Chapter 8

Vector Calculus

Vector calculus, or vector analysis, is a branch of mathematics concerned with differentiation and
integration of vectors. It plays an important role in differential geometry and in the study of
partial differential equations. It is used extensively in physics and engineering, especially in the
description of electromagnetic fields, gravitational fields and fluid flow.
A scalar field associates a scalar value to every point in a space. A map f : Rn → R which
assigns each x, a scalar function f (x). For example, the temperature distribution throughout
space, the pressure distribution in a fluid.
A vector field associates a vector to every point in a space. A map F : Rn → Rn which assigns
each x, a vector function F (x). For example, electric field, gravitational field.

8.1 Tutorial : Gradient, Divergence, Curl

A vector differential operator ∇ is defined as

∂ ∂ ∂
∇ ≡ î + ĵ + k̂ .
∂x ∂y ∂z

With the help of ∇, the gradient, the divergence and the curl are defined as follows:

Gradient
The gradient gradf of a scalar function f (x, y, z) is a vector function defined by

∂f ∂f ∂f
gradf = ∇f = î + ĵ + k̂ .
∂x ∂y ∂z

The gradient points in the direction of the greatest rate of the increase of the function and its
magnitude is the slope of the graph in that direction.
If f is describing the temperature at a point (x, y, z) in the space, then gradf gives the direction
in which the temperature increasing most rapidly.

Divergence

The divergence of a vector function F = (F1 , F2 , F3 ) is a scalar function defined by

∂F1 ∂F2 ∂F3

div F = ∇ · F = + + .
∂x ∂y ∂z

1
2 Chapter 3 Vector Calculus

The divergence measures how much a vector field “spreads out” or diverges from a given point.
Imagine a fluid, with the vector field representing the velocity of the fluid at each point in the
space. Its divergence measures the net flow of fluid out of a give point. If fluid is instead flowing
into the point, the divergence will be negative.
A point or region with positive divergence is often referred to as a “source” while a point or
region with negative divergence is a “sink”.
A vector field F with divergence zero at all points, i.e. ∇ · F = 0 is called a solenoidal vector
field (also known as an incompressible vector field).

Curl

The curl of a vector function F = (F1 , F2 , F3 ) is a vector function defined by

curl F = ∇ × F
î ĵ k̂
∂ ∂ ∂
=
∂x ∂y ∂z
F1 F2 F3
     
∂F3 ∂F2 ∂F3 ∂F1 ∂F2 ∂F1
= − î − − ĵ + − k̂,
∂y ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂y
The curl is the circulation per unit area, circulation density, or rate of rotation (amount of twisting
at a single point).
The angular velocity of rotation at any point is equal to the half of the curl of the linear
velocity at that point of the body. So, if the curl of any field F is zero, there is no rotation and
the field is called irrotational.
For a vector field F , it can be shown that

∇×F =0 ⇔ F = ∇f,

for some scalar field f . In this case, corresponding scalar field f is called potential and it is
associated with potential energy.

Solved Examples

Example 8.1.1. Find the gradient of f (x, y, z) = 2z 3 − 3(x2 + y 2 )z + tan−1 (xz) at (1, 1, 1).
Solution. Using definition
   
1 2 2 2 1
∇f = −6xz + · z î + [−6yz] ĵ + 6z − 3(x + y ) + k̂
1 + x2 z 2 1 + x2 z 2
−11 1
⇒ (∇f )(1,1,1) = î − 6ĵ + k̂. 
2 2
Example 8.1.2. Find divergence and curl of V = xyz(x, y, z).
Solution. Here, V = x2 yz î + xy 2 z ĵ + xyz 2 k̂. Now,

div V = ∇·V
∂(x2 yz) ∂(xy 2 z) ∂(xyz 2 )
= + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
Tutorial 3.1 Gradient, Divergence, Curl 3

= 2xyz + 2xyz + 2xyz

= 6xyz.

Also,

curl V = ∇×V
î ĵ k̂
∂ ∂ ∂
=
∂x ∂y ∂z
x2 yz xy 2 z xyz 2

= î(xz 2 − xy 2 ) + ĵ(x2 y − yz 2 ) + k̂(y 2 z − x2 z). 

Example 8.1.3. Find constants a, b and c so that V = (x+2y+az)î+(bx−3y−z)ĵ+(4x+cy+2z)k̂

is irrotational.
Solution. Observe that

curl V = ∇×V
î ĵ k̂
∂ ∂ ∂
=
∂x ∂y ∂z
x + 2y + az bx − 3y − z 4x + cy + 2z

= (c + 1)î + (a − 4)ĵ + (b − 2)k̂.

Now, the vector V is irrotational if and only if

curl V = 0 ⇔ c + 1 = 0, a − 4 = 0, b − 2 = 0 ⇔ a = 4, b = 2, c = −1. 

Example 8.1.4. A fluid motion is given by

V = (y sin z − sin x)î + (x sin z + 2yz)ĵ + (xy cos z + y 2 )k̂.

Is the motion irrotational?

Solution. Here,

î ĵ k̂
∂ ∂ ∂
curl V =
∂x ∂y ∂z
y sin z − sin x x sin z + 2yz xy cos z + y 2

= (x cos z + 2y − x cos z − 2y)î + (y cos z − y cos z)ĵ + (sin z − sin z)k̂

= 0.

Thus the motion is irrotational. 

Exercises

Exercise 8.1.1. Find div(v), where v = ex î + ye−x ĵ + 2z sinh xk̂.

4 Chapter 3 Vector Calculus

Exercise 8.1.2. Is the vector v = y 2 î + 2xy ĵ − z 2 k̂ solenoidal at a point (1, 2, 1)?

Exercise 8.1.3. Find the value of λ such that the vector field

F = (2x2 y 2 + z 2 )î + (3xy 3 − x2 z)ĵ + (λxy 2 z + xy)k̂

is solenoidal.

Exercise 8.1.4. Obtain curl F at the point (2, 0, 3) for F = ze2xy î + 2xy cos y ĵ + (x + 2y)k̂.

Exercise 8.1.5. Find the constants a, b and c so that (x+y +az)î+(bx+2y −z)ĵ +(−x+cy +2z)k̂
is irrotational.

Exercise 8.1.6. If F = (y 2 − z 2 + 3yz − 2x)î + (3xz + 2xy)ĵ + (3xy − 2xz + 2z)k̂, show that F
is the both solenoidal and irrotational.

Exercise 8.1.7. Prove that curl(grad f ) = 0.

Answers

8.1.1 ex + e−x + 2 sinh x 8.1.2 yes 8.1.3 λ = −13 8.1.4 2î − 12k̂
8.1.5 a = −1, b = 1, c = −1

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Tutorial 3.3 Line Integrals 5

8.2 Tutorial : Line Integrals

A line integral is an integral where the function to be integrated along a curve and is a general-
ization of a definite integral. Precisely, we have the following dentation.
The line integral of a vector function F (r) along a curve C is defined by
Z Z b
dr
F · dr = F (r(t)) · . (8.2.1)
C a dt

In terms of components, with dr = dxî + dy ĵ + dz k̂, formula (8.2.1) becomes

Z Z
F · dr = (F1 dx + F2 dy + F3 dz). (8.2.2)
C C

In equation (8.2.2) we integrate from a point A to a point B over a path C. The value of such an
integral generally depends not only on A andR B, but also on Hthe path C along which we integrate.
If C is a closed curve then the line integral is denoted by .
C C

Independence of Path
R
A line integral F · dr is independent of path if its value remains same along all the curves C
C
with same end points A and B. In this case, we write
Z Z B
F · dr = F · dr.
C A

Circulation
H
If F represents the velocity of a fluid particle and C is a closed curve, the line integral F · dr
C
represents the circulation of F around the curve C. If circulation is zero, F is said to be irrotational.

Flux

If C is a smooth closed curve in the domain of a continuous vector field

F = M (x, y)î + N (x, y)ĵ

in the plane, and if n̂ is the outward-pointing unit normal vector on C, the flux of F across C is
Z
Flux of F across C = F · n̂ds.
C

In terms of components,
dy dx
î − ĵ.
n̂ =
ds ds
Thus Z Z     I
dy dx
F · n̂ds = M +N = M dy − N dx.
C C ds ds C
6 Chapter 3 Vector Calculus

Work Done
R
If F is the force acting upon a particle which is moving along curve C then the line integral F ·dr
C
represents the work done by the force.

Conservative Vector Field

Let F be a conservative vector field in some domain D. Then F is said to be conservative if there
exists some scalar function φ such that F = ∇φ.

Simply Connected Domain

A set S is said to be open if every point P of S has a neighbourhood contained in S.

A set S is said to be connected if any two points of S can be joined by finitely many line
segments joined end to end lying entirely in S.
A set which is open and connected is called a domain.
A domain D is called simply connected if every closed curve in D can be shrunk to any point
in D without leaving D.

Theorems

(1) Let F = P î + Qĵ be a vector field on a simply connected domain D. Suppose that P and Q
have continuous first order partial derivatives in D. Then F is conservative in D if and only
if throughout D, we have
∂P ∂Q
= .
∂y ∂x
(2) Let F be a continuous vector field on simply connected domain D. Then the following are
equivalent:
R
(i) The line integral C F · dr is independent of path;
(ii) F is conservative;
(iii) ∇ × F = 0.

(3) (Fundamental Theorem of Vector Calculus) Let F (x, y, z) be a conservative vector field.
Then
Z B Z B Z B  Z B
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
F · dr = ∇φ · dr = dx + dy + dz = dφ = φ(B) − φ(A).
A A A ∂x ∂y ∂z A

(4) (Divergence Theorem) Let F (x, y) = M (x, y)î + N (x, y)ĵ be a vector field and R be a
region enclosed by a simple closed curve C traversed counterclockwise. Then the flux of F
through C can be calculated as
Z ZZ  
∂M ∂N
F · n̂ds = + dA.
C R ∂x ∂y
Tutorial 3.3 Line Integrals 7

Solved Examples
R
Example 8.2.1. If F = 3xy î − y 2 ĵ, evaluate F · dr, where C is the arc of the parabola y = 2x2
C
from (0, 0) to (1, 2).

Solution. Here,
F · dr = (3xy î − y 2 ĵ) · (dxî + dy ĵ) = 3xy dx − y 2 dy
and
y = 2x2 ⇒ dy = 4xdx.
Now,

F · dr = 3x(2x2 )dx − 4x4 (4x)dx = (6x3 − 16x5 )dx.

Thus
1 1 1
x4 x6
Z Z  
3 5 3 8 7
F · dr = (6x − 16x )dx = 6 − 16 = − = − . 
C 0 4 0 6 0 2 3 6

Example 8.2.2. Find the work done when a force

F = (x2 − y 2 + x)î − (2xy + y)ĵ

moves a particle in the xy-plane from (0, 0) to (1, 1) along the parabola y 2 = x. Is the work done
different when the path is the straight line y = x?

Solution. The parametric equations of y 2 = x are

y = t, x = t2 (0 < t < 1).

Now, the work done along the parabola is

Z Z
F · dr = [(x2 − y 2 + x)î − (2xy + y)ĵ] · (dxî + dy ĵ)
C ZC
= [(x2 − y 2 + x)dx − (2xy + y)dy]
ZC1
= [(t4 − t2 + t2 ) · 2tdt − (2t2 · t + t)dt]
0 6
t4 t2

t
= − −
3 2 2
2
= − .
3
Now, let P = x2 − y 2 + x and Q = −2xy − y. Then
∂P ∂Q
= −2y and = −2y.
∂y ∂x
∂P ∂Q R
Since = , F is conservative and F · dr is independent of path. Hence, the work done
∂y ∂x
2
along the path y = x is also − . 
3
8 Chapter 3 Vector Calculus

Example 8.2.3. Find the flux of the vector field F = −y î + xĵ across the ellipse r(t) = (cos t)î +
(4 sin t)ĵ, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
Solution. Here,
M = −y, N = x, and x = cos t, y = 4 sin t.
Now, the flux of F across C is
Z I Z 2π Z 2π
17
F · n̂ds = M dy − N dx = (4 sin t · 4 cos t + cos t · sin t)dt = sin 2t = 0 (verify!).
C C 0 2 0

Example 8.2.4. Use the Divergence Theorem to find the flux of F (x, y) = xy î + 3ĵ through the
rectangle with vertices (0, 0), (0, 3), (6, 3), (6, 0) traversed in clockwise direction.
Solution. The path C is a rectangle traced clockwise, not counterclockwise as is required by
the Divergence Theorem. We can proceed, but must negate the final result to account for the
clockwise movement. We have
ZZ   Z 6Z 2 Z 6  2 3 Z 6
∂M ∂N y 9 9
+ dA = ydydx = = dx = · 6 = 27. 
R ∂x ∂y 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 2
Since the path around the rectangle is traced clockwise, we negate the result:
Z
F · n̂ds = −27. 
C

Exercises
R
Exercise 8.2.1. Evaluate F · dr where F = z î + xĵ + y k̂ and C is the arc of the curve r =
C
cos tî + sin tĵ + tk̂ from t = 0 to t = 2π.
Exercise 8.2.2. Find the total work done in moving a particle in a force field given by f =
3xy î − 5z ĵ + 10xk̂ along the curve x = t2 + 1, y = 2t2 , z = t3 from t = 1 to t = 2.
Exercise 8.2.3. Find the circulation of F around the curve C where F = y î + z ĵ + xk̂ and
C : x2 + y 2 = 1, z = 0.
R
Exercise 8.2.4. Evaluate F · dr where F = (x2 + y 2 )î − 2xy ĵ and C is the boundary of the
C
region enclosed by y = 0, x = 1, y = 2, x = 0.
R
Exercise 8.2.5. Evaluate F · dr where F = [2z, x, −y] and C : r(t) = [cos t, sin t, 2t] from
C
(0, 0, 0) to (1, 0, 4π).
R
Exercise 8.2.6. Check whether the line integral F dr is independent of path, where
C
(a) F (x, y) = (2x + y 2 )î + (3y − x2 )ĵ, (b) F (x, y) = (x2 + y 2 )î + (3y + 2xy)ĵ.
R
Exercise 8.2.7. Show that the line integral F · dr is independent of path, where
C

F (x, y, z) = (2xy + z 3 )î + x2 ĵ + 3xz 2 k̂.

Hence, evaluate the integral when C is any path joining A(1, −2, 1) to B(3, 1, 4).
Tutorial 3.3 Line Integrals 9

Exercise 8.2.8. Find the flux of the field F = xy î − y 2 ĵ across the parabola r(t) = tî + t2 ĵ, where
0 ≤ t ≤ 1.

Exercise 8.2.9. Find the flux of the field F = (x + y)î − (x2 + y 2 )ĵ outward across the triangle
with vertices (1, 0), (0, 1), (−1, 0).

Answers

8.2.1 3π 8.2.2 303 8.2.3 −π 8.2.4 −8 8.2.5 9π 8.2.6 (b) independent of path
3
8.2.7 202 8.2.8 8.2.9 0
5
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10 Chapter 3 Vector Calculus

8.3 Tutorial : Green’s Theorem

Green’s theorem gives the relationship between a line integral and a double integral. The theorem
is as follow:
If M (x, y), N (x, y) and their partial derivatives ∂M
∂y
, ∂N
∂x
are continuous in some region R of
xy-plane bounded by a closed curve C, then
I ZZ  
∂N ∂M
(M dx + N dy) = − dxdy.
C R ∂x ∂y
• From this theorem it is derived that the area A of a region R bounded by a closed curve C is
given by I
1
A= (xdy − ydx).
2 C
• In polar coordinates it is given by I
1
A= r2 dθ.
2 C

Solved Examples
H
Example 8.3.1. Using Green’s theorem, evaluate the integral C
F · dr, where

F = (y 2 − 7y)î + (2xy + 2x)ĵ and C : x2 + y 2 = 1.

Solution. Observe that

I I
 2 
F · dr = (y − 7y)dx + (2xy + 2x)dy .
C C

By Green’s theorem, I ZZ  
∂N ∂M
(M dx + N dy) = − dxdy.
C R ∂x ∂y
Here, M = y 2 − 7y, N = 2xy + 2x. Therefore,
∂N ∂M
= 2y + 2 and = 2y − 7.
∂x ∂y
Hence,
I ZZ ZZ
F · dr = [2y + 2 − 2y + 7]dxdy = 9dxdy = 9 × Area of C = 9π. 
C R R

x2 y 2
Example 8.3.2. Using Green’s theorem obtain the area of an ellipse + 2 = 1.
a2 b
x2 y 2
Solution. The parametric equations of the ellipse + 2 = 1 are
a2 b
x = a cos t, y = b sin t (0 ≤ t ≤ 2π).

By Green’s theorem the area A of a region R bounded by a closed curve C is given by

I
1
A = (xdy − ydx)
2 C
Tutorial 3.4 Green’s Theorem 11
Z
1
= [(a cos t)(b cos t)dt − (b sin t)(−a sin t)dt]
2 C
1 2π
Z
= ab(cos2 t + sin2 t)dt
2 0
1  2π
= ab t 0
2
= πab. 

Exercises

Exercise 8.3.1. State Green’s theorem and also evaluate the integral
I
[(6y + x)dx + (y + 2x)dy]
C

where C: (x − 2)2 + (y − 3)2 = 4.

Exercise 8.3.2. Use Green’s theorem to evaluate the integral

I
(y 2 dx + x2 dy),
C

where C: the triangle bounded by x = 0, x + y = 1, y = 0.

Exercise 8.3.3. Use Green’s theorem to find the work done by F = (4x − 2y)î + (2x − 4y)ĵ in
moving a particle once clockwise around the circle (x − 2)2 + (y − 2)2 = 4.

Exercise 8.3.4. Verify Green’s theorem for the function F = (x+y)î+2xy ĵ and C is the rectangle
in the xy-plane bounded by x = 0, y = 0, x = a, y = b.
Answers

8.3.1 −16π 8.3.2 0 8.3.3 16π

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12 Chapter 3 Vector Calculus

8.4 Tutorial : Review Exercises

Exercise 8.4.1. Find div(v) for the following vectors v:

(a) ex (cos y î + sin y ĵ) (c) (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )−3/2 (xî + y ĵ + zˆ)

(b) (x2 + y 2 )−1 (−y î + xĵ) (d) v1 (y, z)î + v2 (z, x)ĵ + v3 (z, y)k̂

Exercise 8.4.2. Find curl(v) for the following vectors v:

(a) [sin y, cos z, 0] (c) (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )−3/2 (xî + y ĵ + zˆ)

1 2
(b) (x + y 2 + z 2 )(î + ĵ + k̂) (d) xyz(xî + y ĵ + z k̂)
2

Exercise 8.4.3. In each case, the velocity vector v is given. Is the flow irrotational? Incompress-
ible? Find the paths of particles:

(a) [2y 2 , 0, 0] (c) x3 x̂

(b) [sec x, cosec x, 0] (d) xî + y ĵ − z k̂

Exercise 8.4.4. Show that the vector function f defined by

f = (sin y + z cos x)î + (x cos y + sin z)ĵ + (y cos z + sin x)k̂

is irrotational and find a function φ such that f = ∇φ.

Exercise 8.4.5. Which curves are represented by the following parametric representations?

(a) [3 cos t, 4 sin t, t] (b) [a + 2 cos 2t, b − 2 sin 2t, 0]

Exercise 8.4.6. Represent the curve 4x2 − 3y 2 = 12, z = 1 parametrically and sketch it.
Exercise 8.4.7. Find the arc length of the curve r(t) = [cos t, t + sin t], 0 ≤ t ≤ π.
Exercise 8.4.8. Find the arc length of the curve r(t) = a cos3 tî + a sin3 tĵ, total length.
R
Exercise 8.4.9. If F = 3xy î − y 2 ĵ, evaluate F · dr, where C is the curve in the xy-plane y = 2x2
C
from (0, 0) to (1, 2).
R
Exercise 8.4.10. Evaluate the line integral [(x2 + xy)dx + (x2 + y 2 )dy], where C is the square
C
formed by the lines y = ±1 and x = ±1.
R
Exercise 8.4.11. Compute the line integral (y 2 dx − x2 dy) about the triangle whose vertices are
C
(1, 0), (0, 1) and (−1, 0).
R
Exercise 8.4.12. If F = [exp(y 3/2 ), − exp(x3/2 )], evaluate F · dr, where C : y = x3/2 is the
C
curve from (0, 0) to (1, 1).
R
Exercise 8.4.13. If F = 2z î + xĵ − y k̂, evaluate F · dr, where C : r(t) = cos tî + sin tĵ + 2tk̂ is
C
the curve from (0, 0, 0) to (1, 0, 4π).
Tutorial 3.5 Review Exercises 13

R
Exercise 8.4.14. If F = [cosh x, sinh y, ez ], evaluate F · dr, where C : r(t) = [t, t2 , t3 ] is the
C
curve from (0, 0, 0) to (2, 4, 8).

Exercise 8.4.15. Find the work done in moving a particle in the force field F = 3x2 î + (2xz −
y)ĵ + z k̂ along the straight line from (0, 0, 0) to (2, 1, 3).

Exercise 8.4.16. Show that the form under the integral sign is exact and evaluate the integral
Z (3,π/2)
ex (cos ydx − sin ydy).
(0,π)

Exercise 8.4.17. Show that the form under the integral sign is exact and evaluate the integral
Z (4,3)
(3z 2 dx + 6xzdz).
(−1,5)

Exercise 8.4.18. Find the flux of F = (2, 0) through the line segment from (3, 0) to (0, 3).

Exercise 8.4.19. Find the flux of F (x, y) = [3xy, x−y] through the parabolic arc y = x2 between
(−1, 1) and (4, 16).

Exercise 8.4.20. Find the flux of F (x, y) = [x, y] through the line connecting (0, 0) to (a, b).

Exercise 8.4.21. Use the Divergence Theorem to find the flux of F (x, y) = 3xî + 5y ĵ through
the circle x2 + y 2 = 1, traversed counterclockwise.
R
Exercise 8.4.22. Using Green’s theorem, evaluate F · dr, where F = [3x2 , x − y 4 ] and C is the
C
square with vertices (1, 1), (−1, 1), (−1, −1), (1, −1).
R
Exercise 8.4.23. Using Green’s theorem, evaluate F · dr, where F = [y, −x] and C is the circle
C
x2 + y 2 = 1/4.
R
Exercise 8.4.24. Using Green’s theorem, evaluate F · dr, where F = [sin y, cos x] and C is the
C
triangle with vertices (0, 0), (π, 0), (π, 1).
H 2 
Exercise 8.4.25. Evaluate (x + 2y)dx + (4x + y 2 )dy by Green’s theorem where C is the
C
boundary of the region bounded by y = 0, y = 2x, and x + y = 3.

Exercise 8.4.26. Find the area of the region bounded by the parabola y = x2 and the line
y = x + 2.
x2 y 2
Exercise 8.4.27. Find the area of the ellipse + 2 = 1.
a2 b

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