The cell theory:

Cell = basic unit of life

 come from pre-existing cells (NO spontaneous generation.
All living organisms are made of > o = 1 cells.
 Unicellular  =1
 Multicellular >1
Energy flow occurs within cells.
Heredity information (DNA) is passed on from cell to cell.
All cells have the same basic chemical composition.
Plasma membrane  surrounds all cells
Cytoplasm (=cytosol)  semi-fluid substance within the cell that
contains the cell organelles.
All cells contain chromosomes which have genes in the form of DNA.
Ribosomes  tiny organelles that make proteins (all cells have them)

2 types of cells
Eukarioyic

Cell(plasma) membrane:
=thin semi-permeable membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm of a cell.
=selective barrier that allows sufficient passage of oxygen, nutrients, and waste
 Protects the integrity of the interior of the cell by allowing certain substances
 into the cell, while keeping other substances out.
 Base of attachment for the cytoskeleton in some organisms and the cell wall in others. Thus it
supports the cell and helps maintain its shape.
 To regulate cell growth through the balance of endocytosis and exocytosis.
 Detection of substances
Processing of the information Structure:
double layer of phospholipids also contains proteins

LIPIDS:
Phospholipids: Isolation. Major component
Cholesterol: Prevents stiffness (not in plant cells)
Glycolipids: Recognition (receptors)

Proteins ▪ Peripheral membrane proteins

Two types: ▪ Integral (=Transmembrane) membrane protein
Functions
• Structural proteins help to give the cell support and shape.
• Cell membrane receptor proteins
• Transport proteins, such as globular proteins, transport molecules across cell
membranes through facilitated diffusion. PHAGOCYTOSIS: Active participation in mitosis the
• Glycoproteins have a carbohydrate chain attached to them. Recognition. ingestion of bacteria or other material by phagocytes and amoeboid
• Enzymes. Usually facing the inner side. EG: Producing second messengers protozoans.
CELL WALLS & EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX:
Many cells are surrounded by an insoluble array of secreted macromolecules.
 Cells of bacteria, fungi, algae, and higher plantssurrounded by rigid cell walls(integral part of cell)
Animal cells in tissues are closely associated with an extracellular matrix composed of proteins and
polysaccharides. The extracellular matrix:
o provides structural support to cells and tissues
o regulates the behaviour of cells in multicellular organisms.
o Fills the spaces between cells
o Binds tissues together and separate them
o Creates structures w/ special mechanical properties (bones, cartilages, tendons, teeth)
o Creates filters (renal glomerulus)

Composition:
▪Basic Gel-Like substance: Polysaccharide chains called GAG-
Glycosaminoglycans. Normally attached to a protein forming Proteoglycans).
The main is called Hyaluronic acid
▪Fibrous proteins: Collagen (main), Elastin, Fibronectin and Laminin.
W/Structural and adhesive functions.

Cell wall: Fungal cell walls is chitin

Most algae and higher plants are composed principally of cellulose
(Composed of polysaccharides) 
o Protection (thick & rigid)
o Exoskeleton
 CELLULOSE
Structure:
1. Fibres
2. Suberin(cork)
3. Lignin(trunk)
4. Calcium carbonate

PROKARYOTIC: BACTERIAL CELL WALLS

determine: cell shape.
prevent: cell from bursting because of osmotic pressure.
STRUCTURE:
 Gram-negative bacteria: 2 membrane the plasma membrane is
surrounded by a permeable outer membrane. These bacteria have thin cell walls between their inner
and outer membranes.
  Gram-positive bacteria: 1 plasma membrane, which is surrounded by a much thicker cell wall.

CYTOSKELETON:
o Supports the cellmantains shape.
o Interacts with motor proteins to produce motility
o Intracellular movements: inside the cell, vesicles can travel along “monorails” provided by
the cytoskeleton, by motor proteins (JHON)
o Mediates processes of endocytosis and exocytosis
o Defines the distribution of the organelles.
o • regulate biochemical activities.
 CENTRIOLES:
structure in an animal cell that helps to organize cell division.
 CENTROSOME:
microtubule organizing centre (made up of centrioles)
 CILIA:
Tiny hairlike structures that propel substances along the surface of the tissue (Like in your
throat/oesophagus)
 FLAGELLA:
Long, thin whip-like structure that helps organisms move through moist or wet surroundings.
o COMMON STRUCT. OF CILIA & FLAGELLA:
A core of microtubules sheathed by the plasma membrane, a basal body that anchors the
cilium or flagellum and a motor protein called dynein, which drives the bending movements
of a cilium or flagellum.
 DYEIN:
movement that causes cilia and flagella to bend causing movement.
 KINESIN:
a motor protein that converts chemical energy in ATP into mechanical work
 MYOSIN:
Thick filament protein with a head and elongated tail, the heads form cross bridges
with the thin filaments during muscle contraction.

 CELL JUNCTIONS: (facilitate contact between neighbouring cells)

1. Plasmodesmata: Channels that perforate plant cell walls. Water and small solutes (and
sometimes proteins and RNA) can pass from cell to cell.
2. Tight junctions: Membranes of neighbouring cells are pressed together, preventing leakage of
extracellular fluid. (=Watertight connection between 2 adjacent cell membranes)
3. Desmosomes: (anchoring junctions) protein fibres link cells together and provide strength
needed in cells such as skin and heart muscles.
4. Gap junctions: (communicating junctions) Small tunnels that connect cells, facilitating the
movement of small molecules and ions between the cells.
RIBOSOMES:
= particles made of ribosomal RNA and protein
carry out protein synthesis in two locations.
1. In the cytosol (free ribosomes)
2. Outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes)

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM:
It accounts for + ½ of the total membrane in many eukaryotic cells.
Its membrane is continuous w/ the nuclear envelope.
2 distinct regions in ER:
1. Smooth ER: lacks ribosomes.
o Synthesizes/Processes lipids (phospholipids & cholesterol).
o Metabolizes carbohydrates.
o Stores calcium ions
o Detoxifies drugs and poisons (Important in liver, kidney, lung, intestine, and skin)

2. Rough ER: surface is studded with ribosomes.

o Has bound ribosomes, which produce proteins and peptides.
o Distributes transport vesicles, proteins surrounded by membranes.
o Membrane factory for the cell.

GOLGI APPARATUS:
Flattened stacks that process, package, and deliver proteins and lipids from the ER to where they’re needed
within the cell or outside it.
Composed: stacks of membrane-bound structures called cisternae (plural). Indiv. stack = dictyosome
Dictyosome have two faces:
1. CIS: Oriented to the ER
2. TRANS: Opposite
Functions:
o Storage and modification of proteins from the ER. Specially important is the glycosylation of
proteins and lipids.
o Manufactures certain macromolecules.
o Sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles
 Exocytosis:
•Secretion (ex. saliva)
•Membrane structures
 Lysosomes (to hydroliyse molecules

LYSOSOMES:
= small spherical vesicles (0.3-0.8 μm).
Contain: hydrolytic enzymes (lipases, nucleases, proteases, glycosidases) catalyzing the hydrolysis of
macromolecules from the Golgi Apparatus.
 These enzymes work at an acidic pH. The lysosomal membrane contains proton pumps that introduce H+
into the lysosome.
They hydrolyse molecules:
– From the exterior of the cell: reaching the lysosome by endocytosis
– From inside the cell: when old or damaged material needs to be eliminated (autophagy)
VACUOLES:
= fluid-filled, enclosed structures that are separated from the cytoplasm by a single membrane.
Found:
- mostly in plant cells and fungi.
- However, some protists, animal cells, and bacteria also contain vacuoles.
Functions:
o Nutrient storage
o Detoxification
o Waste exportation.
derived from ER and GA.

MITOCHONDRIA:
=small structures found inside eukaryotic cells. produce energy for the cell in the form of a molecule
called ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
Have:
o Smooth outer membrane
o Inner membrane folded into cristae.
 intermembrane space
 mitochondrial matrix
 Some metabolic steps of cellular respiration are catalyzed
o Krebs Cycle (Matrix)
o beta-oxidation (Matrix)
o Electron Transport Chain Synthesizes ATP (Inner membrane )

KREBS CYCLE: second stage of cellular respiration, in which

pyruvic acid is broken down into carbon dioxide in a series of
energy-extracting reactions

PLASTIDS: (only plants c.)

derived from special vacuoles.
Functions:
o Produce Nutrients
o Store Nutrients
Types:
1. Chromoplasts: Contain pigments that give colour: Flowers, fruits, roots..
2. Leucoplasts: Store starch =Polysaccharide (Amyloplasts); proteins (Proteinoplasts=Aleuronoplasts);
or lipids (Elaioplasts = Oleosomes)
3. Chloroplasts: Location of photosynthesis in plants and algae. They contain the pigment chlorphyll.
o STURCTURE:
i. Thylakoids, membranous sacs, stacked to form a granum
ii. Stroma, the internal fluid
 o  Chloroplasts convert light energy to the energy of reduced carbon compounds
o Chlorophyll: absorbs sunlight and uses its energy to synthesize carbohydrates from CO2 and
water. This process is known as photosynthesis and is the basis for sustaining the life processes of
all plants.

ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY:
explains how eukaryotic cells may have evolved from prokaryotic cells

SUPORT:
1. Prokaryotes, mitochondria and chloroplasts have similar membranes, DNA and ribosomes (smaller, like
bacteria). Mitochondria and Chloroplasts have their own circular DNA genome. External membrane is
similar to plasma membrane. Inner membrane resembles bacterial’s.
1. Mitochondria and chloroplasts reproduce via binary fission (not by mitosis).
2. Size of mitochondria and chloroplasts in comparison to bacteria
3. Many antibiotics that kill or inhibit bacteria also inhibit protein synthesis of these organelle