LAB REPORT

University of Engineering and

Technology Peshawar

FLUID MECHANICS – II (LAB)

CE-330L
By
Engr. TABINDA MASUD
5rd Semester FALL 2022
LAB REPORT
Prepared by
MUHAMMAD UMAIR UMAR.
Reg. # 20pwciv5529
Roll # 168

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CONTENT
S.NO EXPERIMENT NAME PAGE NO.

1 Demonstration of various parts of hydraulic bench 3

2 To determine the discharge and coefficient of Discharge 6

over rectangular Notch
3 To determine the discharge and coefficient of Discharge 8
over triangular Notch
To determine the discharge and coefficient of Discharge
over rectangular and triangular Notch
4 Investigation of different types of flows using Osborne 10

Reynolds’s apparatus (by visual observation)

5 Investigation of different types of flows using Osborne 12
Reynolds’s apparatus (by Reynolds’s number formula)
6 To determine the theoretical and actual center of pressure on 13
partially submerged body.
7 To determine hydraulic co-efficient and to study jet 16
profile of a small circular orifice provided at side of
tank
8 To determine the hydraulic coefficients for a circular orifice 21
at the bottom of tank
9 To investigate the velocity of Bernoulli’s theorem as applied 23
to the flow of water by Bernoulli’s theorem demonstration
10 To determine the relationship between head loss due to 25
friction and velocity for flow of water through smooth bore
pipe

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Experiment # 1
DEMONSTRATION OF VARIOUS PARTS OF HYDRAULIC BENCH

Objectives of the Experiment:

To obtain knowledge about various parts of a Hydraulic Bench.

Introduction:
Hydraulic bench is a volumetric flow measurement apparatus that consists
of a water receptacle present at the bottom, through which water is pumped up to
an open channel through a control valve by a centrifugal pump. This water is finally
discharged into the volumetric tank and the change in level of water in the
volumetric tank, as given by the calibrated scale, gives the flow rate.

VARIOUS PARTS OF HYDRAULICS BENCH

Sight tube and Scale:
A sight tube and scale is connected to tapping in the base of the volumetric tank and give an
instantaneous indication of water flow.

Flow Control Valve:

It is used to regulate the flow in the pipe i.e. to increase or decrease the inflow of water in
hydraulic bench. When it is rotated clockwise it reduces the water flow and when it is moved
counterclockwise it increase the water flow.

Motor On\Off Button:

This button is used to start or close the motor.

Centrifugal Pump:
It draws water from sump tank and supplies it for performing experiment.

Dump Valve and dump Valve Handle:

Dump valve is in the base of the volumetric tank opening the dump valve with dump valve handle
allows the entrained water to return to the sump tank to recycling and closing the dump valve
gathers the water in the volumetric tank.

Drain Valve:
Drain valve is used for discharging of water form sump tank.

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Sump Tank:
The fluid used in hydraulic bench is stored in sump tank located at the bottom of hydraulic bench.
The water from the sump tank is supplied through pump. Sump tank has the capacity of 160
liters.

Quick Release Connector:

The connector allows flow for rapid substitution of accessories. Special purpose terminations
may be connected to the pump supply by screwing connector. No hand tools are required for
doing so.

Side Wall Slots\Channel:

Side channels are provided to support the accessory on test.

Inlet Stilling Baffle Valve:

Inlet stilling baffle valve is used to supply water in the open channel.

Open Channel:
It is used in number of experiments. It provides passage for water for different
experiments.

Weir Carrier:
Two types of weirs are used frequently

• Rectangular weir
• Triangular weir

Tank Stilling Baffle:

Volumetric measuring tank incorporates a stilling baffle inclined to reduce turbulence.

Volumetric Tank:
Water discharging form the accessory (channels) on test is collected in a volumetric measuring
tank. This tank is stepped to accommodate low or high flow rates.

Overflow:
An over flow adjacent to the sump returns the water to the sump tank in the event of incorrect
use of water.

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Hydraulic bench

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Experiment No. 02
To Determine the Discharge and Coefficient of Discharge over Rectangular Notch
Apparatus:
• Hydraulic Bench
• Hook and Point Gauge
• Stop Watch
• Rectangular notch plate
Notch:
An opening in a tank/vessel in which the top edge of opening lies above the water surface. It is
used to find discharge in open channel.

Orifice:
An opening in a tank/vessel in which the top edge of the opening lies below the water surface.
It is used to find discharge in open channel

Rectangular Notch:
A rectangular weir is used to meter flow in an open channel. The head over the
rectangular weir is measured and correlated with the water flow rate through the
open channel (and over the weir). A rectangular weir equation gives water flow
rate as a function of head over the rectangular weir. The discharge can be
calculated with following formula.

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Rectangular Notch

Observation and Calculation

S.No Volume Time Q H2 H1 H=H2-H1 Log(Q) Log(H)

1 20 17.29 1.156738 152 84 0.68 0.063235 -0.16749

2 15 13.29 1.128668 150 84 0.66

3 15 15.4 0.974026 145 84 0.61 -0.01143 -0.21467

𝐶𝑑=0.76
0.8

0.6
y = 1.515x + 0.3141
0.4

0.2

0
-0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

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Rectangular Notch

Experiment No. 03
“Determine the Discharge and Coefficient of Discharge over Triangular Notch”

Triangular Notch
A triangular notch is also called a V-notch. Consider a triangular notch, in one side
of the tank, over which water is flowing as shown in figure. Let, H = Height of the
liquid above the apex of the notch. θ = Angle of the notch.

Triangular Notch
To calculate discharge through triangular notch following formula is use.

Observations and Calculations

S/N0 Vol(L) Time(sec) 𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡(L/s) 𝐻1 𝐻2 𝐻 LogQ LogH

1 30 50.54 0.593589 127 161 34 -0.2265 1.5315

2 20 58 0.344828 127 161 34 -0.4624 1.5315

3 10 129.8 0.077042 127 146 19 -1.1135 1.2788

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0.5

0.3

0.1

-0.8 -0.7 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 -0.1 0 0.1
-0.3

-0.5
y = 2.5764x + 0.7447
-0.7

-0.9

-1.1

-1.3

GRAPH OF FLOW OF THROUGH TRIANGULAR NOTCH

𝐶𝑑 = 0.75

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Experiment No. 04
“Investigation of different types of flows using Osborne Reynold’s apparatus by
visual observation”

Objective:
In this experiment we investigated the type of flow, using the Osborne Reynolds apparatus.
Apparatus
 Osborne Reynold’s apparatus
 Hydraulic bench
 Glass marbles.

OSBORNE REYNOLDS APPARATUS

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Types of Flow
Laminar Flow
The flow in which fluid moves in liquid particles moves in form of thin sheets in which the particles
are not intersecting the path lines of each other such type of flow is known as laminar flow. In
this flow streamlines follow parallel path. The dye remains easily identifiable as solid core, denote
steady condition.
R≤2000
Turbulent Flow
The flow in which liquid particles move in zig zag path and intersecting the path lines of each
other is called as turbulent flow. In this flow streamlines interacts and completely disperses in
flow of water, denotes highly unsteady condition.
R>4000
Transition Flow
The flow that takes place during the inter-conversion of laminar and turbulent flow is called
transition flow or transition zone between laminar flow and turbulent flow is called transition
flow. In this flow the streamlines interact and partial mixing of flow occurs. Dye form eddies while
flowing through water, denotes unsteady condition.
4000≥R>2000

4.5. Observations and Calculations:

TABLE NO. 04:

Serial No. Observation Type of flow
1 Solid line of dye laminar
2 Discontinuity, partial mixing transition
3 Dye disappears, complete mixing turbulent

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Experiment No. 05
“Investigation of different types of flow by using Osborne Reynold’s Apparatus by
(Reynolds number formula)”
Apparatus:
• Hydraulic Bench
• Osborne Reynolds Apparatus
• Dye Reservoir
• Thermometer
Procedure:
 Fill the dye reservoir with dye.
 Then lowered the dye injector until it just above the bell mouth.
 Turn on the pump to supply water to the head tank.
 Slowly fill head tank to the overflow level.
 Closed the inlet valve.
 Open the control value so that the dye mixes with the water.
 Open and close the velocity control valve to admit the water to the flow visualization pipe.
 Open the inlet valve slightly until water travelled from outlet pipe.
Observations and Calculations:

Diameter of pipe = 1 cm = 0.01 m

Area of pipe = 0.0000785 𝑚²

Temperature of water = 25 ̊C

Kinematic viscosity of water =1.003x10−6m²/sec

S.NO Volume Time Temperature Discharge Reynolds Remarks

(m3) (Sec) ( ̊C ) (m3/sec) number

01 0.0002 87.05 20 0.029 289 Laminar

02 0.0008 40.00 20 0.25 2492 Transition

03 0.003 51.78 20 0.73 7278 Turbulent

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Experiment No. 06
“To Determine Theoretical and Actual Center of Pressure on Partially Submerged
Body”
Objective
To determine the theoretical and actual center of pressure
Apparatus
• Different Weights
• Hydrostatic pressure apparatus
• Graduated cylinders
Hydrostatic Force Theory
Fluid force is constant at any particular depth but varies vertically. This force is calculated as
liquid weight per unit volume times the depth. The total force exerted by the liquid on the ring
section is non-uniformly applied vertically. When the quadrant is immersed in water it is possible
to analyze the forces acting on the surfaces of the quadrant as follows: Hydrostatic forces on the
upper and lower curved surfaces therefore have no net effect – no torque to affect the
equilibrium of the assembly because all of these forces pass through the pivot. The forces on the
sides of the quadrant are horizontal and cancel out The hydrostatic force on the vertical
submerged face is counteracted by the balanced weight W. The resultant hydrostatic force on
the face can therefore be calculated from the value of the balance weight and the depth of the
water.
Centre of Pressure
All submerged surfaces experience a hydrostatic force. The point through which this force acts is
called the center of pressure. The total force vector acting at the center of pressure is the value
of the integrated
vectoral pressure field.
The resultant force and
center of pressure
location produce
equivalent force and
moment on the body as
the original pressure field.

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WEIGHT AND HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE APPARATUS

HYDROSTATIC CENTRE OF PRESSURE

The theoretical center of pressure can be calculated as
𝟐
𝐇𝐩 = 𝐲 + 𝐚
𝟑
Where
y = Depth of water
a = Distance of water level from pivot
Actual Centre of Pressure
𝑭𝒓 = 𝑷 ∗ 𝑨
𝒉𝒃
= 𝒓 ∗ 𝟐
𝟏
= ∗ 𝒉𝟐 ∗ 𝒃
𝟐𝒓
According to condition of equilibrium we know that
WEIGHT AND HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE APPARATUS

𝐖 ∗ 𝐋 = 𝐅𝐫 ∗ 𝐇𝐩
𝐋
𝐇𝒑 = 𝐖 ∗
𝐅𝐫

Where
W= weight
Fr= Resultant force
L = Moment arm =27.5cm
a= distance of water level from pivot=20-y
y= depth of water

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r=9.81KN/m^3

Procedure:
Check the bench is leveled properly with the use of spirit level.
• Add a small mass (50g) to the weight hanger.
• Get tap water using steel vessel and fill up the flotation tank.
• Fill the floatation tank with water initially until the balance arm rises.
• Continue to add water until the balance arm is horizontal, checking this by aligning the flat of
the balance arm with the central mark on the level indicator.
• When the arm is horizontal read the depth of immersion from the scale on the face of the
quadrant.
• Repeat the above procedure for different load increments by adding further weights to the
weight hanger
• Repeat the procedure in order to get accurate result.

Precautions
• First of all, clean the apparatus.
• Level the apparatus with the help of screws.
• Balance the apparatus.

Conclusion
By the above experiment we are able to determine the theoretical as well as actual center of
pressure on partially submerged body.

Observations and Calculations:

S.No Weight Depth of water Distance of water Resultant Hp (actual) Hp

(kg) (mm) level from pivot (q) force (mm) (theoretical)
(mm) (N) (mm)
1 0.05 45 155 0.74 181 185

2 0.10 66 134 1.60 172 178

3 0.15 83 117 2.53 163 172

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Experiment No. 07
“To determine the hydraulic coefficients (Cv, Cc and Cd) for small circular orifice provided
at the side of the tank”

Theoretical background
Orifice:
An opening in the vessel through which water flows is known as orifice. Orifice may small and
large depending upon the diameter of the orifice and the diameter of the vessel or tank.
 Orifice is used to determine the discharge through it. Discharge through the orifice
depends upon the head of the water above the center of the orifice which is denoted by
“ho”.
 An orifice is called as small orifice when the diameter of the tank is larger than five times
the diameter of the orifice.
Vena contracta:
It is the portion of the jet with least diameter.
Hydraulic coefficients:
Hydraulic coefficients are three in number, denoted as Cc, Cd and Cv.
 The ratio of the area of the jet at vena contracta to the area of the orifice is known as
coefficient of contraction i.e. Cc.
Ac
Cc =
Ao
 The ratio of the actual discharge to the theoretical discharge is known as coefficient of
discharge i.e. Cd.

Qact. Vol./time
Cd = =
Qth. Ao√2𝑔𝐻𝑜
 The ratio of the actual velocity to the theoretical velocity is called as coefficient of velocity
i.e. Cv.

√2𝑔𝐻𝑐. Hc
Cd = =
√2𝑔𝐻𝑜. Ho
Do = Diameter of the orifice = 6mm
Objective:
To determine the hydraulic coefficients and to study the jet profile.
Apparatus and parts of the apparatus:
i. Constant head inlet tank
ii. Circular orifice
iii. Hydraulic bench

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iv. Needle apparatus

v. Clip board
vi. A3 size white paper sheet
vii. Stop watch

Different parts of the apparatus are:

i. Turbulancy diminisher
ii. Orifice
iii. Supply
iv. Pipe for static head measurement
v. Micrometer and pitot tube
vi. Scales overflow
Procedure:
 Adjust the appartus which is going to be used in this very experiment.
 Open the inlet valve and adjust the inflow to make the head of the water above the orifice
be constant.
 Water will come from the orifice and the discharge i.e. actual discharge can be found by
using hydraulic bench volumetric tank and stopwatch to measure the volume and time
and the discharge will be found as:
𝑉𝑜𝑙.
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
 The water coming out of the orifice follow certain trajactory. This trajactory is traced by
using needles.
 The path is traced on an A3 size paper sheet.
 The coordinates of these points which are eight in number are then found in terms of x
and y coordinates.
 Needles are 5cm apart, so x distances will differ by 5 starting from zero.
 Then Cv is found by using the formula:
𝑋2
𝐶𝑣 = √
4𝑌𝐻𝑜
 Cd is found by dividing the actual discharge by the theoretical discharge.
 And at the last Cc is found from Cd and Cv already computed.
 Here we cannot use the direct formulas for the computations of C v and Cc due to the
limitations of the current experiment.
 Repeat the same procedure for three times.
Conclusion:
With the help of this experiment we found the hydraulic coefficients by using the formulas and
also studied the jet profile by using the needles arrangement.

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NEEDLE APPARATUS AND CONSTANT HEAD INLET TANK

NEEDLE APPARATUS

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Observations and Calculations:

Reading No. 01:

Do = 6 mm
ho = 300 mm X Y X2
Vol. = 3 lit. 0 0 0
Time = 76.22 s
Qact. = 0.0394 lit./s 5 0.75 25
Qth. = 0.0686 lit./s
10 1.75 100

Cv = 0.869 15 3.2 225

20 5 400
Cd = 0.574
25 7.45 625

Cc = 0.66 30 10.35 900

35 13.3 1225
Slope = 93.077

1400

1200 y = 93.077x - 48.828

1000

800
X2

600

400

200

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
-200
Y

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN X2 AND Y

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Reading No. 02:

X Y X2
Do = 6 mm
ho = 283 mm 0 0 0
Vol. = 2 lit.
5 0.7 25
Time = 56.87 s
Qact. = 0.03517 lit./s 10 1.85 100
Qth. = 0.06662 lit./s
15 3.4 225
Cv = 0.883 20 5.6 400
25 7.95 625
Cd = 0.528
30 10.8 900
Cc = 0.598 35 14 1225

Slope = 88.321

1400

1200 y = 88.321x - 51.579

1000

800
X2

600

400

200

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
-200
Y

FIGURE 15: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN X2 AND Y

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Experiment No. 8
“To determine the hydraulic coefficients (Cv , Cc and Cd) for a small circular orifice provided
at the bottem of the tank”

Theoretical background:
Orifice:
An opening in the vessel through which water flows is known as orifice. Orifice may small and
large depending upon the diameter of the orifice and the diameter of the vessel or tank.
Vena contracta:
It is the portion of the jet with least diameter.
Pitot tube:
It is a tube used to measure the static pressure head plus elevation head and also the velocity
head, kept in the direction of the upstream side.

Objective: To determine the hydraulic coefficients without studying the jet profile from the
proposed formulas. That is done by using a pitot tube.

Apparatus:
i. Hydraulic bench
ii. Constant head inlet tank
iii. Piezometer
iv. Pitot tube
v. Stop watch

Procedure:
 Adjust the apparatus for the experiment.
 Open the inlet valve and maintain the head constant (at supply tank) over the orifice.
 Adjust the inflow in such a way that a constant head is maintained.
 Allow water to flow through the orifice and note the maximum head over the orifice that
permits the water jet to flow into the measuring tank.
 Regulate the inlet valve to obtain a constant head over the orifice and note the time taken
for collecting water to a height ‘h’ in the measuring tank.
 Then calculate the actual discharge by dividing the volume collected by time.
 Revolve the micrometer of the pitot tube and bring the hollow needle to the center of
the jet flow so that velocity head can be calculated.

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 To measure the diameter at the vena contracta revolve the micrometer from one side of
the jet to the other side and note the number of revolution of the micrometer as one
revolution gives 1mm movement to the
hollow needle.
 So in this way calculate the diameter
of vena contracta.

Observations and Calculations:

S.No. Do Dc ho hc Vol. Time Cv Cd Cc

(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (lit.) (sec.)
01 14 12 358 354 15 56.41 0.994 0.652 0.735
02 14 13 372 367 15 56.58 0.993 0.638 0.862
03 14 13 373 363 10 38.27 0.995 0.630 0.862

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Experiment No. 9
“To investigate the validity of Bernoulli’s theorem as applied to the flow of water by
Bernoulli’s theorem demonstration”

Theoretical background:
Bernoulli’s Theorem:
The total head of the flowing liquid between two points remains constant provided that there is
no loss due to friction and no gain due to an application of outside work between these two
points.
Total head is given by:
𝒑 𝒗𝟐
𝑯= + +𝒛
𝜸 𝟐𝒈
Where;
p/ϒ = static pressure head
v2/2g = velocity head
z = elevation head
Flow control valve:
It is a valve used to control the amount of i.e. velocity of the fluid through a certain pipe or flow
channel.
Apparatus:
i. Bernoulli’s Apparatus
ii. Hydraulic Bench

Different parts of the Bernoulli’s apparatus:

i. Air bleed screw
ii. Monometer tubes
iii. Unions
iv. Gland nuts
v. Test section
vi. Water inlet
vii. Hypodermic probe
viii. Water outlet
ix. Flow control valve
x. Tapping Points

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Procedure:
 Close the inlet and outlet valves.
 Open the air bled screw before starting the experiment.
 Slowly open inlet valve and the water will rise in the manometer tube and will escape
through air bled screw.
 Adjust the pressure in the pipes to remove the air bubbles by several trials.
 Adjust the pressure heads in the tubes.
 Find the actual static head with the help of the scales attached to the back of the tubes.
 Find the total actual head by using gland nut at each of the tapping points.
 Actual velocity head is calculated is from the above two heads.
 Theoretical static head is calculated as follows:

𝒑𝟐 𝒑𝟏 𝒗𝟏 𝟐 𝒗𝟐 𝟐
= + −
𝜸 𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈
 The theoretical velocity head is given by:

𝒗𝟐 𝟖(𝒗𝒐𝒍. )𝟐
= 𝟐 𝟐 𝟒
𝟐𝒈 𝝅 𝒈𝒕 𝑫
 Theoretical total head is equal to the sum of these two heads.

Observations and Calculations:

Tapping Actual Actual Actual Theoretical Theoretical Theoretic Head Total

position static velocit total static/pressu Velocity al total loss head
head y head head re head head head b/w loss
two up to
point point
s s
A 244 2 246 244 3.3 247.3 1.3 1.3
B 209 36 245 209 34.2 243.2 4.1 5.4
C 150 94 244 150 65.5 220.4 22.8 28.2
D 143 98 241 143 97.4 240.4 20 48.2
E 92 147 239 92 127 219 21.4 69.6
F 132 33 165 132 33 165 54 123.6

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Experiment No. 10
“To determine the relationship between head loss due to friction and velocity of the flow
of water through smooth bore pipe”

Objective:
To study the laminar flow and turbulent flow. With the help of this experiment we can
determine the head loss due to friction at different velocities and eventually obtain the
relationship between these two parameters.
Theoretical background
Head:
Head is defined as the energy of the fluid per unit weight of the fluid and its unit is “meter (m)”
in S.I.
Head loss:
Head loss due to friction is the loss of the head of fluid while flowing through a pipe (i.e. smooth
pipe in present case) due to the viscous effect in the fluid. The relationship for head loss due to
friction is given by Darcy Weisbach;
𝒇𝑳𝒗𝟐
𝒉𝒇 =
𝑫𝟐𝒈
Head loss and velocity relationship:
Its relationship depends on the type of the flow i.e. whether the flow is laminar or turbulent.
For laminar the relationship is given by;
𝒉𝜶𝒗
For turbulent flow the relationship is given by;
𝒉 𝜶 𝒗𝒏
Apparatus:
 Fluid friction apparatus
 Hydraulic bench
 Stop watch
 Thermometer

Parts of the fluid friction apparatus:

 Smooth bore pipe
 Artificially roughened pipe
 Long and short radii bends
 Y, elbow and T-joints
 Sudden contraction
 Sudden enlargement
 Transparent pipe section with pitot tube
 Transparent venturi meter
 Transparent orifice meter

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 Ball valve
 Isolating valve
 Globe valve
 Control valve
 Gate valve
 Water inlet and outlet
 Strainer
 Pressure tapping points
 Tubing and connectors
 Flexible tubes and monometer

FIGURE 17: FLUID FRICTION APPARATUS

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Procedure:
 First of all remove air from pipes i-e open all valves
 Now close all valves except the pipe under observation
 Close the screw above the mercury manometer such that all air is removed
 Close the isolating valve
 Not the head loss from the difference in mercury column of mercury manometer
 Measure the discharge of water from outlet by graduated beaker and stopwatch.
 Increase the velocity of flow from inlet control valve and repeat the process again
 Thus we can observe that by increasing the velocity of flow of water, the head loss
increase.

Observation and Calculations:

S.no 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3

Diameter(mm) 6mm 10mm 17mm

Volume(lit) 1 1 2 10 10 10 10 20 20
Time(sec) 43.7 25.9 44.02 76.17 56.65 43.09 21.72 29.68 25.36
8 9
Discharge(lit/sec .023 .038 .0454 .131 .176 .232 .46 .67 .78
) 5
Velocity(m/sec) .801 1.36 1.61 1.67 2.25 2.25 2.03 2.97 3.48
Reynolds No 5757 9729 1147 20,47 26,75 35,17 41,08 6010 7034
1 6 0 9 5 7 8
Friction factor(f) .036 .031 .029 .0256 .024 .0225 .0217 .0199 .0192
Measured head 198 490 653 365 617 1000 456 895 252
loss(mm)
Calculated head 130 241 351 142 184 295 84 348 397
loss(mm)

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