TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 INTRODUCTION TO BARE OVERHEAD CONDUCTORS 1

1 1.1 TYPES OF CONDUCTOR MATERIALS 2

1.1.1 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloy Wire 2
1.1.2 Coated Steel Core Wire 3
1.1.3 Selected Physical and Mechanical Properties 3
1.1.4 Mechanical Properties of 1350 and 6201 Aluminum Alloy Wire 4
1.1.5 Mechanical Properties of Steel Wire 5

1.2 CONCENTRIC-LAY-STRANDED CONDUCTOR CONSTRUCTION 5

1.2.1 Round-Wire Construction 6
1.2.2 Trapezoidal-Shaped Wire Construction 7
1.2.3 Stranded Conductor Size 8
1.2.4 ACSR Stranding Ratios 9

1.3 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CONDUCTORS 9

1.3.1 DC Resistance 9
1.3.2 AC Resistance 11
1.3.3 Inductance and Inductive Reactance 16
1.3.4 Shunt Capacitance and Capacitive Reactance 24

1.4 MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF STRANDED CONDUCTORS 28

1.4.1 Rated Strength of Concentric-Lay-Stranded Conductors 28
1.4.2 Stress-Strain Characteristics of Stranded Conductors 31

1.5 THERMAL RATING OF BARE OVERHEAD CONDUCTORS 33

1.6 CONDUCTOR SELECTION 34

1.6.1 Conventional Round Wire Conductors 36
1.6.2 Trapezoidal-Shaped Wire Conductors 37
1.6.3 Wind-Motion Resistant Conductors 39
1.6.4 High Temperature Conductors 40

1.7 REFERENCES 43

CHAPTER 1 APPENDIX 45
Conductor Tables 47

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 2.0 SAG AND TENSION OF CONDUCTORS 1

2 2.1 THE CATENARY OF A SINGLE SPAN 2

2.1.1 Level Spans 2
2.1.2 Conductor Length 3
2.1.3 Conductor Slack 3
2.1.4 Total and Horizontal Tension 4
2.1.5 Inclined Spans 5

2.2 RULING SPAN CONCEPT 7

2.2.1 Ruling Span Calculation 8
2.2.2 Stringing Sag Tables 8
2.2.3 Tension Differences for Adjacent Dead-End Spans 10
2.2.4 Tension Equalization by Suspension Insulators 10

2.3 CONDUCTOR TENSION LIMITS AND LOADING 12

2.3.1 Ice and Wind Loading 13

2.4 SIMPLIFIED SAG-TENSION CALCULATIONS 17

2.4.1 Sag-Tension Change with Conductor Temperature 17
2.4.2 Sag-Tension Change with Ice or Wind Loading 19
2.4.3 Sag-Tension Change of a Simple Elastic Conductor 19

2.5 PLASTIC CONDUCTOR ELONGATION 20

2.5.1 Conductor Elongation Models 21
2.5.2 Experimental Plastic Elongation Model Data 23
2.5.3 Formulas for Predicting Creep Elongation 26
2.5.4 Knee-Point 28
2.5.5 Examples of Typical Stress-Strain Conductor Curves 29

2.6 SAG -TENSION CALCULATIONS WITH EXPERIMENTAL ELONGATION 32

2.7 LINE DESIGN SAG-TENSION PARAMETERS 33

2.7.1 Catenary Constants 33
2.7.2 Wind Span 33
2.7.3 Weight Spans 35
2.7.4 Uplift at Suspension Structures 35
2.7.5 Tower Spotting 35

2.8 CONDUCTOR INSTALLATION 35

2.8.1 Conductor Stringing Methods 35
2.8.2 Tension Stringing Equipment and Setup 38
2.8.3 Sagging Procedure 39

2.9 REFERENCES 43

2.10 ADDITIONAL PUBLICATIONS 44

CHAPTER 2 APPENDIX 45
Appendix 2.1 - Figures 46
Appendix 2.2 - Glossary of Equipment Terms 52

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 3.0 THERMAL RATINGS OF BARE OVERHEAD CONDUCTORS 1

3 3.1 STEADY-STATE THERMAL RATINGS 2

3.1.1 Units and Symbols 2
3.1.2 Steady-State Calculation Methods 2
3.1.3 Steady-State Heat Balance 2
3.1.4 Convected Heat Loss Rate (qc) 3
3.1.5 Radiated Heat Loss Rate(qr) 5
3.1.6 Solar Heat Gain Rate(qs) 7
3.1.7 Conductor AC Resistance 8
3.1.8 Example of a Steady-State Thermal Rating Calculation 9

3.2 TRANSIENT THERMAL RATINGS 12

3.2.1 Step Increase in Load Current 12
3.2.2 Conductor Heat Capacity 13
3.2.3 Example of Transient Thermal Rating Determination 13
3.2.4 Thermal Time Constant 14

3.3 FAULT CURRENT RATINGS 15

3.4 COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR CALCULATING THERMAL RATINGS 16

3.5 SELECTION OF WEATHER CONDITIONS FOR LINE RATING CALCULATIONS 17

3.6 CONDUCTOR LOSS OF STRENGTH 17

3.6.1 Annealing of Individual Strands 17
3.6.2 Stranded Conductor Loss of Strength 18
3.6.3 Calculation of Remaining Strength 18

3.7 SAG AT HIGH TEMPERATURE 20

3.7.1 Thermal Coefficient of Expansion 20
3.7.2 Suspension Span Interaction at Elevated Temperature 22
3.7.3 Radial Temperature Difference 23

3.8 HIGH-TEMPERATURE CREEP ELONGATION 24

3.8.1 Creep of AAC, AAAC and ACAR Conductors at High Temperature 24
3.8.2 Creep of ACSR Conductors at High Temperature 25
3.8.3 Example of Creep Calculation at High Temperature 26

3.9 EFFECT OF ELEVATED TEMPERATURES ON CONNECTORS AND HARDWARE 27

3.10 REFERENCES 29

CHAPTER 3 APPENDIX 31

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 4.0 ELECTRICAL ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 1

4 4.1 RADIO NOISE 2

4.1.1 Radio Noise Sources 2
4.1.2 Prediction Programs 2
4.1.3 Weather Dependence 3
4.1.4 Radio Noise Profiles 3
4.1.5 Evaluation of Radio Noise 4
4.1.6 Hardware and Insulator Radio Noise 5
4.1.7 Measurement Techniques 5
4.1.8 Noise Location Techniques 5

4.2 AUDIBLE NOISE 6

4.2.1 Audible Noise Sources 6
4.2.2 Prediction Programs 6
4.2.3 Weather Dependence 7
4.2.4 Audible Noise Profiles 7
4.2.5 Evaluation of Audible Noise 7
4.2.6 Measurement Techniques 8

4.3 ELECTRIC FIELDS 8

4.3.1 Electric Field Sources 8
4.3.2 Prediction Programs 9
4.3.3 Electric Field Profiles 9
4.3.4 Capacitive Coupling of Electric Fields 11
4.3.5 Evaluation of Electric Fields 12
4.3.6 Measurement Techniques 13
4.3.7 Grounding and Shielding 13

4.4 MAGNETIC FIELDS 13

4.4.1 Magnetic Field Characterization 13
4.4.2 Prediction Programs 14
4.4.3 Magnetic Field Profiles 14
4.4.4 Statistical Characterization of Magnetic Fields 15
4.4.5 Inductive Coupling of Magnetic Fields 16
4.4.6 Instrumentation for Magnetic Field Measurement 16
4.4.7 Measurement Procedures 17
4.4.8 Grounding and Shielding 17

4.5 REFERENCES 19

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 5.0 DESIGN OF NEW TRANSMISSION LINES 1

5 5.1 NEW TRANSMISSION LINE DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 2

5.1.1 System Requirements 2
5.1.2 Environmental Design Constraints 2
5.1.3 Standard Line Design Considerations 3

5.2 ELECTRICAL INSULATION COORDINATION 4

5.2.1 Power Frequency Design 4
5.2.2 Switching Surge Flashover 6
5.2.3 Lightning 9

5.3 WIND-INDUCED CONDUCTOR AND INSULATOR MOTIONS 11

5.3.1 Conductor Blowout 13
5.3.2 Aeolian Vibration 14
5.3.3 Ice Galloping 20
5.3.4 Subconductor Oscillation 25

5.4 ECONOMIC DESIGN OF OVERHEAD LINES 26

5.4.1 Present Worth (PW) of Electrical Losses 28
5.4.2 Value of Increased Power Flow Capacity 29
5.4.3 Capital Construction Costs 29
5.4.4 Minimizing Total Line Cost 29
5.4.5 Supporting Structure Cost 31
5.4.6 Conductor Selection with the Typical Span Method 31
5.4.7 Economic Structure Spotting 32
5.4.8 Cost with Respect to Conductor Tension 35

5.5 VISUALLY ACCEPTABLE LINE DESIGNS 37

5.6 REFERENCES 41

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 6.0 VOLTAGE UPGRADING OF EXISTING LINES 1

6 6.1 FUNDAMENTALS OF VOLTAGE UPGRADING 2

6.2 ELEMENTS OF A VOLTAGE UPGRADING STUDY 3

6.2.1 Need for Voltage Upgrading 3
6.2.2 Analysis of the Problem 4
6.2.3 Feasibility Analysis 4
6.2.4 Detailed Studies 4

6.3 INSULATION COORDINATION 4

6.3.1 60-Hz Flashover 4
6.3.2 Insulator Contamination 5
6.3.3 Switching Surge Flashover 6
6.3.4 Lightning Performance 6

6.4 CORONA LIMITATIONS 7

6.4.1 Radio and Audible Noise 7
6.4.2 Corona Loss 8

6.5 ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS 8

6.6 GROUND CLEARANCE 8

6.7 RECONDUCTORING 9

6.8 SIX-PHASE CONVERSION OF EXISTING DOUBLE-CIRCUIT LINES 11

6.9 GENERAL CONCERNS 11

6.10 REFERENCES 13

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 7.0 THERMAL UPRATING OF EXISTING LINES 1

7 7.1 INTRODUCTION TO LINE UPRATING 2

7.1.1 Present Limitations 2
7.1.2 Major Economic Factors 2
7.1.3 Physical and Institutional Constraints 2

7.2 DETERMINATION OF THERMAL RATINGS FOR OVERHEAD LINES 2

7.2.1 Thermal Rating Parameters 3
7.2.2 Thermal Rating Terms and Definitions 4
7.2.3 Exact Heat Balance Equation 4
7.2.4 Approximate Thermal Rating Calculations 5
7.2.5 Influence of Primary Variables on Thermal Rating Calculations 6
7.2.6 Influence of Secondary Variables on Thermal Rating Calculations 7

7.3 UPRATING EXISTING LINES WITHOUT RECONDUCTORING 8

7.3.1 Reassessment of Weather Parameters for Static Ratings 8
7.3.2 Real-Time Thermal Rating of Overhead Lines 11
7.3.3 Increasing the Maximum Allowable Conductor Temperature 12
7.3.4 Modifications to Sag-Limited Lines 13

7.4 RECONDUCTORING EXISTING TRANSMISSION LINES 15

7.4.1 Sag Constraints for Reconductoring 16
7.4.2 Reconductoring with Conventional Conductors 16
7.4.3 Reconductoring with High Temperature Conductors 17

7.5 THERMAL UPRATING CASE STUDY 19

7.6 REFERENCES 24

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