬‭and‬‭more‬‭research‬‭is‬‭done‬‭into‬‭the‬‭area.‬‭Overall,‬‭Nikolaidis‬‭and‬‭Poullikkas‬‭believe‬‭that‬

‭steam‬‭reformation‬‭and‬‭gasification‬‭are‬‭the‬‭most‬‭promising‬‭methods‬‭of‬‭hydrogen‬‭production‬‭for‬‭the‬

‭future‬‭due‬‭to‬‭their‬‭energy‬‭and‬‭cost‬‭efficiency.‬
 ‭This‬‭journal‬‭article‬‭provides‬‭lots‬‭of‬‭valuable‬‭information‬‭on‬‭the‬‭methods‬‭of‬‭hydrogen‬

‭production,‬‭how‬‭they‬‭work,‬‭and‬‭their‬‭advantages‬‭and‬‭disadvantages.‬‭This‬‭journal‬‭would‬‭be‬‭very‬

‭helpful‬‭to‬‭someone‬‭researching‬‭the‬‭viability‬‭of‬‭hydrogen‬‭as‬‭a‬‭fuel‬‭source.‬‭It‬‭is‬‭very‬‭credible‬‭as‬‭the‬

‭authors‬‭list‬‭all‬‭of‬‭their‬‭sources‬‭at‬‭the‬‭end‬‭of‬‭the‬‭article,‬‭which‬‭can‬‭also‬‭be‬‭used‬‭to‬‭aid‬‭further‬

‭research.‬

‭St.‬‭John,‬‭A.‬‭(2023,‬‭August‬‭1).‬‭Most‬‭cars‬‭still‬‭cost‬‭more‬‭to‬‭charge‬‭than‬‭to‬‭fill‬‭up‬‭with‬‭gas‬‭—‬‭when‬‭you‬‭take‬

‭other‬‭expenses‬‭like‬‭home‬‭charging‬‭and‬‭fees‬‭into‬‭account‬‭.‬‭Business‬‭Insider.‬

‭https://www.businessinsider.com/ev-charging-cost-versus-gas-car-truck-suv-2023-7‬

‭Though‬‭it‬‭varies‬‭depending‬‭on‬‭location‬‭and‬‭vehicle,‬‭in‬‭most‬‭cases‬‭recharging‬‭an‬‭electric‬

‭vehicle‬‭will‬‭cost‬‭more‬‭than‬‭refueling‬‭a‬‭comparable‬‭gasoline‬‭vehicle.‬‭Many‬‭electric‬‭vehicles‬‭still‬

‭cost‬‭more‬‭to‬‭recharge‬‭than‬‭gasoline‬‭vehicles‬‭cost‬‭to‬‭refuel.‬‭Most‬‭pickup‬‭trucks‬‭cost‬‭the‬‭same‬‭to‬

‭refuel‬‭and‬‭charge,‬‭while‬‭entry‬‭and‬‭mid‬‭level‬‭vehicles‬‭cost‬‭more‬‭to‬‭charge‬‭(with‬‭in-home‬‭and‬

‭public‬‭chargers).‬‭Luxury‬‭vehicles‬‭fall‬‭somewhere‬‭in‬‭between‬‭the‬‭two.‬‭This‬‭information‬‭came‬‭from‬

‭a‬‭2020‬‭study‬‭from‬‭the‬‭Anderson‬‭Economic‬‭Group.‬‭This‬‭study‬‭looked‬‭at‬‭average‬‭gas‬‭and‬‭electricity‬

‭prices,‬‭but‬‭they‬‭also‬‭included‬‭charger‬‭installation‬‭costs,‬‭EV‬‭registration‬‭fees,‬‭and‬‭time‬‭spent‬

‭driving‬‭to‬‭and‬‭waiting‬‭at‬‭a‬‭recharging/refueling‬‭station.‬‭The‬‭average‬‭EV‬‭still‬‭costs‬‭$5000‬‭more‬

‭than‬‭the‬‭average‬‭gasoline‬‭vehicle,‬‭and‬‭this‬‭disparity‬‭must‬‭be‬‭reduced‬‭to‬‭increase‬‭the‬‭amount‬‭of‬

‭EVs‬‭purchased.‬‭Charging‬‭costs‬‭are‬‭also‬‭very‬‭important,‬‭and‬‭they‬‭change‬‭depending‬‭on‬‭the‬‭vehicle.‬

‭Trucks‬‭cost‬‭about‬‭the‬‭same‬‭to‬‭recharge‬‭and‬‭refuel‬‭when‬‭considering‬‭registration‬‭fees‬‭and‬‭charger‬

‭installation‬‭costs,‬‭but‬‭that‬‭is‬‭only‬‭when‬‭using‬‭home‬‭charging.‬‭Public‬‭chargers‬‭cost‬‭48%‬‭more,‬

‭changing‬‭the‬‭average‬‭cost‬‭to‬‭charge‬‭per‬‭100‬‭miles‬‭from‬‭$17.70‬‭to‬‭$26.38.‬‭Refueling‬‭electric‬‭entry‬

‭level‬‭vehicles‬‭and‬‭SUVs‬‭cost‬‭about‬‭3‬‭dollars‬‭more‬‭per‬‭100‬‭miles‬‭than‬‭comparable‬‭gasoline‬

‭vehicles.‬‭Using‬‭public‬‭charging‬‭stations‬‭further‬‭increases‬‭the‬‭price,‬‭making‬‭them‬‭cost‬‭16-64%‬

‭more.‬‭Refueling‬‭luxury‬‭vehicles‬‭actually‬‭costs‬‭$4‬‭less‬‭per‬‭100‬‭miles‬‭than‬‭a‬‭comparable‬‭gasoline‬
 ‭vehicle,‬‭but‬‭only‬‭if‬‭they‬‭are‬‭using‬‭home‬‭chargers‬‭to‬‭save‬‭23%.‬‭Using‬‭public‬‭chargers‬‭makes‬‭the‬

‭price‬‭about‬‭the‬‭same‬‭as‬‭gasoline.‬‭For‬‭mid‬‭level‬‭cars‬‭and‬‭SUVs,‬‭recharging‬‭only‬‭costs‬‭1$‬‭more‬‭per‬

‭100‬‭miles‬‭than‬‭refueling,‬‭but‬‭this‬‭costs‬‭adds‬‭up‬‭over‬‭time.‬‭If‬‭public‬‭chargers‬‭are‬‭used,‬‭the‬‭disparity‬

‭grows‬‭to‬‭$4.00.‬

‭This‬‭source‬‭lists‬‭statistics‬‭on‬‭the‬‭refueling‬‭and‬‭recharging‬‭costs‬‭of‬‭vehicles‬‭in‬‭the‬‭same‬

‭sector.‬‭This‬‭information‬‭is‬‭useful‬‭to‬‭researchers‬‭trying‬‭to‬‭compare‬‭the‬‭price‬‭of‬‭electric‬‭vehicles‬‭to‬

‭gasoline‬‭or‬‭other‬‭alternatives.‬‭This‬‭source‬‭is‬‭credible‬‭because‬‭it‬‭links‬‭to‬‭the‬‭study‬‭referenced‬

‭throughout‬‭the‬‭article.‬

‭Tabuchi,‬‭H.,‬‭&‬‭Plumer,‬‭B.‬‭(2021,‬‭March‬‭2).‬‭How‬‭green‬‭are‬‭electric‬‭vehicles?‬‭The‬‭New‬‭York‬‭Times‬‭.‬

‭https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/02/climate/electric-vehicles-environment.html#:~:text=Broadly‬

‭%20speaking%2C%20most%20electric%20cars,up%20those%20plug%2Din%20vehicles.‬

‭This‬‭online‬‭news‬‭article‬‭explains‬‭how‬‭electric‬‭vehicles,‬‭while‬‭often‬‭cited‬‭as‬‭the‬‭green‬

‭vehicles‬‭of‬‭the‬‭future,‬‭still‬‭have‬‭many‬‭hurdles‬‭to‬‭overcome‬‭before‬‭they‬‭can‬‭truly‬‭claim‬‭that‬‭title.‬

‭Electric‬‭vehicles‬‭cannot‬‭be‬‭zero‬‭emissions‬‭until‬‭their‬‭production‬‭and‬‭charging‬‭is‬‭done‬‭without‬‭the‬

‭use‬‭of‬‭fossil‬‭fuels.‬‭The‬‭U.S.‬‭power‬‭grid‬‭currently‬‭uses‬‭a‬‭mix‬‭of‬‭renewables‬‭and‬‭fossil‬‭fuels‬‭to‬

‭generate‬‭electricity,‬‭making‬‭electric‬‭vehicles‬‭greener‬‭than‬‭conventional‬‭vehicles‬‭and‬‭hybrids,‬‭but‬

‭not‬‭emissions‬‭free.‬‭However,‬‭in‬‭areas‬‭of‬‭the‬‭U.S.‬‭that‬‭get‬‭the‬‭majority‬‭of‬‭their‬‭power‬‭from‬‭fossil‬

‭fuels,‬‭electric‬‭vehicles‬‭are‬‭worse‬‭for‬‭the‬‭environment‬‭than‬‭hybrids‬‭due‬‭to‬‭the‬‭emissions‬‭produced‬

‭by‬‭the‬‭power‬‭grid.‬‭Another‬‭hurdle‬‭for‬‭electric‬‭vehicles‬‭is‬‭the‬‭materials‬‭required‬‭to‬‭make‬‭them.‬

‭Mining‬‭cobalt,‬‭lithium,‬‭and‬‭other‬‭rare‬‭earth‬‭metals‬‭is‬‭damaging‬‭to‬‭the‬‭environment‬‭and‬‭the‬‭people‬

‭working‬‭in‬‭the‬‭mines,‬‭with‬‭car‬‭companies‬‭making‬‭steps‬‭toward‬‭ethically‬‭mined‬‭cobalt‬‭or‬‭removing‬

‭it‬‭from‬‭batteries‬‭entirely.‬‭New‬‭batteries‬‭can‬‭also‬‭be‬‭made‬‭from‬‭old‬‭recycled‬‭ones,‬‭but‬‭the‬‭process‬‭is‬

‭long‬‭and‬‭only‬‭5%‬‭of‬‭lithium‬‭ion‬‭batteries‬‭are‬‭recycled.‬
 ‭This‬‭article‬‭provides‬‭lots‬‭of‬‭information‬‭on‬‭the‬‭areas‬‭of‬‭improvement‬‭for‬‭electric‬‭vehicles,‬

‭which‬‭is‬‭very‬‭helpful‬‭for‬‭researchers‬‭trying‬‭to‬‭construct‬‭an‬‭argument‬‭for‬‭or‬‭against‬‭electricity‬

‭when‬‭compared‬‭to‬‭other‬‭vehicle‬‭types.‬‭The‬‭credibility‬‭of‬‭this‬‭article‬‭comes‬‭from‬‭the‬‭sources‬‭that‬

‭the‬‭authors‬‭embedded,‬‭which‬‭can‬‭also‬‭be‬‭used‬‭to‬‭research‬‭more‬‭in‬‭depth‬‭about‬‭electric‬‭vehicles‬

‭and‬‭emissions.‬

‭U.S.‬‭Department‬‭of‬‭Energy.‬‭(n.d.).‬‭Alternative‬‭fuels‬‭and‬‭advanced‬‭vehicles‬‭.‬‭https://afdc.energy.gov/fuels/‬

‭This‬‭webpage‬‭from‬‭the‬‭official‬‭website‬‭of‬‭the‬‭U.S.‬‭Department‬‭of‬‭Energy‬‭lists‬‭many‬

‭alternative‬‭fuels‬‭that‬‭are‬‭currently‬‭available‬‭or‬‭in‬‭development‬‭to‬‭be‬‭used‬‭instead‬‭of‬‭gasoline‬‭or‬

‭diesel.‬‭Alternative‬‭internal‬‭combustion‬‭fuels‬‭include‬‭natural‬‭gas‬‭and‬ ‭propane,‬‭which‬‭boast‬‭lower‬

‭costs‬‭and/or‬‭emissions‬‭than‬‭gasoline.‬‭There‬‭are‬‭also‬‭plant‬‭based‬‭fuels‬‭like‬‭ethanol‬‭and‬‭biodiesel‬

‭that‬‭are‬‭almost‬‭completely‬‭carbon‬‭neutral.‬‭Other‬‭fuels‬‭like‬‭renewable‬‭diesel‬‭and‬‭gasoline‬‭are‬

‭capable‬‭of‬‭net‬‭zero‬‭emissions‬‭but‬‭have‬‭much‬‭higher‬‭costs.‬‭Sustainable‬‭aviation‬‭fuels‬‭are‬‭mixed‬

‭with‬‭standard‬‭fuel‬‭to‬‭reduce‬‭net‬‭carbon‬‭emissions‬‭from‬‭aircraft.‬‭There‬‭are‬‭also‬‭power‬‭sources‬‭that‬

‭do‬‭not‬‭utilize‬‭internal‬‭combustion.‬‭Electric‬‭vehicles‬‭use‬‭batteries‬‭and‬‭motors‬‭to‬‭store‬‭and‬‭deliver‬

‭power‬‭completely‬‭free‬‭of‬‭any‬‭emissions.‬‭Similarly,‬‭hydrogen‬‭fuel‬‭cells‬‭use‬‭chemical‬‭reactions‬‭to‬

‭turn‬‭hydrogen‬‭directly‬‭into‬‭electricity.‬‭Both‬‭of‬‭these‬‭have‬‭the‬‭potential‬‭to‬‭be‬‭completely‬‭zero‬

‭emissions‬‭but‬‭are‬‭expensive‬‭to‬‭produce.‬

‭This‬‭website‬‭is‬‭very‬‭helpful‬‭for‬‭research‬‭into‬‭alternative‬‭vehicle‬‭fuels.‬‭It‬‭provides‬‭a‬‭list‬‭of‬

‭topics‬‭that‬‭give‬‭a‬‭basic‬‭understanding‬‭of‬‭a‬‭variety‬‭of‬‭options.‬‭These‬‭topics‬‭can‬‭also‬‭be‬‭used‬‭as‬

‭prompts‬‭to‬‭aid‬‭in‬‭further‬‭research.‬‭This‬‭source‬‭is‬‭credible‬‭because‬‭it‬‭was‬‭made‬‭by‬‭the‬‭U.S.‬

‭Department‬‭of‬‭Energy,‬‭an‬‭official‬‭government‬‭agency.‬

‭Yowell,‬‭G.‬‭(2022,‬‭September‬‭6).‬‭How‬‭does‬‭the‬‭cost‬‭of‬‭hydrogen‬‭stack‬‭up‬‭against‬‭gasoline?‬‭Stillwater‬

‭Associates.‬

‭https://stillwaterassociates.com/how-does-the-cost-of-hydrogen-stack-up-against-gasoline/‬
 ‭Hydrogen‬‭fuel‬‭is‬‭more‬‭expensive‬‭than‬‭gasoline,‬‭even‬‭when‬‭factoring‬‭in‬‭its‬‭higher‬

‭efficiency.‬‭One‬‭of‬‭the‬‭challenges‬‭facing‬‭hydrogen‬‭fuel‬‭cell‬‭vehicles‬‭is‬‭their‬‭high‬‭fuel‬‭cost.‬‭With‬‭1‬

‭kilogram‬‭of‬‭hydrogen‬‭being‬‭roughly‬‭equivalent‬‭to‬‭1‬‭gallon‬‭of‬‭gasoline,‬‭high‬‭gas‬‭prices‬‭over‬

‭$4/gallon‬‭are‬‭nothing‬‭compared‬‭to‬‭the‬‭average‬‭$14/kg‬‭price‬‭of‬‭hydrogen‬‭in‬‭California.‬‭The‬‭high‬

‭efficiency‬‭of‬‭fuel‬‭cell‬‭vehicles‬‭is‬‭what‬‭keeps‬‭refueling‬‭costs‬‭competitive,‬‭as‬‭the‬‭actual‬‭price‬‭of‬‭the‬

‭fuel‬‭is‬‭much‬‭higher.‬‭In‬‭2022,‬‭the‬‭EPA‬‭stated‬‭that‬‭the‬‭average‬‭fuel‬‭economy‬‭of‬‭a‬‭fuel‬‭cell‬‭vehicle‬

‭was‬‭60‬‭miles‬‭per‬‭kilogram,‬‭compared‬‭to‬‭the‬‭average‬‭30‬‭miles‬‭per‬‭gallon‬‭for‬‭gasoline‬‭and‬‭42‬‭for‬

‭hybrids.‬‭While‬‭this‬‭seems‬‭like‬‭an‬‭advantage‬‭for‬‭hydrogen,‬‭its‬‭higher‬‭price‬‭means‬‭that‬‭hydrogen‬

‭fuel‬‭cell‬‭vehicles‬‭are‬‭two‬‭times‬‭more‬‭expensive‬‭per‬‭mile‬‭than‬‭gasoline‬‭and‬‭three‬‭times‬‭more‬‭than‬

‭hybrids.‬‭In‬‭order‬‭to‬‭remain‬‭competitive,‬‭hydrogen‬‭needs‬‭to‬‭retail‬‭at‬‭$5.88/kg;‬‭however,‬‭the‬‭average‬

‭price‬‭was‬‭$16.50/kg‬‭that‬‭year.‬‭The‬‭California‬‭Air‬‭Resources‬‭Board‬‭estimates‬‭that‬‭the‬‭prices‬‭will‬

‭decrease‬‭over‬‭the‬‭years,‬‭comparing‬‭it‬‭to‬‭a‬‭fuel‬‭with‬‭similar‬‭properties,‬‭compressed‬‭natural‬‭gas.‬

‭This‬‭source‬‭has‬‭statistics‬‭that‬‭show‬‭how‬‭much‬‭hydrogen‬‭costs‬‭relative‬‭to‬‭gasoline‬‭and‬‭how‬

‭this‬‭affects‬‭its‬‭competitiveness‬‭in‬‭the‬‭vehicle‬‭market.‬‭This‬‭source‬‭is‬‭useful‬‭for‬‭researchers‬‭trying‬‭to‬

‭justify‬‭or‬‭argue‬‭against‬‭hydrogen‬‭use‬‭in‬‭vehicles.‬‭This‬‭source‬‭is‬‭credible‬‭because‬‭the‬‭author‬‭links‬

‭their‬‭sources.‬