The cause of a fire is usually determined from a
detailed inspection of the charred debris,
combustibles, devices, and residues located at the
point of (or within the area of) origin. Theoretically,
the cause of a fire can be categorized into three
classifications: (Redsicker and O'connor, 1997)
Lightning- An investigator should know that when
lightning strikes a transformer, two to three times
the normal voltage will go to ground even when
lightning resistors are in place. Even so, the fuses
may not blow, the lightning induced surge of
current is too brief.
- bolts average 24, 000 A, but can exceed 200,
000 A and their potentials can range up to 15,
000, 000 V.
Lightning strikes occur in two basic way: cloud
to cloud and cloud to earth. However, in the cloud
to earth case, charges of opposite polarity are
generated in the cloud and the ground below.
Subsequently, a discharge occurs and the lightning
bolt (discharge), which appears to be from cloud to
ground, actually extends from cloud and ground,
meeting in mid-air to complete the strike.
Spontaneous Ignition- the likelihood of
spontaneous ignition may be affected by a wide
variety of chemical and physical mechanisms, and it
is often difficult to determine the precise
mechanism involved in a particular incident.
- Spontaneous heating of a material to its
ignition temperature results in spontaneous
ignition (spontaneous combustion).
- In its classical form, spontaneous ignition is
caused by substances combining with
atmospheric oxygen. Practically all substances
capable of combining with oxygen will, at
some critical temperature, oxidize when
exposed to air, this oxidation results in the
evolution of heat.
three (3) general conditions which affect
whether or not spontaneous ignition will occur:
RATE OF HEAT GENERATION - many types of
oxidation occur so slowly that heat generation is
negligible. However, when the rate of heat
generation is fast enough, heat may build up in the
material and spontaneous ignition may occur.
OXYGEN SUPPLY- adequate oxygen must be
present to permit spontaneous ignition. It should
be recognized, however, that oxygen need be
available in the form of free oxygen as is found in
air; certain forms of spontaneous ignition may be
initiated by chemical reactions which involve
substances which liberate oxygen during the
reaction.
RATE OF HEAT LOSS - heat produced during
spontaneous heating may dissipated to
surroundings, resulting in nothing more than
slightly elevated temperature within the fuel.
However, when heat accumulates faster than it can
be dissipated, spontaneous ignition is possible.
Rays of sun- fires have also been caused by the rays
of the sun, mostly as the result of the sun shining
through older windows with glass panes containing
bubbles (bula) or films of liquid enveloping air or
gas, as soap bubble (Abis, 1986).
Smoking- One of the most common accidental
causes of fire, according to statistics.
Cigarette fire is mostly due to carelessness of the
smoker or careless disposal of smoking materials
(Abis, 1986).
Arcing- If short-circuit or break in an electrical
conductor occurs, the electric current tries to
continue to flow in the open space created, and
creates an arc.
- Arcing on a small scale can occur every time
an electric switch is opened. Its intensity
again, depends upon the amount of current
flowing.
- If the atmosphere in which the switch is
opened contains any flammable vapors or
flammable gasses, fire can occur.
Sparks- Most commonly occur as the result of
electric (arc) welding operations or from the arcing
of short circuits.
The bond between the electrode and the material
to be bonded is formed by a huge amount of heat
generated during electricalwelding. There are many
sparks and glows of hot metal as a result. Sparks
and molten metal are capable of causing a fire if
flammable material is close by.
Overheating- damage to electrical conductors can
result from heat exposing them in two ways: ➤ The
fire that heats the conductor from the outside. ➤
Overheating from an internal source.
• EXTERNAL HEATING- can result from
a fire that begins to melt a copper
conductor by the constant
application of heat.
• INTERNAL HEATING- most often
caused by continuous over current
or short circuits.
Flammable Liquid- Misuse of gasoline and other
flammable liquid is one of the major causes of
accidental fire in the Philippines. The use of
flammable liquid as cleaning agents is still a very
common practice.
Plants- Referred to as a "booster", is either a pool
of liquid accelerant or a pile of combustibles that is
used by an arsonist to enhance the quality of fire in
a selected location.
Meant to boost the progress of a fire by producing
a large body of fire.
Trailers- referred to as a "streamer" is an
arrangement or configuration of flammable or
combustible materials that is intended to carry fire
from one location to another.
Accelerant- Is a substance that is used to accelerate
(and sometimes direct) the spread of a fire.
Most commonly used liquid accelerants include
gasoline, lighter fluids, kerosene, and turpentine.
A typical burn pattern resulting from the use of a
liquid accelerant is called pudding.
Prevention - To ensure that the fire does not start
by controlling ignition sources. Among the five
tactics, fire prevention shall be one to be given
much attention by the designer. It is only if this fails
need the other tactics be attempted
Communication - To ensure that, if ignition occurs,
the occupants are informed and any active fire
system are triggered. Communication by itself, even
if totally successful, cannot save lives or property,
but its key role in ensuring fire safety means that it
must be considered as one of the five tactics. If
communication is successful then escape and
extinguishments can be attempted. But if it is
unsuccessful, then only containment remains as an
available tactics
Escape - To ensure that the occupants of the
building and the surrounding areas are able to
move to places of safety before they are
threatened by the heat and smoke. Since life safety
is the most important among the two objectives of
fire safety construction, then sufficient provision for
fire escapes shall be incorporated in the design of
buildings.
Escape is the last available tactic that can be
attempted in case all the other fails. Escape
requirements varies with respect to the type of
building occupancy.
Containment - To ensure that the fire is contained
to the smallest possible area, limiting the amount
of property likely to be damaged and the threat to
life safety.
Extinguishments - To insure that the fire can be
extinguished quickly and with minimum
consequential damage to the building.
Places of Assembly - A building in which 50 or
more persons gather together for purposes such as
deliberation, worship, entertainment, amusement,
or awaiting transportation
Educational Occupancy - a building where six (6) or
more persons gather for purposes of instructions,
the occupant load is not less than 1.8 sq. m/person,
or 4.6 sq m/ person for laboratories, shops and
similar vocational rooms.
Institutional Occupancy - a building used for
purposes such as treatment or care of persons
suffering from physical or mental illness, disease or
infirmity, care of infants or aged persons, and for
penal or correctional purposes.
Residential Occupancy - a building with sleeping
and/or sleeping accommodation provided for
residential purposes, except those classified under
institutional occupancies.
Mercantile Occupancy - a building used for the
purpose of selling merchandise or goods.
Business Occupancy - Buildings used for
transaction of business other than that covered
under Mercantile (e.g. office of lawyers, doctors,
dentists, city/town halls/court houses, libraries,
etc.)
Industrial Occupancy - Buildings that are designed
for making products of all kinds and properties
developed for operations such as processing,
assembling, mixing, packaging, etc.
Storage Occupancy - These are buildings or
structures utilized primarily for the storage or
sheltering of goods, merchandize, products,
vehicles or animals.
Mixed Occupancy - Buildings or structures in which
two or more classes of occupancies are present and
that separate safeguards are impracticable. Each
space shall be considered individually.
Miscellaneous - These are buildings or structures
that cannot be properly classified in any of the
preceding occupancy group.
Detection System - it is used to sense fire/or smoke
alarm Signaling System - it is used to warm
occupants of the building of incipient fire.
Suppression System - it is used to limit the spread
of fire and possibly extinguish it.
Alarm Initiating Devices
a. Manual it requires human actions to initiate a
fire alarm (e.g.
pull station).
b. Automatic Detectors need not require human
actions.
1) Heat Detectors restorable type that sends a
signals when a certain air temperature is reached
(e.g. bimetallic heat detector, rate- anticipation
heat detector).
2) Smoke Detectors offers two mechanisms for
sensing smoke and other products of combustion
(obscuration and ionization).
3) Flame Detectors sensitive to ultraviolet and
infrared light emission.
4) Particle Sampling Detector - it detects specific
gases associated with combustion, such as carbon
monoxide, the primary killer gas in fire.
Audible Signaling Device - e.g. horn, gong, bell,
siren, whistle, recorded voice tape or public
address system.
Central Control Unit considered as the brain of the
system, alarm initiating devices and audible
signaling systems are linked to and monitored by
the central control unit or CCU.
Normal mode the CCU indicator show green lights,
indicating the system is powered and working
properly.
Alarm mode when activated by an alarm initiating
device (such as a smoke, heat, flame detector or
pull station, the CCU produces a red light, which
may be flashing, and an audible alarm signal. It may
also activate sprinklers or other suppression
devices.
Trouble Mode a trouble signal indicated by an
amber light is generated when critical alarm system
circuits or components fails.
Automatic Sprinklers it is the most common form
of installed fire suppression systems. It is a network
or pipes and nozzles that releases water directly
into a fire from overhead.
Wet Pipe the most common type where water is
available in all sections of pipe at all times, under
pressure and ready to be discharged. When this
system operates, water issues only from those
sprinklers in the vicinity of the fire. The operating
mechanism is in the sprinkler.
Dry Pipe the dry pipe sprinkler uses compressed
air or nitrogen gas pressure to keep water out of
the overhead pipes and limited to the riser until a
fire occurs. It is advantageous in environment
where freezing (cold) temperature is likely to occur.
Preaction Sprinkler System in the preaction
sprinkler, water is contained within the riser by a
control valve that is activated by a fire detector
system. Overhead pipes contain air that may or
may not be under pressure. It is activated by a
separate detection system.
Deluge Sprinkler System - this system operates in a
way that is similar to the preaction system, except
that the sprinkler heads are always open. It is
activated by a separate detection system that
opens the control valve.
5. Combined Dry Pipe and Preaction Sprinkler
System - it retains air or nitrogen under pressure in
the overhead pipes. A separate fire detection
system opens the control valve to fill the overhead
lines with water before the sprinklers open. If the
detection system fails for some reason, the
sprinklers act as a dry pipe system.
Standpipes and Hose System - standpipes are one
of the bestmeans for fighting fires in buildings and
structures and can be a welcome complement to
automatic sprinkler systems.
Inspection and Maintenance of fire Extinguishers:
Once a fire extinguisher is purchased and installed,
it becomes the responsibility of the owner to
maintain the extinguisher so that it remains fully
operable. To fulfill this responsibility, there should
be a program to provide for the periodic inspection
of each extinguisher and an effective extinguisher
maintenance program.
Fire extinguisher maintenance is a specialized
activity and should be performed by competent
persons. Fire extinguishers are provided to protect
life and property and there should be no doubt as
to them reliability in time of emergency.
Carbon dioxide extinguisher
is an inert gas that extinguishes fires by smothering
rather than by cooling. The heat-absorbing capacity
of CO, is very limited, being only 10 % that of water.
Dry powder extinguisher- These types of
extinguishers are designed for use on Class D fires
1. Service Test - a service test of an
extinguisher is an operational test of the
extinguisher to see to it that it is operating
properly. This test is normally conducted at
least once a year during the scheduled
maintenance cycles.
2. Hydrostatic test- is an internal pressure test
check of an extinguisher cylinder or shell to
detect possible failure under pressure.
Normally, during the testing the cylinder or
shell is filled with water (hydro). The test
should be conducted immediately upon
discovering of any indication of mechanical
injury or corrosion to those extinguishers
which exert internal pressure.
City/Municipal Fire Marshal - responsible for the
conduct of annual/periodic/regular safety
inspection.
NCR District/Provincial Fire Marshal-
verification/re-inspection as delegated authority
from provincial Police Superintendent.
➤ARD/Regional Fire Marshal - validation/re-
inspection and imposition of administrative fine up
to P6, 000.00.
➤ Chief, BFP- fire safety inspection and imposition
of administrative fine up to P12,000
Cooling - to reduce the temperature. This is a direct
attack on the heat side of the fire tetrahedron.
Smothering- to separate the fuel from oxygen. This
can be considered as an attack on the edge of the
fire tetrahedron where the fuel and oxygen meet
(Aguado, 2000).
Oxygen Dilution - to reduce the amount of
available oxygen needed to sustain combustion.
This is an attack on the oxygen side of the
tetrahedron.
Chain Breaking - to disrupt the chemical process
that sustains the fire (the chain reaction side of the
tetrahedron) (Aguado, 2000)
Ø Water is a liquid between the temperatures of
0°C and 100°C (32°F and 212°F); at 100°C
(212°F) it boils and turns to steam. Water
weighs about 1 kg/liter (8.5lbs/gal); fresh water
weighs slightly less, and seawater slightly more.
Water is primarily a cooling agent.
Ø It absorbs heat and cools burning materials
more effectively than any of the commonly
used extinguishing agents.
Ø It is most effective when it absorbs enough
heat to raise its temperature to 100°C (212 °F).
Wet Water - a type of water that has been treated
with a chemical agent to lower its surface tension.
The treated water penetrates porous (absorbent)
materials, such as baled cotton and rolls of fabric,
more easily than plain water. Thus it can sink in and
extinguish fires that have extended into the interior
of the bale or roll.
Thick Water - a type of water that has been treated
to decrease its ability to flow. It forms a thick wall
that clings to burning material and remains in place
longer than plain water.
Rapid or Slippery Water - a type of water that has
been added with small quantities of polyethylene
oxide. This chemical reduces the viscosity
(thickness) of the water and the friction loss in hose
lines. The result is an increase in the reach of the
stream.
Foam extinguishing agent, foam is a blanket of
bubble that extinguishes fire mainly by smothering.
The bubbles are formed by mixing water and foam-
making agent (foam concentrate). The result is
called a foam solution. The various foam solutions
are lighter than the lightest flammable oils.
Consequently, when applied to burning oils, they
float on the surface of the oil.
Firefighting foam is used to form a blanket
on the surface of flaming liquids, including oils. The
blanket prevents flammable vapors from reaching
the fuel. Fire cannot exist when the fuel and oxygen
are separated. The water in the foam also has a
cooling effect, which gives foam its class A
extinguishing capability.
A. Chemical Foam - chemical foam is formed by
mixing an alkali (usually sodium bicarbonate) with
an acid (usually aluminum sulfate) in water. When
chemical foam was first introduced, these
substances were stored in separate containers; they
are combined in scaled airtight container. A
stabilizer is added to make the foam tenacious and
long-lived.
The premixed foam power may be stored in
cans and introduced into the water during
firefighting operations. For this, a device called a
foam hopper is used. Or, the two chemicals may be
premixed with water to form an aluminum sulfate
solution and a sodium bicarbonate solution
B. Mechanical (air) Foam mechanical foam is
produced by mixing foam concentrate with water
to produce a foam solution. The bubbles are
formed by the turbulent mixing of air and the foam
solution. As the name air foam implies, the bubbles
are filled with air. Aside from the workmanship and
efficiency of the equipment, the degree of mixing
determines the quality of the foam. The design of
the equipment determines the quantity of foam
produced.
Carbon dioxide (CO) extinguishing item, his
lot bees approved for building installation as well as
Industrial occupancies. Inside the building, carbon
dioxide has been approved for spaces containing
internal combustion or gas turbine propulsion
machinery and other spaces.
Carbon dioxide extinguishes fire mainly by
smothering It dilutes the air surrounding the fire
until the oxygen content is too low to support
combustion, For this reason it is effective on class B
fires, where the main consideration is to keep the
flammable vapors separated from oxygen in the ale
Cot has a very limited cooling effect. It can be used
on class A fires in confined spaces, where the
atmosphere may be diluted sufficiently to stop
combustion However, CO2 extinguishments take
time. The concentration of carbon dioxide must be
maintained until all the fire is out. Concentration
and patience are needed.
Carbon dioxide is sometimes used to
protect areas containing valuable articles. Unlike
water and some other agents, carbon dioxide
dissipates without leaving a residue As mentioned
above, it does not conduct electricity and can be
used on live electrical equipment. However fire
parties must maintain a reasonable distance when
using Co2 extinguishers houseline front a semi
portable system in high voltage gear.
Effectiveness - CO2 is not effective on substances
that contain their own oxygen (oxidizing agents). It
is not effective on combustible metals such as
sodium, potassium, magnesium and zirconium. In
fact, when CO2 is used in burning magnesium, it
reacts with the magnesium to form carbon, oxygen
and magnesium oxide. The fire is intensified by the
addition of oxygen and carbon, a fuel.
Outside Use - to be fully effective, the gas must be
confined. For this reason CO2 is not effective
outside as it is in confined space. This does not
mean that it cannot be used outside. Portable CO2
extinguishers and hose lines have extinguished
many fire in the open. An outside fire should be
attacked from the windward side; the CO2 should
be directed low with a sweeping motion for a spill
fire, or down at the center of a confined fire. The
effective range for a portable CO2 fire extinguisher
is about 1.5m (5 ft).
Possibility of re-ignition - compared with water
carbon dioxide has a very limited cooling capacity.
It may not cool the fuel below its ignition
temperature, and it is more likely than other
extinguishing agents to allow reflash. When
portable CO2 extinguishers or hose lines from semi
portable extinguishers are used, additional backup
water hose lines should be brought to the scene, in
case of live electrical equipment, an additional non-
conducting agent must be brought to the scene.
Hazards - although carbon dioxide is not poisonous
to the human system, it is suffocating in the
concentration necessary for extinguishments. A
person exposed to this concentration would suffer
dizziness and unconsciousness. Unless removed
quickly to fresh air, the victim may die.
 Dry chemical extinguishing agents are
chemicals in powder form. Again this should not be
confused with dry powders, which are intended
only for combustible metal fires.
1. Sodium Bicarbonate - it is the original dry
chemical extinguishing agent. It is generally
referred to as regular dry chemical and is widely
used because it is most economical dry chemical
agent. It is particularly effective on animal fais and
vegetable oil because it chemically changes these
substances into nonflammable soaps. Thus, sodium
bicarbonate is used widely in galley range hood and
duct fires. There is one possible problem with
sodium bicarbonate. Fire has been known to flash
back over the surface of oil when this agent is used.
2. Potassium Bicarbonate - this dry chemical was
originally developed for AFFF in a twined system.
However it is commonly used alone, it has been
found to be most effective on liquid fuel fires in
driving flames back and has a good reputation for
eliminating flashback. It is more expensive than
sodium bicarbonate.
3. Potassium Chloride - chloride was developed as
dry chemical that would be compatible with protein
type foams. Its extinguishing properties are about
equal to those of potassium bicarbonate. One
drawback is its tendency to cause corrosion after it
has extinguished a fire.
4. Urea Potassium Bicarbonate - this is a British
development of which the NFPA says, "Urea
potassium bicarbonate exhibits the greatest
effectiveness of all the dry chemicals tested". It is
not widely used because it is expensive.
5. Monoammonium Phosphate (ABC
multipurpose) - it is otherwise known as
multipurpose dry chemical because it can be
effective on class A, B and C fire. Ammonium salts
interrupt the chain reaction of flaming combustion.
The phosphate changes into methaphosphoric acid,
a glassy fusible material at fire temperatures, the
acid covers solid surfaces with a fire retardant
coating. Therefore, this agent can be used on fires
involving ordinary combustible materials such as
wood and paper well as on fires involving
flammable oils, gases electrical equipment.
However, it may only control but not fully
extinguish a deep-seated fire. Complete
extinguishments may require the use In fact it is
always prudent to run out of a hose 4 backup when
any dry chemical extinguish used. a hose line as a
back up when any dry chemicals extinguishers is
used.
Dry chemical agents extinguish fire by
cooling, smothering, shielding of radiant heat and
to the greatest extent by breaking the combustion
chain
Cooling - no dry chemical exhibits any great
capacity for cooling. However a small amount of
cooling takes place simply because the dry chemical
is at lower temperature than the burning material.
Heat is transferred from the hotter fuel to the
cooler dry chemical when the latter is introduced to
the fire. (Heat is always transferred from hotter
body to a cooler. body. The greater the surface area
and the temperature difference, the greater the
heat transfer).
Smothering - when dry chemical react with the
heat and burning material, some carbon dioxide
and water vapor are produced. These dilute the
fuel vapors and the air surrounding the fire. The
result is a limited smothering effect.
Shielding of Radiant Heat - dry chemical produces
an opaque cloud in the combustion area. This cloud
reduces the amount of heat that is radiated back to
the heart of fire, je.. the opaque cloud absorbs
some of the radiation feedback that is required to
sustain the fire. Fewer vapors are produced, and
the fire becomes less intense. Chain Breaking -
chain reactions are necessary for continued
combustion. In these chain reactions, fuel and
oxygen molecules are broken down by heat, they
recombine into the new molecules giving off
additional heat. This additional heat breaks down
more molecules, which then recombine and gives
off still more heat. The fire thus builds, or at least
sustains itself, through reactions that liberate
enough heat to set off other reactions.
Dry powders are the only extinguishing agents that
can control and extinguish metal fires without
causing violent reactions. Other extinguishing
agents may accelerate or spread the fire, injure
personnel, cause explosions or create conditions
more hazardous than the original fire. Dry powders
act mainly by smothering although some agents
also provide cooling

Ladder It is a portable piece of equipment with
rungs attached to sides made of metal, wood, or
rope, used for climbing up or down.
Beam- Main structural member of a ladder
supporting the rungs or rung blocks.
Solid beam ladder- - made of heavy hard wood
and/or lightweight metal alloys.
Trussed beam ladder-- a lightweight metal alloy
easier to handle and carry.
Uses of Solid Beam Ground Ladder
1. Accessing Elevated Areas
2. Overhaul Operations
3. Tactical Ventilation
Uses of Trussed Beam
Ground Ladder
1. Rapid Deployment
2. Temporary Access
3. Specialized Applications
Advantages of Solid Beam Ground Ladder
Stability
Durability
Versatility
Ease to use
Advantages of Trussed Beam Ground Ladder
Lightweight
Portability
Flexibility
Rapid Deployment
The Bureau of Fire Protection, referred to as the
Fire Bureau, was created under Rule VIII, section 49
of Republic Act no. 6975 otherwise known as the
Department of Interior and Local Government
(DILG) Act of 1990. Section 50 of the same act
provides that "the Fire Bureau is responsible for the
prevention and suppression of all destructive fires
on buildings, houses, and other structures, forests,
land transportation vehicles and equipment, ships
or vessels docked at piers or wharves or anchored
in major seaports, petroleum industry installations,
plarte crashes and other similar incidents, as well
as the enforcement of the Fire Code and other
related laws" (Tradio, 1997).
The Fire Bureau is also empowered to investigate
all causes of fires and, if necessary, file the proper
complaints with the city or provincial prosecutor
who has jurisdiction over the case,
• The Fire Bureau is a community-oriented
government agency that provides assistance
to the citizenry not only during fire but also
in times of typhoons, floods, earthquakes,
vehicular accidents, and various other
calamities. While its primary mission is to
serve the fire safety needs of the country,
the Fire Bureau is also active in rescue,
evacuation, paramedic and relief operation
in any life-threatening situation.
• Section 51 of RA 6975 provides that "the
Fire Bureau shall be headed by a Chief who
shall be assisted by a deputy chief. It shall
be composed of provincial offices, district
offices and city or municipal stations"
(Tradio, 1997).
• A INC
• "At the provincial level, there shall be an
office of the provincial fire marshal which
shall implement the policies, plans and
programs of the department, and monitor,
evaluate and coordinate the operations and
activities of the Fire Service operating units
at the city and municipal levels. In the case
of large provinces, district offices may be
established, to be headed by a district fire
marshal".
• Director
• Chief Superintendent
• Senior Superintendent
• Superintendent
• Chief Inspector
• Senior Inspector Inspector
• Senior Fire Officer IV
• Senior Fire Officer III
• Senior Fire Officer II
• Senior Fire Officer I
• Fire Officer III
• Fire Officer II
• Fire Officer 1