Linear Transformation 2

Mathematics I
[Linear Transformation]
Dr. Anirban Lakshman

Assistant Professor
Department of Mathematics
IIIT Kalyani
Dr. Anirban Lakshman (IIIT Kalyani) MAC101 1 / 36

O UTLINE
1 A LGEBRA OF LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS
2 C HANGE OF BASIS
3 S IMILAR M ATRICES
4 L INEAR F UNCTIONAL
5 D UAL S PACES
6 R EFERENCES

A LGEBRA OF L INEAR T RANSFORMATIONS
In the study of linear transformations from V into W , it is of

fundamental importance that the set of these transformations inherits a
natural vector space structure.
We shall explore these ideas in this section.

Addition and Scalar Multiplication of linear transformations.
Let V and W be vector spaces over the field F . Let T and U be two
linear mapping from V into W .
Addition : The function (T + U) defined by
(T + U)(α) = T (α) + U(α) is called the addition of two linear
mappings T &U from V into W . The function T + U is also a linear
mapping.
Scalar Multiplication: The function (cT ) : V → W defined by
(cT )(α) = cT (α) is a linear transformation from V into W . This
linear transformation is called the Scalar Multiplication of the linear
mapping T by c, where c ∈ F .

The set of all linear transformations from V into W , together with

the addition and scalar multiplication defined above, is a vector
space over the field F .
This vector space is denoted by L(V , W ).
L(V , W ) is defined only when V and W are vector spaces over the
same field.
T HEOREM
Let V and W be two finite dimensional vector space over the same
field F and dimV = n and dimW = m. Then the space L(V , W ) is
finite-dimensional and has dimension mn.

T HEOREM
Let V , W and Z be vector spaces over the same field F . Let T be a
linear transformation from V into W and U be a linear transformation
from W into Z .Then the composed function UT defined by
(UT )(α) = U(T (α)) is a linear transformation from V into Z.
C OROLLARY
When V = W = Z , then U and T are linear operators on the space
V and also we see that the composition UT is again a linear operator
on V .

When V = W = Z , then in L(V , V ), TU is also defined and one

should note in general UT 6= TU
We should take special note of the fact that if T is a linear operator
on V then we can compose T with T . We shall use the notation
T 2 = TT , and in general T n = T . . . T (n times) for n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
We define T 0 = I if T 6= 0

L EMMA
Let V be a vector space over the field F ; let U, T1 and T2 be linear
operators on V and also let I be the identity operator on V . Then
(i)IU = UI = U;
(ii)U(T1 + T2 ) = UT1 + UT2 ; (T1 + T2 )U = T1 U + T2 U;
(iii)c(UT1 ) = (cU)T1 = U(cT1 ), where c ∈ F .

E XAMPLE
Let F be a field and V the vector space of all polynomial functions
from F into F ; given by f (x) = c0 + c1 x + c2 x 2 + . . . + ck x k .
Now consider the differential operator D from V into V defined by
(Df )(x) = c1 + 2c2 x + . . . + kck x k −1 .
Now, we also consider the linear operator T on V defined by
(Tf )(x) = xf (x)
Here DT 6= TD.

Invertibility
The function T from V into W is called invertible if ∃ a function U

from W into V such that UT is the identity function on V and TU is the
identity function on W .
i.e., UT = TU = I.
In this case, U is said to be an inverse of T .
If T is invertible, the function U is unique and is denoted by T −1 .

If T is invertible ⇐⇒ T is 1 : 1 and onto.

T HEOREM
Let V and W be vector spaces over the same field F and let T be a
linear transformation from V into W . If T is invertible, then the
inverse function T −1 is a linear transformation from W onto V .
If T be an invertible linear transformation from V onto W and U be

an invertible linear transformation from W onto Z . Then UT is
invertible and (UT )−1 = T −1 U −1 .

T HEOREM
Let V and W be vector spaces over a field F . A linear mapping
T : V → W is invertible ⇐⇒ T is one-to-one and onto.
Definition : Let V and W be vector spaces over the same field F

and let T be a linear transformation from V into W . Then T is
non-singular if T be invertible.
Since invertible linear transformation is one-one, so for a

non-singular transformation KerT = {θ}, where θ is the null
element of V .

T HEOREM
Let V and W be finite-dimensional vector spaces over the same
field F such that dimV = dimW . If T is a linear transformation from V
into W , the following are equivalent:
(i) T is invertible.
(ii) T is non-singular
(iii) T is onto,that is, the range of T is W .

Example: A linear mapping T : R3 → R3 is defined by

T (x, y , z) = (x − y , x + 2y , y + 3z).
Show that T is non-singular and determine T −1 .
=⇒ We easily checked that T is a linear mapping.
Let us find KerT .
Let (a, b, c) ∈ KerT . Then (a − b, a + 2b, b + 3c) = (0, 0, 0).
So, a − b = 0, a + 2b = 0, b + 3c = 0. ⇒ a = b = c = 0
So, KerT = {θ} and dimKerT = 0.
T is one-to-one.
Here V = R3 , W = R3 and therefore dimV = dim W .
Since T : V → W is one-to-one, T is onto.
Since T is one-to-one, it is non-singular.

Let T −1 (x, y , z) = (a, b, c).

Or, (x, y , z) = T (a, b, c) = (a − b, a + 2b, b + 3c)
Or, a − b = x, a + 2b = y , b + 3c = z
This gives a = 13 (2x + y ), b = 13 (−x + y ), c = 19 (x − y + 3z)
Therefore T −1 : R3 → R3 is defined by
T −1 (x, y , z) = ( 32 x + 13 y , − 31 x + 13 y , 19 x − 19 y + 13 z); (x, y , z) ∈ R3

O UTLINE
2 C HANGE OF BASIS
5 D UAL S PACES
6 R EFERENCES

C HANGE OF BASIS
Let V be an n-dimensional vector space over a field F . We have

shown that once we have selected a basis S of V , every vector v ∈ V
can be represented by means of an n-tuple [v ]S in F n and every linear
operator T ∈ L(V , V ) can be represented by an n × n matrix over F .
Now we ask the following natural question:
How do your representation change if we select another basis?

C HANGE OF BASIS
In order to answer this question, we first need a definition.
Definition
Let S = {u1 , u2 , ..., un } be a basis of a vector space V and let
S 0 = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } be another basis.
[ For reference, we will call S the old basis and S 0 the new basis. ]
As S is a basis, each vector in the new basis S 0 can be written as a
linear combination of the vectors in the old basis S; say
v1 = a11 u1 + a12 u2 + . . . + a1n un ,

v2 = a21 u1 + a22 u2 + . . . + a2n un ,
..
.
vn = an1 u1 + an2 u2 + . . . + ann un .

C HANGE OF BASIS
    
v1 a11 a12 . . . a1n u1
v2  a21 a22 . . . a2n   u2 
0
 ..  =  .. ..   ..  =⇒ S = AS;
    
..
.  . . ... .   . 
vn an1 an2 . . . ann un
Where A = [aij ]
Let P = [pij ] = AT i.e., pij = aji

Then P is called the change of basis matrix (or Trasition matrix)
from the old basis S to the new basis S 0 .

C HANGE OF BASIS
R EMARK
The above change-of-basis matrix P may also be viewed as the
matrix whose columns are, respectively, the coordinate column vectors
of the new basis vectors vi relative to the old basis S; namely,

P = [v1 ]S , [v2 ]S , . . . , [vn ]S
R EMARK
Analogously, there is a change-of-basis matrix Q from the new
basis S 0 to the old basis S.
Similarly, Q may be viewed as the matrix whose columns are,
respectively, the coordinate column vectors of the old basis vectors ui
relative to the new basis S 0 ; namely,

Q = [u1 ]S 0 , [u2 ]S 0 , . . . , [un ]S 0

C HANGE OF BASIS
Let P and Q be the above change-of-basis matrices.

Then the matrix P and Q is invertible.
P = Q −1

C HANGE OF BASIS
Consider the following two bases of R3
S = {e1 , e2 , e3 } = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)}
S 0 = {u1 , u2 , u3 } = {(1, 0, 1), (2, 1, 2), (1, 2, 2)}
(a) Find the change-of-basis matrix P from the basis S to the basis S 0 .
(b) Find the change-of-basis matrix Q from the basis S 0 to the basis S.
=⇒ (a) Since u1 = e1 + e3
u2 = 2e1 + e2 + 2e3
u3 = e1 + 2e2 + 2e3
 
1 2 1
So, P = 0 1 2.
1 2 2
(b) Since e1 = −2u1 + 2u2 − u3
e2 = −2u1 + u2
e3 = 3u1 − 2u2 + u3
C HANGE OF BASIS
 
−2 −2 3
So, Q =  2 1 −2
−1 0 1

C HANGE OF BASIS
Applications of Change-of-Basis Matrix
T HEOREM
Let P be the change-of-basis matrix from a old basis S to a new
basis S 0 in a vector space V . Then, for any vector v ∈ V , we have
P[v ]S 0 = [v ]S and hence P −1 [v ]S = [v ]S 0
Here P = change of basis matrix from the old basis S to the new
basis S 0 .
P −1 transforms the coordinates of v in the old basis S into the
coordinates of v in the new basis S 0 .

C HANGE OF BASIS
T HEOREM
Let P be the change of basis matrix from a basis S to a basis S 0 in
a vector space V . Then, for any linear operator T on V ,
[T ]S 0 = P −1 [T ]S P
Conclusion: If A and B are the matrix representations of T

relative to bases S and S 0 respectively.Then B = P −1 AP.

O UTLINE
2 C HANGE OF BASIS
5 D UAL S PACES
6 R EFERENCES

S IMILAR M ATRICES
Similar Matrix
Definition
Let A and B be n × n (square) matrices over the field F . We say
that B is similar to A over F if there is an invertible n × n matrix P
over F such that B = P −1 AP.
Let β and β 0 are two ordered bases of an n-dimensional V vector

space over F . Then for each linear operator T on V the matrix
B = [T ]β 0 is similar to the matrix A = [T ]β

S IMILAR M ATRICES
Each n × n matrix A is similar to itself, using P = I

If B is similar to A, then A is similar to B, since
B = P −1 AP ⇒ A = (P −1 )−1 BP −1
If B is similar to A (i.e., B = P −1 AP) and C is similar to B
(i.e., C = Q −1 BQ), then C is similar to A; Where P and Q are
invertible matrices. This follows from
B = P −1 AP and C = Q −1 BQ ⇒ C = (PQ)−1 A(PQ)

O UTLINE
2 C HANGE OF BASIS
5 D UAL S PACES
6 R EFERENCES

L INEAR F UNCTIONAL
Definition
If V is a vector space over the field F , a linear transformation f from

V into the scalar field F is also called a Linear Functional on V .
i.e., f : V → F is a linear functional which is defined by
f (cα + β) = cf (α) + f (β);
∀α, β ∈ V and all scalars c ∈ F .
The concept of linear functional is important in the study of

finite-dimensional spaces because it helps to organize and clarify
the discussion of subspaces, linear equations, and coordinates.
We denote L : V → W as a linear transformation. In the case of
linear functional, W = F

L INEAR F UNCTIONAL
E XAMPLE
Let F be a field and let a1 , a2 , . . . , an be scalars in F. Define a
function f on F n by
f (x1 , . . . , xn ) = a1 x1 + . . . + an xn .
Then f is a linear functional on F n .
It is the linear functional which is represented by the matrix
[a1 , . . . , an ] relative to the standard ordered bases for F n and the basis
{1} for F : aj = f (j ), j = 1, 2, . . . , n

L INEAR F UNCTIONAL
E XAMPLE
Let n be a positive integer and F a field.
If A = (aij )n×n is an matrix with entries in F , then the
trace function trA : Fn×n → F is defined by
trA = a11 + a22 + . . . + ann = ni=1 aii
P
Then the trace function is a linear functional because

tr (cA + B) = ni=1 (caii + bii ) = c ni=1 aii + ni=1 bii
P P P
= ctr (A) + tr (B);

where A = (aij )&B = (bij )

O UTLINE
2 C HANGE OF BASIS
5 D UAL S PACES
6 R EFERENCES

D UAL S PACES
Definition of Dual Spaces
If V is a vector space, the collection of all linear functionals on V

forms a vector space in a natural way. It is the space L(V , F ).
We denote this space by V ∗ and call it the dual space of V :
V ∗ = L(V , F ).

O UTLINE
2 C HANGE OF BASIS
5 D UAL S PACES
6 R EFERENCES

R EFERENCES
Gilbert Strang, Linear Algebra and Its Applications.

Steven J. Leon, Linear Algebra with Applications, Pearson.
Carl D. Meyer, Matrix Analysis and Linear Algebra,Siam.
Kenneth Hoffman; Ray Kunze, Linear Algebra, Pearson.
Seymour Lipschutz; Marc Lars Lipson, Linear Algebra, Mc
Graw Hill.

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Mathematics I

Dr. Anirban Lakshman

Dr. Anirban Lakshman (IIIT Kalyani) MAC101 1 / 36

1 A LGEBRA OF LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS

Dr. Anirban Lakshman (IIIT Kalyani) MAC101 2 / 36

In the study of linear transformations from V into W , it is of

Dr. Anirban Lakshman (IIIT Kalyani) MAC101 3 / 36

Addition and Scalar Multiplication of linear transformations.

Dr. Anirban Lakshman (IIIT Kalyani) MAC101 4 / 36

The set of all linear transformations from V into W , together with

Dr. Anirban Lakshman (IIIT Kalyani) MAC101 5 / 36

Dr. Anirban Lakshman (IIIT Kalyani) MAC101 6 / 36

When V = W = Z , then in L(V , V ), TU is also defined and one

Dr. Anirban Lakshman (IIIT Kalyani) MAC101 7 / 36

Dr. Anirban Lakshman (IIIT Kalyani) MAC101 8 / 36

Dr. Anirban Lakshman (IIIT Kalyani) MAC101 9 / 36

The function T from V into W is called invertible if ∃ a function U

If T is invertible, the function U is unique and is denoted by T −1 .

Dr. Anirban Lakshman (IIIT Kalyani) MAC101 10 / 36

If T be an invertible linear transformation from V onto W and U be

Dr. Anirban Lakshman (IIIT Kalyani) MAC101 11 / 36

Definition : Let V and W be vector spaces over the same field F

Since invertible linear transformation is one-one, so for a

Dr. Anirban Lakshman (IIIT Kalyani) MAC101 12 / 36

Dr. Anirban Lakshman (IIIT Kalyani) MAC101 13 / 36

Example: A linear mapping T : R3 → R3 is defined by

Dr. Anirban Lakshman (IIIT Kalyani) MAC101 14 / 36

Let T −1 (x, y , z) = (a, b, c).

Dr. Anirban Lakshman (IIIT Kalyani) MAC101 15 / 36

1 A LGEBRA OF LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS

Dr. Anirban Lakshman (IIIT Kalyani) MAC101 16 / 36

Let V be an n-dimensional vector space over a field F . We have

How do your representation change if we select another basis?

Dr. Anirban Lakshman (IIIT Kalyani) MAC101 17 / 36

In order to answer this question, we first need a definition.

v1 = a11 u1 + a12 u2 + . . . + a1n un ,

Dr. Anirban Lakshman (IIIT Kalyani) MAC101 18 / 36

Let P = [pij ] = AT i.e., pij = aji

Dr. Anirban Lakshman (IIIT Kalyani) MAC101 19 / 36

Dr. Anirban Lakshman (IIIT Kalyani) MAC101 20 / 36

Let P and Q be the above change-of-basis matrices.

Dr. Anirban Lakshman (IIIT Kalyani) MAC101 21 / 36

Dr. Anirban Lakshman (IIIT Kalyani) MAC101 23 / 36

Applications of Change-of-Basis Matrix

Dr. Anirban Lakshman (IIIT Kalyani) MAC101 24 / 36

Conclusion: If A and B are the matrix representations of T

Dr. Anirban Lakshman (IIIT Kalyani) MAC101 25 / 36

1 A LGEBRA OF LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS

Dr. Anirban Lakshman (IIIT Kalyani) MAC101 26 / 36

Let β and β 0 are two ordered bases of an n-dimensional V vector

Dr. Anirban Lakshman (IIIT Kalyani) MAC101 27 / 36

Each n × n matrix A is similar to itself, using P = I

Dr. Anirban Lakshman (IIIT Kalyani) MAC101 28 / 36

1 A LGEBRA OF LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS

Dr. Anirban Lakshman (IIIT Kalyani) MAC101 29 / 36

If V is a vector space over the field F , a linear transformation f from

The concept of linear functional is important in the study of

Dr. Anirban Lakshman (IIIT Kalyani) MAC101 30 / 36

Dr. Anirban Lakshman (IIIT Kalyani) MAC101 31 / 36

Then the trace function is a linear functional because

= ctr (A) + tr (B);

Dr. Anirban Lakshman (IIIT Kalyani) MAC101 32 / 36

1 A LGEBRA OF LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS

Dr. Anirban Lakshman (IIIT Kalyani) MAC101 33 / 36