Advantages of the Two-stroke Engine

# Two-stroke engines are lighter, simpler and less expensive

#They also have twice the power of the same space of 4 stroke engine
# 2-stroke engines have a great power-to-weight ratio.
Disadvantages of the Two-stroke Engine
# Two-stroke engines don't last nearly as long as four-stroke engines. The lack of a
dedicated lubrication system means that the parts of a two-stroke engine wear a lot
faster.
# Two-stroke oil is expensive. You would burn about a gallon of oil every 1,000
miles if you used a two-stroke engine in a car.
# Two-stroke engines do not use fuel efficiently.
# Two-stroke engines produce a lot of pollution.

(a) Valve in block, L head. Older automobiles and some small engines.
(b) Valve in head, I head. Standard on modern automobiles ( simplicity,
reliability, low cost and compactness, but poor intake flow).
(c) One valve in head and one valve in block, F head. Older, less common
automobiles (intake valves in head while exhaust valves in block).
(d) Valves in block on opposite sides of cylinder, T head.
 Cam shaft Location Two basic Types
1. Camshaft in block
2. Cam shaft in cylinder head (OHC)
OHC can be classified into:
1. SOHC-single overhead cam (One cam shaft per cylinder head)
2. DOHC-double overhead cam (two cam shaft per cylinder head
Basic Design
(a) Reciprocating. Engine has one or more cylinders in which pistons reciprocate
back and forth. Power is delivered to a rotating output crankshaft by mechanical
linkage with the pistons.
(b) Rotary. Engine is made of a block (stator) built around a large non-concentric
rotor and crankshaft. The combustion chambers are built into the nonrotating
block.
Arrangement of cylinders

(a) Single Cylinder (b) In-Line or straight (c) V Engine.

(d) Opposed Cylinder Engine (e) W Engine
(f) Opposed Piston Engine (g) Radial Engine
Air Intake Process
(a) Naturally Aspirated. No intake air pressure boost system.
(b) Supercharged. Intake air pressure increased with the compressor driven off
of the engine crankshaft.
(c) Turbocharged. Intake air pressure increased with the turbine-compressor
driven by the engine exhaust gases.
(d) Crankcase Compressed. Two-stroke cycle engine which uses the crankcase
as the intake air compressor.
 Spark plug: It ignites the air/fuel mixture so that combustion can occur. The
spark must happen at just the right moment for things to work properly.
Valves: The intake and exhaust valves open at the proper time to let in air and
fuel and to let out exhaust. Note that both valves are closed during compression
and combustion so that the combustion chamber is sealed.
Piston: It is a cylindrical piece of metal that moves up and down inside the
cylinder.
Piston rings: They provide a sliding seal between the outer edge of the piston
and the inner edge of the cylinder. The rings serve two purposes:
• They prevent the fuel/air mixture and exhaust in the combustion chamber
from leaking into the sump during compression and combustion.
• They keep oil in the sump from leaking into the combustion area, where it
would be burned and lost.
Combustion chamber: The combustion chamber is the area wherecompression
and combustion take place. As the piston moves up and down, you can see that
the size of the combustion chamber changes. It has some maximum volume as
well as a minimum volume. The difference between the maximum and
minimum is called the displacement and is measured in liters or CCs (Cubic
Centimeters, where 1,000 cubic centimeters equals a liter).
Connecting rod: The connecting rod connects the piston to the crankshaft. It
can rotate at both ends so that its angle can change as the piston moves and the
crankshaft rotates.
Crank shaft: The crank shaft turns the piston's up and down motion into
circular motion just like a crank on a jack-in-the-box does.
Sump: The sump surrounds the crankshaft. It contains some amount of oil, which
collects in the bottom of the sump (the oil pan).
Direct Injection (DI): Fuel injection into the main combustion chamber of an
engine. Engines have either one main combustion chamber (open chamber) or a
divided combustion chamber made up of a main chamber and a smaller connected
secondary chamber.
Indirect Injection (IDI) Fuel injection into the secondary chamber of an engine
with a divided combustion chamber.
Overhead cams. The cam shaft is located above the valves. The cams on the shaft
activate the valves directly or through a very short linkage. Older engines used a
cam shaft located in the sump near the crankshaft.
Rods linked the cam below to valve lifters above the valves. This approach has
more moving parts and also causes more lag between the cam's activation of the
valve and the valve's subsequent motion.
Timing belt or timing chain links the crankshaft to the cam shaft so that the valves
are in sync with the pistons.
The ignition system produces a high-voltage electrical charge and transmits it to
the spark plugs via ignition wires. The charge first flows to a distributor, which
you can easily find under the hood of most cars. The distributor has one wire going
in the center and four, six, or eight wires (depending on the number of cylinders)
coming out of it. These ignition wires send the charge to each spark plug.

Starting system:
The starting system consists of an electric starter motor and a starter solenoid.
When you turn the ignition key, the starter motor spins the engine a few
revolutions so that the combustion process can start. It takes a powerful motor to
spin a cold engine. The starter motor must overcome:
• All of the internal friction caused by the piston rings, valves and cam shaft.
• The compression pressure of any cylinder(s) that happens to be in the
compression stroke.
• All of the "other" things directly attached to the engine, like the water pump, oil
pump, alternator, etc.
Lubrication system: The lubrication system makes sure that every moving part in
the engine gets oil so that it can move easily. The two main parts needing oil are
the pistons (so they can slide easily in their cylinders) and any bearings that allow
things like the crankshaft and cam shafts to rotate freely.

The important factors to an engine user are

• The engine's performance over its operating range.
• The engine's fuel consumption within this operating range.
• The engine's noise and emissions within this operating range.
• The initial cost of the engine and its installation.
•The reliability and durability of the engine and its maintenance requirements
Maximum mps is limited within the range of 8 to 15 m/s, automobile engines
operate at the high end of this range; the low end is typical for large marine diesel
engines.
There are two reasons why engines operate in this range. First, this is about the
safe limit which can be tolerated by material strength of the engine components.
The second reason is because of the gas flow into and out of the cylinders.
Higher piston speeds would require larger valves to allow for higher flow rates.
If b = S is often called a square engine.
If stroke length is longer than bore diameter, the engine is under square, and if
stroke length is less than bore diameter the engine is over square.
Air to Fuel ratio: It affects the combustion phenomenon in that it determines the
flame propagation velocity, the heat release, the maximum temperature and the
completeness of combustion.
Specific Weight is defined as the weight of the engine in kilogram for each brake
power developed and is an indication of the engine bulk. Specific weight plays an
important role in applications such as power plants for aircrafts.
The electrical tachometer has a three-phase permanent-magnet alternator to which
a voltmeter is attached. The output of the alternator is a linear function of the speed
and is directly indicated on the voltmeter dial.
Fuel consumption is measured in two ways:
(a) Volumetric type the fuel consumption of an engine is measured by
determining the volume flow in a given time interval and multiplying it by the
specific gravity (Burette method, Turbine flowmeter)
(b) Gravimetric type another method is to measure the time required for
consumption of a given mass of fuel. (Actual weighing, orifice)
Measurement of Air Consumption
• In IC engines, the satisfactory measurement of air consumption is quite difficult
because the flow is pulsating, Therefore, the simple method of using an orifice in
the induction pipe is not satisfactory since the reading will be pulsating and
unreliable. • Pulsation produced errors are roughly inversely proportional to the
pressure across the orifice for a given set of flow conditions. Air box is used to
eliminate the pulsation action in air before measured by the flow meter.
Measurement of Exhaust Smoke
All the three widely used smokemeters, namely, Bosch, Hartridge, and PHS are
basically soot density (g/m3) measuring devices, that is, the meter readings are a
function of the mass of carbon in a given volume of exhaust gas.
The basic principles of the Bosch smokemeter is one in which a fixed quantity of
exhaust gas is passed through a fixed filter paper and the density of the smoke
stains on the paper are evaluated optically.
MEASUREMENT OF EXHAUST EMISSION
1- Flame Ionization Detector (FID)
Once a sample containing HC hydrocarbons is introduced into this flame a very
complex ionization process is started. This process creates a large number ions.
A high polarizing voltage is applied between the two electrodes around the
burner nozzle and produces an electrostatic field. Now negative ions migrate to
the collector electrode and positive ions migrate to the high voltage electrode.
The so generated ionization current between the two electrodes is directly
proportional to the hydrocarbon concentration in the sample that is burned by
the flame

Spectroscopic Analyzers
• A spectrum shows the light absorbed as a function of wavelength (or
frequency).
• Each compound shows a different spectrum for the light absorbed. • All the
spectroscopic analyzers work on the principle that the quantity of energy
absorbed by a compound in a sample cell is proportional to the concentration of
the compound in the cell.
Infrared Analyzer
Radiation from two infrared sources passes through a reference cell and a
sample cell to opposite side of a common detector. The sample cell contains the
compounds to be analyzed (CO or CO2), whereas this compound is not present
in the reference cell which does not absorb the infrared energy for the
wavelength corresponding to the compound being measured. A closed container
filled with only the compound to be measured works as a detector
Gas chromatograph
it is a chemical analysis instrument for separating chemicals in a complex
sample. A gas chromatograph uses a flow-through narrow tube known as the
column, through which different chemical constituents of a sample pass in a gas
stream (carrier gas, mobile phase) at different rates depending on their various
chemical and physical properties and their interaction with a specific column
filling, called the stationary phase. As the chemicals exit the end of the column,
they are detected and identified electronically. The function of the stationary
phase in the column is to separate different components, causing each one to
exit the column at a different time (retention time)

Absorption Dynamometers
These dynamometers measure and absorb the power output of the engine to
which they are coupled. The power absorbed is usually dissipated as heat by
some means. Example of such dynamometers is pony brake, rope brake and
hydraulic dynamometer.
Pony and Rope brake Dynamometers attempt to stop the engine by means of a
brake on the flywheel and measure the weight which an arm attached to the
brake will support.
Hydraulic dynamometer
It consists of an impeller coupled to the output shaft of the engine. This impeller
rotates in a casing filled with fluid. This outer casing, due to the centrifugal
force developed, tends to turn with the impeller, but is resisted by a torque arm
 supporting the balance weight. The frictional between the impeller and the fluid
are measured by the spring-balance fitted on the casing.
The output can be controlled by regulating the sluice gates which can be moved
in and out to partially or wholly obstruct the flow of water between impeller,
and the casing.
Eddy Current Dynamometer
It consists of a stator on which are fitted a number of electromagnets and a
rotor disc made of copper or steel and coupled to the output shaft of the engine.
When the rotor rotates eddy currents are produced in the stator due to magnetic
flux.
Transmission Dynamometers
They consist of a set of strain-gauges fixed on the rotating shaft and the torque
is measured by the angular deformation of the shaft which is indicated as strain
of the strain gauge.
Willan's Line Method
Gross fuel consumption vs. BP at a constant speed is plotted and the graph.
The point where this graph cuts the bp axis in an indication of the friction
power of the engine at that speed.
Morse Test is applicable only to multi-cylinder engines.
In this test, the engine is first run at the required speed and the output is
measured.
Then, one cylinder is cut out by short circuiting the spark plug or by disconnecting
the injector or spark plug.
The output is measured by keeping the speed constant at its original value.
The difference in the outputs is a measure of the indicated horse power of the cut-
out cylinder.
ENMS

intake System:

Fuel System:

ignition System:
Air fuel ratio feedback System

The camshaft position sensor detects the position or rotational speed

MRE (Magnetic Reluctance): The disc has teeth or marks distributed evenly
around the circumference. When the shaft spins, teeth or marks pass by the
stationary detector and generate a series of electrical pulses. The frequency of
these pulses is detected and converted to the corresponding shaft rotation speed.
The relative angular position can be obtained by counting the number of pulses.
Optical position sensors use a light-emitting diode (LED) light source and a
photodiode to detect optical marks on the shaft or slots in a disk as they move
past the detector. Optical sensors have a good degree of accuracy and are
suitable for both high-speed and low-speed applications, but the optical
components and disc must be kept clean to ensure an accurate reading.
Magnetic Reluctance (or Variable Reluctance) type sensor
The voltage induced in the sensor coil is related to the rate of change of
magnetic flux in the magnetic circuit. The faster the rate of change of magnetic
flux the larger will be the voltage that is generated in the sensor coil.
As the metal tab moves further into the gap the voltage begins to fall and, when
the metal tab is exactly aligned with the pole piece, the sensor voltage falls back
to zero (Although the magnetic flux is strongest at this point, it is not changing
and this means that the voltage is zero.)
Hall Effect
The Hall element is a small section of semiconductor material such as silicon.
When a magnetic field is imposed on the Hall element, a current will flow in
circuit. When the magnetic effect is prevented from reaching the Hall element,
the current will cease to flow in circuit.
Optical Sensor: the disk has holes in it that correspond to the number of tabs
on the disks of the magnetic systems. Mounted on each side of the disk are
fiber-optic light pipes. The hole in the disk allows transmission of light through
the light pipes from the light-emitting diode (LED) source to the phototransistor
used as a light sensor. Light would not be transmitted from source to sensor
when there is no hole because the solid disk blocks the light.

Crankshaft Position Sensors

The crankshaft position sensor is attached to the engine block facing the timing
rotor on the engine crankshaft. The sensor detects signals used by the engine
ECU to calculate the crankshaft position and the engine rotational speed.
MPU (Magnetic Pick Up induction) type:
34 teeth placed every 10° Crank Angle (CA), plus two missing teeth for Top
Dead Center (TDC) detection are set around the outer diameter of the timing
rotor. This results in 34 AC waves outputted from the sensor for each revolution
of the crankshaft. These AC waves are converted to rectangular waveforms by
the waveform shaping circuit inside the engine ECU, and are used to calculate
the crankshaft position, TDC, and the engine rotational speed.
EGT (Exhaust Gas Temperature) Sensor: The purpose of the EGT sensors is
to monitor exhaust gas temperatures to reduce emissions and component
protection.
MAF sensor: The Mass Air Flow Sensor measures the amount of air volume
flowing into a car’s engine,and sends the Electronic Control Unit (ECU) a
voltage that represents the airflow.
A vane airflow sensor: is located ahead of the throttle and monitors the volume
of air entering the engine by means of a spring- loaded mechanical flap.
The flap is pushed open by an amount that is proportional to the volume of air
entering the engine. The flap has a wiper arm that rotates against a sealed
potentiometer (variable resistor or rheostat), allowing the sensor's resistance and
output voltage to change according to air flow. The greater the airflow, the
further the flap is forced open. This lowers the potentiometer's resistance and
increases the voltage return signal to the computer. A compensation plate acts
as a shock absorber to prevent rapid movement or vibrations of the measuring
plate. A sealed idle mixture screw is also located on the airflow sensor. This
controls the amount of air that bypasses the flap, and consequently the richness
or leanness of the fuel mixture.
Hot Wire Type MAF: The film element is electrically heated to a constant
temperature above that of the inlet air. As air flows across the hot film, heat is
carried away from the film by the moving air. The amount of heat carried away
varies in proportion to the mass flow rate of the air.
MAP Sensor: Air volume measurement using a Manifold Absolute Pressure
(MAP) Sensor is based on the principle that “intake manifold pressure is almost
proportionate to the intake air volume of one stroke of the engine”.
The MAP sensor detects the intake manifold pressure downstream from the
throttle valve in order to indirectly calculate the air density and hence estimate
the intake air flow rate based on the relationship between pressure and engine
rotational speed.
Lambda/Oxygen Sensor: The lambda sensor principle is based on an oxygen
comparison measurement. This means that the remaining oxygen content of the
exhaust emission (approx. 0.3 – 3 %) is compared with the oxygen content of
the ambient air (approx. 20.8 %).
If the remaining oxygen content of the exhaust emission is 3 % (lean mixture),
there is a voltage of 0.1 V due to the difference compared with the oxygen
content of the ambient air. If the remaining oxygen content is less than 3 %
(rich mixture), the sensor voltage rises to 0.9 V in proportion to the increased
difference. The remaining oxygen content is measured using various lambda
sensors.
Knock Sensor: The knock sensor is installed on the engine block or cylinder
head to detect abnormal combustion. Once the occurrence of knocking is
detected, the ECU will gradually delay ignition until the knocking is eliminated.
This sensor works by changing the vibration to an electrical signal, which is
then transmitted to the computer controlling the ignition system.
The knock sensor is made up of a piezoelectric element. A working principle to
piezoelectric elements involves the transmission of an electrical current in
response to detecting a change in pressure or vibration by these elements.
The piezoelectric element inside the knock sensor is tuned to detect the engine
knock/detonation frequency.

What Causes Air Pollution Today?

Stationary Sources:
Combustion of fuels for power and heat
Other burning such as incineration or forest fires
Industrial/commercial processes
Mobile Sources
Highway vehicles: cars, trucks, buses and motorcycles
Off-highway vehicles such as aircraft, boats, locomotives, farm equipment.
Primary Types of Air Pollutants:
•Carbon Monoxide (CO) • Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) • Oxides of
Nitrogen (NOx) • Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) •Particulate Matter (PM10) • Lead (Pb)
CO: Caused by incomplete combustion of fuel and air - most of it comes from
motor vehicles - reduces the transport of oxygen through the blood stream -
affects mental functions and visual acuity, even at low levels.
VOCs: General term for a wide range of hydrocarbon compounds, result from
and evaporation combustion processes of gasoline vapors, solvents.
They contribute to Global Warming. In sunlight, they combine with NOx to
form ozone (smog).Ozone irritates eyes, aggravates respiratory ills, damages
crops.
NOx: results from high temperature combustion processes - affect the
respiratory system - they play a major role in atmospheric reactions.
Pb Emitted from gasoline additives, battery factories and non-ferrous smelters.
Affects various organs and can cause sterility and neurologic al impairment,
retardation and behavioral disorders - Infants and children especially
susceptible.
PM10: Primary sources are fuel-burning plants and other industrial /
commercial processes - Some are formed in the air - They irritate the
respiratory system and may also carry metals, sulfates, nitrates.
SO2: Primarily caused by burning of coal, oil and various industrial processes.
They can affect the respiratory system - they react in the atmosphere to form
acids, sulfates and sulfites.
Global Warming : Certain gases in the troposphere absorb some of the infrared
radiation reflected from the earth. Carbon Dioxide is the major one (50%)
Others include methane (18%) and CFCs (14%). CFCs also are responsible for
destroying the stratospheric ozone layer.
Other Emissions from Motor Vehicles
Crankcase Losses (due to "blowby")
Evaporative Emissions (diurnal, running losses, hot soak)
Refueling Losses (displaced vapors)
How Emissions are Formed
• In the engine: Incomplete combustion -"wall quench" - high pressure and
temp -"Blowby"
•Due to evaporation of fuel: hot engine and fuel - displacement of vapors
Typical Emission Control Devices
• Positive Crankcase Ventilation (PCV) Valve
• Evaporative Emissions Canister
• Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) Valve
• Catalytic Converter
PCV: Mainly in the compression and power stroke phases, there is a small but
inevitable passage of gases past the piston rings that is called the blow-by
phenomenon. Blow-by gases end up in the crankcase housing, where they
increase the pressure. Which may cause oil degradation, lubrication failure or
oil leakage. PCV is responsible for extracting the blow-by gases from the
crankcase or regulating the passage of these gases. In order to do this, the PCV
takes advantage of the vacuum that is created in the air intake pipes when the
engine is running.
Evaporative Emissions Canister:
EVAP system is designed to stop fuel system fumes from leaking directly into
the atmosphere. Vent lines from the fuel tank pass vapors to the vapor canister,
where they are trapped and stored until the engine is started. When the engine is
warm and the vehicle is going down the road, the PCM then opens a purge
valve allowing the vapors to be drawn from the storage canister into the intake
manifold. The fuel vapors are then burned in the engine along with the air/fuel
mixture.

A catalytic converter: is a device that uses a catalyst to convert three harmful

compounds in car exhaust into harmless compounds.
Three harmful Compounds are:
Hydrocarbons - carbon monoxide - nitrogen oxides
The catalyst helps to convert carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide. It converts
the hydrocarbons into carbon dioxide and water. It also converts the nitrogen
oxides back into nitrogen and oxygen.