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IOP PUBLISHING SMART MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES
Smart Mater. Struct. 22 (2013) 035002 (10pp) doi:10.1088/0964-1726/22/3/035002

Fabrication and performance analysis of a

DEA cuff designed for dry-suit
applications
S Ahmadi, A Camacho Mattos, A Barbazza, M Soleimani, P Boscariol
and C Menon
MENRVA Research Group, School of Engineering Science, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University
Drive, Burnaby, BC, V5A1S6, Canada

E-mail: cmenon@sfu.ca

Received 14 September 2012, in final form 6 December 2012

Published 28 January 2013
Online at stacks.iop.org/SMS/22/035002

Abstract
A method for manufacturing a cylindrical dielectric elastomer actuator (DEA) is presented.
The cylindrical DEA can be used in fabricating the cuff area of dry-suits where the garment is
very tight and wearing the suit is difficult. When electrically actuated, the DEA expands
radially and the suit can be worn more comfortably. In order to study the performance of the
DEA, a customized testing setup was designed, and silicone-made cuff samples with different
material stiffnesses were tested. Analytical and FEM modeling were considered to evaluate the
experimental output. The results revealed that although the stiffness of the DEA material has a
direct relationship with the radial constrictive pressure caused by mechanically stretching the
DEA, it has a minor effect on the actuation pressure. It was also found that stacking multiple
layers of the DEA to fabricate a laminated structure enabled the attainment of a desired
variation of pressure required for the implementation of an electrically tunable cuff.
(Some figures may appear in colour only in the online journal)

1. Introduction durable, and potentially suitable for embedding in fabrics [2].

Electroactive polymers (EAPs) which change dimension and
shape in response to electrical stimuli, can be classified
in two main categories: ionic EAPs, which are activated
by electrically-induced transport of ions or molecules,
and dielectric EAPs, which are activated by an external
electric field and Coulombic forces [1]. The intense research
performed especially in the last decade on EAPs has
led to the development of novel actuators and sensors
for a wide variety of applications in different sectors,
such as aerospace, medicine, robotics, and entertainment
industries [1]. Dielectric elastomers, which are a specific
subset of electronic EAPs, have been of particular interest
because of their good overall performance in terms of
simplicity, robustness, stability, and low cost [2]. DEAs are
capable of exerting relatively high forces [2], can operate in
harsh environments (e.g. studies have shown that they can
potentially be used in outer space [3, 4]), and are lightweight,
Typical DEA samples consist of either a silicone or acrylic
membrane sandwiched between two compliant electrodes.
Silicone DEAs can tolerate larger elastic strains, whereas
acrylic DEAs can tolerate larger actuation strains but are
softer than silicone in nature [5].
Several DEA designs have shown to be capable of
producing high strain, large force output, low response time,
and long lifetime [6–8]. One of the advantages of using DEAs
is that they can be used in fabrication of different sample
geometries, including planar [9], buckling [10], helical [11],
folded [12], roll [13], and spherical [7, 8]. On the numerical
side, quite a large number of models have been proposed
to investigate the DEA response to the mechanical and
electrical actuation pressures for various geometries [8, 9,
13–28]. However, only a few models have been developed
for cylindrical DEAs, e.g. [4, 15, 17–20]. Among them,
several models offered by Goulbourne et al [17, 18] have
been developed for fiber-reinforced elastomer membranes

0964-1726/13/035002+10$33.00 1 c 2013 IOP Publishing Ltd Printed in the UK & the USA
Smart Mater. Struct. 22 (2013) 035002
by using Mooney–Rivlin and Ogden material models. The
models proposed by Carpi et al [4, 15, 19], on the other
hand, have been derived assuming linear elastic relations. It
should be noted that during mechanical loading or actuating
a cylindrical DEA, two types of pressures are observed
within the material: the pressure exerted by inflating or
stretching the DEA sample which is termed the mechanical
pressure; and the pressure induced by electrically activating
the DEA which is termed the actuation pressure hereafter.
The models presented by Carpi had reasonable predictions of
the mechanical pressure for small strains. However, the linear
elastic assumption that was used limited the model accuracy
when used for predicting large deformations of the DEA.
Interestingly, the prediction of the actuation pressure was not
influenced by the material model as the actuation stage was
modeled by taking the gradient of electrostatic energy that
is independent from the mechanical or material behavior [15,
19].
The use of DEAs presents a potentially viable solution for
developing actively form-fitting garments. Deformable wear
suits can find potential applications in different industrial
sectors. An interesting application consists of embedding
DEAs in manufacturing dry-suits or similar garments, in
order to enhance the ease, speed, and comfort during wearing
such gear. A main discomfort of ordinary dry-suits is the
presence of very tight cuffs, which need to be sealed before
the garment is submerged in water. To avoid leakage from the
space between the wrist and the cuff, a minimum pressure of
4.65 kPa is required when the dry-suit is worn [29]. Moreover,
applying pressures greater than 6.7 kPa is not recommended
as it may influence blood circulation, disrupt the nerve system,
and cause numbness around the wrist and palm area [30].
Therefore, a pressure range from 4.6 to 6.7 kPa should be
considered for safe operation of the DEA cuff while having a
comfortable water-sealed dry-suit. This safe pressure range is
named the ‘safe-operating pressure range (SOPR)’ hereafter.
The basic structure of a cylindrical actuator typically
consists of a thin-wall cylindrical tube of a DEA with two
compliant electrodes on the internal and external surfaces. The
following operational phases are proposed to use a cylindrical
DEA as a dry-suit cuff: first, the DEA is electrically actuated
by applying a desired voltage; then, it is mechanically
stretched and positioned on the wrist; and finally, the voltage
is switched off so that the DEA makes a tight fit to the wrist.
In this paper, the aim was to manufacture and test
a prototype of a silicone-made DEA cuff that obeys the
SOPR and offers a large actuation pressure when electrically
activated. To examine the electromechanical response of the
DEA cuff, an Ogden-based analytical model was developed
and used. Furthermore, FEM simulations were carried out for
both validating the experimental and analytical results and
performing a parametric investigation aimed at developing
design maps that can be used to manufacture DEA samples
with more reliable operating pressures within the SOPR.
2. Numerical models
Analytical modeling and finite element analysis are required
as special tools to numerically validate results obtained from
2
S Ahmadi et al
experimental testing of the DEA cuff samples. In this section,
an Ogden-based analytical model for cylindrical sample
geometries is developed. The procedure for setting up the
finite element model in Ansys 14.0 [31] is also explained in
a separate subsection.
2.1. Analytical modeling
The analytical model presented here is developed in three
steps. Firstly, a large deformation analysis, which takes into
account the nonlinear behavior of the DEA, is performed to
predict the constrictive pressure exerted by the actuator when
it is radially stretched. This analysis serves for computing
the pressure exerted by stretching the DEA cuff when no
electric voltage is applied. Secondly, an electrical analysis
is performed for determining the relationship between the
voltage and the electrostatic pressure produced between the
electrodes of the actuator. Thirdly, the previous two analyses
are combined together to calculate the total constrictive
pressure exerted by the actuator when it is pre-stretched and a
voltage field is applied.
2.1.1. Formulation of Ogden-based mechanical model. The
mechanics of elastomers present difficulties in modeling
because they are prompted to undergo large strains as
well as showing nonlinear behavior during large elastic
deformations. The common way to generalize hyperelastic
behavior of elastomers is to use a strain–energy density
function [32]. Before setting up the model, it was assumed
that: (i) the material is isotropic in all its deformation states,
(ii) the material is incompressible (i.e. volume changes are
negligible), and (iii) the shear strains are zero. Stretch ratios
can be used to establish the hyperelastic model,
λi = xi /Xi ; i = 1–3, (1)
where λi is the stretch ratio in the i principal direction, xi
is the final length in the i direction, and Xi is the original
length in the same direction. In this paper, DEAs with
perfectly cylindrical shapes are modeled; thus, the cylindrical
coordinate is taken as the working coordinate system. The
principal directions in a cylindrical system are (r, θ, z) and
the stretch ratios are adjusted relatively,
(λr , λθ , λz ) ≡ (r/R, θ/2, z/Z), (2)
where r, θ, and z are final positions along radial, azimuthal,
and longitudinal directions; R, 2, and Z are initial values.
In an experimental setting, the DEA cuff is in contact with
the wrist and cannot therefore deform along the Z direction;
hence, z = Z and consequently λz = 1. It is also valid
that based on the incompressibility assumption we have
λr λθ λz ≡ 1, and therefore λr = 1/λθ . The strain–energy
density function, W, is then defined as
W = f (λr , λθ , λz ). (3)
There are several different models that have been estab-
lished to mathematically describe the hyperelastic behavior
of materials; some well-known ones are Neo-Hookean,
Smart Mater. Struct. 22 (2013) 035002 S Ahmadi et al

Mooney–Rivlin, Ogden, Yeoh, and Arruda–Boyce. A com- By substituting (12) into (13) and simplification we have
plete review of these models can be found in [33]. Based on a
dr dλ
previous study [8], the Ogden model predicts reliable results = . (14)
for the silicone material used in this study. Using the Ogden r λ(1 − λ2 )
model, W is determined as Upon substitution of (14) into (10), we obtain
N
µi dλ
(λαr i + λαθ i + λαz i − 3), [µ1 (λα1 − λ−α1 )
X
W= (4) dσr = −
αi λ(1 − λ2 )
i=1
+ µ2 (λα2 − λ−α2 )]. (15)
where αi and µi are Ogden parameters and N is the number of
desired terms. To find the Cauchy stress, σ , the derivative of The net mechanical pressure applied to the walls of the cuff is
W is required, obtained using Pm = σa − σb . To find the mechanical pressure
we take the integral of (15),
∂W
σi = p + λi , (5) Z λa
∂λi µ1 (λα1 − λ−α1 ) + µ2 (λα2 − λ−α2 )
Pm = dλ, (16)
where p is the hydrostatic pressure and i = r, θ, z. If we take λb λ(λ2 − 1)
the second-order Ogden model, the radial stress, σr , can be
where λa = a/A and λb = b/B represent inner and outer
defined using (5),
stretch ratios, respectively. The integral can be solved
σr = p + µ1 λαr 1 + µ2 λαr 2 . (6) numerically using, for example, Simpson’s rule [35].

The radial stress can be used to obtain inner and outer radial
stresses (σa and σb ) at any time if the hydrostatic pressure 2.1.2. Formulation of the electrostatic model. In order
is determined. Equation (6) alone has two unknowns, p and to activate the cylindrical actuator we apply an electrical
λr , and a second equation is required to solve the problem. potential difference at the electrodes embedded in the inner
The equilibrium equation along the radial direction [34] can and outer surfaces of the cylindrical DEA. This produces
be used in this case, a cylindrical electric field making a uniform distribution of
electric charges on the actuator’s surfaces. To determine the
∂σr σr − σθ 1 ∂σrθ ∂σrz
+ + + + fr = 0, (7) actuation pressure, we need to first determine the amount of
∂r r r ∂θ ∂z stored charges on the walls of the cylindrical geometry. We
where σij (i 6= j) are shear stresses, and fr is the component can use Gauss’s law to determine the quantity of charges
of body forces along the radial direction. It is assumed that enclosed within a closed surface, S [36],
no external body force is applied; also, all shear terms are {
neglected because stretch ratios are specified for principle E E= Q ,
E · dA (17)
directions. Therefore, equation (7) is simplified to S ε0 εr
where E is the electric field, dA is a vector normal to the area
dσr σr − σθ
+ = 0, (8) on which the electric flux is applied, Q is the total charge
dr r enclosed within the surface S, ε0 is the vacuum permittivity,
where σθ is the hoop stress which can be attained similarly to and εr is the relative permittivity. For the case of the DEA
the radial stress from (4) and (5), cuff, Gauss’s principle can be written for two parallel walls of
σθ = p + µ1 λαθ 1 + µ2 λαθ 2 .
a cylinder as follows
(9)
To be consistent, we assume λr = 1/λθ = λ. Substituting (6) Q
E(2πrl) = , (18)
and (9) into (8) yields ε0 εr
where l is the length and r is the radius of the cuff. Based
dσr µ1 (λα1 − λ−α1 ) + µ2 (λα2 − λ−α2 )
=− . (10) on the assumption we made previously, the length of the cuff
dr r remains unchanged and the only variable is the radius,
If the initial inner and outer radii are taken as A and B
respectively, and the final values are taken as a and b, using Q 1
E(r) = . (19)
the conservation of volume principle we have 2π ε0 εr l r
The difference in the electric voltage is defined as [36],
π(R2 − A2 )H = π(r2 − a2 )h. (11)
Z b
If we assume H = h and take the derivatives, we obtain V = Vb − Va = − E(r) dr. (20)
a
R dR = r dr. (12)
By substitution of (19) into (20) and taking the integral, this
Also, by taking the derivative of both sides of r = λR, another can be written as
useful relation is obtained,  
Q b
dr = λ dR + R dλ. V=− ln . (21)
(13) 2π ε0 εr l a
3
Smart Mater. Struct. 22 (2013) 035002
The actuation pressure can be found using Maxwell’s stress
tensor [36] in which the radial stress can be defined as
ε0 εr E2
σr = . (22)
2 geometry must be meshed with very fine segments along the
Using (19) the radial stress component becomes
Q2 1 as simulation outputs. The procedure is then followed by
σr = . (23)
8π 2 ε0 εr l2 r2
The actuation pressure, Pa , is then obtained,
Q2
 
1 1
Pa = σa − σb = − . (24)
8π 2 ε0 εr l2 a2 b2
Finally by substituting (21), the actuation pressure becomes
ε0 εr V 2 b2 − a2
Pa = . (25)
2ln2 (b/a) a2 b2
According to (25), the actuation pressure only depends on
the geometry, applied voltage, and the relative permittivity
of the material. The stiffness and mechanical behavior of the
material have no effect on the actuation pressure.
2.1.3. Constitutive net pressure. The overall constrictive
pressure applied by the DEA cuff to the wrist is composed
of electrical and mechanical stresses applied based on
electromechanical reaction of the cuff under an electrically
activated situation. The following general equation can
therefore be obtained from the static equilibrium of the forces
exerted by the elastomeric DEA to the wrist,
Pt = Pm − Pa , (26)
where Pt is the resultant constrictive pressure exerted by the
DEA cuff, Pm is the mechanical pressure given by (16), and
Pa is the actuation pressure obtained by (25).
2.2. Finite element modeling
The process of testing the DEA can be studied as two separate
simulation stages: (i) when the DEA is inflated to have a flat
surface similar to the rigid support, and (ii) when the DEA
sample is actuated by applying an electric voltage. The first
stage can be modeled assuming a perfectly cylindrical sample
with axially fixed ends. The sample is then radially expanded
in small increments to a final inner radius equivalent to the
radius of the rigid plastic support used in experiments. The
initial inner radius is identical to the one measured for the
undeformed DEA sample. To model the hyperelastic material
behavior of the DEA, a 20-node quadratic ANSYS-element
(Solid226 [31]) is used. This element can be employed
for multi-field simulations including structural, piezoelectric,
thermal, electrostatic, and electric field analyses. Here, to
study electromechanical effects, electrostatic and structural
fields are coupled in a quasi-static analysis case. Only one
quarter of the cylindrical cuff sample is modeled as the
rotational symmetry exists about the axial direction. The
symmetry-reduced model requires fewer mesh elements. The
second-order Ogden parameters are required to include the
4
S Ahmadi et al
hyperelastic behavior of the material in simulations. These
parameters can be obtained from finding the best fit to
the stress–strain curve produced from experimental tensile
testing. To obtain more accurate pressure variations, the DEA
thickness. After the first simulation stage, the outer radius,
final thickness, and the mechanical pressure are reported
applying incremental voltages to the inner and outer surfaces
of the inflated cuff model. The actuation pressure is calculated
by obtaining the radial stress using the Maxwell stress tensor
augmented in Solid226 ANSYS-element [31].
3. Materials and methods
3.1. Fabrication of the DEA cuff
Previous methods of fabricating DEA materials have been
developed based upon using a flat piece or strip and
connecting the ends to make a cylindrical sample [7, 15, 19].
The DEA samples produced using these methods did not show
symmetrical properties and usually their radial expansions
were limited along the seam line. In order to make a seamless
DEA cuff, a mold composed of a solid piston and a cylinder
was used to fabricate samples from a commercial silicone,
TC5005 [37]. This silicone comprises three fundamental
components: A, B and C. The B component is a curing agent
that is added to A based on a weight ratio of 10–100 parts.
The C component is the softening agent which can be added
to give as much as 50% of the total weight of A + B. Adding
higher amounts of C lowers the stiffness and viscosity of the
mix and improves the elasticity performance of the silicone.
Exceeding the usage of C above 50% would not allow the
polymer to cure. In this research, different amounts of C (from
10 to 45%) were used to study the effect of stiffness on the
mechanical and electrical performance of the cuff material
during the actuation phase. After selecting the proper amount
of each component, ultrasonic mixing was used to make a
blend by vibration. Moreover, to remove trapped air-bubbles,
the mixture was kept in a vacuum chamber for 10 min. The
well-mixed silicone was then poured into flat and cylindrical
molds. Flat samples were used for tensile testing, whereas
cylindrical samples were prepared for electromechanical tests.
To avoid entrapment of air-bubbles, uncured silicone was
poured into the mold very slowly and the mold was kept
under and removed from vacuum three times. After molding,
samples were left to cure for 24 h. To reduce the risk
of damage during unmolding, petroleum was used as the
releasing agent.
To make electroactive samples, the inner and outer
surfaces of the raw silicone samples were painted using a
mixture of silicone and carbon black. The mixture contained
1 g of a single component silicone (commercially available
as CAF4-Rhodosil), 20 ml of trichloroethylene, and 8 g of
carbon powder. The mix was applied to the surface using a
thin brush. Trichloroethylene was evaporated after 30 min and
DEA samples were prepared for testing. The finished cuff
samples at this point had an inner radius of 14 ± 0.05 mm,
Smart Mater. Struct. 22 (2013) 035002 S Ahmadi et al

schematic view of the support. To measure the radial pressure

induced by the DEA cuff on the rigid support, a pressure
sensor can be positioned in the space in between but because
of the existence of frictional forces the readings would not be
accurate. As an alternative, we designed a hollow chamber
in the middle of the rigid support, see figure 2(b), and
connected a pressure sensor (Omegadyne PX309-001G5V) to
this chamber using rigid plastic tubes. Once the DEA sample
is positioned on the rigid support, a particular fluid can be
used to fill up the chamber and the connecting tubes. This
creates a closed system in which the pressure sensor can detect
very small pressure variations near the DEA/fluid interface.
As shown in figure 2(b), when the chamber is empty, the cuff
sample is bent inwards, but before actuating the sample, the
pressure of the system should be increased until the wall of
the sample becomes nearly flat, as shown in figure 2(c). A
Figure 1. Engineering stress–strain curves for material samples power supply and a voltage amplifier (Q101-5, EMCO) with
having different amounts of C agent.
a maximum output voltage of 12.25 kV were used to actuate
the cuff sample. Both ends of the electrodes were connected
Table 1. Ogden parameters for samples with different amounts of C to the voltage amplifier using copper strips. A schematic view
agent.
of the setup is shown in figure 3.
µ1 α1 µ2 α2 Any type of fluid can be used to fill the chamber and the
C10 5 278.9 4.3577 367 594.0 0.2125 connecting tubes. Two available options are air or water. Air
C15 11 778.6 3.3190 143 114.3 0.2125 is a compressible fluid and can be used if a soft medium is
C20 3 987.6 3.9041 224 796.9 0.2125 studied, and water can be used for a nearly rigid case. The
C25 7 075.1 3.3757 122 557.4 0.2125 tissue structure of the wrist is stiffer than air and is softer
C30 3 598.2 3.7889 112 188.1 0.2125
C40 3 580.9 3.4845 135 532.1 0.2125
than a rigid material; hence, we can say that water applies
an upper bound and air a lower bound to the pressures that
are tolerated by the wrist. To evaluate the effects of using
water and air on pressure readings, two experimental tests
a thickness of 1.05 ± 0.02, and a complete length of
were conducted. A DEA sample made of C20 with a thickness
24 ± 0.05 mm.
1.05 mm was actuated by a voltage of 12.25 kV. The pressure
obtained from using water was 1.803 kPa and for air was
3.2. Tensile testing 1.780 kPa; hence, the relative pressure difference between
water and air was measured to be a small portion of ∼1.2%,
To investigate the mechanical behavior of the silicone which seems negligible when such large pressures are applied.
material, tensile testing was conducted. Rectangular tensile Furthermore, if air is used as the fluid, the volume–pressure
samples (length = 10 ± 0.05 mm, width = 6.5 ± 0.05 mm, relations of a compressible fluid must be considered in the
and thickness = 1.05 ± 0.02 mm) were prepared from flat analytical and FEM modeling, which makes the simulations
DEA material substances made of 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, and 40% more difficult. Therefore, we used water to avoid this problem.
of the C component. Hereafter, samples with AA% of C are
shown as CAA for simplicity. A set of three samples was 4. Results and discussion
tested for each material type. Average values of engineering
stress–strain data were obtained. Stress–strain curves are A comparison of the experimental, analytical and FEM
illustrated in figure 1. Only strains up to 2 are shown. analysis results is presented in this section. To compare the
Tensile testing data were used to determine second-order mechanical pressure required to inflate the cuff sample, a
Ogden parameters using the curve-fitting method available in stretch of λa = 2.36 was used. This is the stretch that was
ANSYS software v. 14.0 [31]. Best-fit parameters for different applied to the cuff material (with an initial inner radius of
material samples are reported in table 1. 14 mm) when placed on the rigid support (with a radius of
33 mm). The Ogden parameters provided in table 1 were
3.3. Experimental setup used to adjust the FEM setup in Ansys. A mesh contained
20 segments along the thickness and a total number of 14 000
In order to set up a practical procedure for testing the DEA elements for the entire model were used. Figure 4(a) illustrates
prototype, a rigid-frame support with dimensions similar the comparison of the mechanical pressure predicted by the
to the size of a normal human wrist was manufactured. analytical and FEM models for a stretch range of 1–2.36.
A normal wrist usually has an average circumference of As expected, by inflating the cuff, i.e. larger stretches, the
160–210 mm [38]; therefore, the support was chosen to mechanical pressure is increased with almost the same trend
have an outer radius of 33 mm. Figure 2(a) demonstrates a as the material stiffness observed in the stress–strain curves.

5
Smart Mater. Struct. 22 (2013) 035002
Figure 2. (a) Fixture with dimensions similar to the size of a normal human wrist. This stand is used as a support to keep the DEA cuff in
place during testing. DEA cuff placed on the support (b) before, and (c) after inflation.
Figure 3. A schematic view of the system setup demonstrates how
the cuff sample is experimentally tested.
It is seen that as the stiffness of the material decreases,
by selecting a larger amount of C, the mechanical pressure
decreases as well. The FEM simulations demonstrate results
nearly the same as the analytical model. On the experimental
side, the mechanical pressure was measured only for the C20
sample, which gave a pressure of 2.493 ± 0.007 kPa for a
stretch value of 2.36. Hence, the absolute relative error by
comparing the analytical result for C20 with this experimental
pressure is 0.15% and for the FEM model is 0.88%. Both
errors are below 1% which proves that the analytical and
FEM models can precisely predict the mechanical pressure
observed in the experiments. The results also confirm that
the experimental testing design has been set up with low
measurement errors (e.g. low friction effects), accurate
procedure for measuring the pressure, and having a perfectly
cylindrical cuff with no evidence of major manufacturing
defects.
6
S Ahmadi et al
Figure 4(b) shows the effects of applied voltage on
the variation of the actuation pressure. Results are obtained
using the analytical and FEM models. A constant value of
4.71 was chosen for the relative permittivity of the silicone
material. In the analytical modeling, i.e. using (25), the
actuation pressure is only related to the geometry of the
sample, the distance between the two electrodes, the relative
permittivity of the material, and the amount of applied
voltage. According to (25), the stiffness of the DEA material
does not affect the actuation pressure. However, in reality, by
increasing the voltage, the electric field influences the electric
charges more effectively and the Maxwell radial pressure is
increased accordingly. This increase in radial pressure causes
the material to shrink radially depending on its stiffness
properties. In general, it is likely to see larger thickness
reductions for samples with lower stiffness. Reduction in
thickness cannot be modeled by the analytical model using
(25); instead, we can use the FEM model to study this effect.
The simulation results showed that the reduction in thickness
changed relatively from 0.012 to 0.029 mm for stiffer to more
compliant samples, i.e. C10–C40. The actuation pressure
difference following this reduction in thickness was 14 Pa
when the maximum voltage, 12.25 kV, was applied. If
material stiffness effects are ignored, the actuation pressure
is reported as 405 Pa for all material samples, as shown in
figure 4(b).
The total pressure applied by the DEA cuff to the wrist
is the net pressure achieved by subtracting the actuation
pressure from the mechanical pressure, see (26). Figure 4(c)
demonstrates the variation of total pressure by changing the
voltage for different samples. By selecting higher voltages,
the actuation pressure is increased and the total pressure
applied to the inner surface (i.e. the cuff–wrist contact area)
is decreased.
For the ideal case, we want to have achieve large pressure
drops induced by electrical actuation to increase the comfort
of wearing the dry-suits. Analytical and FEM results for one
Smart Mater. Struct. 22 (2013) 035002
Figure 4. Analytical (solid line) and FEM results (unfilled circles)
for different material samples: (a) mechanical pressure versus inner
stretch changes; (b) actuation pressure versus inner stretch changes;
and (c) total pressure versus applied voltage. The actuation pressure
in (b) was subtracted from the mechanical pressure at a stretch value
of 2.36 in (a) to obtain the total pressure in (c).
layer of the cuff, see figure 4(c), show that none of the
material samples can produce pressures above the critical
pressure, i.e. 4.60 kPa, required to ensure water resistivity of
7
S Ahmadi et al
Figure 5. A FEM-based design map demonstrating the relative
pressure variation for different material samples with several layers
of a DEA material. Each layer has a thickness of 1.05 mm.
the dry-suit. In addition, the pressure drop caused by actuating
one layer of the DEA material is not adequately large—here
the actuation pressure is 405 Pa when we apply 12.25 kV,
which, for example, yields a pressure drop of 16% for C20.
To increase the actuation pressure, based on (25), we can
either choose a thinner sample or increase the voltage. A more
feasible solution is to use multiple layers of the cuff material.
When two or more layers are laminated together, both the
mechanical and actuation pressures are increased.
The FEM model was used to predict electrical and
mechanical pressure variations for multi-layer DEAs. The
analytical model can be used to estimate pressure results;
however, as explained earlier, it does not take into account
the pressure changes caused by thickness reductions during
the actuation stage. Figure 5 demonstrates FEM results of
combining multiple layers. For every set of stacked DEAs,
there is a colored band depicting a range of upper and lower
pressures applied by the DEA. The upper line represents the
mechanical pressure before actuating the DEA. By increasing
the voltage, the actuation pressure applied by the DEA is
increased and the total pressure drops to the lower line when
the maximum voltage is applied.
From figure 5, it can be observed that by adding layers
of the DEA, the mechanical pressure is raised to a higher
value and the pressure band is widened. The threshold of
the SOPR is also shown as dashed lines. As can be realized,
to have a safe-operating sample, the upper line of the band
should be located within the SOPR. Figure 5 shows that
if we only use one layer of the DEA, the pressure band
would not fall in the SOPR. If two layers are used, samples
with the range of C15–20 can express effective mechanical
pressures in the SOPR. If a higher amount of C is necessary
for some applications, adding more layers can help to keep
the mechanical pressure within the SOPR. For instance,
stacks of three or four layers are assembled for softer DEA
materials, i.e. C25–35 for three- and C35–40 for four-layer
samples. Figure 5 can therefore be used as a design map
to fabricate a multi-layer DEA sample with a mechanical
Smart Mater. Struct. 22 (2013) 035002
Figure 6. Comparison of pressure variation versus applied voltage
for single- and double-layer DEAs made of C20.
pressure within the SOPR and a large actuation pressure
for comfortably wearing the suit. As an example, instead of
making a double-layer sample from C15, we can make a
four-layer sample of C35. They both offer similar mechanical
pressures, but the four-layer sample provides an actuation
pressure of 1.69 kPa against a value of 0.82 kPa for the
double-layer one.
To experimentally validate the simulated predictions,
samples having two layers manufactured using C20 were
fabricated. Samples were positioned on the rigid plastic
support and experimental tests were conducted with the
same procedure as when the one-layer samples were tested.
Pressure variation results obtained from experimental results
are shown in figure 6. Related analytical and FEM results are
also plotted in the same figure. It is evident that the mechanical
pressure empirically measured for the double-layer DEA is
nearly twice the value measured for the one-layer sample.
Analytical and FEM results also match accurately with the
experiments. Comparison of results, therefore, confirms that
the setup developed in the experimental testing has been
appropriately established to report the pressure changes with
high accuracy. It is also proved that the samples were
manufactured and tested with minimal defects.
Stacking and testing more than two layers of the
DEA was not possible as it was difficult to perfectly
align the samples during assembly. However, for industrial
applications, it is recommended to use a very soft material
to make thin layers of the DEA and stack multiple layers
together to make a dry-suit with very large actuation
pressures. Selecting a thinner layer helps to keep the
mechanical pressure low and increase the actuation pressure
relatively. For example, if one layer of C20 with a thickness
of 1.05 mm is used, the mechanical pressure is ∼2.50 kPa and
the pressure drop by maximum actuation is ∼0.4 kPa, which
means that the actuation pressure can lower the total pressure
by 16%. Now if we consider the same material but stacking
two layers with a thickness of 0.52 mm, the mechanical
pressure does not change because the total thickness remains
1.05, but the actuation pressure reaches 1.65 kPa. This creates
8
S Ahmadi et al
Figure 7. A FEM-based design map demonstrating the relative
pressure variation for different material samples with several layers
of a DEA material. The total thickness of the multi-layer DEA
sample is 2.1 mm.
a pressure drop of 66% when the maximum voltage is applied.
In this example, the mechanical pressure, however, does not
fall into the SOPR; therefore, more layers should be combined
to increase the total thickness and improve the mechanical
pressure.
A design map, similar to figure 5, can be established to
study the benefits of using thinner layers. The DEA layers in
figure 5 have a constant thickness of 1.05 mm, but the map in
figure 7 shows results for single- and multi-layer samples all
having a total thickness of 2.1 mm. Each color band represents
the variation of pressure for the samples from zero (upper
limit) to the maximum voltage (lower limit). The upper limit
is common for all pressure bands because the total thickness
is the same for all samples. The pressure band is defined by
identifying the space between the upper solid line and the
lower line of each color band. As a reference, the pressure
range for a three-layer C20 sample and a double-layer C25
sample is marked with arrows in figure 7. As can be seen,
only C15–20 samples can provide a safe mechanical pressure
that does not violate the SOPR. Also, by a quick comparison,
it is found that selecting a four-layer C20 sample can produce
the largest valid actuation pressure 3.17 kPa, which creates
a pressure drop of 68%. This is very similar to the pressure
drop (66%) computed for a double-layer C20 sample with a
total thickness of 1.05 mm. The 2% difference is, however,
explained by the fact that the four-layer sample exerts a larger
mechanical pressure causing more thickness reductions and a
larger increase of the actuation pressure which yields a larger
pressure drop.
5. Conclusion
A method for manufacturing a silicone-made cylindrical DEA
sample that can be used in the fabrication of dry-suites was
discussed. To study the electromechanical behavior of the
DEA, a full comparison of experimental, analytical, and FEM
results was considered.
Smart Mater. Struct. 22 (2013) 035002
The results show that the amount of agent C had direct
effects on the stiffness of the silicone material. Choosing
larger amounts of C lowers the stiffness of the DEA material,
which implies a decrease of the mechanical pressure as
a result. The stiffness had minor effects on the actuation
pressure as a small reduction of thickness was predicted by
the FEM model for the actuation stage.
In order to improve the performance of the cylindrical
actuator, it is possible to combine multiple layers of
the DEA material to make samples with larger actuation
pressures. Comparison of single- and double-layer samples
showed that by adding an extra layer, both mechanical and
actuation pressures double their values; therefore, to keep
the mechanical pressure within the SOPR and have a sample
with a larger actuation pressure, it is advisable to select a
soft material and stack multiple thin layers together. From
the comparison of design maps in figures 5 and 7, it is seen
that lowering the thickness has great impacts on improving
the actuation pressure.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the Natural Sciences and
Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) and the
Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR). The authors
would like to thank the members of the MENRVA research
group for their valuable support and contribution to this
research.
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