How the British Raj maintained their rule in India, 1857-1914
Divide and Rule Policy
Partition of Bengal (1905) – split between Eastern Bengali (Muslims –
resistance led by Nawab Sallimullah of Dhaka supported the
partition) and Western Bengali (Hindu) – Curzon claimed for
administration reasons - Hindu-Muslim antagonism began – weaken
any unified resistance – helped prevent cohesive national movement
- led to the Swadeshi movement (boycotting of British goods in 1907)
– reunification in 1911
End of Doctrine of Lapse - collaboration with and embraced
traditional elites (Princely States) through Indian Political Service –
now attached to British Crown – importance of collaboration with
‘natural leaders’ (large landowners + those in power or importance)
 Talukdars in United Provinces (landed estates – Lucknow area) +
Pirs of Sind (wielded social, religious + economic influence) –
prevented development of modern political system
Colonial administrators regularly wrote reports and conducted
census that classified Indians in narrow terms – created new
communities – gave more attention to concepts and categories of
cast
Economic Exploitation and Infrastructure Development
Military Power and Suppression
Created for British interests – Indian soldier was merely an obedient
instrument – EIC Army now British Army – greater respect shown to
Sepoys and their beliefs – described as an ‘army barrack’ by Lord
Salisbury – dehumanise - Used for attack on Magdala, Ethiopia,
1867-68 + 7,000 Indians in Egypt in August 1882 to stop Urabi Pasha
+ Major-General Sir George Younghusband’s suppression of North-
West Frontier campaigns (armed with Gatling machine gun, breech-
loading rifles with range up to 1000 yards and small, collapsible
mountain guns)  nearly twenty wars between 1863-1901
Ratio of 2:1 of English and Indian soldiers – British were given
exclusive control over artillery - showed anxiety of British – 1880s;
70,000 British/ 125,000 Indian troops
Railways became a vehicle for asserting imperial power haphazardly
and belatedly – Imperial Police Force established
Psychological racial distrust due to mutiny – Bengal regiments
disbanded – heavy reliance on more loyal and martial groups from
Punjab etc. – recruitments increased from Sikh, North-West
Muslims, and Ghurkha communities (seen as more loyal) – General
Sir Harry Smith claimed Sikh gunners were equal to French during
Peninsula War
Legal and Administrative Reforms
Increase in commercial agriculture for cash crops (25% of British
investment targeted towards India) – purpose of profit – Britain saw
it as: a reliable source of cheap raw materials (e.g., cotton, by 1900
India 4th largest cotton industry – exporting £2 million) to supply
industry + a captive market to whom manufactured goods (e.g.,
clothing) can be exported tariff free – negative outcome for India as:
limited tariffs meant indigenous can’t compete with British exports
 deindustrialisation + investment focuses on cash crops (e.g.,
cotton)  less land used for food  exacerbates food
shortages/famine
Proclaimed the virtues of free trade but destroyed free trade for
Indians – Britain’s economy became dependant on India (1913, 60%
of all imports came from UK + absorbed £380 million in investment
by British capital, 1/10 of countries overseas investment
Expropriation of Indian wealth to Britain – ‘drain theory’, Naoroji -
1700; 25% of world GDP was Indian, 1870; 12.5% of world GDP was
Indian, 22% for other Western powers - £13,000,000 exported to
Britain with no comparable imports + 35% of tax revenue going to
home charges – opium trade celebrated
3,000 miles railway track laid in 1860s (15,000 laid by 1880) – fourth-
largest railway system in the world (paid by Indians) – allowed large
number of workers to congregate in centres of production + sped up
flow of commodities and creating new settlements  intensified the
flow of primary produce from hinterland to great port cities – did not
have much of an impact on most Indian workers + did not prevent
famine - labourers carried earth twenty miles a day, then slept
outdoors on wet, cholera-ridden hillsides
Famine Codes in 1880s – irrigated area increased about an eightfold
– Punjab and Sindh became major producers of wheat and cotton
Establishment of ICS – one of the world’s most efficient
administrations + non-corrupt – council of 15 members who all had
experience with Indian affairs (5% Indians by 1900s – did not think
they were smart enough) – succumbed to ‘the Hindu view’ by Cotton
(only interested in collecting revenue) – remote from subjects – in
1901 65/1244 administrators were Indian  low-level administrative
responsibilities carried out by native Indians
Absence of political leadership – far weaker social foundation + far
more limited revenue base than British government – only
supported public works when persuaded
Led by a viceroy + abolishment of EIC – absolute control over India +
monarchs representative – ‘Empress of India’; 1877 Royal Titles Act –
direct relationship with the British Crown – summit of social order –
projects either a celebration of India or it as a ‘feudal order’
National income tax was only 1% - public spending: 30% on army,
25% on administration, 25% on home charges, 10% on police and
rest on education, health, agriculture, welfare
Outrage at the Illbert Bill, 1883 – led to growth of Indian National
Congress (1885 – soon became influential for Indian independence) –
educated Indians felt unhappy over evident racial superiority -
Naoroji elected as MP in Finsbury in 1892 – Morley-Minto reforms
1909 – greater consultation with Congress, in response to Swadeshi
movement + foundation of democracy – Indian Councils Act (1909) –
reforms to provincial councils – Bhadralok in Bengal led to growth in
nationalism foundation of democracy – most Indian determination
came from racial issues
Curzon – refused greater Indian involvement in government affairs
 rejected requests made by Dutt for appointment of Indians at
viceroy council
The socio-political divisions and unity of American society in the immediate post-war years
Regional Divisions Social Divisions
Physical geography – agricultural South vs manufacturing North Massive disparities in wealth – billionaire dynasties (Rockefellers)
(Northeast and Midwest had great centres of manufacturing such as and rich families (Roosevelts) vs impoverished white people of
Pittsburgh, Chicago, and Detroit + defence industries transforming Appalachian Mountains, black sharecroppers in South, and Native
West Coast cities such as LA) – New York more likely to respond Americans on their reservations (divisions demonstrated in industrial
favourably to change relations)
War necessitated mobility  helped overcome regionalism – 140 Increase in membership and powers of unions – worker-employer
million population in 1945, 15 millions of that left home for training tensions peaked in widespread strikes in 1946 – approx. 2 million –
camps (3/4 served overseas) + 8 million had made a permanent did not move above poverty line until 1953
move to a different state (4 million to a different region) – trend of
mass migration being from South to North, East to West (West Coast
pop grew by 1/3 during war – war material production in San Diego,
LA, Oakland, Portland, and Seattle) – Great Migration (2 million
African-Americans migrated North – forced to live in de facto
segregated housing – two black congressmen sat in HoR in 1945 –
Dawson + Clayton)
Differences were decreasing – Sears catalogue Gender + racial divisions amongst workers – whites reluctant work
alongside black (violent clashes at Alabama Dry Dock Company in
1943) + returning vets keen to see women leave traditionally male
jobs
Growing post-war prosperity decrease social tensions – GI Bill of
Rights (1944) assists returning military personnel with free

Ethnic Divisions
Minorities looked down upon by ‘old Americans’ with Protestant and
Northern European ancestry – religious prejudice against Jews
remained strong
WW2 accelerated acceptance of different ethnic groups, in particular
white ethnics – wartime films with Irish, Italian or Polish origin
fighting – introduction of ‘To Secure These Rights’, 1947, by a liberal federal interventionism
committee
Social inferiority – most of 14 million African Americans (10% of
population), 1.2 million Hispanics and 350,000 Native Americans
treated as socially inferior – enshrined in law in the South 
segregation of schools and housing (‘coloured’ water fountains) –
black, Hispanic and Native incomes were way below national average
(black Americans often worked as either sharecroppers or menial
jobs in the North) – 3% of black Southerners could vote in 1945
(difficulty by white registers + $16.50 poll tax)
vocational training and higher education + lower-interest loans for
housing and establishment of businesses (gave $500 – financed 1/5
of homes between 1945-66)  percentage of college-educated
Americans rose from 10% (1939) to 15% (1948) + new homeowners
increased dramatically (belief in American Dream) – however, only
20,000 of the 100,000 black men sought college education + cost
15% of federal budget in 1948 + mainly enjoyed by men
Political Divisions
Democrat Party, a loose coalition of the Solid South (determined to
maintain black social, economic, and political inferiority + far more
conservative + maintain state rights), Northern urban, white ethnic
voters (Irish-Americans) + workers and the unemployed – Truman
had few congressional allies – liberal Democrats criticised failures for
more reformist New Deal leg + conservative Democrats agreed with
Republicans over unions and Civil Rights
Republican Party – dominated by big businesses and the rich –
loathed higher taxes, support for labour unions and promotion of
Dixiecrats – left Democrats due to stance on Civil Rights (1948), led
by Strom Thurmond
Supreme Court – could rule Truman’s actions as unconstitutional or
illegal

British expansion in Africa
Economic Interests
Gold Coast – cocoa for British food industry
Kimberly, South Africa – diamonds found in 1867 – De Beers and
British investment into the area from the hegemony
Nigeria – palm oil for soaps and lubricants to help British machinery
Egypt – cotton to fuel Lancashire Mills (76%), sugar and growing
tourism + foreign debt increasing from £3 million to £100 million
(Evelyn Baring made financial and economic reforms; foreign
investment) – fiscal priority to pay off debts – industries owned by
Khedive sold off – 63% of total exports back to Britain – was foisted
on by investors  influenced by capital – claims of owning Lake
Victoria
Sudan – Port of Sudan opened in 1906 for sea trade
Congress – rejected most of Truman’s leg proposals (Truman vetoed
250 bills passed by Congress) – resented increase in presidential
power + tired of expensive new policies (H. Minority Leader
complained Roosevelt did not ask ‘for so much in one sitting’ in
1945) – Republican gained control in 1946 (voter reaction to
rampant inflation and strikers – polls revealed Americans considered
strikes as greatest problem)
Strategic and Military Considerations
Egypt – Suez Canal significance en route to India (significant impact
on world trade) – growth of Anglo-French colonial jealousy after
1885 – Franco-Russian alliance in 1892  prospect of Mediterranean
might become ‘le lac français’ + no longer could rely on the Turkish
for defence against Russians  Sudan acquired as a result of Egypt –
Anglo-German agreement of 1890 affirmed British claims to Uganda
and Kenya and gave Germany Tanganyika
South Africa – original stop-off point en route to India, deter German
expansion in the area (Kruger Telegram) – attempts at Confederation
to assert British dominance (Canada model) – Xhosa War (1877-8)
Nyasaland – the Portuguese started to assert sovereign rights leading
to pressure from missionaries
West Africa – largely an area of French + German interest
East Africa – threats from German dominance in the East of Africa to
the East African Company
Gambia – supply of groundnuts
East Indian Company (1888) – found by Sir William McKinnon and
increased development of trade
Cultural/ Moral Concerns
Sierra Leone – pre-colonial rule due to slavery concerns in the area
(1787)
Zanzibar – slavery concerns in the area
John Kirk – served as a British consul in Zanzibar from 1873 – 1887 –
committed to fighting the slave trade
David Livingstone – Scottish missionary to spread Christianity and
combat slave trade
Nyasaland – colonial expansion was driven by the ‘flag following
faith’ – moral concerns as some indigenous tribes involved in the
slave trade
Egypt – stopped Arabic slave trade, outlawed physical punishments,
halting the import of hashish, regulation of alcohol licences and
closing gambling houses + extension of education
Uganda – British + French missionaries murdered in Buganda
prompting civil war
Sudan – suppression of slave trade led by General Charles Gordon +
Egyptian administration
Sudan – waged war in the name of ‘civilisation’ after French talks
with Ethiopian Emperor, Menelik II
Actions of ‘Men on the Spot’
David Livingstone – explored large areas of southern and central
Africa – contributed to the understanding of the continents
geography – first European to cross the width of southern Africa
Sir Richard Burton + John Hanning Speke – explored the Great Lakes
region of East Africa (Lake Tanganyika) from 1856 to 1859 – aim to
discover the source of the Nile – Burton had deep knowledge of the
Arabic language
Henry Morton Stanley – exploration of the Congo River on behalf of
King Leopold II of Belgium – establishment of the Congo Free State +
a role in administration, albeit controversial
General Charles Gordon – rather than evacuating British and
Egyptian soldiers in Sudan due to the overwhelming Sudanese
Madhi, Gordon opted to supress them causing a shift in government
policy
Context
New imperialism – growing popularity over colonies
Great Depression (1870s) – Africa seen as having economic potential
in a time of economic stagnation
International relations – Germany, France, Russia, and Italy
The growth of the consumer society and domestic policies under Eisenhower
Popular attitudes towards British imperialism c.1870-1914
Enthusiasm Apathy and ignorance
Growing interest exploited by Conservative Party – promoted Porter – only educated upper-class cared for the empire – did not
‘imperialism’ as a positive policy – Lord Granville accused Gladstone need national efforts to sustain it
of dismantling empire in 1870 (granting of self-gov in SA + attempted
sale of Gambia to France in 1871) – consolidation of British
possessions (Lord Salisbury and ‘Tory high imperialism’) - Ferocious
criticism of Liberal policy (encouragement of jingoism)
Benjamin Disraeli – Crystal Palace speech (1873) – ‘New Imperialism’ In 1902 an MP recounted only one had heard of Indian Mutiny at a
– the Conservatives the party of the empire – aggressive stance school – Robert Robert’s only boy who could recall imperialism
towards Russia (1877-8 Eastern Crisis – ‘peace with honour’ +
defence of Ottoman Empire) – saw empire as a military machine
(Indian troops in Abyssinia in 1867-8 and Malta in 1878)
Joseph Chamberlain – opposed Irish Home Rule – fear of British
weakness against European rivals – tight control of colonial
possessions
Boys’ Empire League (1900), Boy Scout Movement (1908), Round
Table Movement (1909), Girl Guides (1912)
“Our side in the Commons is very jingo about Egypt” wrote Sir
Charles Dilke for intervention in Egypt

Reasons for growth of popular interest Hostility

Increased literacy (1870 Education Act)  newspapers (growth in
press coverage of imperial issues  speed of telegraphy + most
newspapers were imperially owned glamourising the Empire, Daily
Mail glorified British action – Winston Churchill, Malukand Field
Force, 1897, presented North-West Frontier wars as heroic,
courageous and an adventure) – changing ethos of British
institutions (public schools, universities, churches, armed forces –
emphasis on ‘muscular Christianity’) – adult literature (Rudyard
Humanitarianism - anti-slavery (Chinese slavery in South Africa by
Milner), missionary work, sceptical of expansionism (lobby of wealth
capitalists), free trade, support colonial self-government (Morely-
Minto Reforms in India 1909), concern for welfare of native people
(Emily Hobhouse and concentration camps in South Africa)
Kipling + GA Henty) – pro-imperialist propaganda widespread after
1880s – superb vehicle for imperialist propaganda
Development of racial ideas – ‘social Darwinism’ – view of William Gladstone – committed to internationalist causes and the
missionaries who campaigned against slavery (‘cultural arrogance’, rights of other nations independence (a reluctant imperialist) –
‘before and after pictures’ used as propoganda) – racism/ withdrawl from Afghanistan (Penjdeh Incident 1885), death of
xenophobia – ‘higher capacities’ widely believed General Gordon and evacuation of Sudan (‘GOM’), acquisition of
British Somaliland and Bechuanaland, committment to Irish Home
Rule (1886) – ‘England’s Mission’ (1878)  civlising mission to
spread English benefits to the world – opposiition to Beaconsfieldism
in 1876 to 1880 (against aggressive, expansionist policies)  in a
quandary over Egyptian nationalism, was deeply embarressed by
situation and claimed Egypt was heading for ‘self-destruction’
Increasing association of monarchy with empire (Empress of India, Liberal government – determined to introduce Home Rule in 1906
1877) + church provided support for imperialism and ideas of
occupation – Empire Day movement founded in 1896 (started in
1892) + church youth organisations – Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee
(1897) – she represented Britannia + King George V’s coronation
(1911)
Reponses to specific events – Livingstone adventures, General Emerging socialist movement by Keir Hardie
Wolsey’s Third Ashanti War (1873-4), Eastern Crisis (1876-8 –
outrage at Christian killing by Muslims – public opinion switched to
Russia after war against OE in 1877 – led to music hall music – Gilbert
and Sullivan - and birth of ‘jingoism’), Zulu War (1878-9), Arabi
Pasha’s revolt (1882), death of General Gordon (1885 – seen as a
martyr – ‘General Gordon’s Last Stand 1893 – “a grave misfortune
has fallen on civilisation” The Spector – led to a government policy of
a full-scale campaign on the Madhi in Khartoum – never happened
though)  creation of imperial hero, outbreak of Boer War (caused
condemnation, Liberal landslide in 1906 – initially Khaki election was
positivity + Mafeking Night 1900), brutal suppression of revolt of the
Matabele in Rhodesia (1893-4), Leopold’s rule in the Congo (brutality
led to criticism by British government – to generate rubber, 1 to 10
million killed – British Congo Reform Association in 1904 by Edmund
Morel)
Imperial exhibitions – 1886 exhibition of India + Earl Court in 1895
captivating Londoners – ‘India’ a pageant performed daily in the
adjacent Empress Theatre (celebration of Queen Victoria)
Increase migration and travel – Canada, Australia, Cape – tourism to
Egypt
Growing anxiety – fear of economic decline (share of world trade 6%
difference between 1880-1910), literature mentioning military
weakness (best-selling The Battle for Dorking by Sir George Chesney
1871), strategic isolation, nationalist pressure
Eisenhower’s foreign policy in Asia
‘New Look’ defence policy Foreign policy failures in Asia
Prioritised foreign and defence policy – gave Taft essentials of Soviet Continuation in Vietnam – considered strong, anti-communist France
cannot control Middle East, Southeast Asia was critical + not weaken important, did not want accusations of losing Vietnam, was told by
itself by overspending (most devoted CW president to slashing National Security Council that Vietnam was vital, believed in the
military budget – feared an economy dependent on the military- domino theory – however, some advisors doubted whether Vietnam
industrial complex) would have a big impact, Americans delighted over troops out of
Korea, ‘New Look’ left few troops available, did not want to mix with
French colonialism, Congress opposed intervention at Dien Bien Phu
– French defeated – Eisenhower had given Diem $7 billion in aid and
nearly 1000 American advisers by 1961 – even when the French left,
for US pride they remained
‘New Look’ defence policy – US had fewer conventional forces, rely
more on nuclear weapons (‘more bang for a buck’) – never used
nuclear force, maintained a more peaceful approach
Rollback of communism
Improved intelligence spending
American troops landed in Lebanon – disproved arguments that it
was inflexible, showed Eisenhower was not too old to respond to
threats, displayed American strength and reassurance to allies such
as Saudi Arabia

Foreign policy successes in Asia Nuclear Weaponry

Ending the Korean war in 1953 – flew to Korea in November 1952 – In 1953, US had 1500 nuclear weapons – by 1961 6000 (the Soviets
Eisenhower pressed Chinese for peace despite being urged not to – had under 1000) – political pressure of stockpiling nuclear weapons
China signed the armistice due to Sputnik crisis
China – increased tensions over Quemoy and Matsu (separated Sputnik crisis – USSR fired first ICBM in August 1957 + launched first
Zedong’s China and Kai-shek’s Taiwan) – did not have any treaty with satellite (Sputnik) in October 1957 – Americans reacted hysterically
so did no respond to Chinese bombardment (September 1954) – two (greater defeat than Pearl Harbour?) – November 1957 Sputnik II
American pilots shot down over China during Korean War led to launched – US finally managed a successful small satellite in January
treaty with Chiang – by April, China had backed down – crisis was 1958 – caused antagonism towards Eisenhower such as neglecting
defused despite controversy national security – asked Congress to form NASA – he could not
reassure Americans
Iran – seizure of British-owned oil company – interests of the US that U-2 Crisis – CIA assurance led to four years of successful spy flights
might turn communist – encouraged Iranian coup in 1953 that over Soviet Union – until 1960 (claimed was a meteorological
removed Mohammad Mossadegh + US now owned 40% of oil mission) – admitted at Paris Conference – ruined improved relations
Egypt and Suez Canal crisis – infuriation over mass Jew migration
(600,000) and partition of Palestine by UN (and how they were
treated) – did not sell arms to either side to try win Arab friends
through economic aid
Nasser and Egypt – promised Egypt financial and technical aid to
build Aswan Dam – Nasser bought Soviet-supplied arms  Dulles
withdrew aid offer in July 1956  Nasser nationalised canal saying it
would finance the dam – Eisenhower forced Tripartite Aggression to
stop as he wanted to maintain good relations, avoid alienating
Muslims, teach West to never attack without US informed, keep
Soviets out of Middle East (received international acclaim) – failure
to participate overthrowing of Egyptian leader in 1957 however
JFK (1960 election)
Kennedy’s strengths
Charmed with wit and modesty – had film-star looks that attracted
people – youthfulness exploited elderly Eisenhower – slogan ‘Let’s
Get the Country Moving Again’ (contrast to Eisenhower and
stagnation)  cited that not everyone lived the American Dream (7%
unemployment + underemployment) + claimed 17 million Americans
went hungry to bed
Republican weaknesses
Eisenhower’s errors – furiously defending his presidential record
against Kennedy’s attacks – policies of spending cuts that led to a
recession in 1960 (response to $13 billion budget deficit in 1959 –
Nixon warned beforehand) + Eisenhower refused to refute
Kennedy’s inaccurate accusations of a ‘missile gap’ (would expose US
covert warfare)  Nixon looked weak on defence – failure of pardon
on MLK
Nixon’s errors – rejected advice over television debates with
Kennedy (Nixon looked sideways, had obvious exhaustion) – blamed
running mate Henry Cabot Lodge for losing Southern white votes for
promise of a black cabinet member – four televised debates with an
audience of 60 million – only came up with his experience in debates
(both entered national politics in 1947 and had a 5 year age gap)

Campaigning
‘New Frontier’ acceptance speech – ‘poverty and surplus’
(campaigning in impoverished West Virginia (1960) opened his eyes)
– ‘peace and war’ (conducted Cold Warrior campaigns in defending
against evil, expansionist communism – claimed Eisenhower was in a
CW rut) – ‘generation of new leadership’ (master of rhetoric;
popularity of idealism and dynamism and different from New Deal
and Fair Deal
Chose Johnson, a Protestant, as VP who garnered support from
Southern Texans