Metallurgy

The profitable and convenient extraction

of metals from minerals is metallurgy

Abundance of elements in earth's crust

0 si Al Fe Ca tag Na K Ti H

by weight
most abundant non metal o

most abundant metal Al

Transition metal Fe
n s S block a

Less reactive elements occur in

free form
with lumps of impurities
ez C S N Au Ag Rt Noble gases Hg droplets

Reactive elements occur in the combined form

EI Alkali metal F Fe Al
Important terms in metallurgy
e Minerals
The
naturally occurring materials containing
metals 1 non metals along with the impurities
They are obtained by mining
2 Ores

Those minerals from which extraction

of metal is profitable and convenient
are called ores
each one is a mineral but each
mineral is not an ore
iron pyrite
extraction
Fess s Iron contains impurities
of iron S due to which iron
Fool's of
gold is very brittle
not considered as one of iron
ores of iron Haematite Magnetite
Fez03 Fez04

3 Native ores
which contain metal in free form having
ores

physically altatched impurities are native oses

4 Gangue matrix
Earthly impurities associated with minerals
are
gangue
5 Flux Impurities added to remove non
called flux
fusible gangue are
i Acidic 13
flux gigs 0,3 Piaggio
Ii Basic flux O 0
agg Fees
gag
selection
of flux defends on nature of gangue
If gangue is acidic basic flux is used
D
sioz gangue t Feo flux Fesioz l
If gangue is basic acidic flux is added
Cao gangue t si02 flux D
Casi 03 l
6 Slag Gangue t flux slag
liquid
ily fusible lower m.pt
slag
TeasLess density
immiscible with metal lose
prevents seoxdn of metal
slag
metal lose
7 Refractory materials compounds which are
used for inside lining
in Wall's of furnaces High m lot
E Beo nago ces etc InHightimatestability
some important Orestminerals to learn

oxide ores

Zincite ZnO
Haematite Fe203

Magnetite Fezoiffezostfeo
cuprite Rubycopper Gyo
Pyroleisite Minors
Cassiterite Tinstone 5h02
Chromite Feczoiffeotcrag
colemanite 62136011.5420
Rutile Tioz
Ilmenite Fetiozffeottioz
Bauxite A1203.2420
Bauxite Alcott z 22.0N 5 OCK I
K o Al OH z
A1203 2h20
k I Alofote

Nitrate ores

Chile saltpetre Nanos

Indian saltpetre kN 03
carbonate ores

Dolomite Cacoz Mgcoz

Limestone Cacoz

Magnesite lingcos
calamine 2h03
Cerrusite Pbcoz
siderite Fec03
malachite Cucoz Cu OH z
Azurite Hercog Cu OH z

sulphate ores

Gypsum Cask 2h20

Epsom salt AngSog 7h20
Glauber's salt NazSOg 10h20

sulphide ores

Galena Pbs
copper pyrite Cufesz
l
chalcopyrite aystafests
copper glance GezS
chalcocite
cinnabar
 zinc blende 2ns
sphalerite
2 1
Iron pyrite Fesa
fool's gold
Argentite Ages
Silver
glance
Wolframite Few 04 v small Mn wog

classification of Metallurgy

Pyrometallurgy Hydrometallurgy Electrometallurgy

Process of reduction process of Electrolytic
into metal at seduction of metal reduction of
metal
high temperature from solution
by a suitable ee Ag Au ee Ae
low grade on oses Gr 1 metals
seducing agent
Fe Ai Cr Zn Gr 2 metals
Sh Pb
Cuprite
malachite
Azurite

General steps of Metallurgy

i ore concentration
ii conversion into suitable form for seduction
iii Reduction into metal
Civ Purification Refining
ore concentration
one dressing one
benefication one
benefaction

Removal
of impurities from ore

ore concentration

Physical
methods
chemical
methods

Gravity bleaching
separation

magnetic separation

Froth floatation
 Leaching
A suitable chemical reagent is added with
Powdered ore ore particles dissolve into
chemical reagent and form solution while
impurities remain insoluble

Au Red Bauxite low grade Cee ores are

Ag
concentrated by Leaching
exe i Red Bauxite leaching
Y Si Ost Ti 02
Alzoz 2h20 t Fez03 t
as mayor
Small
impurity amount

powdered Residue Fezozt Ti 02

Red Bauxite conc NaOH
Ose 80 C Filtrate Nazsioz t
then filter Na Al OHH

NaOH Leaching agent Na AlOz 2h20

A1203 t NaOH Na Al OHH

Sio t NaOH Naasiog
not part of leaching
cost Hugewater
AllOHH Al Hbd
NHI salt
ex Iii Leaching of native ores of Ag Au
cyanide process
native exc NaCN t
Residue impurities
ore exc pressures
air
filtrate AgIAu compounds

o 0 tI 2
Na CN t H2O Na t NaOH
Agt 02T Ag
In
CCNk

o o 1I 2
Au t 02 t Na CN t H2O Na Au CN t NaOH
Sdn
Oz oxidiser
Nac N Leaching agent

exliii Leaching of Argentite Ages

Cmc Arthur forrest process
l Z ti 2
Ag25 t 4 NaCN 2 Na Ag Cook t N925
excess of pressurised air is used To reduce
reversibility of above RM
Nags 1 Oz Naas04 t St

exliv leaching of low grade Cee ores

Low grade did Has04 cut2 sdn

cu ores bacteria

CeeCong Cu OH k t 42504 Aesop t 029 t H2O

Solh
Also H2S04 die Cut t Cees04 age H2O
cubaitegt attack cleft dies04
Gravity separation
LevigationsHydraulic washing
It based on difference in the densities of
is

gangue and one particles

Generally metal ores are heavier than the gangue
associated with them
Crushed one is washed by current of water on
sloping table Lighter particles move downwards
a

along with the water stream leaving behind heavy

ore particles

oxide carbonate and native ores

Generally
concentrated this method
are
by
EI Feroz Haematite

magnetic separation
It when
is used one of the ore or impurities
is magnetic and other is non
magnetic
Powdered one is allowed to move towards
magnetic zoller and fall downwards

magnetic substance makes a new heats as

it is held to roller for a longer time
 Ii
ex cassiterite t wolframite
5h02 fewottsmmnalwlq

f magnetic magnetic

ii Sioz t chromite ore

nton Eecraq
magnetic
magnetic

Froth floatation
It based on difference in wetting abilities
is
of ore and gangue particles by oil and water
Core is preferentially wet oil whileby
impurities by water
carried out the concentration
It is
mainly for
of sulphide ores
 Powdered 0kt H2O t Additives In a floatation
cell

Air is passed into cell ose particles come

to the surface along with the froth leaving
behind impurities in solution

Additives

C Frother
Reduce surface tension
EI Pine oil Eucalyptus oil
Act as Collector
stabilise froth
Ii Collector

They collect core particles through polar part

by adsorption
 hydrophobic film is
A created over the
surface of ose particles
e i sodium ethyl xanthate
o
12 CI Nat
ingoing's c Polar
Hydrophilic
Ii acid salts
Higher fatty
sodium lauryl sulphate

Liii Froth Stabilisers

Aniline or cresols are used as
froth
stabiliser

Iv Activator not in NCERT

characteristics of
used to improve floating
core
particles
ee sig Cusoy is used as activator for 2ns
n t Aesop fEn t 2ns 04
Ze
t
Cees
Cii oxide and carbonates can be concentrated

by froth floatation in presence of activator

like Nazs
V Depressants
used to depress floating tendency of undesired
sulphide particles
E Pbs has some impurities of 2ns

NacN act as depressant for 2ns

ZnstNaCN Na2C2nCCNJqJtNa2S

o1ublejL.By
of
adjusting
2ns
of
can
ratio
be done
oil water depression

Mechanism of froth floateation

inner
0k0Pv

YEfoIQQiQQy.q.o
 Step Conversion into reducible form
2 easily
Part A Preliminary treatment
calcination Roasting
impurity removal in volatile form

one is converted into oxide form

Part B smelting
slag formation along with melting of oselmetal
Removal of impurities which are non fusible

Generally reduction of metal takes place

in the
smelting process

calcination
Heating of core below its melting point in absence
limited air is
of air or
very supply of
calcination
carried out in
reverberatory furnace
calcination is
mainly carried out for carbonateores
Hydrated ores Hydroxide ores sulphate ores
D
Zncoz 2h0 t CO24
Calamine
 D
Pbs 04 s Pbo t 5034
Anglesite

D
A1203 2 H2O Al2O3 t 214207
Bauxite

D
Cacoz Cao t CO29
Calcite
organic impurities if present are expelled
out

Due to evolution ofgas.es vafsours one becomes

porous i e increased reactivity

ore
form obtained after calcination is called
calcined Ose

Roasting Heating of one below its melting

point in presence of excess of air is called

roasting
carried out in blast furnace
Roasting is mainly carried out for sulphide
ores
D
exe Pbs t 02 Pbo t 5024
Galena
 2ns 1 02 3 2h07 5029
inc blende

e 5042 formation is also takes place in

minor form
Pbs 02 Pbs04
2h57 02 2h
504

Impurities of S As Sb P are also removed in

form of volatile oxides
St 02 5024
Ast Oz 95203 175205 T
Pt Oz 10203 10205 T

Gmp point I

To reduce the loss of iron in the form of

is carried out for
slag roasting magnetite
Ose
2 f3
ore Feo
Magnetite Fez04 Fees
3
roasting as 2Fe203

Feo t si Oz Fesi
2 3 g gangue tag
Feo
pasifezos
Imp point Ii
Partial roasting is carried out for copper
pyrite one

copper pyrite Ceefes Aystafests

D
s t 02 5029
D
Fes t 02 Feo t 5024
controlled

Fe is more electropositive than Cee Fe has

more
affinity D
towards highly EN 0 than Cee

If Alas t 02 Ayo t 5024

then Fest Cibo t Feo 7 Cuss
Cleft
Ae Fest 02 controlled Alas t Feo t 5029
partial roasting

Due to evolution of gases one becomes

porous i e increased reactivity

ore
form obtained after roasting is called
roasted Ose
Smelting
Calcined or roasted
flux fuel 1in furnace
Ose usually
ke
also a reducing
agent
M
t flux Gangue Slagle
e 9h case of F pb.sn oxides seduction
of metal takes place in this step bye

In bottom part of the furnace

molten slag
molten Lmetallose

In extraction of Cu from Cufesz reduction

of metal does not take place controlled

Cyst Fes t Feo fesioz tags

Csmall slag Cmolten

from smelting Malte is obtained in

metallurgy of copper
composite'm
Malte Aystfu
molten
 Step 3 Reduction into metal

IT carbon based Reduction

or co Reducing agent
seduction oxides of
carried out for of
Fe Zn Sn Eb takes place in step of smelting

co is better seducing agent for oxide of Fe

then c
Feo t co Fe coat
Feroz co
EE t coat

C is better reducing agent for oxides of

2n Pb Sn than co
B
ZnO f C Zn v t COT
D
Pbo t c Pb e t COM
snostces smelt cot

Cu oxides be reduced it is
can
by Cleo but no

cost effective

ii self seduction Auto seduction

S2 reduce 8
Carried out for reduction of sulphide oses

of Pb Cu Hg Sb
 one part oxide
sulphide
on
OTHER
dem
Is
Cmetal t
MATER
D
i i Pbs Oz Pbo t 502T
Pbs tapbo D
Pb t 502T
Cremaining

ii Pbs t 02 D Pb504
Pbs t Pb504 D 2 Pbt 25029
Cremaining

ma
D
iii Cigs t 02 Got 50 4
Abs two 6 Cu t 502T
Cremaining

D
iv Alas t 02 CeeO 5029
t
D
Gas two 4 Cut 502T
maining

S 1 202 D
V Cigs04
D
S t
Uys04 4 Cut 25024
Remaining
 D
vi Ays t Oz Aesop
was 1 Cus04 Is 3 Cut 25029
Cremaining

iii Reduction by another metal

as Thermite mixture Aluminothermite process
Fe 8zit a'e Alzoz s
Highlyt exothermic
fee
Thermite welding More lattice enthalpy
use for welding of railway tracks

Ct t Alz03 metal is obtained

Cozoz t Al
d in molten
Mn 027 Al tant Ab 03 state
13203T Al Is B t Ab 03

as
Znedu Na
then 2 2h Naz ZnCCN t MI
L Sohn
Au Ag

as
t Fe cut treat
Ffedf Eoff rap

reduction
block
meth
by
S

Ticket my Ti t Magda KEYED

D IME
Till t Na Ti t Nau method
met
 my allurge
industrial process
Civ Electrolytic seduction
molten anhydrous
carried out for a compounds of art metals
Group 2 metals Al
getion
Eked a H2o Agfyffgzne.t.ae

e
H2 is not preferred as seducer in
metallurgy due to its explosive sin with
02 at high temp
 Step 4 Purification Refining of metal

Physical methods chemical methods

Liquation Sm Sb
vapour phase
refining
Distillation Em Cd
teg Hf
Nin Ti Zhi

Fractional
Poling
Sm Cu
Distillation
electrosefining
Si Ge B
zone
refining
chromatography Lanthanides oxidative
Ag All Refining
Amalgamation

Liquation
It is impurities present with metal
used when
have higher melting point than pure metal

is
Metal e
Impure metal
impurities
s

used for purification of Pb Sh Bi 2h

Distillation
metal like 2h Cd Hg are separatedfrom
non volatile impurities by this method
 Fractional distillation
Zn b s 920 C
Cd 5 767 C
Zn t Cd Fe Pb alloy
Fe Pb bibs 1500 C
usity
Di cdCo
tmbu
gzo.CI 7767 F 2h t
fee Pb
U
S 12h
T 920 Fe Pb

jamb
Zone refining fractional crystallisation
It is based on nose solubility of impurities
in molten metal than in solid metal

movable circular heater is allowed

A
to
move across impuse metal sod
from one end to other

Pure metal
crystallises while
impurities pass on to adsacent
molten zone

e wetsapurification
carried out for
e
si
semiconductors
 chromatography

It is based on principle that different

components of a mixture ase differently
adsorbed on particular adsorbents
these metal
adsorbed
Mixture t fluid separately
liquidGas columns Is impieties
adsorbed
separately
Lanthanoids are purified by this method
Akagi adsorbent

Amalgamation
Impure add Hgce impurities
Ag AU metal amalgam
Ag Hgf Au Hg
natives Distillation Hgt
Heptad

vapour phase refining

impure Reagent volatile I pure metal
metal compound I pfagent
of meth
T2
 Mond's process van Arkel Process
Purification of Ni
D Impure
substanatkesvolatile
co CNicco T
ETE
innipufe
shufftaneet
BA
u
404
Ti.Zr.tlf.BG
D
Niet Ti t Iz TiI4T
PuseTi tI

Poling
Impure metals having their own oxide as impurity
are purified by this method
Green wood

to
poles

molten
Impure metal
cu.sn purified by this method
Alzo t Cud t C029 t H2O
5h02 t CHq Snf t cost H2O

reducing
agent
Electrosefining
used for purification Ag Au 2h Pb Sn Al Cee
Pure metal cathode gmpuse metal Anode
Electrolyte Metal salt theandated
no Insoluble impurities settle down below anode
known as Anode mud
Au Pf Pd
ee Cee Ag
Anode mud

oxidative Refining
Applied when impurities are more readily
oxidisable than pure metal cupellation

8asTJ
mmeekutdeHIFF
nimpusie.es
oxidised flux
Put into furnace
cupel gag
Besemerisation

Capel Boat shaped

µ
Crucible

Bessemer convest

Ag Au are purified from Pb

by this method

Bessemerisation
used for Iron Cu
Iron obtained from seduction step is called
iron
Pig P
Impurities of S si Mn
St Oz 5029
5
sit 02 sioz slag
D
Mnt 02 Mroz slag
Pat 02 pyo xjsCaz 1004 z
Thomas
Slag
used ag I
fertiliser
 Ellingham Diagram
consider the oxidation of metal by Oz
RM Mx Og S i
2 02
s t g
for per mole of Oz
Ii
2yd MIS t 02cg g Mn OgCs

considering equilibrium condition

G gp o

Although processes are not carried out in closed

but not much inaccuracy is introduced by
assuming closed conditions

DG peamole 02 DH D8Tw
x axis
eahtigngt.am Y
axisg inteygsepoe

ope

D5
For most of metals 0 slope is
positive
i change in slope of curve indicates phase
transition i e corresponding temperatures
indicate melting lot or boiling point of
metal or its oxide
 Lii A metal oxide can be reduced by an
element lying below it in Ellingham diagram
G Go
In F EO
DG
permole
of 02
Tik
T
Below Ti Above Ti At Ti

G Go is more E Eo is more EotG I Got E

spontaneous spontaneous
EO 1 G GOTE Got E G t E O
DG o
spontan sport
is stronger e is stronger
reduces than E seducer than G

curve is intersect line

extra plotted will
Ciii If
Aa o at certain temperature At this
temp metal oxide will start decomposing
Thermal stability comparison

Iv If in process of reduction metal is obtained

in molten state process is considered
to be more effective
S
M s t 02cg Annoy
th e t 02cg Muay Cs
for An Dso is more me than for
r n
 Ago DH TD mose he
more
the
Less ne
t've

C as seduces
µ or co

s t 02cg s CO2 g D5 0 slope so

2C s t 02 g s 2 CO g D8 o slope he

2C g t 02cg 202cg 15 0 slope _the

a co coz
DG
permole
coz
02 co

710 C
T

co is better reducing agent than coke below 710 C

c
c is better reducing agent than co above 718C
Vi Dot for metal oxide formation
metal to
is less ve as compared to metal to
metal sullohe.de casbonate suephale formation
That is why metal oxide is more easily
reducible
form
why metal sulphide ase not directly subjected
to carbon seduction
Ms c M t C sa Ces iEnntn
MO t c M t
coz
Co2 is more volatile than Csa
C S2
coz J
thermodyamic
stable
Ms Csa
Stability

Individual Metallurgy of some metals

Al Al Fe Au Sh Pb 2h
Ag Mg
most imp

Extraction of Cu from copper toysite

Powdered Cufesz
ore

Froth
floatation
v

conceonterated

Partial
roasting
FeO t 5029

flux sick
smelting
 Slag fesig
Matte
self seduction
in bessemer
converter
flux si 02
Blistering Blister_ g8 ou
due to
copper rest impurities
502 evolution
Poling
T0Efppeeie

Electrosefining
Ruse Cu Cathode
impureCu Anode
Acidified Cusoye electrolyte

TJArnnouddeiAgiAuiPt.Pd
qqn984opuc

Extraction of Ag from Agas

leaching
Argentite Froth by NacN
telAgas floatatims concentrated_q
cut Na
Distillation
zn
exc
Agent
2h Solh
Agt
Pbimpy
impure
Residue

cupellation NS.CZNCCN4
Cfiltrate
Ag
I Electrosefine'T pyreA
Pyre Ag cathode
impure Ag Anode
Agnosttenos Electrolyte
 Extraction of Al from Bauxite Ose

e
Bafgxe.it conogeentinatepdm
of Alto Hb

calcination

v
i.mpu.se
Al
Electrolytic reduction in A1203
presence of cryolite alumina
CNazAIFo
Fluorspar Catz
Hall Hero vet's process

Electrosefining by present t
Hooper's process
itsiieswYteeted
ftp.t.ae
at bottom
Anode mud

on concentration
conch
Red Bauxite Berger's process
conch
white Bauxite Serpeck's process
Bauxite cone Hale's process
low grade
 Beyer's process
Red Bauxite Bauxite having Feroz as

chief impurity
Residue
A1203 2h20 t Fez03T NaOH CFezozt Tick
D
Siozt Ti Oz
filtrate

NaCAlL0H74JiNazSiO3eCAeLoH4JCteu
Carsom
YID
8eeaH20ata.d Allotebt
Cwhite
freshly preparedas A1203 H2O
loft of Al Hb
seeding agent
of be
NHI salts can used in place of
CO2
Alcott I t NHI Al 1014131 t NHzTt H2O

Serpeck's process
white Bauxite Bauxite having sick as

white major impurely

D
Bauxite f coke Nz ALN t Cott sit
S S g
A 1203 1 Ct Nz ALN t cot
igmT.caesmiIuaestco'd
des.IE iTfmeiE
 3 3
ALN t H2O Alcott 3 t N Hz T

Hall's process
for Low grade Bauxite
fusion
Bauxite
S
t Na2C03 Na Al Oz 1 COLT
s

H2O
Cst water Nat
All 0h13 I Alcott 4J
og som

Hall Heroult's process of electrolytic

Reduction Cu Imp
It is to electrolyse
very difficult
V high m.pt
fuse A Log
of Ala n 2000 C

Poor conductor
of electricity
Naz AlFG Katz
and Cor fluorspar are added to
cryolite mixture has
A 1203 The formed
lower melting point and increased
electrical conductance
 Graphite mr
Anode I
Fe tank
or steeltank
agey 0
mm
oooo

g I
II eassmomagning

f II
Hf I
f
electrolyte
AKO zt
NazAIFG Catz A1203 INazAIEt.GE
60 20 20 ratio

NazAIFg 3 Naf t Al Eg
A node cathode
2E Fat 2E Alstt 3e Al
Al20ztFz AlEgt029
ionic
coke layer5102 co coz
eh
Abozt cokelayer B c Alt Colcord
overall electrolysis pin
Ako z is not being seduced by
carbon
Role of coke layer
to seduce
i
sacrificial oxidation of itself
loss of graphite anode
2 Reduces heat loss insulator
Hooke's process
electrosefining
Al
of
Ocathode
om
mpouttema
Alt3 A1 molten
Fluorides
of Na Al Ba
electrolyte
Al SAT molten
dEEeinsity
impure
Al

theeto
Anode
3
Al
from anode oxidises into Alt and
goes into middle portion electrolyte
Equivalent amount of Art from
middle layer undergoes seduction into
A1 and rises to top layer
fe cu si collected
Impurity of are
in bottom anode mud
 Extraction of 2n from Zina Blende
2ns

Zinc froth floatation Roasting

Blende absence og en
Concentrated
2ns

efiistidfiation smelting in
2h Blast furnace
spelter
zinc
carbon reduction
Electrorefining Pure
In
Extraction of Pb from Galena Pbs
Galena
frothfloatation
in presence of NacN
impurityanchored
when when
are high are impurities
less
complete
roasting partial
Pb roasting
Pbs 1 Pbo
smelting in
Blast furnace as
dself
carbon reduction
flux Caco3 seduction

Impure Pb Impure
Pb 1 Sgt
s1tg Casioz
Liquation
PuserPT Anode impute Pb
Cathode Puse Pb
Puse electro sefine.mg
Electrolyte PbSiFgtHzsiFg
Pb
Extraction of iron From Haematite or magnetite

crushed Gravity concentrated

ore ore
separation
cacination
Roasting
in case
934 Fe
5Y C ofmay
2 Mn si P S netitej

calcined1pigi
V

esemmettai7einc.b.EE roasted
slag ox
Casio
Fe
295
2 3y C
l Z l Mm si P S

meeting air blast t

molten s.ws fast
uied
PMY
scrap Fe add iron

e
Puddling process
wiforkhtQpureqst.IM

ggy.pe
fy C
traces of Mn si P S
 smelting in Blast furnace

m.o.iaaiamii.i.is

Zone of combustion

Ct 1202 COT
lg DH LO
I p

Zone of Reduction
Fezozt CO Fez04T COLA
Fez04T CO Feo 1 CGT
Feo co Fe 1 COLT
Fez03 t co Fe t CO2 resale RM
spongy
 Zone of stag formation
D
Cacoz Cao COLT
caotfgd.gg Casio3cslag

sick t c a si cot

annoztc rant cot

Pyo o t c a
Ppt CO 9

Now elemental impurities of si Mn Pasdissolve in

spongy iron

Zone of fusion
iron si nnn P
containing impurities c S
melts and collected at bottom of furnace

Any oxide of iron if left is reduced by c

minor Fe oxide c Fet C 0 029

Pig iron conversion into cast iron

iron melt
pig air blast
impurities convert into oxide form
Ct 02 C 0 029
stoat sort
 cast iron

Grey cast white cast

iron iron

when iron in moulds is when iron in moulds is

allowed to cool slowly by cooled at faster rate by
itself impurity of a oily water impurity of
crystallises in form of c are converted into
graphite Fey cementite

softer form Harder form

Puddling process
In a
furnace lined inside with Fea
iron is melted
Pig ironfast
Fezog lined act as oxidiser for the impurities
present in pig iron or cast iron also act as flux
Fez t c feet cold
D
Fet Tano
IS n.s
3
EEE retsioaO McnsEigg3

FezOgtPq Fe t 104010
B fepoyscag
 when
After removal of upper slag layer
molten iron becomes semi solid it is taken
out in form of balls and then hammered
to squeeze out the slagremaining
wrought iron is the purest form of iron

Heat treatment on Steel

Quenching steel Red hot
sudden
cooling
Harkness inc
Brittleness Inc
Annealing steel Rhett

qqqng
softness

Extraction of Tin from cassiterite

Powdered
cassiterite
snot Gravity
of separation
conceonterated
5 Fes siOz
Tew impurities controlledroasting
fesoa.US Lowertemp soffarm
fiftsale Hot water svnoztfi.fm Ew04
SnO2tSi02tfew residue 504 Fe504
 Csnoztsioz
separation wot

g smelting Ket
flux Cac limited
Casioscslag
Liguation
Poling pu 8Pu
s

as

I
j
 Cnagnesile

x Electrolysis

D D

Goln
 Desilverisation of Argentiferous Lead

Pbt
having
impurity of Ag
Parke's process

Argentiferous melt molten

Lead
argentiferous
Lead
pent Ag alloy
add Zn

Pb

Distillation 2h10
Ent Ag
separated Ag
from Pb
cupellation
Pattinson's process Pb
semiedjagrich
cool iq cooling AgtP
molten argentiferous t Eutectic
solid mixture
Leed pb of 97.44 Pbt
2 GY
Pb MP 327 C Pb crystal
Af M P 303 C 34
jetty
432

filter
ppt
crystals
Aiotten Pb
tracesofPb
Icupellation
Pb can beremoved