Define Well ordering principle

The Well-Ordering Principle is a fundamental concept in mathematics with widespread applications,

particularly in proofs involving mathematical induction and the establishment of logical order within
sets of integers. The principle ensures that every non-empty set of non-negative integers has a least
element, allowing for systematic and rigorous reasoning.

One significant application is in mathematical induction, a proof technique widely employed to

establish the validity of statements for all natural numbers. The Well-Ordering Principle serves as the
basis for the Principle of Mathematical Induction, stating that if a statement holds for a base case
and if it implies the truth for the next case, then the statement is true for all natural numbers.

For example, consider the statement that every natural number greater than or equal to 1 can be
expressed as the sum of distinct powers of 2. The base case (n = 1) is true. Assuming the statement
holds for some k, one can use the Well-Ordering Principle to show that it must also hold for k + 1.
This ensures the validity of the statement for all natural numbers.

The Well-Ordering Principle is a powerful tool for establishing order, providing a solid foundation for
mathematical reasoning, and enabling the systematic development of mathematical theories across
various branches of the discipline.

Lagrange theorem

Lagrange's Theorem, named after the Italian-French mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange, is a

fundamental result in group theory. It states:

**Lagrange's Theorem:**

If \( G \) is a finite group and \( H \) is a subgroup of \( G \), then the order of \( H \) (denoted as \( |

H| \)) divides the order of \( G \) (denoted as \( |G| \)). Mathematically, this can be expressed as:

\[ |G| = [G : H] \cdot |H| \]

where \([G : H]\) represents the index of \( H \) in \( G \), i.e., the number of left cosets of \( H \) in \
( G \).

In simpler terms, Lagrange's Theorem states that the order of any subgroup of a finite group divides
the order of the entire group. It is a fundamental result with wide-ranging applications in group
theory and has implications for understanding the structure of finite groups.
This theorem is particularly useful in classifying and analyzing finite groups, as it provides a constraint
on the possible orders of subgroups within a given group. Lagrange's Theorem also plays a crucial
role in the study of permutations, symmetric groups, and other algebraic structures.

**Uniqueness of Identity and Inverse Elements in a Group:**

Let \( G \) be a group with operation \(\cdot\).

1. **Uniqueness of Identity:**

Suppose \( e_1 \) and \( e_2 \) are both identity elements of \( G \). Then, for any \( a \) in \( G \),
we have:

\[ a \cdot e_1 = a \]

\[ a \cdot e_2 = a \]

Now, substitute \( e_1 \) for \( a \) in the second equation:

\[ e_1 \cdot e_2 = e_1 \]

But, \( e_1 \cdot e_2 = e_2 \) by the identity property. Therefore, \( e_1 = e_2 \), proving the
uniqueness of the identity.

2. **Uniqueness of Inverse:**

Let \( a \) have inverses \( b \) and \( c \) in \( G \). Then:

\[ a \cdot b = e \] (where \( e \) is the identity)

\[ a \cdot c = e \]

Now, multiply the first equation on the left by \( c \):

\[ c \cdot (a \cdot b) = c \cdot e \]

Using associativity and the fact that \( c \) is the inverse of \( a \):

\[ (c \cdot a) \cdot b = c \]

But \( c \cdot a = e \) (by the definition of inverse), so \( e \cdot b = c \), proving the uniqueness of
inverses.

**Differences between Hamiltonian and Eulerian Paths:**

1. **Existence Criteria:**

- **Hamiltonian Path:** A Hamiltonian path visits each vertex exactly once in a graph.
 - **Eulerian Path:** An Eulerian path traverses every edge exactly once in a graph.

2. **Starting and Ending Points:**

- **Hamiltonian Path:** The Hamiltonian path starts and ends at different vertices.

- **Eulerian Path:** The Eulerian path starts and ends at the same vertex.

3. **Conditions on Degrees:**

- **Hamiltonian Path:** No specific degree conditions are required for vertices.

- **Eulerian Path:** For an undirected graph, all vertices must have an even degree, or exactly two
vertices can have odd degree (for a directed graph, the in-degree and out-degree must match).

4. **Problem Complexity:**

- **Hamiltonian Path:** Determining the existence of a Hamiltonian path is NP-complete.

- **Eulerian Path:** Determining the existence of an Eulerian path is polynomial.

In summary, Hamiltonian paths focus on visiting each vertex, while Eulerian paths focus on traversing
each edge, and their conditions and complexities differ accordingly.

1. **Tautology:**

A tautology is a logical statement that is always true, regardless of the truth values of its variables.
In symbolic logic, a tautology is represented by a statement that evaluates to true under every
possible assignment of truth values to its atomic propositions. For example, the statement "p OR
NOT p" is a tautology since it is true for all possible truth values of p.

2. **Contradiction:**

A contradiction is a logical statement that is always false, regardless of the truth values of its
variables. In symbolic logic, a contradiction is represented by a statement that evaluates to false
under every possible assignment of truth values to its atomic propositions. For instance, the
statement "p AND NOT p" is a contradiction since it is false for all possible truth values of p.

Given the premises:

- \( x \, P(x) \) (Premise 1)

- \( \forall x \, [P(x) \rightarrow (P \vee Q)(x)] \) (Premise 2)

Now, we want to conclude \( Q(x) \). We can proceed as follows:

1. Use Premise 1 with Universal Instantiation:

\[ P(s) \] where \( s \) is some specific value of \( x \).

2. Apply Premise 2 using Modus Ponens (MP):

\[ (P \vee Q)(s) \]

3. Use Disjunction Elimination (Eliminating the OR):

- Case 1: \( P(s) \) (trivial case, as we already have this information)

- Case 2: \( Q(s) \) (follows from the disjunction \( P \vee Q \))

Since we have both cases covered, we can conclude \( Q(x) \) from the premises.

Euler's formula for a connected planar simple graph relates the number of vertices (\(V\)), edges (\
(E\)), and faces (\(F\)) in the graph. The formula is given by:

\[ V - E + F = 2 \]

**Proof:**

1. **Induction on the Number of Edges:**

- **Base Case:** For a graph with \(E = 0\) (no edges), it must be a single isolated vertex (\(V = 1\))
with \(F = 1\). The formula holds: \(1 - 0 + 1 = 2\).

2. **Inductive Step:**

- Assume the formula holds for a connected planar simple graph with \(k\) edges.

- Consider adding an edge to this graph to form a new graph with \(k + 1\) edges.

3. **Adding an Edge:**

- Adding an edge creates either a new face or merges two existing faces.
 - In the case of creating a new face, \(F\) increases by 1.

- In the case of merging faces, \(F\) remains the same.

4. **Inductive Hypothesis:**

- Using the assumption that the formula holds for the graph with \(k\) edges.

- Let \(V_k\), \(E_k\), and \(F_k\) be the number of vertices, edges, and faces, respectively, for the
graph with \(k\) edges.

5. **Updated Formula for \(k + 1\) Edges:**

- For the new graph with \(k + 1\) edges:

\[ V_{k+1} - (k + 1) + F_{k+1} = 2 \]

- \(V_{k+1} = V_k\) (no new vertices added).

- \(E_{k+1} = k + 1\) (one new edge added).

- Update the formula:

\[ V_k - (k + 1) + (F_k + 1) = 2 \]

\[ V_k - k + F_k = 2 \]

6. **Conclude the Inductive Step:**

- The formula holds for the graph with \(k + 1\) edges.

By induction, Euler's formula holds for any connected planar simple graph.