Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 194 (2024) 114306

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

A systematic review on energy-efficient concrete: Indicators, performance

metrics, strategies, and future trends
Peyman Zandifaez a, b, Ali Akbar Nezhad c, d, Hongyu Zhou b, D. Dias-da-Costa a, *
a
School of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2006, Australia
b
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, 39702, United States
c
Boral Limited, T2/39 Delhi Rd, North Ryde, NSW, 2113, Australia
d
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of New South Wales, NSW, 2052, Australia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The growing production of concrete is prompting concerns about the sustainability of the construction sector.
Concrete sustainability Therefore, the mitigation of the environmental footprints of concrete as a widely used construction material has
Systematic review become a focus of research. Nonetheless, the growing demand for concrete production and the breadth of its
Energy-efficient concrete
energy efficiency throughout embodied and operating phases pose challenges in tracking energy performance.
Bibliometrics
This study offers a systematic review of the existing body of knowledge regarding the energy efficiency of
concrete by analysing bibliometric data from Scopus spanning 2000 to 2022 targeting the entire life cycle of
concrete. Quantitative and meta-analysis were conducted, presenting statistical data on the frequency and origin
of documents, institutions, and publication sources. Further, the most frequently used keywords were classified
into four clusters, followed by a detailed manual review of commonly adopted approaches for increasing the
energy efficiency of concrete derived from the systematic review. Reviewing a comprehensive dataset, this study
explored and discussed sustainable practices crucial for formulating energy-efficient concrete. The findings
provided valuable insights into monitoring the energy performance of concrete considering embodied and
operating phases. Additionally, the review highlighted a connection between automation technologies and
sustainable construction. The identified results and suggested sustainable solutions can potentially guide
academia and industry towards current and future directions concerning the energy efficiency of concrete.

efficiency of concrete can help alleviate carbon emissions and the

1. Introduction
The construction sector is a significant energy consumer, contrib­
uting 40 % to global energy use and CO2 emissions, leading to global
warming and the depletion of natural resources [1]. Due to its promising
mechanical properties, cost-effectiveness, and durability, concrete has
become the most commonly used material in the built environment [2].
However, the growing demand for concrete production not only am­
plifies environmental implications [3] but also poses significant chal­
lenges in monitoring its sustainability indicators and performance.
In this context, the energy efficiency of concrete encompasses con­
flicting properties. Exploring sustainable practices to improve its energy
efficiency should consider embodied and operating phases, as both serve
as driving factors [4]. The former includes the environmental footprints
associated with extracting, manufacturing, and transporting concrete to
the construction site [5]. Enhancing the embodied energy (EE)
exploitation of natural resources attributed to its production, positively
influencing its environmental implications. However, the energy per­
formance of concrete extends beyond its embodied phase, as significant
energy use is attributed to concrete structures during their operating
phase, as evidenced by previous studies [6]. The significance of the
energy performance of concrete within the operating phase lies in the
heat/energy exchange with the outdoor environment. Besides, concrete
structures influence the temperature of their surroundings. In this
context, Doi [7] highlighted the effectiveness of passive cooling strate­
gies in mitigating the urban heat island effect in commercially supplied
residential buildings. Optimising the choice of concrete for building
envelopes holds the potential for reducing energy consumption in
buildings without compromising indoor thermal comfort [8]. That said,
the energy efficiency of concrete throughout its life cycle has been
extensively explored [9]. Findings in the body of knowledge indicated a
relative share between EE and operating energy (OE), in which case

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: daniel.diasdacosta@sydney.edu.au (D. Dias-da-Costa).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2024.114306
Received 23 October 2023; Received in revised form 24 January 2024; Accepted 30 January 2024
Available online 5 February 2024
1364-0321/© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
P. Zandifaez et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 194 (2024) 114306

information, including leading authors and scholarly venues, key areas,

Index of abbreviations potential gaps, and future research directions. It was observed that Lima
et al. [24] conducted an SR about sustainability in the construction
EE Embodied Energy sector, finding a focus on environmental aspects over social and eco­
FC Foam Concrete nomic ones. Li et al. [25] also systematically reviewed the impact of
LWA Lightweight Aggregates natural and social-environmental indices on building energy consump­
LWC Lightweight Concrete tion, expecting a growing trend in studies considering both aspects.
NC Normal Concrete Omrany et al. [26] carried out an SR on nearly zero-energy buildings
OE Operating Energy from 1995 to 2022, exploring research developments, key journals,
PCMs Phase Change Materials authors, and pioneer countries.
RA Recycled Aggregates Table 1 lists several review studies concentrating on the energy ef­
RAC Recycled Aggregate Concrete ficiency of concrete from various perspectives. Most studies reviewed
RCA Recycled Concrete Aggregates energy efficiency and carbon emission reduction strategies in the con­
SCMs Supplementary Cementitious Materials crete industry [27,28]. Other studies, however, explored the effective­
SR Systematic Review ness of including recycled aggregates (RA), supplementary cementitious
TES Thermal Energy Storage materials (SCMs), and PCMs in increasing the thermal conductivity and
thermal insulation capacity of concrete [29,30]. The implications of
adopting these sustainable approaches on the mechanical performance
of concrete could also be found in several publications [31,32]. Despite
finding a suitable balance can be challenging [10]. This can be attrib­ the extensive review of the energy efficiency of concrete, a compre­
uted to their inverse relationship [11]. The trade-off between OE and EE hensive analysis regarding the evolution of the topic and the most
depends on project-specific factors that require considering their rela­ frequently used keywords over time, along with identifying potential
tive share in designing energy-efficient concrete [12]. gaps and available research pathways, is missing. This study aimed to
Reviewing previous studies indicated a focus mainly on reducing bridge these gaps by conducting a comprehensive review spanning the
either EE or OE, potentially leading to adverse effects on the counterpart energy efficiency of concrete throughout its life cycle. Beyond expand­
[13]. From an environmental perspective, incorporating various recy­ ing existing review studies, this research holds significance for inte­
cled contents and fibres in concrete was explored [4,14]. To enhance grating an extensive dataset and including all properties required to
accuracy and efficiency, several studies investigated strategies to mini­ design energy-efficient concrete. In addition, quantitative analysis and
mise the environmental footprints of concrete using artificial science mapping provide insights into pioneer countries, institutions,
intelligence-based approaches [15]. The authors of the current study initiatives, and cutting-edge construction technologies that could
also explored mitigating the environmental footprints of concrete mixes contribute to green construction in the coming years.
through data-driven optimisation frameworks for green concrete [16, The current study presented an SR focused on enhancing the energy
17]. However, these studies were focused on the embodied phase, tar­ efficiency of concrete considering environmental footprints, as well as
geting global warming, fossil fuel depletion, and acidification potentials. thermal and mechanical properties during embodied and operating
In contrast, to improve the measurement of the thermal behaviour of phases. The novelty of this review lies in its thorough assessment,
concrete, Mansour and Ebid [18] explored the heat transfer of massive providing insights into a range of sustainability indicators and their
concrete structures using a 3D-finite difference model to address the synergistic implications. It highlights leading authors, institutions, and
difficulties associated with finite element models. From a thermal con­ scholarly venues while identifying the most contributed areas and
duction standpoint, Majumdar et al. [19] highlighted the effectiveness overlooked aspects. Also, the study provides a clear picture of research
of fibres on the thermal properties of concrete. From a thermal energy achievements, the evolution of the topic, and advanced solutions to
storage (TES) view, achievements in the application of phase change improve the energy efficiency of concrete, therefore appealing to
materials (PCMs) in concrete were reviewed [20]. At a different scale,
Xu et al. [21] also systematically reviewed the use of concentrating solar
power technologies to increase the insulation capacity of concrete. Table 1
After examining the available research findings, it was noted that Summary of reviews.
only a few studies addressed both environmental and operating phases. Number Targeted properties Review type Reference Cited by
For instance, Malka et al. [22] explored the highest and lowest optimum
M TC TES CE
insulation thickness for different building types in Albania, using die­
1 ✓ Manual [27] 598
sel/electricity and biomass as the energy sources, respectively. The re­ 2 ✓ ✓ ✓ Manual [33] 36
sults showed an 82 % reduction in carbon emissions at the optimum 3 ✓ Systematic [34] 54
insulation thickness, as well as 84.5 €/m2 improvements in net savings. 4 ✓ ✓ ✓ Manual [35] 77
Furthermore, the authors concluded that to ensure the minimum energy 5 ✓ Systematic [4] 854
6 ✓ ✓ Manual [36] 6
efficiency, the overall heat transfer value of windows should be less than 7 ✓ Manual [37] 108
0.3 W/m2K. It was also observed that the intention to reduce energy 8 ✓ ✓ Manual [29] 518
consumption in buildings evolved into a broader initiative aimed at 9 ✓ ✓ Manual [38] 142
fostering sustainable practices to minimise energy use and carbon 10 ✓ ✓ Manual [39] 33
11 Systematic [40] 44
emissions across developed societies and nations [23]. Given the ✓
12 ✓ ✓ Manual [30] 128
breadth of research, in-depth reviews are required to highlight the 13 ✓ Manual [41] 146
methods, trends, findings, and gaps currently standing surrounding the 14 ✓ ✓ Systematic [42] 84
energy efficiency of concrete. Investigating the published studies, 15 ✓ Systematic [31] 126
however, indicated that most review studies did not consider a holistic 16 ✓ Systematic [43] 69
17 Manual [44] 111
examination of all sustainability indicators throughout the life cycle of
✓ ✓
18 ✓ Manual [28] 938
concrete, despite targeting either its environmental, thermal, or me­ 19 ✓ ✓ Manual [45] 25
chanical performance. To address this shortcoming, some studies 20 ✓ ✓ Systematic [46] 71
recently employed systematic review (SR) methods to effectively *M: Mechanical; TC: Thermal conductivity; TES: Thermal energy storage; CE:
manage extensive datasets, thereby providing comprehensive Carbon emissions.

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P. Zandifaez et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 194 (2024) 114306

stakeholders and policymakers. documents was collected within the defined scope of the study. The first
category sought documents related to the broad scope of the sustain­
2. Methodology ability of concrete in construction. The second category included a set of
keywords covering the embodied aspect of concrete by searching for
This section describes the method employed for the SR on the energy documents concerning its environmental implications. The third cate­
efficiency of concrete. The current study carried out both quantitative gory limited the search by considering the indices that influence the
and qualitative analyses. For the quantitative aspect, science mapping thermal performance of concrete during its operating phase. Therefore,
analysis was utilised to visualise systematic patterns within a large the design of the keywords aimed to collect scholarly evidence on the
collection of bibliometric records [47]. The choice of methodology energy efficiency of concrete considering both EE and OE in the con­
addressed the challenges associated with manual reviews, where the struction sector.
impracticality of assessing the entire body of available knowledge af­ It should be noted that the defined categories of keywords were
fects research comprehensiveness and reliability. This shortcoming connected using the Boolean “and” operator, while the search was
could be addressed by leveraging the method presented in [48], syn­ limited to the defined time frame of 22 years. The specified keywords
thesising extensive data records from several sources and perspectives. were explored within the title, abstract, and keywords of documents,
The quantitative analysis encompasses four steps: tool selection, resulting in 901 documents. Table 3 shows the six exclusions considered
keyword categorisation and data acquisition, quantitative bibliometric to refine the results and gather the maximum number of relevant re­
analysis and keyword clustering, and material evaluation. In the method cords. The search led to 283 documents after applying the exclusions.
used, keyword definition by authors could precisely define the research Fig. 1 shows the schematic of the methodology adopted to carry out the
scope, ensuring a comprehensive collection of relevant documents. The SR in this study. However, some limitations can be attributed to the
final two steps elucidated the frequency of documents on the topic method used, particularly the criteria focusing on English documents
within a specific period, the most used keywords, and provided statis­ and the selection of journals with a minimum of twenty studies within
tical insights into the collected dataset. Furthermore, this approach the field. This could inadvertently influence the overall scope of
formed a foundation for material evaluation and discussion, identifying coverage across the body of knowledge.
potential gaps and fostering theory development. It also served as a
flexible framework, enablingadjustments to the research scope through
2.3. Quantitative bibliometric analysis and keyword clustering
modifications to keyword selection.
The quantitative and meta-analyses of collected documents were
2.1. Tool selection carried out using the Scopus analyser tool, and statistics about the fre­
quency of documents, contributing countries, and sources were pre­
Social network analysis generated network maps by analysing sented. This analysis facilitated the identification of leading institutions,
datasets using mathematics and statistics. In these maps, nodes repre­ authors, frequently used keywords and state-of-the-art sustainable
sented individuals, such as institutions and authors, while connections practices aimed at improving the energy efficiency of concrete. The vi­
denoted correlations determined by their closeness and interactions. sual categorisation of the most used keywords was presented in four
Several software options, including Gephi, VOSviewer, and CiteSpace, main clusters based on their co-occurrence patterns within the dataset.
have been used for social network analysis [49]. In this study, VOS­ Additionally, CiteSpace was employed to examine the timeframe of
viewer was employed for mapping and visualising the obtained dataset, citation bursts in the top keywords, shedding light on the research surge
considering three aspects: contributing authors, institutions, and these keywords experienced during short periods. Furthermore, biblio­
keyword clustering, as it provides critical features required for analysing metric maps were prepared using a multi-stage selection to categorise
bibliometric networks. Additionally, citation burst analysis was per­ the results. The specific settings employed for quantitative analysis were
formed using CiteSpace to investigate the surge that key areas experi­
enced over time. Moreover, search engines, including Web of Science,
Table 3
Google Scholar, PubMed, and Scopus could be used to obtain biblio­
Exclusions and justifications.
graphic datasets. The present study used the 2000–2022 core collection
ID Exclusion constraints Justification
of Scopus as a widely used scientific search tool to gather the required
dataset for quantitative analyses [50]. C1 Subject areas other than To ensure the consistency of the dataset
engineering, energy, and and provide relevant documents,
environmental science journals with other focus areas were
2.2. Keyword categorisation and data acquisition excluded
C2 Document types other than article, To secure the collection of reliable
In the data acquisition process, three categories of keywords were conference paper, review, book documents published in scholarly
chapter, conference review, and contexts, other types of documents
defined. Table 2 presents the keywords used within each category,
book were excluded
strategically chosen to ensure the maximum quantity of relevant C3 Journals with less than 20 To provide thematic consistency
documents among the selected journals, those with
Table 2 less than 20 articles within the 22-year
timeframe were excluded.
Selected keywords.
C4 Documents with only abstracts To ensure the comprehensiveness of
Keyword categories available documents and the collection of
materials proposed on a scientific basis
1 2 3
C5 Documents written in any language To establish a standard and
Construct* “Sustainability” or “Energy” or “Thermal properties” or other than English international language in academia,
AND “Environment” or “Greenhouse “Thermal conductivity” or English is employed as the primary
Build* gases” or “Global warming” or “thermal mass” or “Operating language by academic journals with
AND “Recycl*” or “Sustainable energy” or “Temperature” or high global reach. Therefore, studies
Sustain* concrete” or “Embodied energy” “Porosity” or “Sustainable with languages other than English were
AND or “Green building” or construction” or “Heat transfer” excluded
Concrete “Environmental footprints” or or “Air voids” C6 Documents not focusing on the To ensure the consistency of the
“Environmental impacts” or energy efficiency of concrete in dataset, documents with the main focus
“Natural resources” or buildings outside the scope of the study were
“Construction waste” excluded

3
P. Zandifaez et al.
Fig. 1. The structure of methodology.
designed to capture meaningful statistical insights, focusing on con­
tributors at or beyond the average, rather than exclusively on high-tier
contributors. This approach prioritised a balanced representation of
contributions, ensuring a predominant and comprehensive examination.
2.4. Material evaluation
The bibliometric analysis provided valuable insights into the subject,
forming a foundation for material evaluation. Thus, a qualitative anal­
ysis was conducted based on the results of SR to evaluate the advance­
ment, methodologies employed, and challenges in enhancing energy
efficiency in concrete. A manual review was also conducted to assess the
impact of sustainable practices and their synergetic effects on concrete
properties. For this purpose, the pertinent documents focused on each
cluster of keywords were reviewed, discussing their corresponding effect
on EE and OE, as well as the mechanical performance of concrete. This
manual review can contribute to understanding the impact of sustain­
able practices on concrete properties and elucidate novel construction
techniques that support sustainable construction.
3. Bibliometric data analysis
3.1. Quantitative bibliometric and meta-analysis
The SR on the refined 283 documents showed a growing trend in
studies published within the defined scope. Fig. 2 depicts the frequency
of published documents from 2000 to 2022, highlighting the increasing
popularity of the topic over time. The results indicated that only nine
studies were published within the first eight years, from 2000 to 2007.
This number significantly increased to 70 and 204 from 2008 to 2014
Fig. 2. Documents published from 2000 to 2022.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 194 (2024) 114306
and 2015 to 2022, respectively. This growth showed the rising impor­
tance of sustainability in concrete research. A significant surge from
2020 to 2021 was also observed, reflecting the recent popularity of the
topic. The final seven years of the period account for about 72 % of the
published documents, which contrasts deeply with the first seven years,
representing 3 % of the publications over the 22 years of research.
Rwelamila et al. [51] attributed the lack of focus on sustainable
construction in the first seven years to conventional approaches in
construction projects. The authors concluded that these approaches lack
a relationship management system that could not address
sustainable-related concerns in buildings. Similarly, Bon and Hutch­
inson [52] stated that economic challenges were the main reason why
sustainability was not of interest in the construction sector. Between
2008 and 2014, the rate at which studies were published significantly
increased. This can be attributed to the raised awareness about climate
change, carbon emissions, and their negative environmental impacts, in
addition to observing the tangible effects of adopting sustainable prac­
tices in improving the energy efficiency of concrete [53,54]. The
increasing number of studies from 2015 to 2022 was due to the
remarkable contribution of both developed and developing countries to
energy saving in buildings through energy-efficient concrete [55,56].
Additionally, extensive achievements were noted in the replacement of a
wide range of recycled contents with environmentally expensive con­
stituents in concrete mixtures, along with the inclusion of thermal
storage materials [57,58]. This ascending trend in the publications can
also be related to the commitments of decision-makers to the sustain­
ability regulations established by the Green Building Council and the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [59].
Fig. 3(a) illustrates the top 15 countries with the highest number of
published documents focused on improving the energy efficiency of
concrete in the construction sector. This figure shows a keen interest in
this topic among leading developed countries, including the United
States, Australia, and China, contributing 14.4 %, 13.3 %, and 9 %,
respectively, followed by Italy, Spain, and the United Kingdom. The SR
also identified key journals addressing energy-related and sustainability
concerns attributed to concrete in the building industry. Fig. 3(b) pre­
sents the top 15 journals where relevant research works were published.
The Journal of Cleaner Production emerged as the leading venue, ac­
counting for 20.5 % of the published research, followed by Construction
and Building Materials and Energy and Buildings, with 18.6 % and 8.7 %
contributions, respectively. These findings align with similar studies,
highlighting that the Journal of Cleaner Production and Construction
and Building Materials rank among the top four journals in citation and
h-index, emphasising their role in contributing to sustainability in the
built environment [24]. This can be attributed to the concentration of
these journals on improving the sustainability of buildings by increasing
the energy efficiency of concrete. Cabeza et al. [60] also underscored the
significant contribution of developed countries, such as the United
P. Zandifaez et al.
Fig. 3. The number of published documents based on region and source.
States, Australia, the United Kingdom, and China, to the sustainability of
concrete. The authors attributed the contributions of these nations to
their advanced infrastructure, high construction demand, and in­
vestments in innovative technologies, resulting in sustainable policies.
Fig. 4 shows the top contributing institutions with at least two doc­
uments and 30 citations. It is worth noting that in the obtained maps, the
size of circles was determined based on a quantitative relationship (i.e.,
contributing organisations or keywords) associated with an item in a
network, while the lines denoted the connection between items. The
results showed that Griffith University, Yonsei University, and the
University of Bologna lead in the number of publications. However, in
terms of citations, Columbia University, with 958 citations, secured the
top position among 30 institutions, followed by the City University of
Hong Kong and the Hong Kong Polytechnic University. Moreover, RMIT
and the Technology University of Malaysia were among the top 10
universities with the most citations. This indicated a lack of correlation
between the number of documents and citations, as four documents
from Colombia University and the City University of Hong Kong were
cited nearly four times more than nine documents from Griffith and
Yonsei Universities. This highlighted a particular limitation: the
importance of prioritising quality over quantity in scholarly work.
Furthermore, relying solely on the number of citations as the primary
measure for evaluating research impact poses another constraint.
Similarly, studies focusing on the sustainable built environment identi­
fied Yonsei University, The Hong Kong University of Science and
Technology, and Hunan University as leading institutions [61].
Fig. 4. Publications based on institution.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 194 (2024) 114306
In addition to affiliations, the present study analysed the published
studies considering their authors. Fig. 5 illustrates the primary authors
and their collaborations, visually represented by their connections. The
results indicated that 60 authors published at least two publications with
more than 40 citations. Collaboration among authors with the highest
number of documents increased with a focus on the environmental
footprints of concrete [62–65], aligning with research trends in the last
eight years of the defined time frame. The findings of the current review
suggested that authors with the highest number of documents and ci­
tations more frequently collaborated, as indicated by the closeness of
larger nodes in Fig. 5. These findings highlighted the importance of
dedicating additional efforts to incorporate new contributors into the
interconnected research groups.
3.2. Keywords clustering analysis
Numerous studies have explored the energy efficiency of concrete in
the past decades. Thus, identifying and analysing all the trending key­
words may not be practical using traditional review methods. To address
this, the SR was carried out, identifying a network of trend keywords and
topics. Fig. 6 illustrates the most frequently used ones in four clusters,
each identified by a distinct colour code. The results indicated that 110
keywords were used over eight times in the selected publications. In this
figure, the circles indicate keywords, with the size of the circles denoting
their frequency in the collected publications, and the lines show the
connections among the keywords. However, all the keywords used and
P. Zandifaez et al.
Fig. 5. Publications based on author names.
Fig. 6. Keyword clustering.
their connections were not reflected in Fig. 6 due to the visualisation
limitations.
In the first cluster, highlighted in red, the predominant keywords
include sustainable development, building materials, and concrete
construction. The main focus of this cluster revolves around the sus­
tainability of concrete and the energy consumption attributed to this
building material. In this context, Meglin and Kytzia [66] conducted a
life cycle analysis of concrete, examining how production technology,
socio-technical settings, and methodological choices impact the results.
Similarly, Dossche et al. [67] investigated factors contributing to the
environmental footprints of high-strength concrete through life cycle
analysis. The authors concluded that the share of construction waste
production and transportation is not negligible and can be improved by
up to 30 %. The second cluster, coded green, addresses the environ­
mental implications of concrete, as its most frequent keywords are
global warming, greenhouse gases, carbon dioxide emissions, and
Portland cement. Consequently, this group seeks the environmental
footprints of cementitious composites by incorporating a wide range of
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 194 (2024) 114306
lightweight fillers and SCMs, such as fly ash and slag. For instance,
Elchalakani et al. [68] and Sandanayake et al. [57] explored the envi­
ronmental implications (i.,e. carbon emission) of fly ash, slag, RA, and
geopolymer-based concretes. In another study, Patel et al. [69] showed a
20 % improvement in various environmental indices of concrete at 20 %
replacement of cement with a specific type of glass powder.
The third cluster, represented in blue, accounts for the effect of
recycled contents on the mechanical performance of concrete, as solid
connections were found between compressive strength and a set of
sustainable practices, including recycling, RA, demolition, and fibres
[70–72]. Although all the used keywords were not reflected in Fig. 6, the
analysis showed that the thermal performance of recycled aggregate
concrete (RAC) and SCMs-incorporated concrete were also investigated
within this cluster. Notably, the thermal aspect is less researched
compared to the mechanical performance. The last cluster, shown in
yellow, however, contributes to the thermal performance of concrete
during the operating phase. The presence of thermal-related keywords
in this cluster, such as thermal insulation, thermal performance,
P. Zandifaez et al.
porosity, thermal storage, PCMs, and building envelopes, signifies this
focus [73–75]. Fig. 6 indicated direct connections between 3D printers,
sustainable development, and the construction industry [76,77]. How­
ever, achieving scalability in additive manufacturing necessitates
alignment with concrete codes and standards. Importantly, explicit
standards in fresh and hard states, including buildability, extrudability,
and durability of 3D printed cementitious composites are currently
lacking. The establishment of these standards is crucial for advancing
sustainable construction technologies.
A thorough examination of the four clusters and their respective
focuses indicated the exploration of approaches to improve the energy
efficiency of concrete. These include incorporating SCMs and recycled
contents, increasing the porosity of cementitious composites, and using
TES materials. Furthermore, the impacts of these approaches on the
mechanical, environmental, and thermal performances of concrete were
sought. The findings showed that certain sustainable practices
contribute to improving the energy efficiency of concrete specifically
during the operating phase (i.e., PCMs and porous concrete), while some
consider the energy efficiency in both embodied and operating phases
(SCMs and recycled contents). However, the concentration of the studies
was primarily focused on minimising the environmental footprints of
concrete. As a result, the exploration of improving the energy efficiency
of concrete by emphasising its operating phase is limited, despite the
higher energy use attributed to this phase, compared to EE, throughout
the life cycle of buildings. Nevertheless, growing research focus on
Fig. 7. Top 25 terms with the strongest citation bursts.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 194 (2024) 114306
energy-efficient concrete considering its operating phase could be
observed. Similar findings are supported by Cabeza et al. [60]. The
authors reviewed and categorised the most frequently used keywords
surrounding the EE and embodied carbon of buildings. The results
identified five main groups of keywords, spanning various aspects of
sustainable buildings, such as the life cycle assessment of structures,
environmental footprints of the construction industry, and sustainable
solutions to overcome adverse implications. Although the study was
primarily focused on the embodied aspect, the authors highlighted the
crucial role of the thermal performance of building elements in overall
energy consumption in buildings. This underscored the necessity for
comprehensive reviews encompassing both the embodied and operating
phases.
The SR encountered certain limitations, leading to potential errors,
such as selective outcome reporting and constraints within search stra­
tegies. Selective outcome reporting could introduce bias by favouring
studies reporting specific outcomes of interest, possibly excluding
studies measuring similar variables with different reported outcomes.
This exclusion could occur as less popular studies may lack citations,
leading to their omission from the analysis. Furthermore, search strategy
limitations could result from constrained keyword choices and missing
relevant sources. These errors pose a risk of overlooking studies with
crucial perspectives or findings, impacting the overall comprehensive­
ness and validity of the study. Diverse inclusion criteria and various
outcome measures can be included to mitigate the influence of the
P. Zandifaez et al.
errors. Also, search strategies with broader keywords can be adopted to
enhance the comprehensiveness of studies, thereby facilitating the
formulation of sustainable practices and policies required to address
environmental footprints, such as climate change, in the construction
sector.
3.3. Citation burst analysis
Furthermore, the current study explored the frequency of the key­
words used in the published documents over a certain period, employing
a citation burst analysis facilitated by CiteSpace. The analysis is based on
the algorithm introduced by Kleinberg [78]. The analysis can help
identify growing research focus on specific areas over short timeframes
[79]. Fig. 7 shows the top 25 citation bursts, representing instances of
focus on enhancing the energy efficiency of concrete and buildings. The
figure shows the initiation and decline of these bursts from 2000 to
2022. The green and red lines denote the timeframe chosen for the re­
view and the duration during which keywords experienced citation
bursts, respectively.
In Fig. 7, the strength value indicates the frequency of citation in the
marked years for the corresponding term. The results show that certain
keywords received a significant research surge in the early years, namely
building design, energy utilisation, and the concrete industry. This can
be attributed to primary studies on the importance of monitoring energy
consumption during the design phase of projects and quantifying energy
use through computer simulations [80]. This interest gradually shifted
toward increasing building sustainability and mitigating environmental
implications associated with the EE of building materials [53]. The
findings also highlight a rising surge in building materials, particularly
concrete, with several terms, such as aggregates, RA, Portland cement,
and mechanical properties experiencing citation bursts since 2011 [81,
82]. Moreover, several studies explored the effects of the thermal per­
formance of concrete on energy consumption in buildings, as thermal
insulation, heat transfer, and heat storage were among popular terms in
recent years [83,84].
4. Pathways to improve the energy efficiency of concrete
obtained from SR
The SR highlighted an extensive effort dedicated to enhancing the
energy efficiency of concrete. Through systematic analysis, four pre­
vailing strategies were identified. These include incorporating light­
weight aggregates (LWA), SCMs, and PCMs into concrete mixes,
alongside aerating concrete. Notably, the first two methods exhibit po­
tential improvements in both the embodied and operating phases, while
the latter two methods contribute to enhancing the operating phase. A
qualitative exploration of the most common sustainable practices
identified is presented in the following.
4.1. Incorporating LWA
The energy performance of concrete is influenced by various factors,
including the type of aggregates and cementitious materials [85]. Ag­
gregates (fine and coarse) encompass 60–75 % of the concrete volume,
thereby governing the thermal properties of concrete [86]. The thermal
properties of coarse aggregate vary based on its composition and degree
of crystallisation [87]. Findings suggest that the thermal conductivity of
concrete can increase with high coarse aggregate content due to its less
porous structure [88]. It was reported that a 1 % increase in the porosity
of concrete can decrease its thermal conductivity by up to 0.6 % [89].
Therefore, replacing a certain percentage of coarse and fine aggregates
with LWA, resulting in lightweight concrete (LWC), proves to be an
effective approach to enhance the thermal performance of concrete
[90].
The density of LWC ranges between 1350 and 1850 kg/m3, while the
density of normal concrete (NC) varies between 2400 and 2500 kg/m3,
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 194 (2024) 114306
emphasising the higher thermal conductivity of NC [91]. The improved
thermal properties of LWC can be attributed to the higher volume of air
trapped in its porous structure compared to NC [92]. According to Holm
and Bremner [93], the density of LWC is approximately 23 % less than
NC, with thermal conductivity ranging between 0.5 and 0.86 w/mk for
LWC and 1.4 to 2.9 w/mk for NC. A significant reduction in the thermal
conductivity of concrete (50–70 %) could be achieved by lowering the
density of NC from 2000 to 2600 kg/m3 to 1400–1800 kg/m3 [94]. Real
et al. [95] reported a 40–53 % reduction in the thermal conductivity of
NC using LWA. To produce LWC, a variety of LWA can be used, including
expanded clays and shales, pumice perlite, and various wastes, such as
blended waste, clay brick, rubber, plastic, oil palm shell, and agricul­
tural and recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) [96,97]. Among these,
RCA stands out as a widely used LWA, addressing environmental con­
cerns related to landfills and contributing to green construction by
reducing embodied carbon, production costs, and the exploitation of
natural resources [98]. Zhu et al. [99] explored the thermal properties of
three different RAC types using RCA, finding that these samples
exhibited lower thermal conductivity than NC. The authors established a
direct relationship between thermal conductivity and the density of RAC
mixes. Reviewing the published works provided further evidence of the
superior thermal performance of RAC compared to NC [100]. Among the
developed countries, China and the United States are responsible for
producing 2360 and 600 million tons of construction demolition and
waste, which can be recycled into RCA [101].
Moreover, this approach was used to increase the energy efficiency
of concrete by mitigating the EE attributed to concrete production.
Through a life cycle assessment, Hossain et al. [102] reported 65 % and
58 % reductions in greenhouse gases and non-renewable energy con­
sumption using RCA derived from the recycling of construction and
demolition wastes. Another study explored the environmental benefits
of incorporating RCA in pavement applications. The results indicated
that RCA could alleviate environmental concerns, including energy and
water consumption, carbon emissions, and construction waste genera­
tion. However, it is crucial to acknowledge that this practice may pro­
duce toxic gases, such as NOx, posing risks to human health [103].
Colangelo et al. [104] concluded that introducing RCA could reduce the
environmental impacts associated with concrete, while there is a ne­
cessity to quantify the energy consumption attributed to RCA trans­
portation. It was reported that incorporating RA as a replacement for
natural aggregates could also reduce the cost of production by up to 20
% [105].
The findings of previous studies highlighted the effectiveness of RAC
in alleviating heat exchange through concrete, owing to its improved
thermal properties. Therefore, RAC is an effective thermal insulation
material compared to NC. Moreover, using RAC can address environ­
mental concerns associated with waste landfills, depletion of natural
resources, and CO2 emissions. However, using RA may reduce the me­
chanical properties of concrete due to its higher porosity, water ab­
sorption, and weaker bonds formed with new pastes compared to coarse
aggregates [106]. This limitation can be addressed by incorporating
materials that enhance the mechanical performance of concrete, such as
SCMs, which can effectively compensate for the strength reduction
[107].
4.2. Incorporating SCMs
SCMs consist of by-products from various industries and encompass a
wide range of materials, including fly ash, silica fume, blast furnace slag,
rice husk ash, and corn cob ash [108]. The partial replacement of cement
content with SCMs stands out as an effective approach to
energy-efficient concrete. Cseh et al. [109] studied the effect of SCMs on
the heat transfer of concrete, revealing a significant reduction in the
thermal conductivity of concrete by partially replacing cement content
with fly ash. Chen et al. [110] reported the effectiveness of replacing
cement content by 8–20 % with fly ash and 3–5 % with slag, resulting in
P. Zandifaez et al.
reduced thermal conductivity and density of the concrete mixes. Ade­
woyin et al. [111] also concluded that incorporating four types of SCMs
(fly ash, slag, silica fume, and expanded glass) led to a reduction in the
thermal conductivity and density of mortar by 10.1 % and 25.4 %,
respectively. Additional evidence supporting the efficiency of SCMs in
improving the thermal properties of concrete could be found [112–114].
Similar to LWA, SCMs play a central role in producing energy-
efficient concrete, particularly concerning its embodied phase. Vargas
and Halog [115] showed a reduction in carbon dioxide emissions using a
specific type of fly ash obtained from an ultra-fine grinding process.
Samad and Shah [116] reviewed the impact of using a set of SCMs,
including fly ash, slag, rice husk ash, and silica fume, on the environ­
mental implications of concrete. The authors highlighted the effective­
ness of SCMs in reducing the negative environmental footprints of
concretes during their embodied phase. S. A. Miller [117] conducted a
study exploring the environmental benefits of adopting SCMs. The re­
sults indicated that higher SCMs did not necessarily lead to lower
environmental footprints. The author also concluded that structural
design and transportation should be taken into consideration in the
design process.
The synergetic effect of employing SCMs and RA in concrete was
extensively investigated, with a primary focus on evaluating the me­
chanical properties and environmental footprints of concrete [118].
However, only a limited number of studies have explored the impact of
the simultaneous use of both approaches on the thermal properties of
concrete. Sargam et al. [119] investigated the impact of incorporating
SCMs, particularly slag and fly ash, on the thermal properties of
RA-incorporated concrete, revealing a reduction in the thermal con­
ductivity of the mixes. Martinez et al. [120] studied the impact of
replacing cement and coarse aggregate with ground-recycled concrete,
serving as both SCM and RCA, on the thermal performance of concrete.
The results showed that replacing cement and natural aggregates by
10–25 wt% and 50 % with the selected SCM and RCA could lower
thermal conductivity by 7.9–11.8 % and increase specific heat capacity
by 6.0–9.1 %. Consequently, further studies are required to assess the
effectiveness of this particular approach in improving the thermal
properties of concrete.
4.3. Increasing porous structure
The findings from previous studies showed that increasing the
porous structure of concrete holds significant promise in reducing the
OE demand for concrete [121]. This can be achieved by introducing air
into concrete mixtures using chemical foaming agents or aluminium
powder [122]. A high concentration of air voids can increase the porous
structure while reducing the density and thermal conductivity of mixes.
Consequently, aerated concrete becomes suitable for thermal insulation
and acoustic applications [123]. The density of foam concrete (FC)
usually varies between 300 and 1600 kg/m3, allowing its use in thermal
insulation, non-load bearing, and load-bearing applications depending
on the achieved density [124]. Despite the wide range of applications for
FC, its usage in construction projects is roughly 5.6 % in North America
and Australia [125].
Due to its cellular microstructure, using FC ensures the improved
thermal properties of concrete. It was concluded that thermal conduc­
tivity is directly proportional to the density of FC [126]. Mydin [127]
explored the thermal conductivity of several FC mixes with different
densities. The author noted that higher porosity could result in lower
density and thermal conductivity. An experimental study reported that
the thermal conductivity of mixes with densities ranging from 700 to
1400 kg/m3 varied between 0.24 and 0.74 W/mK [128]. Consequently,
FC was deemed a sustainable building material due to its superior
thermal performance compared to other concrete types [129]. Since
introducing FC reduces viscosity, it facilitates the incorporation of waste
materials into concrete [130], limiting its application to non-structural
and semi-structural applications [131]. Therefore, environmental
9
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 194 (2024) 114306
concerns associated with natural resource depletion, waste landfills, and
CO2 emissions can be addressed [132]. Currently, incorporating a wide
range of waste materials in FC has been explored, including but not
limited to fly ash, silica fume, bottom ash, waste glass, and construction
and demolition wastes [133].
Based on the findings of the scholarly works, FC exhibited superior
energy performance compared to NC due to its superior thermal per­
formance. However, the integration of FC into new developments, such
as additive manufacturing, contributing to sustainability in construc­
tion, as confirmed by the results of the SR analysis, remains limited.
Therefore, investigations on foam-incorporated cementitious compos­
ites while leveraging new technologies in construction are yet to be
explored. It is worth mentioning that increasing air voids up to certain
percentages in concrete mixes can address several challenges in additive
manufacturing technologies, such as concrete 3D printing, by reducing
the weight of printed elements required in this field.
4.4. Incorporating TES materials
Minimising heat exchange through concrete is crucial in reducing
energy consumption while ensuring thermal comfort for users [134].
TES can effectively enhance energy efficiency in concrete by increasing
its heat storage capacity and adding more thermal mass to concrete
[135]. These materials, particularly PCMs, store the thermal energy in
concrete in latent heat mode. Therefore, energy storage occurs when the
phase of the storage material is changed from solid to liquid or liquid to
gas while the material temperature remains relatively stable, thereby
shifting the peak demand [136]. In this context, PCMs can reduce the
cooling loads [137], attributed to the high thermal storage capacity of
PCMs. Reports indicated that the energy storage capacity of PCMs be­
tween 18 ◦ C and 26 ◦ C surpasses that of water and concrete by 3–6 times,
respectively [138]. Fig. 8 shows the contribution of PCMs to the sus­
tainability of buildings by reducing the cooling load.
PCMs are generally categorised into three types: organic, inorganic,
and eutectics. The former mainly comprises paraffin and non-paraffin
base materials, while inorganic PCMs are usually salt-hydrate and me­
tallics bases and eutectics PCMs are a mixture of two or more compo­
nents [140]. A study by V. D. Cao et al. [141] reported that utilising
PCMs in multi-layer concrete walls could achieve up to a 28–30 %
reduction in energy consumption in cold climates. Cabeza et al. [142]
also examined the effect of incorporating microencapsulated PCMs into
concrete walls, highlighting the improved energy efficiency of the
designed specimens. Embedding PCM into concrete walls was also found
to reduce indoor temperature and alleviate temperature swings [143].
Further investigations on the impact of PCMs on the energy efficiency of
concrete were conducted [144–146]. Fig. 9 shows the classification of
TES materials and different types of PCMs. While several studies
Fig. 8. The effect of PCM [139].
P. Zandifaez et al.
Fig. 9. Classification of TES materials.
confirmed that using PCMs in concrete effectively increased its energy
efficiency, most findings highlighted long payback periods associated
with this approach [147,148]. Thus, integrating PCMs in building ele­
ments may not be cost-effective due to the higher cost of this material
compared to other insulation methods, thereby limiting this approach to
specific projects [149].
Reviewing prior research and examining commonly used keywords
obtained from qualitative analysis highlighted the significant role of
advanced solutions, such as thermal energy-saving materials, in
improving the energy efficiency of concrete, especially during the
operating phase [150]. However, incorporating PCMs into construction
materials has always posed challenges, mainly due to potential leakage
risks. Efforts to address this concern involved exploring PCM encapsu­
lation within various materials. While this approach holds promise, its
effectiveness is hindered by the insufficient strength of the coating
materials. To tackle this shortcoming, the authors propose exploring
PCM encapsulation with reinforced LWA as a carrier, potentially
replacing NA and simultaneously increasing thermal insulation capac­
ity. Using this technique, the scope of PCM contributions to concrete
energy efficiency expands to the embodied phase, thereby serving as a
two-fold approach. This innovative step aims to elevate both the oper­
ating and embodied phases of concrete. Given the effectiveness of PCMs
in hot regions, overcoming the challenges linked to their incorporation
into reinforced LWA can transform the industry by reducing reliance on
traditional energy-intensive cooling systems. Innovative encapsulation
methods, resulting in energy use optimisation are aligned with
10
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 194 (2024) 114306
sustainability goals, potentially mitigating the environmental implica­
tions of the construction sector and facilitating net-zero constructions.
5. Conclusion
The growing energy consumption associated with the concrete in­
dustry has become an environmental concern in recent decades. As a
response, various sustainable practices have been explored to enhance
the energy efficiency of concrete. To review and assess the evolution of
the topic, this study conducted an SR on documents published between
2000 and 2022, using the Scopus database constrained by a set of pre-
defined keywords and criteria, resulting in 283 publications. The
refined documents were analysed based on their bibliometric informa­
tion to explore leading institutions, authors, sources, the most used
keywords, their citation bursts, and the frequency of records over time.
The key findings of the study are summarised as follows:
• A growing trend in research about energy-efficient concrete was
evident from 2017 to 2022, particularly after 2020. The United
States and Australia emerged as leading contributors to the sustain­
ability of buildings. The increasing focus on energy-efficient concrete
in recent years could influence engineering design by promoting eco-
friendly construction materials. This alignment with environmental,
social and governance goals is essential for shaping future sustain­
able regulations.
P. Zandifaez et al.
• The analysis of keyword clustering highlighted environmental, me­
chanical, and thermal objectives targeted within each group. It was
found that several sustainable practices were among the extensively
researched topics. These include using RA to produce LWC as the
replacement of natural aggregates, incorporation of SCMs as the
replacement for cement, introducing air bubbles to increase the
porosity of concrete, and integration of PCMs into concrete to
improve its thermal insulation capacity. The latter, however, was
reported to be not economical due to extended payback periods. The
identified approaches hold promise for policymakers and financial
investments. Yet, it is crucial to balance sustainable production,
economic objectives, and policymaking for a comprehensive
approach.
• The results of the SR highlighted the connection between the
emerging technology of concrete 3D printing and sustainable de­
velopments in the construction sector. Furthermore, the identified
strategies to improve the energy efficiency of concrete, namely LWA,
SCM, and aerated concrete, could address the challenges in concrete
3D printing. These include reducing the weight of printed cementi­
tious composites, which is highly required in concrete 3D printing,
preventing viscoplastic buckling throughout the fresh state. In
addition, research on the benefits of FC, such as promising thermal
and acoustic properties, suggested that incorporating foaming agents
into 3D printable cementitious composites could enhance their spe­
cific printability properties (i.e., extrudability and pumpability).
The present study offers valuable insights to decision-makers and
stakeholders, enabling informed decisions and driving the industry to­
wards a more sustainable and environmentally conscious future.
Moreover, the current SR helps identify several research gaps.
Addressing these gaps can be deemed as future research pathways
contributing to the energy efficiency of concrete. These are summarised
as follows:
• While the significant impact of the thermal performance of concrete
on its life cycle could be identified, most studies tend to minimise the
environmental implications of concrete production. An avenue for­
ward could target the minimisation of the OE of concrete structures.
Also, progressing building information modelling, covering the life
cycle of concrete structures, could help stakeholders and decision-
makers maximise sustainability in buildings through holistic ap­
proaches in design phases.
• Given the effects of RCA and SCMs on both thermal and mechanical
properties of concrete, this study identified the lack of systematic
approaches to design green RAC mixes containing SCMs to
compensate for the weakened mechanical properties, as it elevates
environmental, mechanical, and thermal performances. Addition­
ally, research efforts investigating the encapsulation of PCMs in RA,
particularly reinforced LWA, hold a potential avenue for future
research.
• Despite the promising benefits that extrusion-based construction
offers, the application of concrete 3D printing for real-world con­
struction lacks scalability, requiring additional efforts to align with
concrete codes and standards for widespread implementation. The
authors believe that further research on green cementitious com­
posites using cutting-edge technologies can contribute to designing
energy-efficient concrete.
• The findings highlighted the effectiveness of adopting sustainable
practices to improve the OE and EE of concrete while overlooking the
significant impact of concrete on radiant heating systems. Leveraging
the thermal mass and conductivity of concrete allows for effective
heat conservation and distribution across building elements, such as
floors, walls, and ceilings, leading to cost reduction through
responsive radiant heating. Consequently, further explorations into
the influence of concrete choice on the thermal performance of
11
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 194 (2024) 114306
radiant heating systems can be considered a future research
direction.
This SR underscores the importance of ongoing efforts to enhance the
energy efficiency of concrete. As the concrete industry progresses,
addressing the identified gaps will become crucial. Key findings, such as
the significant impact of the thermal performance of concrete on its life
cycle and the potential synergy between green cementitious composites
and cutting-edge technologies, require further exploration. Despite the
current advances, future work could holistically consider both the
environmental implications and the operational energy associated with
concrete. The insights provided in this study could serve as a relevant
basis to inform academic and industry professionals and policymakers
about current progress. They also delineate clear pathways for future
research and development, ensuring continued advancement towards
more energy-efficient concrete and sustainable solutions. It is worth
noting that every research comes with limitations. The analysis pre­
sented focused solely on English works using constrained sets of key­
words, potentially overlooking other keywords and studies in different
languages. Moreover, the analysis relied on Scopus records from jour­
nals publishing a minimum of twenty research works within the scope of
the study, limiting its coverage. Consequently, the findings may not
capture the entire knowledge available on energy-efficient concrete.
Furthermore, relying on citations as a measure of scholarly contribution
has certain drawbacks. Coauthorship citations, for instance, may indi­
cate surface-level collaboration rather than authentic scientific
engagement in collaborative research.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgment
This review study was supported by the scholarship entitled “Post­
graduate Research Scholarship in BIM and AI Assisted Health and Safety
Risks Management in Construction” provided by the University of
Sydney.
The adoption and redesign of any figure was authorised by its pub­
lisher for reuse in the study.
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