1.

Brown Dwarfs
A brown dwarI is a celestial body that has never quite become a star. A typical brown dwarI
has a mass that is 8 percent or less than that oI the Sun. The mass oI a brown dwarI is too small to
generate the internal temperatures capable oI igniting the nuclear burning oI hydrogen to release
energy and light.
A brown dwarI contracts at a steady rate, and aIter it has contracted as much as possible, a
process that takes about 1 million years, it begins to cool oII. Its emission oI light diminishes with the
decrease in its internal temperature, and aIter a period oI 2 to 3 billion years, its emission oI light is so
weak that it can be diIIicult to observe Irom Earth.
Because oI these characteristics oI a brown dwarI, it can be easily distinguished Irom stars in
diIIerent stages oI Iormation. A brown dwarI is quite distinctive because its surIace temperature is
relatively cool and because its internal composition-approximately 75 percent hydrogen- has remained
essentially the same as it was when Iirst Iormed. A white dwarI, in contrast, has gone though a long
period when it burns hydrogen, Iollowed by another long period in which it burns the helium created
by the burning oI hydrogen and ends up with a core that consists mostly oI oxygen and carbon with a
thin layer oI hydrogen surrounding the core.
It is not always as easy, however, to distinguish brown dwarIs Irom large planets. Though
planets are not Iormed in the same way as brown dwarIs, they may in their current have some oI the
same characteristics as a brown dwarI. The planet Jupiter, Ior example, is the largest planet in our
solar system with a mass 317 times that oI our planet and resembles a brown in that it radiates energy
based on its internal energy. It is the mechanism by which they were Iormed that distinguishes a high-
mass planet such as Jupiter Irom a low-mass brown dwarI.
. !:sars
There is still much Ior astronomers to learn about pulsars. Based on what is known, that term
pulsar is used to describe the phenomenon oI short, precisely timed radio bursts that are emitted Irom
somewhere in space. Though all is not known about pulsars, they are now believed in reality to
emanate Irom spinning neutron stars, highly reduced cores oI collapsed attars that are theorized to
exist.
Pulsars were discovered in 1967, when Jocelyn Bell, a graduate student at Cambridge
University, noticed an unusual pattern on a chart Irom a radio telescope. What made this pattern
unusual was that, unlike other radio signals Irom celestial objects, this series oI pulses had a highly
regular period oI 1.33730119 seconds. Because day aIter day the pulses came Irom the same place
among the stars, Cambridge researchers came to the conclusion that they could not have come Irom a
local source such as an Earth satellite.
As more and more were Iound, astronomers engaged in debates over their nature. It was
determined that a pulsar could not be a star in as much as a normal star is too big to pulse so Iast. The
question was also raised as to whether a pulsar might be a white dwarI star, a dying star that has
collapsed to approximately the size oI the Earth and is slowly cooling oII. However, this idea was so
rejected because the Iastest pulsar known at the time pulsed around thirty times per second and a white
dwarI, which is the smallest known type oI star, would not hold together iI it were to spin that Iast.
The Iinal conclusion among astronomers was that only a neutron star, which is theorized to be
the remaining core oI a collapsed star that has been reduced to a highly dense radius oI only around 10
kilometers, was small enough to be a pulsar. Further evidence oI the link between pulsars and neutron
stars was Iound in 1968, when a pulsar was Iound in the middle oI the Crab Nebula. The Crab Nebula
is what remains oI the supernova oI the year 1054, and in as much as it has been theorized that neutron
stars sometimes remain Iollowing supernova explosions, it is believed that the pulsar coming Irom the
Crab Nebula is evidently just such a neutron star.
. 20ston0
imestone caves can be spectacular structures Iilled with giant stalactites and stalagmites.
These caves are Iormed when rainwater, which is a weak acid, dissolves calcite, or lime, out oI
limestone. Over time, the lime-laden water drips down into cracks, enlarging them into caves.
Stalactites`, which grow down Irom cave ceiling, are Iormed in limestone caves when
groundwater containing dissolved lime drips Irom the rooI oI the cave and leaves a thin deposit as it
evaporates. Stalactites generally grow only a Iraction oI an inch each year, but over time a
considerable number may grow to be several yards long. In cases where the supply oI water is
seasonal, they may actually have growth rings resembling those on tree trunks that indicate how old
the stalactites are.
Stalagmites are Iormed on the Iloor oI a limestone cave where water containing dissolved lime
has dripped either Irom the cave ceiling or Irom a stalactite above. They develop in the same way as
stalactites, when water containing dissolved limestone evaporates. In some limestone caves with
mature limestone development, stalactites and stalagmites grow together, creating limestone pillars
that stretch Irom the cave Iloor to the cave ceiling.
4. $2art En0rgy
The next Iew decades will see great changes in the way energy is supplied and used. In some
major oil producing nations, peak oil has already been reached, and there are increasing Iears oI global
warming. Consequently, many countries are Iocusing on the switch to a low carbon economy. This
transition will lead to major changes in the supply and use oI electricity. Firstly, there will be an
increase in overall demand, as consumers switch Irom oil and gas to electricity to power their homes
and vehicles. Secondly, there will be an increase in power generation, not only in terms oI how much
is generated, but also how it is generated, as there is growing electricity generation Irom renewable
sources. To meet these challenges, countries are investing in Smart Grid technology. This system
aims to provide the electricity industry with a better understanding oI power generation and demand,
and to use this inIormation to create a more eIIicient power network.
Smart Grid technology basically involves the application oI a computer system to the
electricity network. The computer system can be used to collect inIormation about supply and demand
and improve engineers ability to manage the system. With better inIormation about electricity
demand, the network will be able to increase the amount oI electricity delivered per unit generated,
leading to potential reductions in Iuel needs and carbon emissions. Moreover, the computer system
will assist in reducing operational and maintenance costs.
Smart Grid technology oIIers beneIits to the consumer too. They will be able to collect real-
time inIormation on their energy use Ior each appliance. Varying tariIIs throughout the day will give
customers the incentive to use appliances at times when supply greatly exceeds demand, leading to
great reductions in bills. For example, they may use their washing machines at night. Smart meters
can also be connected to the internet or telephone system, allowing customers to switch appliances on
or oII remotely. Furthermore, iI houses are Iitted with the apparatus to generate their own power,
appliances can be set to run directly Irom the on-site power source, and any excess can be sold to the
grid.
. !at0 T0.ton.s
According to the theory oI plate tectonics, the upper portion oI the Earth`s lithosphere, which
contains the heavier oceanic and the lighter continental crusts, consists oI rigid plates that are in
constant motion. This theory provides a cohesive model to explain the integrated actions oI continental
driIt, seaIloor spreading, and mountain Iormation.
The Earth`s plates are estimated to have an average depth oI approximately 60 mile (or 100
kilometers), but they are believed to vary considerably in size. Some are estimated to be continental or
even hemispheric in size, while other are believed to be much smaller. Though the actual boundaries
and sizes and shapes oI the plates are not known Ior sure, it has been postulated that there are six
major plates and somewhere around the same number oI smaller ones. Most oI the plates consist oI
both sail (continental) and sima (oceanic) crust. They are in contrast movement, though they move at
an extremely slow pace, and these movements cause Irequent interactions between plates.
At this time, scientists have identiIied three diIIerent types oI boundaries between plates. At a
d;0rg0nt boundary, plates are moving away Irom each other. This type oI boundary occurs at an
oceanic ridge, where new material is being added to the seaIloor Irom deeper within the Earth.
Shallow earthquakes and underwater volcanoes are associated with this type oI plate activity. At a
.on;0rg0nt boundary, plates are moving toward each other and collide, causing vast Iolding and
crumpling along the edges oI the plates. In addition to the Iolding and crumpling, one oI the plates
slowly Iolds under the other. The boundaries between convergent plates are generally Iound around
the edges oI ocean basins and are sometimes associated with deep ocean trenches. A third type oI
boundary is a trans.:rr0nt boundary, which involves two plates sliding past each other laterally,
without the Iolding and crumpling that occurs at a convergent boundary. This type oI boundary is
thought to be Iar less common than the other two types oI boundaries.




. $oar syst02
Our solar system consists oI an average star we call the Sun, the planets Mercury, Venus,
Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. It includes: the satellites oI the planets;
numerous comets, asteroids, and meteoroids; and the interplanetary medium. The Sun is the richest
source oI electromagnetic energy (mostly in the Iorm oI heat and light) in the solar system. The Sun's
nearest known stellar neighbor is a red dwarI star called Proxima Centauri, at a distance oI 4.3 light
years away. The whole solar system, together with the local stars visible on a clear night, orbits the
center oI our home galaxy, a spiral disk oI 200 billion stars we call the Milky Way. The Milky Way
has two small galaxies orbiting it nearby, which are visible Irom the southern hemisphere. They are
called the arge Magellanic Cloud and the Small Magellanic Cloud. The nearest large galaxy is the
Andromeda Galaxy. It is a spiral galaxy like the Milky Way but is 4 times as massive and is 2 million
light years away. Our galaxy, one oI billions oI galaxies known, is traveling through intergalactic
space.
The planets, most oI the satellites oI the planets and the asteroids revolve around the Sun in the
same direction, in nearly circular orbits. When looking down Irom above the Sun's north pole, the
planets orbit in a counter-clockwise direction. The planets orbit the Sun in or near the same plane,
called the ecliptic. Pluto is a special case in that its orbit is the most highly inclined (18 degrees) and
the most highly elliptical oI all the planets. Because oI this, Ior part oI its orbit, Pluto is closer to the
Sun than is Neptune. The axis oI rotation Ior most oI the planets is nearly perpendicular to the ecliptic.
The exceptions are Uranus and Pluto, which are tipped on their sides.

7. G0oth0r2a H0atng
Our dependence on Iossil Iuels is a huge problem. Fossil Iuels emit pollutants into the air. And
they are non-renewable. That means that once you use them, they can`t be restored. That is, we can`t
create any more. Finally, like all scarce resources, they are expensive. So we have the incentive to Iind
other energy sources.
One option comes Irom the Earth. Under the surIace oI the Earth, there is a natural source oI
heat. We can extract this heat and use it in our homes. We do this by putting a heat pump deep in the
Earth. It pumps heat Irom the Earth into our homes in the winter. The energy is clean and it never runs
out.
UnIortunately, you cannot get enough heat Irom the Earth to maintain a comIortable
temperature in your home. You still have to use another source, such as electricity. However, iI you
use geothermal as your principal heating source, your second source oI energy will not be exerted as
much. This will bring down your heating costs during the winter months. Though geothermal heating
systems are expensive to install, they save money in the long run.
8. Carbon Footprnts
Humans are doing a lot oI damage to the Earth. Our liIestyles rely on certain technologies. And
many oI these technologies require power. The sources oI that power emit greenhouse gases. Theses
gases pollute the air. Polluting the air has serious implications. For one thing, it is not healthy to
breathe polluted air. In addition, greenhouse gases cause the Earth`s temperature to rise. This causes
changes in the climate. Climate change is responsible Ior extreme weather like Iloods, droughts, and
storms.
Sometimes the problem seems overwhelming. Individuals wonder what they can do. One way
to grasp the subject is through the idea oI a carbon Iootprint. This is the amount oI greenhouse gases
we are each responsible Ior. So, instead oI Ieeling overwhelmed by the enormity oI the problem, we
can do something. We can reduce our carbon Iootprint.
How can we change our liIestyles to minimize our carbon Iootprints? First, we can assess our
current level oI consumption. Then, we can explore ways to reduce it. II we have to drive, we can set a
limit to how much we drive. Then, we may not exceed this limit. But what iI we do exceed it?
The other positive thing we can do is oIIset our carbon Iootprint. This means doing positive
things Ior the Earth to counter the negative things we do. For example, we can plant trees. Trees Iilter
the air and also serve as an energy source.
. E-books
These days it seems that everything is going digital. Books are no exception. The e-book was
designed to take the place oI the printed book. It is a hand-held device. Text appears on a screen, just
like a computer.
There are several advantages to the e-book. For one thing, it takes up less space. E-books are
capable oI storing hundreds oI books. ThereIore, readers will no longer need bookshelves to store all
oI their books.
Another distinction between the e book and normal books is that it is like a computer. Users
can search Ior certain words in a book, or links to other texts can be included. This can make research
less time consuming.
Readers with diIIiculty reading will note another important diIIerence between books and their
digital media equivalent. They can change the text size to make it easier to read. Further, a text to-
speech version oI the soItware can be added so that they can listen instead oI reading.
From the publisher`s point oI view, distribution is made easier. Books are easy to replicate.
The need Ior paper and ink is eliminated. And books don`t have to be shipped as they can be sent
electronically.
10. E.o-fr0ndy Co2p:t0rs
Computers are now part oI our everyday lives. And they keep getting better. As they do, many
people upgrade. That is, when a better product comes out, they get Iid oI their old one and replace it.
The problem with this trend is that it creates a lot oI waste. Corporate interests demand that consumers
continually update their systems. This oIten results in a lot oI waste. The solution is biodegradable
computers.
In many ways computers can be seen as eco-Iriendly. They cut down on the amount oI paper
we need to use. That means we cut down less trees. InIormation can be shipped electronically. We
don`t have to transport it by air, land, or sea. The amount oI power it takes to run a computer is
marginal. But the machines are made Irom toxic materials. They are not recyclable and they take up
room in landIills.
A company called Micro Pro began working on a solution in 1992. It has since developed an
eco-Iriendly computer. Items such as keyboards and monitors are made oI wood and other
biodegradable materials. That means
11. Wr00ss
Wi-Fi is a type oI technology. It creates networks. These networks are wireless. Computers can
communicate with one another without the use oI wires. Internet connections can be made without
wires. People can make phone calls over the internet. The telephone wires are not used. Such items as
TVs and DVD players can be connected to networks using Wi-Fi technology. Wi-Fi technologies were
introduced in 1997. Since then several versions have come out. Each one is an improvement on the
previous one.
How is this possible? Wireless devices have to be capable oI making a connection. They would
all have to use the same technology. II one company uses one type oI technology, another must use its
equivalent. That`s the only way they can connect to the same network. So, diIIerent companies must
work together to set standards. That way their diIIerent devices can work on the same network. The
Wi-Fi Alliance sets these standards.
Wi-Fi is now common in corporate environments. People working in diIIerent locations can
communicate easily. Distribution oI tasks is simpler. People can work Iaster. There are Iewer problems
caused by delays. And the more access points, the more eIIicient the whole network is.
Hot spots are starting to appear in more places. These are areas where Wi-Fi is available Ior
Iree. Anyone who happens to be in the area can use it. They just have to have a Wi-Fi certiIied device.
These hot spots might be might be at a caIe, a hotel, an airport, or even an entire city. Some cities
provide Iree wireless internet access.
Another good thing about Wi-Fi is cost. It gets rid oI the need Ior cables. These can be costly
to install. The cost oI installing a wireless local area network is marginal in comparison. Wi-Fi also
makes it easier to expand existing networks.
Wi-Fi technology has changed the way we do business. It has also changed the way we live our
lives. The internet is more accessible than ever. And we can easily network our computers with others.
The internet is now part oI our everyday lives.
1. Th0 Kyoto !roto.o
The countries oI the world oIten argue about environmental issues. Some are very vocal about
global warming because they think it is very dangerous. They think that countries like the US use too
many Iossil Iuels such as oil. Using too much oI these Iuels hurts the environment and causes global
warming.
Global warming is changing our weather. There are more Iloods and storms in many places.
OIten, many people are killed in Iloods. For years, scientists have warned us that we have to use less
Iuel.
There have been successive meetings between leaders to Iigure put what to do. One oI the most
important conIerences took place in Japan in 1997. It was held in the city oI Kyoto. eaders Irom
many countries assembled in a meeting room there to talk about what to do. They talked a lot and then
some oI them agreed to try to halt global warming. They signed a document called 'The Kyoto
Protocol.
Some countries did not want to stop using Iossil Iuels and their leaders did not sign at Kyoto.
They thought scientists were lying and making things sound more serious than they are. Some
countries that sell oil to the rest oI the world did not want to sign. They were scared their countries
would become poor iI people used less oil. eaders who signed believe we can Iind new Iorms oI
energy. They pay scientists to Iind out what we can do. Many scientists believe we can use the Sun to
make energy. We can also use wind or water.
1. What s E0.tr.ty?
Electricity is a Iorm oI energy. Electricity is the Ilow oI electrons. All matter is made up oI
atoms, and an atom has a center, called a nucleus. The nucleus contains positively charged particles
called protons and uncharged particles called neutrons. The nucleus oI an atom is surrounded by
negatively charged particles called electrons. The negative charge oI an electron is equal to the
positive charge oI a proton, and the number oI electrons in an atom is usually equal to the number oI
protons. When the balancing Iorce between protons and electrons is upset by an outside Iorce, an atom
may gain or lose an electron. When electrons are "lost" Irom an atom, the Iree movement oI these
electrons constitutes an electric current.
Electricity is a basic part oI nature and it is one oI our most widely used Iorms oI energy. We
get electricity, which is a secondary energy source, Irom the conversion oI other sources oI energy,
like coal, natural gas, oil, nuclear power and other natural sources, which are called primary sources.
4 is electricity enerated? An electric generator is a device Ior converting mechanical
energy into electrical energy. The process is based on the relationship between magnetism and
electricity. When a wire or any other electrically conductive material moves across a magnetic Iield,
an electric current occurs in the wire. The large generators used by the electric utility industry have a
stationary conductor. A magnet attached to the end oI a rotating shaIt is positioned inside a stationary
conducting ring that is wrapped with a long, continuous piece oI wire. When the magnet rotates, it
induces a small electric current in each section oI wire as it passes. Each section oI wire constitutes a
small, separate electric conductor. All the small currents oI individual sections add up to one current oI
considerable size. This current is what is used Ior electric power.

14. At0rnat;0 r0so:r.0s of 0n0rgy

Natural Gas, in addition to being burned to heat water Ior steam, can also be burned to produce
hot combustion gases that pass directly through a turbine, spinning the blades oI the turbine to
generate electricity. Gas turbines are commonly used when electricity utility usage is in high demand.
Petroleum can also be used to make steam to turn a turbine. Residual Iuel oil, a product reIined
Irom crude oil, is oIten the petroleum product used in electric plants that use petroleum to make steam.
Nuclear power is a method in which steam is produced by heating water through a process
called nuclear Iission. In a nuclear power plant, a reactor contains a core oI nuclear Iuel, primarily
enriched uranium. When atoms oI uranium Iuel are hit by neutrons they Iission (split), releasing heat
and more neutrons. Under controlled conditions, these other neutrons can strike more uranium atoms,
splitting more atoms, and so on. Thereby, continuous Iission can take place, Iorming a chain reaction
releasing heat. The heat is used to turn water into steam, that, in turn, spins a turbine that generates
electricity.
Hydropower, the source Ior 9 oI U.S. electricity generation, is a process in which Ilowing water
is used to spin a turbine connected to a generator. There are two basic types oI hydroelectric systems
that produce electricity. In the Iirst system, Ilowing water accumulates in reservoirs created by the use
oI dams. The water Ialls through a pipe called a penstock and applies pressure against the turbine
blades to drive the generator to produce electricity. In the second system, called run-oI-river, the Iorce
oI the river current (rather than Ialling water) applies pressure to the turbine blades to produce
electricity.
1. Mat0ras $.0n.0
Every day we come into contact with many thousands oI manuIactured objects that are
essential to modern liIe: the vehicles that we travel in; the clothes that we wear; the machines in our
homes and oIIices; the sport and leisure equipment we use; the computers and phones that we can`t
live without; and the medical technology that keeps us alive. Everything we see and use is made
Irom materials derived Irom the earth: metals, polymers, ceramics, semiconductors and composites.
To develop the new products and technologies that will make our lives saIer, more convenient,
more enjoyable and more sustainable we must understand how to make best use oI the materials we
already have, and how to develop new materials that will meet the demands oI the Iuture. Materials
Science and Engineering involves the study oI the structure, properties and behavior oI all materials,
the development oI processes to manuIacture useIul products Irom them, and research into recycling
and environmentally Iriendly disposal.
The basic building block oI all matter is the atom and there are 94 diIIerent types that occur
naturally on earth. These are the elements` and include hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, silicon, iron,
copper, and aluminum. All materials are made up oI these atomic building blocks but diIIer in their
microstructure: the types oI atom they contain, the pattern in which the atoms are arranged and the
way in which the atoms are joined together. The central concept in Materials Science and Engineering
is that the properties and behavior oI every material is dependent on its microstructure, and that
microstructure can be controlled by the way in which the material is made and processed. Materials
Scientists test the mechanical, physical, chemical and electrical properties oI materials and explore
how these properties depend on the microstructures they engineer and observe using high powered
microscopes.




1. T00.o22:n.aton
Telecommunications service providers and equipment vendors today Iace signiIicant
challenges as they address the multitude oI changes and competitive challenges sweeping their
industry. Networks are increasing in size and complexity as demand pressures grow and as new
technologies Irom wireless communications and Iiber optics to multimedia, computers and
advanced Internet technologies converge upon the network. As the competitive environment
intensiIies, it becomes increasingly important Ior service providers and equipment vendors to be able
to react to changes quickly and eIIectively while maintaining the highest levels oI perIormance and
reliability.
One oI the most important means oI achieving these goals is the ability to eIIiciently model,
manage, and optimize the next generation oI telecommunications equipment and services.
Telecommunications networks are among the most demanding environments in terms oI perIormance
and reliability, and as a result place enormous demands on the database management systems that are
at the heart oI most telecommunications equipment and services.
The next generation oI telecommunications applications requires a new generation oI
database technology - technology that draws on the strengths oI prior generation DBMS technology
and blends them with the latest soItware advances; a DBMS designed Irom the ground up Ior the
highest perIormance and reliability in concurrent, highly distributed, multiplatIorm environments with
extremely large data storage requirements. The Versant ODBMS (object database management
system) is such a product. Versant is a seventh generation DBMS combining the direct modeling oI
complex, graph/structured data with the power oI today`s leading object programming languages
combined with report oriented query capabilities. As a result, the Versant ODBMS allows
telecommunications service providers and equipment vendors to solve problems that they have been
unable to solve using older storage technologies.
17. Co2p:t0r ang:ag0
A computer language is the means by which instructions and data are transmitted to computers.
Put another way, computer languages are the interIace between a computer and a human being. There
are various computer languages, each with diIIering complexities. For example, the inIormation that is
understandable to a computer is expressed as zeros and ones (i.e., binary language). However, binary
language is incomprehensible to humans. Computer scientists Iind it Iar more eIIicient to
communicate with computers in a higher level language.
l4ck-structured lanuae Block-structured language grew out oI research leading to the
development oI structured programming. Structured programming is based on the idea that any
computer program can be written using only three arrangements oI the inIormation. The arrangements
are called sequential, selection, and iteration. In a sequential arrangement, each programming
instruction (statement) is executed one aIter the other. This order is vital. The execution oI the second
statement is dependent on the prior execution oI the Iirst statement.
PASCA, AGO, and MODUA-2 are examples oI block-structured languages. Examples
oI non-block structured languages are BASIC, FORTRAN, and ISP. ReIinements oI BASIC and
FORTRAN produced more structured languages.
Block-structured languages rely on modular construction. A module is a related set oI commands.
Each module in a block-structured language typically begins with a "BEGIN" statement and ends with
an "END" statement.

18. Nn0t00nth C0nt:ry !hotography
***The nineteenth century saw enormous advances in photography in the US. Photos Irom this time
period can tell us about history. But they don`t just tell us about the subject oI the photo. We can learn
about the art oI photography.
***We can inIer the date oI a photo by the style. The daguerreotype, Ior example, was the earliest
style in common use. A silver-plated, mirror-like metal sheet was used. It was placed in a camera and
exposed to the image. The Iinal image was sharp and Iull oI detail.
***The ambrotype was used Irom 1854 to the early 1860s. It became popular because it was cheaper
than the daguerreotype. It used a glass plate to expose the image in the camera. Another glass plate
was then attached to protect it. Then the thing was interested into a metal Irame.
***The ambrotype preceded the tintype. The tintype used a thin, black, metal plate instead oI glass. It
was invented in 1856. It was popular until the early 1900s. The photos didn`t have to be cased like
ambrotypes. This was because they weren`t so Iragile.
***These are just a Iew oI the many techniques used in photography in America in the nineteenth
century.

1. Vs:a Arts
Visual arts are arts that appeal to our sense oI sight. As such, the possibilities Ior visual arts are
endless. Paintings, drawings, Iilm and sculptures are just a Iew examples. There has been some
disagreement as to what should be included in the visual arts. Namely, should craIts be seen as such?
There was a time when only Iine arts could be included in the visual arts. CraItsmen were not thought
to be artists. This era preceded the Arts and CraIts Movement which was Iounded in the early
twentieth century. This movement helped create an appreciation Ior craItsmanship. Today, craIts too
are considered visual arts.
Our ideas oI what constitutes art are always changing. u A modern example is graIIiti. u GraIIiti
is seen by some as vandalism. u They think it is ugly. u But others see it as art. For one thing, it can be
very beautiIul. For another, it can make a strong statement about society.
The visual arts are old as humanity. Some oI the earliest examples oI visual arts are cave
paintings. These were made by early humans. They would oIten depict scenarios such as hunting.
Such paintings not only tell us about the daily lives oI these early humans, but they tell us something
about their psyches. In other words, we can see what their lives were like, but we can inIer something
about the way their minds worked. For example, some cave paintings indicate that the artists held
religious belieIs.
A good visual artist does more than depict an image. He or she attaches meaning to that image.
The hope is that it will invoke a certain emotional response in the viewer. The range oI possible
responses, oI course, is enormous. Again, the work can tell us much about the subject. But it can tell
us even more about the artist.
There is a great diversity in the types oI visual art available. And the possibilities are growing.
New technologies allow Ior new genres. Computer graphics, Ior example, has opened up a world oI
possibilities to artists. And the quality gets better and better as technology improves.
0. f0 $.0n.0
***iIe Science is the study oI all living things. It is the study oI animals, humans, and plants. It is
also the study oI tiny living things that can only be seen with a microscope. We call these small
things micro-organisms.
***iIe Science is also sometimes called biology. This word comes Irom two Greek words: bio`,
meaning liIe` and logos`, meaning to speak oI`. Many scientiIic words come Irom Greek. This is
because the ancient Greeks were some oI the Iirst people to try and understand nature. They wrote
their ideas down and today we can still read them.
***Aristotle, a Greek philosopher, who lived Irom 384 BCE until 322 BCE, is known as the Iather oI
biology`. He was one oI the very Iirst people to make highly accurate studies oI animals and plants.
***Aristotle had a lot oI perseverance. He knew that he had to study the same animal or plant Ior a
long time to get to know it. He studied living things careIully. He also did many experiments. He
wrote down everything he saw.
***Aristotle believed that all scientists had to be rigorous and that they could not guess. That is also
why he did not conIine his studies to one place. He traveled a lot. Today, liIe scientists still use many
oI his methods.
1.E;o:ton
In 1859, a man called Charles Darwin wrote a Iamous but controversial book. The book was
called n the riin 41 $pecies. It was about something called evolution`. This was a very exciting
idea about how animals and plants changed over millions oI years.
Darwin had traveled all over the world. He had studied many diIIerent plants and animals. He
could see how they all adapted to their environments. He saw that animals that lived in deserts did not
use a lot oI water. He saw that animals that lived in the snow had thick Iur to keep them warm. He
decided that it took a long time Ior animals and plants to change like this. He thought it took thousands
oI years Ior them to change just a title.
Darwin believed that people had also changed over time. He wrote that people and monkeys had
come Irom the same animal. He had a colleague called Thomas Huxley who also thought so. They
upset many people. The idea was incompatible with the Bible. The Bible said that God had made
people.
The church tried to prohibit students Irom learning about evolution. They thought Darwin`s ideas
were evil. There was a lot oI evidence to show that Darwin was right and his ideas could not be
ignored.
Darwin also saw how weaker animals oIten died while stronger animals didn`t. This meant that
only the strongest and smartest animals would have babies. Darwin thought this was nature`s way oI
making sure that there would only be strong animals on Earth.

. Eff0.t;0 Manag020nt and th0 E2poy00 Int0r;0w
***The manager`s job is to make sure the business is running well. A big part oI the business is the
workers. They have to be doing their best Ior the business to be doing its best. So managers have to
make sure workers are doing their best. To do this they have to be good leaders.
***Good leaders should understand why some people work hard and some don`t. u Then they can
provide motivation Ior workers. u Money is not the only motivation Ior workers. u Workers want to
know that they are appreciated. They want to Ieel like they are part oI the company`s success. u
*** Managers need to enhance worker-manager relations. One way is to do brieI interviews every
three months. This allows managers to compile inIormation. Workers can express their attitudes
toward certain policies. Then they Ieel like they are being listened to. This makes them likely to be
more cooperative.
****u It is important that workers know the purpose oI the interview. II they think it is an evaluation
they will perIorm diIIerently. u The Iear oI termination can aIIect their level oI honesty. u They
should see the interview as a chance to express themselves. u Then it will be more productive.

. Mark0t E.ono2y
Competition is the most important thing in a market economy. Firms compete with one another
Ior business. This helps to keep prices reasonable. To get some insight into how this works, think oI
what would happen iI Iirms cooperated. The motivation oI every Iirm is to enhance their proIit
margins. One way to do this is to increase price. II all oI the Iirms were cooperating, they could set any
price. The consumer would have to pay it or do without the commodity being sold.
In general, Iirms don`t cooperate. They compete. Consider this example. A pencil costs twenty-
Iive cents to make. Firm A makes pencils and sells them Ior two dollars. Firm B sells them Ior one
dollar. Firm B`s pencils are just as good as Firm A`s. Which Iirm will make more money? Well, iI
they sold an equal number oI pencils, Firm A would. But they won`t sell an equal number oI pencils.
Firm B will sell more. This is because consumers will look Ior the best price. So, Firm B will sell more
pencils and earn a greater proIit. So, in general, the Iirm that oIIers the best product Ior the best price
should turn the best proIit. Increasing price will not enhance proIit margins unless the competition
does the same.
There are situations in a market economy where no competition exists. This is called a
monopoly. When a Iirm has no competition, it has a monopoly. u It can virtually set any price because
consumers have only one option. u The other option is to do without the commodity. So the Iirm
needs to compile data on the maximum amount consumers are willing to pay Ior their product. Then
they can charge that price. Generally, though, iI a Iirm has a monopoly, it won`t last. u The opening oI
new Iirms to compete with them will coincide with their initial success. u A steep inclination in the
demand curve Ior a certain product will signal other suppliers to provide it. Furthermore, there are
laws in place that keep Iirms Irom maintaining a monopoly in any industry.

4. Mnng !ro.0ss
In addition to the various types oI deep mining, several types oI surIace mining may be used
when minerals lie relatively close to the surIace oI the earth. One type is open-pit mining. The Iirst
step is to remove the overburden, the layers oI rock and dirt lying above the ore with giant scrapers.
The ore is broken up in a series oI blasting operations. Power shovels pick up the pieces and load them
into trucks or, in some cases, ore trains. These carry it up ramps to ground level. SoIt ores are removed
by drilling screws, called augers.
Another type is called placer mining. Sometimes heavy metals such as gold are Iound in soil
deposited by streams and rivers. The soil is picked up by a power shovel and transIerred to a long
trough. Water is run through the soil in the trough. This carries soil particles away with it. The metal
particles are heavier than the soil particles and sink to the bottom, where they can be recovered.
The Iinishing-oII process oI mining is called mineral concentration. In this process, the desired
substances are removed Irom the waste in various ways. One technique is to bubble air through a
liquid in which ore particles are suspended. Chemicals are added that make the minerals cling to the
air bubbles. The bubbles rise to the surIace with the mineral particles attached, and they can be
skimmed oII and saved.
.$0r.:t:r0 or $k !rod:.ton

Sericulture, or silk production, has a long and colorIul history unknown to most people.
Archaeological Iinds show that sericulture dates to at least 2500 B.C., and may be much older. For
much that time, China kept the secret oI silk to itselI as one oI the most zealously guarded secrets in
history. Anyone revealing the secret oI silkworm culture or trying to smuggle silkworm eggs out oI
China was punished by death.
The key to China`s domination oI silk production lies with one species native to China: the
blind, Ilightless moth Bombyx mori. This insect lays Iive hundred or more eggs in Iour or Iive days
and dies soon aIter. The eggs are like pinpoints- one hundred oI them weigh only one gram. From one
ounce (28.3 grams) oI eggs come about 30.000 worms (the larvae oI the moth), which eat a ton oI
white mulberry leaves and produce twelve pounds (5.4 kilograms) oI raw silk. The silkworm oI
Bombyx mori produces smoother, Iiner, and rounder thread than other silkworms. Over thousands oI
years, this Chinese moth has evolved into the specialized silk producer that it is today.
At one time, silk was reserved exclusively Ior the use oI the Chinese emperor. Gradually, all
classes oI society began wearing silk. In addition to being used Ior clothing and decoration, silk came
to have industrial uses in China. This is something that happened in the West only in modern times.
Silk was used Ior musical instruments, Iishing lines, bowstrings, bonds oI all kinds, and even Ior
manuIacturing paper. During the Han Dynasty, silk became an absolute value in itselI. Farmers paid
taxes in both grain and silk. Values were calculated in lengths oI silk as they had once been calculated
in gold. The importance oI silk is even reIlected in all the dialects oI the Chinese language. For
example, oI the 5.000 most common characters in the Mandarin alphabet, around 250 have silk as their
key.
In spite oI their secrecy, the Chinese eventually lost their monopoly on silk production.
Sericulture reached Korea around 200 B.C. when immigrants Irom China arrived there. Sericulture
came to India in A.D.550 when sericulture came to the West. Silkworms were carried by travelers in
hollow tubes oI bamboo to Constantinople. This allowed a silk industry to be established the Middle
East and later Italy. However, high quality Chinese silks still had a market in the West.

.What s a b:sn0ss 0ad0r?
What is a business leader? Is it the same as a manager? There is certainly an overlap between
these two roles, but as the business author Bernard bass wrote, 'Some managers do not lead, and some
leaders do not manage. There are some personality traits and behaviors that are characteristic oI a
leader, and some that are characteristic oI a manager. For example, leaders are committed to
innovation and tend to look to the Iuture Ior threats and opportunities. Managers try to maintain the
status quo and concern themselves with solving problems in the present.
eadership and management are both important to a business organization. Once an
organization is established, managers go about maintaining the system, assuming that the organization
will always be the same. Management keeps the organization going. However, the environment in
which an organization operates is always in Ilux. There are changes in consumer tastes, technology,
cultures trends, and historic events. II the organization is entirely in the management mode, it may not
spot these trends because managers tend to look inward. However, iI the organization is in the
leadership mode, it will track these changes and shape the organization to Iace new challenges and
keep the organization relevant.
Here`s a classic example: In the 1950`s and 60`s, North American auto makers built large,
heavy, powerIul cars with gas-GUZZING engines because that was what consumers wanted. The oil
crisis oI the early 1970`s however, shiIted consumer attitudes towards lighter, smaller cars with more
Iuel-eIIicient engines. Being in management mode, the 'Big Threethe three major North American
auto makerswere very slow to recognize this trend and continued to manuIacture the kind oI cars
that they had made Ior years. Meanwhile, European and especially Japanese automakers had been
making economical cars Ior years. During this period, The Big Three lost a great deal oI market share
to international automakers.
7. Co2p:t0r Ga20s
Computer games were designed and played as long ago as the 1950`s. The Iirst known game
was Tennis Ior Two (1958), designed by William Higginbotham. Another early game was Steve
Russell`s Space war! (1961).These games never became very popular. It was not until the 1970`s and
80`s,when computer arcade games were introduced, that computer games attracted millions oI game-
players. The Iirst to make splash was Pong (Atari, 1972).It was designed by Nolan Bushnell and Alan
Alcorn. The game play was extremely simple. Two players bounced a moving ball back and Iorth
between their two electronic paddles. Bushnell placed the Iirst game machine in local gas station.
When he returned in a Iew days, the machine was so Iull oI coins that it could no longer operate. Pong
became an instant success and it helped create the arcade game industry. Other blockbuster game such
as Space Invaders (bally/Midway 1978), Asteroids (Atari, 1979), and Donkey Kong (Nintendo, 1981)
Iollowed. Perhaps the most popular arcade game ever, Pac Man (Bally /Midway, 1980) was based on
an ancient Japanese Iolk tale. Some these arcade games, and other games that were not seen in
arcades, were available Ior play on personal computers. It can even be said that computer games
helped popularize the idea oI owning a home computer and shaped the way computers were made.
Steve jobs and Steve Woznaik (Who has met while designing games Ioe Atari) designed the Apple II.
The Iirst popular personal computer, so that it could be used to play computer games at home
Today there are Iour main types oI devices that computer game can be played on. Personal
computers consoles handheld consoles, and arcade machines are all common platIorms. Personal
Computer (PC) games are designed to be played on standard home computers. OIten no special
controls are needed-the game can be played with a keyboard or mouse-but some games are played
with a joy stick. Video Ieedback is received by the user thought the computer monitor and audio
Ieedback through speakers or headphones. Players can buy PC games at the store-usually stored on
CD ROMs-or download them Irom the internet. Players oI PC game can also play against live
opponents on the Internet.
8.Tho2as Edson`s In;taton
At the end oI the 1800`s, Thomas Edison introduced the incandescent light bulb and changed
the world. Remarkably, the incandescent bulb used today has changed little in over a hundred years.
An incandescent light consists oI a glass bulb Iilled with an inert gas such as argon. Inside the bulb,
electricity passes through a metal Iilament. Because oI resistance, the Iilament becomes so hot that it
glows. Given that 20 oI the world`s electricity is used to power lights, this represents an enormous
amount oI wasted energy.
In the 1940`s a new, more eIIicient Iorm oI lighting, the Iluorescent bulb, was introduced.
Fluorescent work by passing electrical current through gas in a tube, producing invisible ultraviolet to
visible light. A phosphor coating on the inside oI the tube then converts the ultraviolet to visible light.
ittle heat is wasted. Fluorescents have proved popular in oIIices, Iactories, and stores, but they never
took over the residential lighting market. The harsh color isn`t as pleasing as the warmer glow oI
incandescent lamps. Besides, they have a tendency to Ilicker on and oII and to produce an annoying
buzz.
Now, lighting engineers are developing a new Iorm oI lighting that is both pleasing to the eyes
and energy eIIicient. This is the light- emitting diode, or ED. EDs are made up oI layers oI electron-
charged substances. When an electrical current passes through the layers, electrons jump Irom one
layer to another and give oII light without producing heat. DiIIerent types oI materials result in light oI
diIIerent colors. Red, green, and orange EDs have been used Ior decades in devices such as digital
clocks, calculators, and electronic toys. In the Iuture, however, white- light- emitting diodes (WEDs)
may be used to light homes. Engineers say that they are signiIicantly more eIIicient than either
incandescent or Iluorescent lights.
Arrays oI colored EDs are beginning to be used in traIIic lights and automotive lights. Today,
colored light through a colored plastic Iilter. This is incredibly ineIIicient because only the red light
that passes through the Iilter is used. The rest is wasted. Because EDs actually produce red light, no
Iilter is needed and no light is wasted. EDs have other practical applications as well. For example,
they can be used to light heat- sensitive materials like Iood or important documents.

. Mod0rn Ar.ht0.t:r0
The dissatisIaction with such a general situation at the turn oI the twentieth century gave rise to
many new lines oI thought that served as precursors to Modern Architecture. Notable among these is
the Deutscher Werkbund, Iormed in 1907 to produce better quality machine made objects. The rise oI
the proIession oI industrial design is usually placed here.
Following this lead, the Bauhaus school, Iounded in Germany in 1919, consciously rejected history
and looked at architecture as a synthesis oI art, craIt, and technology.
When Modern architecture was Iirst practiced, it was an avant-garde movement with moral,
philosophical, and aesthetic underpinnings. Immediately aIter World War I, pioneering modernist
architects sought to develop a completely new style appropriate Ior a new post-war social and
economic order, Iocused on meeting the needs oI the middle and working classes. They rejected the
architectural practice oI the academic reIinement oI historical styles which served the rapidly declining
aristocratic order.
The approach oI the Modernist architects was to reduce buildings to pure Iorms, removing
historical reIerences and ornament in Iavor oI Iunctionalist details. Buildings that displayed their
construction and structure, exposing steel beams and concrete surIaces instead oI hiding them behind
traditional Iorms, were seen as beautiIul in their own right. Architects such as Mies van der Rohe
worked to create beauty based on the inherent qualities oI building materials and modern construction
techniques, trading traditional historic Iorms Ior simpliIied geometric Iorms, celebrating the new
means and methods made possible by the Industrial Revolution.
Many architects resisted Modernism, Iinding it devoid oI the decorative richness oI
ornamented styles. As the Iounders oI the International Style lost inIluence in the late 1970s,
Postmodernism developed as a reaction against the austerity oI Modernism. Robert Venturi's
contention that a "decorated shed" (an ordinary building which is Iunctionally designed inside and
embellished on the outside) was better than a "duck" (a building in which the whole Iorm and its
Iunction are tied together) gives an idea oI this approach.
0. Urban D0sgn
Early human settlements were essentially rural. As surplus oI production began to occur, rural
societies transIormed into urban ones and cities began to evolve, such as that oI Katal Huyuk in
Anatolia and Mohenjo Daro in India. In many ancient civilizations, such as that oI the Egyptians' and
Mesopotamians', architecture and urbanism reIlected the constant engagement with the divine and the
supernatural, while in other ancient cultures such as Persia architecture and urban planning was used
to exempliIy the power oI the state.
The architecture and urbanism oI the Classical civilizations such as the Greek and the Roman
evolved Irom civic ideals rather than religious or empirical ones and new building types emerged.
Architectural styles developed.
Cities in traditional societies were mostly very small by modern standards. Babylon, Ior
example, one oI the largest ancient cities oI the Middle East, extended over an area only 3.2 square
miles and probably at its height. The world`s Iirst cities appeared in about 3,500BC, in the river
valleys oI the Nile in Egypt, the Tigris-Euphrates in what is now Iraq, and the Indus in what is today
Pakistan. Rome under Emperor Augustus was easily the largest ancient city outside China, having
some 300,000 inhabitants.
Streets in cities serve many purposes besides carrying vehicles, and city sidewalks-the
pedestrian parts oI the streets serve many purposes besides carrying pedestrians. Streets and their
sidewalks, the main public spaces oI a city, are its most vital organs. Think oI a city and what comes to
mind? Its streets. II a city` streets look interesting, the city looks interesting; iI they look dull, the city
looks dull. More than that, and here we get down to the Iirst problem, iI a city`s streets are saIe Irom
barbarism and Iear, the city is thereby tolerably saIe Irom barbarism and Iear. When people say that a
city, or a part oI it, is dangerous or is a jungle, what they mean primarily is that they do not Ieel saIe
on the sidewalks.
Urban design concerns the arrangement, appearance and Iunctionality oI towns and cities, and
in particular the shaping and uses oI urban public space. It has traditionally been regarded as a
disciplinary subset oI urban planning, landscape architecture, or architecture. However, with its
increasing prominence in the activities oI these disciplines, it is better conceptualized as a design
practice that operates at the intersection oI all three, and requires a good understanding oI a range oI
others besides, such as urban economics, political economy and social theory.