QC Workshop

Dr. H. Yamashina
Professor Emeritus, Kyoto University
Fellow of RCA (The U.K.)
Member of Royal Swedish Academy
of Engineering Sciences

1
Contents
1. Japan’s QC History
2. What Is the QC Problem Solving Approach?
3. The QC Viewpoint – Vital for QC-Type Problem Solving
4. Quality Specification and Process Capability
5. How to Improve Process Capability
6. Quality Assurance of Every Quality Item
7. The QC Seven Step Formula – Solving Problems the QC Way
8. The Four Major Factors – Influencing Process Capability
9. Processing Point Analysis
10.Diagnostic Table to Check Quality Control
Key Questions
2
CHAPTER 1
Japan’s QC History

3
The Development of Japan’s Quality Control : a Long Journey

Vision, strategy
Satisfactions of stakeholders
Management
R&D
Marketing
Product planning
Design
Production preparation
Business
Manufacturing techniques
Purchasing
Manufacturing
Quality control
Inspection control

Inspection QC
Process QC
Total Quality Control
TQM
4
Major concept about quality assurance (in general)
1 Inspection-oriented quality assurance
The first stage of quality assurance, which focuses mainly on
inspection of final products, involves only the inspection
department and the quality department. Their main functions are
to prevent defective products from being released from the
company.

Limitations
(a) Inspectors do not build in quality. They are extra people,
which reduces labor productivity.
(b) The responsibility of quality assurance does not belong to
the inspection division, but to the design and production
divisions.
5
(c) It is liable to take too much time to feed back information
from the inspection division to the production division.
(d) As the production speed is increased, it becomes impossible to
make inspection by human being properly.
(e) In order to carry out quality control in terms of ppm, the
statistical sampling method for AQL does not work.
(f) There are a lot of items which cannot be guaranteed by
inspection.
(g) If defectives are produced one after another at processes, it is
no use carrying out strict inspection.

6
2 Process-oriented quality assurance
The second stage of quality assurance, which focuses on process
control, involves the workshops, subcontractors, the purchasing
department, the production engineering department and even the
business department.
“100% good quality is pursued by investigating process
capability carefully and controlling the production process
properly.”
“Build-in quality at the process.”
We(Toyota) are not interested in buying products from the
companies which sell good products, but interested in buying
products from the companies which have good production
processes.

7
The basic principle of quality assurance : Build in quality at the
process.
The investigation and determination of inspection methods,
measuring equipment, or inspection facilities at processes
become major issues.
1. From the stage of designing, quality problems must be
investigated.
2. Through trials, hidden problems must be discovered.
3. The knowledge about quality and maintenance problems at
existing processes must be used when establishing new
production lines.

8
4. 100% assurance of the process capability for quality must be
made.
5. The method of inspecting the initial product (try-out) and its
feedback to improve the processes must be clarified.
6. Development of inspection equipment at the process is vital.
7. Introduction of fool proof devices to prevent human mistakes
must be made.
Limitation
(a) The problems which came from bad development and design
cannot be solved by the production and inspection divisions.
(b) The mis-selection of material cannot be solved by process control.
9
3 Quality assurance in new product introduction
The third stage of quality assurance, which starts from
developing a new product, requires company-wide activities
from planning of the new product to releasing the product to
customers. Quality guarantee at this stage of developing the
new product eventually means that quality control must be
done with the participation of all the divisions and all the
employees including subcontractors.

“Build-in quality at the design and the process.”

10
Reasons
(a) If QC is not pursued properly in new product introduction,
satisfactory quality guarantee cannot be made.
(b) If the company makes a failure in new product introduction,
it becomes a matter of survival or death for the company.
(c) Quality assurance in new product introduction involves
research, planning, designing, trial production, purchasing,
production technology, production, inspection, business after
service departments.

11
 100
The determination curve of
Cost weight the production cost

The generation curve of

the production cost

50

0 Development Design Prototype Materials Manufacturing Delivery

procurement

Fig. 1.1 : The Determination Curve and the Generation Curve of the Production Cost 12
Possibility of quality and productivity improvement

Worst time for

modifications

Cost of modifications
Ideal time for
modifications

Concept Development Validation Production

Fig. 1.2 Ideal Time for Modifications

13
 Table 1.1 QA Matrix
Process QA matrix Defect
mode Process
Person Head Manager (custo-
major effects medium effects minor effects
Article name In charge mer)

sequence
Causes Process

Prcoess
Article number 1 2 3
Defective

Process
Quality Defective Phenomena

name
product characteristics mode
section Specs

14
 Table 1.2 QA Matrix
A: effect big
Name of product:ABC B: effect medium

Items of product guarantee

QA matrix (Product and the degree of influence Quality guarantee
development management) (Product development items at each
management) process

Pro- Name Problems at

Guarantee Defect Estimated The The The Chemical Physical Electric Guarantee Spec.
cess of develop-
charac- mode cause degree of degree of degree of charac- charac- charac- items value
process ment stage
No. teristics influence occurrence detection teristics teristics teristics

15
 Table 1.3 4M Analysis at each Step of Operation

Article name Person Head Manager

Article in charge
number
Date

Process Cause Defective mode Material Machine Method Man

function 1 2 3 4
Operation
Pro- Content *lack of *manufacturing *forgotten
cedure
* raw material
accuracy *handling *overlooked
* auxiliary *mistaken
*wear *manufacturing
material *misunderstood
standard
* environment *breakdown *insufficient

1
2
3

16
 (1) Process chart

Evaluation of
Outline of equipment 2nd
(2) QA matrix
equipment specifications DR
specifications

(3) 4M analysis

(4) Process FMEA

Fig. 1.3 Quality Assurance by Equipment from Early Stages

17
CHAPTER 2
What Is the QC Problem-Solving Approach?

2.1 What Is a Problem?

Narrowing the gap between the ideal and the real

2.2 The Definition of the QC Problem-Solving Approach

Use the QC approach to crack your problems

2.3 The Ten Commandments for Becoming a Competent

Problem Solver
Some tips for becoming good problem-solving leaders

18
2.1 What Is a Problem?
Narrowing the gap between the ideal and the real
2.1.1 The definition of a problem

The QC problem-solving approach defines a problem as follows:

A “problem” is the gap between the present situation and the ideal situation
or objective (see Fig. 2.1)
Control characteristic

Ideal situation or objective

Good

Gap→Problem= (ideal situation or objective)-

(present level)

present level

Fig. 2.1 What is a Problem?

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 (Loss A) (Loss B) (Loss C)
Loss
Loss improvement
improvement A challenge to zero
(Losses which can losses
be eliminated) (total loss)
Actual
cost Standard
cost Target
cost Ideal cost

Rank Loss A Loss B Loss C

Name Standard loss Theoretically standard loss Zero losses

How to grasp the loss
Losses created by the digre-
ssion from the standard (often =
budget)
Losses created by the digre-
ssion from the theoretically
ideal situation based on the
current process
Losses identified by WC
benchmarking
Losses identified from the viewpoint
of the ideal case based on zero losses
Losses identified by an innovative
solution without the current
constraints.

Concept of the Observe based on 5G principles. Detect losses from the Remodel the equipment,
improvement Losses created by the viewpoints of the principle and introduce a new machine and/or
digression from the standard. operating standards and reengineer the process by good
eliminate the detected losses. engineers

The standard of detecting Loss A Loss B Loss C

losses 10 ～ 20% 20 ～ 40% 40 ～ 60%
Manufacturing
Role
Factory staff
assign
-ment *Technical staff
*Staff from the main office
20
Fig. 2.2 :Cost and waste & losses
 2.1.2 Classifying problems
Problems can be classified according to the obviousness of their causes
and the difficulty of their solution (see Fig.2.3).

Known →Not known

B A
Countermeasure

Problems requiring
a high level of Problems
technology really worth solving

C D
Problems
Simple problems requiring care
Known →Not known
Cause
Fig. 2.3 The Four Types of Problem
21
2.2 A definition of the QC Problem-solving approach
Use the QC approach to crack your problems

2.2.1 Problem-solving methods

1. The theoretical approach (deductive)

2. The QC problem-solving approach (inductive)

In this approach, we trace the causes of the phenomenon
by repeatedly asking "Why?," and identify the root
causes of the problem from the facts.

22
2.2.2 The QC problem-solving approach and its benefits

The QC problem-solving approach is a method of solving problems rationally,

scientifically, efficiently and effectively using the QC viewpoint, the QC 7-Step
Formula and the QC tools (see Fig. 2.4).

Problem-solving
The three keys to achieving this:
Rationally

Key No 1:QC viewpoint

Scientifically

Key No 2:QC 7-Step Formula

Efficiently

Key No 3:QC tools

Effectively

Fig. 2.4 What is the QC Problem-Solving Approach?

23
The QC problem-solving approach is being used if the
following conditions are met:

1. The reasons for selecting the topic are known and the control characteristics
and objectives are clear.
2. Exhaustive analysis is being performed using QC tools.
3. Analysis has revealed a convincing relationship between the causes and the
effects of the problem.
4. Ingenuity and originality are being fully exercised in devising countermeasures.
5. The QC viewpoint is being used in solving the problem.

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The QC problem-solving approach makes the following
ten benefits possible:

1. It enables problems to be solved more rationally, scientifically, efficiently,

and effectively than any other method.
2. It heightens every person's problem-formulating and problem-solving
abilities and enables everybody to fulfill an important role in the workplace.
3. It enables people to acquire the QC viewpoint through solving problems.
4. It enables people to become competent in applying the QC tools and
allows them to master the scientific approach.
5. It gives tangible benefits, mainly in terms of quality, but also in terms of
cost, delivery, safety, morale, sales, and so on.
6. It improves work practices and raises management standards.
7. It boosts the leadership and management abilities of workplace leaders.
8. It promotes the personal growth of individual workplace members.
9. It improves workplace communication and morale and creates cheerful,
effective workplaces.
10. It stimulates QC circle and QC term activities.
25
2.3 The ten commandments for becoming a competent problem solver
Some tips for becoming good problem-solving leaders

First Commandment: It is a lie to say, “We have no problems.”

Problems are everywhere. Actively search them out.
Second Commandment: Use accurate data, not guesswork. Observe
the workplace carefully and grasp the facts accurately using data.
Third Commandment: You cannot win empty-handed. Study the QC
tools well and apply them thoroughly and effectively.
Fourth Commandment: Skill is important. Improve your technical
ability by studying specialist skills, techniques, and tricks.
Fifth Commandment: It is no good trying to do everything at once.
Advance steadily by faithfully following the QC Seven-Step Formula.

26
Sixth Commandment: Do not be beguiled by apparently attractive
solutions. Analyze the possible causes rigorously and only act after
identifying the true ones.
Seventh Commandment: Computers are useful but not creative.
Exercise your ingenuity and originality.
Eighth Commandment: Without a rational approach, things will
come to a dead end. Move ahead using the QC viewpoint.
Ninth Commandment: It is no good standing back and telling your
subordinates to get on with it. Tackle difficulties yourself.
Tenth Commandment: Never give up. Be determined and fight to the
last.

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 CHAPTER 3
The QC Viewpoint-Vital for QC-Type Problem Solving
3.1 The QC Mindset The QC viewpoint is vital
3.2 "Quality First" Above all, produce good quality
3.3 Consumer Orientation Make the products the customer really wants
3.4 The Next Process Is Your Customer
Never send defectives or mistakes on to the next process
3.5 The PDCA Wheel Rotate the PDCA wheel diligently
3.6 Priority Consciousness Pounce on priority problems and attack them mercilessly
3.7 Management by Fact Speak with facts and data
3.8 Process Control Control working methods, not results
3.9 Dispersion Control Pay attention to dispersion and identify its causes
3.10 Recurrence Prevention Institute radical countermeasures to ensure that the same mistake is not repeated
3.11 Standardization Formulate, observe, and utilize standards 28
3.1 The QC Mindset
The QC viewpoint is vital
Traditional Way of Thinking QC Viewpoints
1. Product out 1. Market - in
* I am always right. * I think from the viewpoint of the
* I decide with my own judgment even if customer.
I may have prejudice. * I am humble enough to accept other
* I cannot be frank. people’s opinions.

2. Dependence of my own knowledge 2. Dependence of the fact

* I depend on my tuition and experiences. * I carefully evaluate based on the
observation of the fact.

3. Results oriented 3. Procedures are as important as results.

* Countermeasures are taken only against * The relationships between causes and
phenomena. effects are pursued.
* Only plan and no do
* PDCA cycles are run to get things
done.
Tab. 3.1 Traditional way of thinking 29

Traditional Way of Thinking
4. Simple thinking
* Differences are ignored.
* Things are regarded as similar.
* Things are treated in an abstract way.
5. Excuses for not being able to do
* Without trials, a conclusion is drawn.
* Discussions are made based on
assumptions.
6. Fire-fighting approach
7. Sentimental discussions
Tab. 3.1 Traditional way of thinking (- continued)
(-Continued)
QC Viewpoints
4. Paying attention to dispersion and
identification of its causes
* Differences are appreciated.
*The proper procedure based on
dispersion is used.
* Things are treated in a concrete way.
5. Devices to solve the problems
* Anything cannot be understood without
being tried.
* Discussions are made based on the
accumulation of the facts.
6. Recurrence prevention approach
7. Logical discussions
30
 Tab. 3.2 The QC Mindset : The QC Viewpoint is vital
Category The QC Mindset Meaning
T Total (1) Strengthening the Use QC to create a company constitution
company constitution capable of achieving lasting prosperity
(2) Total participative Unite employees’ talents companywide
management and exercise them to the full
(3) Education and Boost human resource development by
dissemination strengthening education and training
(4) QC audits Top management itself must check the
state of progress of QC and champion QC
activities
(5) Respect for humanity Respect people’s dignity and have them do
their best
S Statistical (6) Use of QC tools It’s no good trying to do things by one’s
own devices
(7) Dispersion control Pay attention to dispersion and identify its
causes

31
 Tab. 3.2 The QC Mindset (-continued)

Category The QC Mindset Meaning

Q Quality (8) Quality first Aim to secure profits by giving top
priority to quality
(9) Customer orientation Make the goods and services that
customers really want
(10) The next process is Never send defectives or mistakes on to
your customer the next process

C Control (11) The PDCA Wheel Conscientiously follow the Deming Cycle
(12) Management by fact Base decisions and actions on facts
(13) Process control Control the process of work
rather than its results
(14) Standardization Formulate, observe and utilize standards
(15) Source control Control systems at their source,
not downstream
(16) Policy management Use policy management to evolve
consistent company activities
32
 Tab. 3.2 The QC Mindset (-continued)
Category The QC Mindset Meaning
C Control (17) Cross-functional Create horizontal links throughout the
management organization and improve systems for
managing quality, cost, delivery, safety
and morale
I Improvement (18) Priority Pounce on priority problems and attack
consciousness them mercilessly
(19) The QC 7-Step Effect improvements by faithfully
Formula following the QC 7-Step Formula
(20) Recurrence Never repeat the same mistake!
prevention, prior Do not neglect recurrence prevention and
prevention prior prevention of trouble

33
3.2 Quality First
Above all, produce good quality

3.2.1 What is “Quality first” ?

“Quality first” means putting quality above everything else in order to
create highly satisfactory goods and services of guaranteed quality that
customers will be attracted to buy and delighted to use.

“Quality First”strategies
1. Develop complex, highly original, new technology.
2. Unearth the latent wants and needs of the marketplace and develop new
types of products that will stimulate fresh demand and create new
markets.
3. Improve and control processes to eliminate defects, and produce
products that will function as nearly perfectly as possible.

34
 Survey marketplace and identify sell well
Planning of Quality
Plan products able to create new demand

Decide targeted quality and set product

specifications
Design of quality Fabricate prototypes and evaluate their quality
Predict design problems and devise
countermeasures
Quality-first Design processes for building in quality
activities
Manufacture of Control and improve processes and build in
quality quality via the process
Check quality through experiments and surveys
Sell product
Establish service system
Sales and service
of quality Deal with repairs and complaints promptly and
reliably

Enhance quality assurance system by passing

information on to relevant division

Fig. 3.1 Quality-First Activities

35
3.3 Consumer Orientation
Make the products the customer really wants

3.3.1 What is consumer orientation?

Consumer orientation is the desire to produce goods and services
that customers want and that they will be happy to buy.

The three keys to customer orientation :

1. Identify market wants and needs, and plan and develop goods and
services that meet them.
2. Strengthen and enhance the quality assurance system, design and
manufacture products from the user’s standpoint, and produce
defect-free products.
3. Provide an effective after-sales service, deal with complaints
promptly, and use the information obtained to prevent any
recurrence.

36
3.4 The Next Process Is Your Customer
Never send defectives or mistakes on to the next process

3.4.1 What does "The next process is your customer" mean?

Previous Process: any process that affects our own work.
Usually refers to processes upstream of our own.

Own process : the process for which we ourselves are in charge.

Next process: any process affected by our own work.Usually
refers to processes downstream of ours.

“The next process is your customer” means thinking of recipient (the next
process) of the goods or services produced in one’s own process as a
customer and passing on to them only defect-free products or services. To
achieve this, each person must perform his or her assigned duties properly
before handing over to the person in charge of the next process.
37
The seven keys points
of the “next process is your customer” concept:

1. Always think and act from the standpoint of the next process.
2. Understand the role of your own process well.
3. Establish good communications with previous and subsequent
processes.
4. Understand the next process well.
5. Exchange accurate information through feedback and feed forward.
6. Set clear acceptance and rejection standards.
7. Perform rigorous autonomous inspection.
38
 3.4.2 Prevention of occurrence of overflow
operation

Occurrence Release

(Example) (Example)
Prevention of In case of
Prevent the Prevent the abnormality
mis-insertion occurrence release
Make the machine detection, stop the
in such a way that machine
insertion can be
carried out only in
one direction
Do not depend on personnel.
Try to deal with physical (mechanical) devices.

Fig. 3.2 Prevention of occurrence of overflow 39

Cause-countermeasure matrix

ure
Fut
st
Pa
esent
Pr
H ow cs
i
t
s
i
n re o at y en do la l PI F.
. o
G L
g
e he h h h
ir or
h an hic ht et tn W
W W W W W M a
M
a
M
a
M
o
C
se C auses
ec ru
sa
n e Tem porary
er mr
r
u ten
cc
u P erm anent
O o
C
er C auses
us
es ae
ae rm
Tem porary
le et
R n
uo P erm anent
C

Fig. 3.3 Cause-countermeasure matrix

40
3.5 The PDCA Wheel
Rotate the PDCA wheel diligently

3.5.1 What is management?

“Management”means those activities needed for continuously,
rationally, and efficiently performing a job and achieving an
objective.

When managing anything, it is important to take the following four steps:

step 1: Prepare a plan (Plan).

step 2: Implement the plan (Do).
step 3:Check the results (Check).
step 4:Take action based on the findings of Step 3(Act).

41
In our management activities, it is important to rotate the PDCA Wheel,
as shown in Fig. 3.4.

A P
The PDCA Wheel is a step-by-step
(4)Act (1)Plan
method of getting things done
effectively and reliably. It consists of
drawing up a plan, implementing the
C D plan, checking the results, and taking
any necessary corrective action.
(3)Check (2)Do

Fig. 3.4 The PDCA Wheel

42
Step one: Draw up a plan (Plan)
When drawing up a plan, the following three points are important:
1. Clarify the objectives and decide on the control characteristics (control items).
2. Set measurable targets.
3. Decide on the methods to be used to achieve the targets.

Step two: Implement the plan (Do)

This step can be broken down into the following three phases:
1. Study and train in the method to be used.
2. Implement the method.
3. Collect data on the quality characteristics using the method decided
and set the standards.

43
Step three: Check the results (Check)
In this step, we check progress and evaluate the results obtained:
1. Check whether the work has been performed according to the standards.
2. Check whether the various measured values and test results meet the standards.
3. Check whether the quality characteristics match the target values.

Step four: Take corrective action (Act)

Take action based on the results of the investigation performed in step three:
1. If the work deviates from the standards, take action to correct this.
2. If an abnormal result has been obtained, investigate the reason for it and take
action to prevent it recurring
3. Improve working systems and methods.

44

It is important to rotate the PDCA Wheel and follow the above four steps steadily
and faithfully.

The aim of this is to raise the standard of our work in a continuous upward spiral
by faithfully rotating the PDCA Wheel, reflecting on our achievements, and taking
action to improvement the way we do things the next time (see Fig. 3.5).

Fig. 3.5 Spiraling up

45
3.6 Priority Consciousness
Pounce on priority problems and attack them mercilessly

3.6.1 What is priority consciousness?

Being priority conscious means noticing and attacking
problems whose solution will result in significant
improvements.
Being priority conscious means:
1. Realizing that although various problems may exist, there are
only a very few really important ones.
2. Understanding that if we address and solve the priority
problems, we will obtain much better results for the same
amount of effort.

46
The term “priority problems” refers to problems of the type
described below:
1.Factors whose elimination or improvement will assist us
significantly to achieve our targets.
2.Items whose improvement or elimination is thought necessary for
strengthening the company’s organization in the future.
3.Obstacles to the achievement of management objectives.
4.Those lower-level targets devolved from higher-level objectives that
must be treated as a priority.
5.Troublesome matters whose improvement or elimination is regarded
as being particularly essential if targets are to be achieved.
6.Important factors thought to have a significant influence on vital
quality characteristics.
47
3.7 Management by Fact
Speak with fact and data

3.7.1 What is “management by fact” ?

“Management by fact” means not making decisions based on experience and intuition
alone but acting in accordance with the facts.
In order to base decisions and actions on the facts, we must first quantify the situation
in the form of data and convert our subjective judgments to objective ones. In
identifying the facts, it is important to follow the procedure described below (see Fig.
3.6).
Using Facts to Solve Problems

CREATE
OPINION
EXPERIENCE
HABITS

ARGUMENTS
48
 Observe actual
location and actual Target the 4 M’s (Men, Materials, Methods and Machines)
objects Aim to eliminate waste, irregular movement and unnatural operation

Select from among quality, cost, delivery, safety, and morale

Decide on Choose quantifiable characteristics
characteristics
For analysis?
For adjustment?
Clarify purpose of For control? Collecting data
obtaining data For inspection? Use measuring instruments
(calipers, thermometers,
Use checksheets automatic recording devices,
etc.)
Answer the 5 W’s and 1 H
Collect data Operate in direct contact (use
(What? Where? When? Why? Who? and How?) eyes, ears, hands, nose and
Collect stratified data mouth)
The Seven QC Tools Use video and audio recording
equipment (VTRs, cameras,
The Seven New QC Tools tape recorders, etc.)
Analyze using
QC tools Statistical methods
IE methods
VE methods
Collate data Accept the facts without argument
obtained Add experience
49
Fig. 3.6 Identifying the Facts
Identifying the facts
Step 1: Closely observe the Genba (actual location) and Genbutsu (actual
objects).
Step 2: Decide on the characteristics to be investigated.
Step 3: Clarify the objectives of collecting the data.
Step 4: Collect accurate data.
Step 5: Clarify the principle and clerk the standards
Step 6: Carefully analyze the data using QC tools
Step 7: Consider the results and produce accurate information

50
3.8 Process Control
Control working methods, not results

3.8.1 What is process control?

People tend to concentrate exclusively on the results and forget
about the process that produces them. But good results cannot be
obtained until a good process has been established. The problem
is not the result but process.

The important jobs and keep them in a state of control.

Process control means not merely chasing results but paying

attention to the process (i.e., the method of working), controlling
this, and improving our working systems and methods.

51
 Key points for process control
Cause Result
Input Output Standardize
Process Good result and
(method of working) maintain
Consider control items

Propose Poor result

countermeasures Analyze causes
Create good result by improving process

Fig. 3.7 The Meaning of Process Control

1. Dissect and improve present working methods.

2. Pay attention to standardization; standardize the best working methods, teach the
standards, and see that these are observed.
3. Quality is built in via the process, not through inspection. This is what makes it so
important to control processes properly.
4. Look beyond the results, reflect on the process that produced them, improve working
methods, and raise the quality of work.
5. Analyze the reasons for any shortfalls between targets and results and control the cause-
and-effect system. 52
3.9 Dispersion Control
Pay attention to dispersion and identify its causes

3.9.1 What Is Dispersion Control?

Data will always be dispersed around a certain value. We must

take note of the mean and the dispersion, search out the cause of
the dispersion, reduce the dispersion and keep it within
acceptable limits, and maintain the process in a stable state. This
is dispersion control.

53
There are two key points in dispersion control, as described below:

The Key Points of Dispersion Control

1. Eliminate deviation from standards.
Since data are dispersed about a certain central value, we must
identify the following factors:
i. The shape of the distribution.
ii. The central value of the distribution(the mean, x).
iii. The dispersion in the data (the standard deviation, s).
If there is any deviation from the standard, we investigate the
causes and take countermeasures.
One tool we can use for comparing results with standards is
the histogram.
54
2. Keep the process in a stable state.
Every process contains a large number of factors that create dispersion in the quality
of the product. These factors or causes can be classified into the following two types:

i. Chance causes: dispersion due to chance causes is unavoidable. It arises

even when the materials, working methods, and other conditions all
conform to standards.
ii. Assignable causes: dispersion due to assignable causes must not be
ignored. It arises for various reasons, such as because the work standards
are not being observed or because the standards are inadequate.

To maintain a process in the stable state, we can ignore the chance causes but we
must eliminate any assignable causes and take appropriate action to ensure that the
same causes do not arise again in the future.

Control charts are used to analyze and control processes by classifying dispersion
into the kind due to chance causes and the kind due to assignable causes.
55
3.10 Recurrence Prevention
Institute radical countermeasures to ensure that the same mistake is not
repeated

3.10.1 What is recurrence prevention?

Recurrence prevention means identifying the causes of trouble and taking

countermeasures against those causes to ensure that they never recur.

To achieve this, the following three types of countermeasure must be

taken (see Table 3.3).

56
 Table 3.3 Countermeasure types
Type Content Example
Emergency countermeasures: Changing the method of
These are makeshift remedies designed to deal with the adjustment, introducing
1 immediate trouble. screening inspection,
changing the method of
operation.
Individual recurrence-prevention countermeasures Correcting a die,
(permanent countermeasures): changing a thickness, or
These are permanent countermeasures for dealing with changing a material.
2 trouble arising in products, processes, and work. They
are aimed at either the work or process that created the
problem or the method of detection that allowed the
problem to go unnoticed.
Systematic recurrence-prevention countermeasures: Procedures, technical
These are countermeasures designed to improve the standards, control
system aspect of working methods, mechanisms, and so standards, organizations,
3 on (procedures, technical standards, control standards, job sequences.
organizations, job sequences, and the like) in order to
prevent the recurrence of trouble due to the same cause.
57

Identification of trouble(problem)
Clarification of causes
Primary countermeasure
Stopgap countermeasure
Secondary countermeasure
Individual recurrence-prevention
countermeasure
Tertiary countermeasure
Systematic recurrence-prevention
countermeasure
Fig. 3.17 Recurrence-Prevention System
•Anything which adversely affects subsequent processes
•Anything which causes actual harm
•Anything which appears likely to cause harm if it
happens again
•Why did it occur?
•Why was it not detected in advance in upstream
processes?
•Delve down to three successive levels to find the root
cause
• Emergency improvement proposal for problematic
product, process or work
•Permanent improvement plans for process or work
containing trouble
•Plans for improving detection methods in process or
phase where problem should really have been detected
•Plans for improving working methods or systems
which led to trouble
58
3.11 Standardization
Formulate, observe, and utilize standards

3.11.1 What is standardization?

Standardization means setting standards for materials and working methods and
putting them into effect.
When preparing work standards, it is important to ensure:

1. That the work procedures are appropriate.

2. That the standards are expressed in specific, concrete terms.
3. That the priorities are clear.
4. That the standards are easily understood and make plentiful use of
diagrams and charts.

We should strive to avoid the “I set standards, you obey them” dichotomy and
try to get everybody working together to formulate and observe standards.
59
 Operational standards
Based on the operational standards
Training and education Improve skill level
Operational management Improve the yields. Reduce the number of defectives
If operational standards are not well managed Operational standards are ignored
Will not match the existing situations and become merely an existence
Will not match the improvement Regulations become
merely a name
If standards are not kept
There arise more
If standards are ignored operational
management problems
There will be change in quality characteristics
Dispersion will become bigger
Yields will decrease, defectives will Problems on cost,
increase process, quality
There will be a problem for the delivery time
Will lose customer's credibility
There will be problems of safety
If operational standards do not exist
Operators carry out their jobs in
their own ways
Operational conditions will fluctuate
There will be changes in quality
Variation will Yields will decrease,
increase defectives will increase 60
Fig. 3.9 Influences of operational standards
In a workplace, activities for formulating, revising, and
observing standards can be developed in accordance with the
scheme shown in Fig. 3.10.

61
 Trouble (nonconforming products, defects, etc.) occurs

Plan and implement emergency countermeasures

Investigate the cause of the trouble

:Recurrence-prevention
No Is there a work countermeasure
standard?
1
Yes
Prepare a work
standard and Is the work standard No
ensure that all Not in Hard for Impractical
appropriate? or does not
workers follow. usable workers to lead to good
form understand results
Yes
2 3 4
Decide where to Rewrite it in the Review it
Was the standard keep it and form of a specific from the
being followed? rewrite it to suit procedure. Use technical
No present work diagrams to make it viewpoint
Yes methods easy to understand

Workers do not Workers lack Workers do not Working Easily-mistaken

understand or ability to follow appreciate conditions are procedure or
misunderstand standard necessity for inadequate complicated
standard following standard equipment
5 6 Give workers 7 8 9
Instruct and guide Consider stationing Improve working
Teach technical training workers to follow of workers in methods by
standards or reallocate to standards improved working introducing error-
different jobs environment proofing devices
62
Fig. 3.10 Standardization flowchart showing key points
Work Standards Specifying Key Points

1. The models to which they apply are clearly specified.

2. They use sketches to facilitate understanding.
3. They itemize the key work points concisely.
4. They record the values of important characteristics clearly.
5. They specify causes, not results.

63
 W hen get accustom ed to
routine w ork

Feelsure that w ork is perfect

S om etim es forget to do som e job
Errors/om issions by
W hen the m em ory is w rong forgetfullness

A dopt the w rong standards Errors from not

follow ing the standards
If there is a revision

Follow the form er m em ory

and m ake an error D efectives by errors take
place
In case of absent-m indedness

Forget to do som e part of the w ork

C heck against the standards and the C heck list

above problem can be avoided

Fig. 3.11 Case in which errors take place

64
D efectives could not be found
C hecking w as not properly done

Evaluation w as not carried out

There w ere om issions

There w ere no standards

A lthough there w ere standards,

checking w as done arbitrarily
O nly som e of the checking w ere carried out

Standards did not conform to the reality

Standards w ere not clear

There w ere errors/ om issions in the standards

D id not m ake use of the check list,not thinking m uch of it Ignored it

D id not m ake use of the check list,because of its troublesom e w ork It is necessary to m ake a
M arked the check list w ithout really checking by it right use of the check list

Fig.3.12 C ase in w hich the use of the check list is neglected

65
 Standardization
Product standardization Standardization of series of product
Standardization of parts

To cope w ith diversified products,standard parts are conbined

A P D ecrease the num ber of parts (on account
C D of the decrease in the num ber of specialparts
D ecrease of set up changes
R eduction in the num ber of
defectives raising skills
M anagem ent and controlstandardization
A P System atic classification D ocum entation
C D of regulations ・・ ・
Purchasing standards
・・ ・
Standardization of
B ased on the procedures,form at
standardization,
PDC A B y reffering to the
standards and m anuals
1.A nybody can do
can be proceeded and
its levelis raised. the sam e job
W ithout Standardization of Production specifications 2.A beginner can do A s the result,
standardization P D C A operations Production standards the job properly no errors take
doesn't exist Inspection standards 3.5W 1H and the place
know -how can be
Standardization of Process controlstandards understood
operationalm anagem ent Q C process chart 4.Techniques and
skills can be transferred

Fig.3.13 P ositioning of standardization

66
CHAPTER 4
Quality Specifications and Process Capability

4.1 Quality Specifications and Tolerances

4.2 Process Capability

67
4.1 Quality Specifications and Tolerances
• The quality we want to improve and control is concretely represented by
figures showing length, hardness, percentage of defectives, etc. They can be
called quality characteristics.
• There are various factors such as chemical composition, diameters, workers,
etc. which can cause the dispersion of the figures.
• Thus, the requirement of a quality characteristic is given, by a specific value
with its tolerance.
• There are two categories of values :
** Indiscrete (or continuous) values based on measurements
eg. 1 yields of a chemical process
2 board weight
** Discrete (or enumerated) values based on counting
eg. 1 defective articles or the number of defects
2 blisters
3 cocklings 68
 4.2 Process Capability
If the quality characteristic is assumed to follow a normal
distribution, where ±3σ includes 99.73 percent of the population,
process capability is defined in the following way :

Process capability = ±3σ or 6σ

Process capability

Fig. 4.1 Normal distribution 69

Fig. 4.2 Relationship between characteristic distributions and tolerances
70
While, process capability index can be calculated as follows :

Case (a) : Two-sided, upper and lower limits of standard

Cp = (ut - lt) / 6σ
Case (b) : One-sided, upper limit of standard
Cp = (ut - x) / 3σ
Case (c) : One-sided, lower limit of standard
Cp = (x - lt) / 3σ

where, ut : upper tolerance limit

lt : lower tolerance limit
x : the mean value of the distribution

71
In case where x deviates from the target value, the following Cpk

should be used :
Cpk = (1 - k)(ut - lt)/ 6σ

where, k : the degree ofdeviation

= (ut + lt)/ 2 - x
(ut - lt)/ 2

If k > 1,let Cpk = 0

Process capability = Process capability =

m achine capability m achine capability (Cm k
changes over tim e)

Fig. 4.3 Cpk and Cmk

72
 A
6σm C
B

D evelop equipm ent C ontrolthe variation's

endow ed w ith high m iddle value
process capability
(b) P roduction site
(a) D esign engineers

Fig. 4.4 The rule of design engineers and operators

73
Remember that
If Cp 1, the process is not capable to produce products properly.

If Cp = 1, 27 items out of 10,000items are out of tolerances.

4
If Cp About 64 items out of 1,000,000 items are out of tole-
3
rances. With this low level of defective production,
the process can be managed.

74
 Cp Distribution Judgment Action
Cp >
_ 1.67 Process Simplification of process control and
capability is cost reduction can be considered in
more than certain cases.
enough.
1.67 > Cp >
_ 1.33 Process Ideal condition.
capability is Maintain it.
sufficiently high.

1.33 > Cp >

_1.00 Process Control process properly and
>
capability is not maintain it in a control state.
sufficiently high, Defects may result if Cp approaches
but is adequate. 1. Take action if needed.
1.00 > Cp >
_ 0.67 Process Defects have been generated.
capability is not Screening inspection and process.
sufficient. control and Kaizen will be required.

0.67 > Cp Process Cannot satisfy quality. Quality must

capability is be improved, cause must be pursued
vary low. and emergency actions must be
taken.
Reexamine standards.

Fig. 4.5 Judgment on the process based on the value of Cp 75

 CHAPTER 5

How to Improve Process Capability

5.1 Detection of Problems and the Seven QC Tools
5.2 How to Calculate Process Capability : Histogram
5.3 4M Analysis of Process Capability
5.4 How to Improve Process Capability : Cause and Effect
Diagram
5.5 Causes of Defective Production and Countermeasures
5.6 How to Detect Changes of a Condition : Control Chart

76
 5.1 Detection of Problems and the Seven QC Tools

Tab. 5.1 Detection of Problems and 7 QC Tools

Steps of problem detection 7 QC tools

1. Find out important points(problems)
2. Grasp the current situations
3. Analyze current situations
4. Check the correlation
5. Narrow the problems
Pareto diagram, check sheet, graph
Histogram, control chart, check sheet
cause and effect diagram, stratification, check
sheet
Scatter diagram
Stratification

77
5.2 How to Calculate Process Capability : Histogram

5.2.1 Data have dispersion

We live in a world of dispersion. To know the quality of a given amount of

products, we must use averages and dispersion.
Let’s assume that we take four samples of a certain part from a production line
daily for one month and take measurements. There are two ways of looking at
the data for the 100 samples:
1) Overall appearance of the parts as a group.
2) Changes in the daily measurements over one month.
For (1), we can construct a frequency table showing the number of parts for
each dimension. Then, if we make a histogram, it will be easy to find the shape,
the central value, and the manner of dispersion of the size measurement. For
(2), in order to see the changes in the data chronologically, control charts or
graphs giving the date vertically and the dimensions horizontally are often
used.
78
5.2.2 How to prepare a histogram

The data in Table 5.2 represent the thickness (in millimeters) of 100
metal blocks that are parts of optical instruments. When there is as
much data as the 100 samples here, it is difficult to determine the
distribution of data just by looking at the figures. In a situation such
as this, if we arrange the data in sequence orders and show how many
figures are alike (see Tab. 5.2 and then draw up a graph, we can
perceive the overall tendency. There are many kinds of graphs, but
one of the most common is the histogram (Fig.5.1). Let’s examine the
method for making a histogram.

79
(1) Count the data. N=100
(2) As shown in Tab.5.2, divide the data roughly into ten groups.
Record the largest values in each group as XL and the smallest
values as XS ( this is comparable to a local election). Next,
record the largest XL and the smallest XS on the whole
(comparable to a national election). XL =3.68, XS = 3.30.

80
Table 5.2 Metal block thickness (in mm)

81
Fig. 5. 1 Metal block thickness 82
(3) The range (R) of all the data is: R= XL -XS =0.38. This
range can be divided into classes and the number of data
belonging to each class can be investigated. The number of
classes (the number of histogram bars) can be determined on
the basis of Table 5.3. However, to get the rough number of
classes, take K=10, and divide it into the range (R)

XL -XS
h= = 0.38 = 0.038
K 10

(4) This class interval, h, which will be used as the horizontal

graduation unit for the histogram, should be expressed as a
multiple of an integer (the data have values of, for example,
3.56, so the units of measurement are 0.01). Here h could be
considered equal to 0.04, but to make class division easier we
will put it at 0.05.

83
 Table 5.3 Number of Data and number of classes

Number of Data (N) Number of classes (K)

Under 50 5-7
50-100 6-10
100-250 7-12
over 250 10-20

84
(5) Class boundary, which we must determine in order to make a
bar graph, is demarcated starting at one end of the range. It is
troublesome when actuals fall on the class boundary. To
avoid this, the boundary unit is taken as half the actual
measurement unit. In this case it is 0.005. In other words, the
boundaries – the width of bars – will be 3.275~3.325,
3.325~3.375, etc. With check marks such as /, //, ///, ////, ////，
////, etc, the data which belong to each class are enumerated as
shown in Table 5.4 and a frequency table is made. The total
should correspond to N as outlined in step (1) above.
(Mistakes often occur here, so be careful.)

85
Table 5.4 Frequency table

86
(6) After examining the frequency table, you can get an idea of the
overall picture, but if it is indicated on a graph it becomes much
clearer. On graph paper, mark the class boundaries
horizontally and the frequency vertically like the histogram in
Fig. 5.1. In the blank areas write the background of the data N,
average values, standard deviation, etc. If there is a company
or industrial standard it is good to show this also. In this
example, the specification limits on the metal blocks are
3.28~3.60 mm, so this has been recorded on the graph.

87
5.2.3 How to use a histogram
(1) What is the shape of the distribution?
Example 1.

Fig. 5.2 Comparison of histograms

88
Example 2.
This histogram has a cliff-like appearance on the left edge and therefore seems
unusual.

Fig. 5.3 Cliff-like histogram

89
Example 3.
This histogram looked abnormal.

Fig. 5.4 Comb-like histogram

90
Example 4.

All of the examples so far have been for histograms showing continuous data
values. However, figures for numbers of defective parts, absentees, defects,
etc (what we call discrete values) can be used as data for histograms in the
same way that continuous data are.
Fig. 5.5 shows the number of daily machine failures in a histogram made to
assist in preventive maintenance. The distribution is skewed to the right.
With this kind of discrete value – number of defective parts, percentage of
defective parts, number of accidents, and number of defects – the distribution
of these data will often be found to assume an asymmetrical form.

Fig. 5.5 Failure occurrence distribution 91

(2) What is the relationship with specifications?

What is the percentage of out-of-specification products? Do products

fully meet the specifications? Is the average value at the exact centre of
the specification limits? Let’s compare a histogram with the
specifications.
In Fig. 5.1, where the thickness of metal blocks is shown, we see that
the average value is roughly in the centre of the specification limits, but
the dispersion is greater than the width of the specification limits. So
this dispersion must either be reduced or the specification must be re-
examined.

92
Example 5.
A histogram showing the load characteristics of a microswitch is given in Fig.
5.6. There are many defective microswitches, and on the chart over half of the
defects are due to load characteristics.
For this reason, the data on load characteristics taken during the manufacturing
process were studied by using a histogram. As can be seen clearly, the average
value inclines toward the upper specification limit and the dispersion is broad.
These problems were analyzed through control charts and various statistical
methods; the result was a reduction in the number of defectives.
This is a good example for showing how a histogram can be used to perceive the
state of the manufacturing process, to help people learn what the problems are,
and thus to improve process capability and reduce defects. A process capability
index is used to determine whether the dispersion is sufficiently small in
comparison with the specification limits.

93
Fig. 5.6 Histogram of load characteristics

94
(3) Is there a need to change the histogram?
When the data are stratified in accordance with the materials, machines,
shifts, workers, months, etc, the distribution is probably different for each.
In extreme situations, the histogram distribution may take the shape of two
peaks (bi-modal distribution). In the case of bi-modal distribution or
broad dispersion, this distribution often includes two or more distributions
which have different averages.

Example 6.
A subcontracting company processed sheet metal panels for an electric
machine maker, with sheet metal supplied by the parent company.
However, the pressed products had many wrinkles and cracks, and they
were often not the right size. Therefore, hardness tests were carried out on
the sheets, and the results were shown in a histogram.

95
Since the dispersion was broad, investigations were made. It was
discovered that the parent company had ordered sheets from two suppliers,
A and B. The sheets from these suppliers were tested separately, resulting
in the stratified histograms in Fig. 5.7. It is clear that there is a difference
in the hardness of the sheets of the two suppliers. When two separate
graphs are drawn like this, such differences tend to become clear.

Fig. 5.7 Hardness histograms by companies A and B

96
5.3 4M Analysis of Process Capability

1) 4M: Material, Machine, Man, Method

2) 5M: 1) + Measurement
3) 5M+E: 2) + Environment

Material Machine

Process
capability

Method Man

97
5.4 How to Improve Process Capability : Cause-and-Effect
Diagrams
5.4.1 Why does quality dispersion occur?
Items produced in exactly the same way still turn out differently, as revealed in
histograms. Why does this dispersion occur? In almost half of the cases, it is
because of:
1) the raw materials
2) the work methods
3) men
4) machines
Raw materials differ slightly in composition according to the source of supply
and there are size differences within the permitted limits.
In the same way work methods differ slightly although they appear to be the
same.
Men work in different ways unless they follow the standard operation
procedure.
Machines may seem to be functioning in the same way, but dispersion can arise
from differences in the axle sleeve fittings or because a machine is operating
optimally only part of the time.
98
In this way, when there is slight dispersion in raw materials, work methods and
equipment, these differences can add up to a great deal of product quality dispersion in
a histogram.
The casual factors of dispersion are the raw material, work method and equipment, etc;
these result in the dispersion of quality.
This relationship is shown in Fig. 5.8.
The relationship between cause and effect is quite clear.

99
Chemical composition, diameters, workers, etc, which can cause the dispersion,
can be called factors.
In order to illustrate on a diagram the relationship between the cause and the
effect, we need to know the causes and effects in concrete forms. Therefore, the
effect = quality characteristics, and cause = factors.
Fig. 5.8 is called a “cause-and-effect diagram”. In general practice, the factors
must be written in more detail to make the chart useful.

Materials Work methods

Quality

Men Equipment
Cause Effect

Fig. 5.8 Cause-and-effect diagram

100
5.4.2 Making cause-and-effect diagrams (general
steps)

The factors involved in problems with quality at factories are almost

uncountable.
A cause-and-effect diagram is useful in helping us to sort out the
causes of dispersion and organize the mutual relationships.
We will outline the steps for making a cause-and-effect diagram.

101
Step 1. Decide the quality characteristic (wobble during machine
rotation). This is something we would want to improve and
control. In this case it was found that most of our factory
defectives were due to wobble during rotating. To stop this
wobble we must find its causes.

Step 2. Write the quality characteristic on the right side. Draw a broad
arrow from the left side to the right side (Fig.5.9)

Wobble

Fig. 5.9
102
Step 3. Write the main factors which may be causing the wobble,
directing a branch arrow to the main arrow (see Fig.5.10). It is
recommended to group the major possible causal factors of
dispersion into such items as raw materials (materials),
equipment (machines or tools), method of work (workers) and
measuring method (inspection). Each individual group will form
a branch.

Workers Materials

Wobble

Inspection Tools

Fig. 5.10

103
Step 4. Now, onto each of these branch items, write in the detailed
factors which may be regarded as the causes. These will be like
twigs. And onto each of these, write in even more detailed
factors, making smaller twigs (Fig.5.11).

2.6 mm point Size

Workers Materials
G axle bearing
Wobble

Inspection Tools

Fig. 5.11
If you keep the following in mind, you cannot help but find the
cause of the problem. 104
1) Why do production process defects occur? Because of machine
wobble (dispersion). Therefore machine wobble is a quality
characteristic.
2) Why does the machine wobble (dispersion) occur? Because of
dispersion in the materials. ‘Materials’ is written on the diagram as a
branch.
3) Why does dispersion in the materials occur? Because of the
dispersion in the G axle bearing. The G axle bearing becomes a
twig on the branch.
4) Why does dispersion in the G axle bearing occur? Because of the
dispersion in the size of the G axle bearing. Size becomes a twig on
the twig.
5) Why does dispersion in the size of the G axle bearing occur?
Because of the dispersion at the 2.6 mm point. The 2.6 mm point
thus becomes a twig on the twig on the twig.

In this way we add to a cause-and-effect diagram until it fully shows the

causes of the dispersion. Fig. 5.12 gives the completed form.

105
Fig. 5.12 Cause-and-effect diagram for wobbling (dispersion analysis) 106
Step 5. Finally, one must check to make certain that all the items that
may be causing dispersion are included in the diagram.
If they are, and the relationships of causes to effects are
properly illustrated, then the diagram is complete.

107
5.4.3 Various methods for making cause-and-effect
diagrams

The possible causes of dispersion in the quality characteristics are

arranged in such a way that all the relationships are clearly noticeable.
There are various methods for making cause-and-effect diagrams
depending on how you organize and arrange them. These methods can
be divided into the three following types:
1) Dispersion analysis type
2) Production process classification type
3) Cause enumeration type

108
(1) Dispersion analysis type

The cause-and-effect diagram we just studied falls under this type.

The secret of making it is to keep asking: “Why does this dispersion
occur?” Remember to bear in mind that each and every dispersion can
be rectified.

The strong point of this type is that, since it involves the breaking of
dispersions, it helps organize and relate the factors for dispersion.

Its weak point is that the form the diagram takes often depends on the
person making it, and that sometimes small causes are not picked up.

109
(2) Production process classification type

With this method, the diagram’s main line follows the production
process and all things that may affect the quality are added to the
process stage.

If the cause-and-effect diagram shown in Fig. 5.12 were drawn as a

production process classification type diagram, it would appear as in
Fig.5.13.

110
Fig. 5.13 Cause-and-effect diagram for wobbling (process classification)
111
 This type can also be done as an assembly line diagram with the causes added.
Fig. 5.14 is an example of this, showing how scarring occurs during steel tubing.

Fig. 5.14 Cause-and-effect diagram for steel pipe scars (process classification)
112
Remember that dispersion occurs during the production process, so go
through the steps in the manufacturing process one by one to seek the
causes.

The strong point of this type is that, since it follows the sequence of
the production process, it is easy to make and understand.

Its weak point is that similar causes appear again and again, and
causes due to a combination of more than one factor are difficult to
illustrate.

113
(3) Cause enumeration type

In this type all the possible causes are simply listed. When doing this,
everyone’s ideas are necessary and the use of a blackboard is helpful
when listing the causes.

These causes must be organized in accordance with the product

quality showing the relationship between the cause and the effect, and
then a cause-and-effect diagram can be made.

The completed diagrams might resemble Fig. 5.12, but in the

beginning, simply list as many of the possible causes as you can think
of.

114
Remember not to confine your thoughts to types of cause or process
order but to think as freely as you can. The real cause or the hint for a
cure will come out of this kind of free thought.

The advantage of this type is that all causes are listed and thus no
major causes are missed. Also, by considering the relationship
between the cause and the effect, the diagram is quite complete.

Its disadvantage is that it is difficult to relate the twig causes to the

result, and thus the diagram is difficult to draw.

115
5.4.4 How to use a cause-and-effect diagram

(1) Making a cause-and-effect diagram is educational in itself

(2) A cause-and-effect diagram is a guide for discussion

(3) The causes are sought actively and the results are written in
on the diagram

(4) Data are collected with a cause-and-effect diagram

116
(5) A cause-and-effect diagram shows the level of technology

a. When the relationship between the quality characteristics and a cause

can be shown quantitatively in exact figures, put a box around it.

off-centre
b. When the relationship between the quality characteristics and a cause
are difficult to show in figures but it is still definite that relationships
exist, the casual factor should be underlined.
tightening of nuts

c. When there is no real proof that a certain cause is really related to

the problem, do not mark it in any way. There will thus be few
causes in boxes or underlined. The more causes that can be put in
boxes or underlined, the higher the technological level of the
workers concerned.

117
(6) A cause-and-effect diagram can be used for any problem

(7) Bad cause-and effect diagrams

A cause generally consists of many complex elements. Therefore,

cause-effect diagrams usually turn out to be rather complicated, like
the one in Fig. 5.15.
If one turns out looking like the one in Fig.5.16, it means that your
knowledge of the manufacturing process is still too shallow.
Also, if your diagram only lists five or six causes, even though the
form is correct, it cannot be considered a good diagram.

118
Fig. 5.15

Fig. 5.16
119
5.5 Causes of Defective Production and Countermeasures

• Pursuit of causes (1) - systematic approach

• A series of process of causes and countermeasures
• Development of the 5 Why analysis
• 5W1H - basics for countermeasures
• A format of pursuit of causes by systematic diagram

• Pursuit of causes (2) - stratification

• Formation of factors
• Check list of abnormalities
• Correlation (binary and ternary)

• Horizontal expansion

120
5.5.1 Pursuit of Causes (1) - Systematic Approach

Phenomena

Collection of facts Do not judge with prejudices or preconceptions

Analysis Set priorities

/survey Do not choose the fact intentionally
Establish the facts

Make a story why

defectives take place Are there any other defective modes
predicted?
Pursure the causes 5 W hy
Experim ent for the defective
Identify the causes

Clarify the
countermeasures 5W 1H
Evaluate and choose
countermeasures Develop the
C ontradiction? countermeasures
Carry out the
countermeasures
Review H orizontal
expansion
Evaluation

Fig. 5.17 A series of process of causes and countermeasures 121

Phenom ena (result)

1st cause

B y repeating "w hy" search for the

2nd cause realcause (try to find logically by
follow ing principles)

3rd cause

If counterm easures are taken

at this stage,the phenom ena The realcause becom es
w illrecur because the real 4th cause
apparent around this stage
cause has not been
elim inated
5th cause

R epeat 5 tim es W hy

Fig. 5.18 5 Why’s

122
 Development of the 5 Why analysis
Evaluation of
Influence countermeasures
Item Pheno- Cause Counter- rate of
mena measures Degree
causes Effi- of Rapidne
ciency diffi- ss-
culty
Problems in If there are
Abstract development connection several
with the causes,
system it is required
to consider
the
contribution
rate of each
Concrete development Operational cause If there are several
problems countermeasures,
are liable to evaluate all of them
be
highlighted properly
may come
out with
many
branches

Fig. 5.19 Development of the 5 Why analysis 123

5W1H - basics for countermeasures

W hen
W here
The basics of
W ho
counterm easures W hat
5W 1H W hy
H ow M an
M achine
4M
M ethod 5M
C ost problem m ust M aterial
not be om itted
M easurem ent

Fig. 5.20 5W1H - basics for countermeasures 124

 Table 5.5 A format of pursuit of causes by systematic diagram

Cause How
Phenomena Counter- Meth
When Where Who What Why Ma- Ma-
Man-
(result) 1 2 3 4 5 measures Man -od age-
chine terial
ment

125
5.5.2. Pursuit of causes (2) -- Stratification
Formation of factors W hat factor is
related
to the problem ?
O perators(new Tim e,
personnel,helpers) m anufacturing
date

In connection w ith
O perational environm ents
m ethods(tools, (tem perature,
procedure) hum idity)

M achine M aterial(m aker,

(breakdow n, subcontractor's
m aintenance) plant)

R ange of norm alproducts

Fig. 5.21 Formation of factors 126

 Table 5.6 Check list of abnormalities
Manufacturing date
Check items Content of checking

Man Change operators,assign new

personnel
Machine Changeovers,breakdowns,
maintenance
Material Subcontractors, makers, vendor
for special occasions(*)
Method Jigs,tools,assembly
Management Control method, changes of
levels
Weather
Temperature,humidity
Events
Control chart (outside
control limits, run,
periodicity,correlation)
Others
(*)Normally not acceptable to use,but due to the need

127
 Correlation (binary and ternary)

There is no correlation in a binary graph There is correlation in a ternary graph

Fig.5.22 Correlation (binary and ternary) 128

 Ball noise large

•
•
Peculiar noise

C
B

D
A
Types
Appearance

Types
Big electric current
Small electric
T type matrix

current
Large impedance
Big input

Phenomena
Others
Ball noise large
Peculiar noise
Appearance
Big electric current
Small electric current
Pareto diagram, L type matrix and

Large impedance
Pareto diagram

Big input
Others
•
•
C
B

D
A

Types
Types

L type matrix
Phenomena

Ball noise large

Peculiar noise
Appearance
Big electric current
Small electric current
Large impedance
Big input
Others
Total
Fig. 5.23 Pareto diagram, L type matrix and T type matrix
•
•
•
(unit)

Causes
Handling
wire turns
(handling)
Ball bearing
Ball bearing

Core loading
Foreign body
Wrong number of
T type matrix

129
L,C,T,Y and X type matrices

L type m atrix
C type m atrix

T type m atrix

Y type m atrix X type m atrix 130

Fig. 5.24 L,C,T,Y and X type matrices
 5.5.3 Important points of horizontal expansion
Horizontal expansion

Looking at
them in true Common items with other divisions
nature ・Design standards
Control
・Manufacturing standards

Common characteristics
Abstract problems
・Operational standards

of the problems
Case studies
・Manuals
・Operators
of defectives
Analyze in Manufacturing ・Machine
the light of problems ・Method
concrete (item related to ・Material
case operation) ・Control items in
studies connection with
manufacturing
Take the same countermeasures and treatment as to the common problems
inherent in the case studies and prevent the occurrence of similar phenomena

Fig. 5.25 Important points of horizontal expansion 131

5.7 How to Detect Changes of a Condition : Control Chart

5.7.1 What is a control chart?

We not only have to see what changes in data occur over time; we
must also study the impact of the various factors in the process that
change over time. Thus, if the materials, the workers, or the
working methods or equipment were to change during this time, we
would have to note the effect of such changes on production.

One way of following these changes is by using graphs.

132
Fig. 5.26 is a histogram based on data for synthetic resin parts collected
five times a day (the values have been rounded off to make it easier to
understand).
Using this data, a graph (Fig.5.27) was drawn indicating the average
daily values (χ) and daily range (R). It was drawn the same way as the
ordinary broken line graph. This graph shows that the values were low
at the outset but showed a tendency to rise over time.
We could not have learned that fact just by looking at the histogram in
Fig. 5.26. In other words, we were able to obtain new information by
looking at the movement of the data.

133
Fig. 5.26 Fig. 5.27

134
Now the problem is to find out whether the points on the graph are
abnormal or not.
For this reason we draw limit lines on the graphs to indicate the standards
for evaluation. These lines will indicate the dispersion of data on a
statistical basis and let us know when an abnormal situation occurs in
production.
If we add limit lines to Fig.5.27, we obtain the graph in Fig.5.28. This
way we can see if there is any abnormality and take appropriate action. A
graph or chart with limit lines is know as a control chart, and the lines are
called control lines.
There are three kinds of control lines:
the upper control limit,
the central line,
and
the lower control limit.
They can be written as UCL, χ or R, and LCL corresponding in the same
order.

135
Fig. 5.28
136
In making control charts, the daily data are averaged out in order to
obtain an average value for that day.
Each of these values then becomes a point on the control chart which
represents the characteristics of that given day.
Or, data may be taken on a lot-by-lot basis. In this case, the data must
be collected in such a way that the point represents the given lot.

137
The points on a control chart represent arbitrary divisions in the
manufacturing process. The data broken down into these divisions are
referred to as sub-groups.
In Fig.5.28, the five measurements made in one day constitute one sub-
group. In other words, we have divided the production process into units
of one day, daily production has been represented by points on a control
chart, and we can now determine whether the process is in a “controlled
state” or not.
The role of a group leader is to be fully aware of the characteristics within
his purview and to take measures immediately he detects any abnormality.
Thus, in order to carry out his duties effectively, it is most important for
him to make control charts by constituting these sub-groups.

138
5.7.2 Making the χ - R control chart

An x-R control chart is one that shows both the mean value, x , and the
range, R. This is the most common type of control chart using indiscrete
values. The x portion of the chart mainly shows any changes in the mean
value of the process, while the R portion shows any changes in the
dispersion of the process.
This chart is particularly useful because it shows changes in mean value
and dispersion of the process at the same time, making it a very effective
method for checking abnormalities in the process (see Tab. 5.7).

139
Table 5.7 χ- R control chart

140
Step 1. Collect the data. You usually need more than 100 samples. They
should be taken from recent data from a process similar to the one
that will be used thereafter.

Step 2. Put the data into sub-groups. These sub-groups can be according
to measurement or lot order and should include from two to five
samples each. The data should be divided into sub-groups in
keeping with the following conditions:
a the data obtained under the same technical conditions should
form a sub-group;
b a sub-group should not include data from a different lot or of
a different nature.
For this reason, data are usually divided into sub-groups according
to date, time, lot, etc. The number of samples in a sub-group
determines the size of the sub-group and is represented by n; the
number of sub-group is represented by k.

141
Step 3. Record the data on a data sheet. The data sheet should be so
designed that it is easy to compute the values of x and R for each
sub-group. Tab. 5.7 gives data on the moisture content of a textile
product, taken five times a day. Here n=5 and k=25.

Step 4. Find the mean value, x. Use the following formula for each sub-
group. Compute the mean value x to one decimal beyond that of
the original measurement value.

x1 + x2 + x3...+ xn
x =
n
For the data in sub-group No. 1, it works out like this:
14.0+12.6+13.2+13.1+12.1 65.0
x = = = 13.00
5 5
And for No. 2,
13.2+13.3+12.7+13.4+12.1 64.7
x =
5
=
5
= 12.94

142
Step 5. Find the range, R. Use the following formula to compute the range
R for each sub-group:
R=x(largest value) - x(smallest value)
For sub-groups No.1 and No.2 in Table5.7, R works out to:
R=14.0-12.1=1.9
R=13.4-12.1=1.3

Step 6. Find the overall mean, x. Total the mean values x, for each sub-
group and divide by the number of sub-groups k.

x1 + x2 + x3...+ xn
Thus, x =
k
Compute the overall mean value x to two decimals beyond that of
the original measurement value. For the data on Table 5.7, it
works out like this:

13.0+12.94+12.90….+12.72 323.50
x= 25
=
25
= 12.940

143
Step 7. Compute the average value of the range R . Total R for all groups
and divide by the number of sub-groups, k. Thus,

R1 + R2 + R3...+ Rk
R=
k

Compute the average value R to one decimal beyond that of R.

R for the data in Table 5.7 works out to:

1.9+1.3+1.1….+1.1 33.8
R= = = 1.35
25 25

144
Step 8. Compute the control limit lines. Use the following formulas for x
and R control charts. However, the coefficients A2, D4, D3 etc are
shown in Table 5.8.

Table 5.8

145
 x control charts:
Central line CL = x ；
Upper control limit UCL = x +A2R;
Lower control limit LCL = x -A2R;
R control charts:
Central line CL =R；
Upper control limit UCL = D4R;
Lower control limit LCL = D3R;
For the data on Table1.5, this works out as:
x control chart CL = x =12.940
UCL = x +A2R
=12.940+0.577 x 1.35
=12.940+0.779
=13.719
LCL= x - A2R
=12.940-0.577 x 1.35
=12.161
R control chart CL = R =1.35
UCL= D4R
=2.115 x 1.35
=2.86
LCL = D3 x R(none)

146
Step9. Construct the control chart. Obtain graph paper or control chart
paper and set the index so that the upper and lower control limits
will be separated by 20 to 30 mm. Draw in the control lines and
the numerical values. The central line is a solid line and limit
lines for process analysis are broken lines, while limit lines for
process control are dotted lines.

Step 10. Plot out the x and R points for each sub-group on the same
vertical line. Plot the x and R values as computed for each sub-
group. For the x values use a dot (.) and for the R values use an
(x). Circle all points which exceed the control limit lines to
distinguish them from the others. The dots and the x’s should be
about 2 to 5 mm apart. Fig. 5.29 shows a control chart based on
the data in Table 5.7.

147
 Fig. 5.29
Step 11. Write in the necessary information. On the left edge of the control
chart write x and R , and on the upper left of an x control chart
write the n value. Also indicate the nature of the data, the period
when it was taken, the instruments used, the person responsible, etc.
148
5.7.3 Point movements on x -R control charts

Before we can actually use a control chart, however, we must know the
following things:
a the relationship between the change in the production process and
the change (the movement of points) on the control chart;
b the relationship between the degree of change in the production
process and the degree of change (movement of points) on the
control chart.

149
Experiment 1
The total data for one day’s production of a certain product serve as the
basis for the histogram in Fig. 5.30. Let’s call this ‘distribution A’. Write
the data on little chips, collect all the chips, and they should display the
same distribution as A. Then put them in a large bowl so they can be
mixed well (see Fig. 5.33).
The production process in this factory is stable and the quality of each
day’s products is represented by distribution A. Now, if we continue
production in this manner and measure five (n=5) samples at random each
day, how would the resulting control char appear?

150
Fig. 5.30

Fig. 5.31

Fig. 5.32 Fig. 5.33 Distribution A of chips

151
It can be assumed that daily production continues to follow distribution A of
Fig. 5.30. Therefore, take five of the A chips at random and use the data on
them to work out your control chart. Take data for 25 days (sub-groups) from
these chips (i.e., 5 pieces x 25 days = 125 pieces) and use this to construct an
x -R chart. This chart will look like Fig.5.34.

5.7.4 Information obtained from Fig. 5.34

As can be seen clearly from the control chart, although the production is
controlled, x and R do show some fluctuation. However, they do not exceed
the control limits and there does not seem to be any tendency for the values to
assume a particular form.

If this condition continues, the points on x -R control charts based on five

daily samples will continue to form the same curves shown here. Even if the
control limit lines are extended, and points are drawn in based on the data from
the distribution A chips, all points will still be within the control lines. There
should also be no clustering. The state arising when the production process is
stable and there is no abnormality in the points on the control chart is called a
controlled state.
152
Fig. 5.34 Fig. 5.35 Fig. 5.36
153
Experiment 2
When a factor (such as raw materials, machinery, working methods,
workers, etc) changes and consequently the mean value of a characteristic
of the product show a slight change, what change will there be in the
points on the control chart?
Let’s assume that distribution A had made a ‘plus’ movement to the right
as in Fig.5.31. This distribution will be referred to as B. The data are
written on little chips which, when collected, should display the same
distribution B.
If production is continued as represented by distribution B, we can take
the data from the distribution B chips to obtain the process data. Let’s
take ten days’ data from the distribution B chips, at five per day. If we
make an x -R control chart on this basis, it will appear as in Fig.5.35.
We’ll use the control limit lines we used for distribution A.

154
5.7.5 Information obtained from Fig. 5.35

As can be seen clearly from Fig.5.35, when there is a shift in the mean for
a production process (in other words, a shift from distribution A to
distribution B), you can readily detect a change in the x control chart. In
this case, no change can be seen on the R control chart.
The change in the mean of the production process brings about changes in
the x control chart only.
The shift from distribution A to distribution B was a very small one for the
production process, but a clear difference can be seen on the control chart.

155
Experiment 3
Now let us see what happens to the points on the control chart when the
dispersion of the characteristic value of the production process changes.
We’ll leave the mean at distribution A as it was but make the dispersion
greater (Fig.5.32).
Let us call this distribution C. Prepare chips in the same manner as we did
before so that they will, all together, show distribution C. As in
experiment 2 , take ten days’ data from distribution C at n=5. Continuing
on the same control chart as before, the points will appear as in Fig.5.36.

5.7.6 Information obtained from Fig. 5.36

When the dispersion of the production process changes, points on the R
control chart show abnormality. Also note that the spread of the points on
the x control chart becomes greater and some go beyond the control limits.

156
5.7.7 Conclusion
The results of the experiments are, finally, that a change in the mean for the
production process will result in an abnormality appearing on the x control
chart. When the mean of the production process shifts to the plus side, the
points on x control chart will also move to the plus side. Even when the
change in the mean on the production process is very slight, the points on
the control chart will react appreciably to this change.
Secondly, a change in the dispersion for the production process, on the other
hand, results in abnormalities appearing on both x and R control charts.
When the dispersion of the production process increases, the points on the R
control chart will tend to increase as well. Moreover, the points on the x
control chart will display a greater spread and there will be cases where the
points may go beyond the control limits.
These results can be summarized as in Tab. 5.9.

Tab. 5.9

157
The experiments we have just conducted show the movement of points on
control charts when there is a change in the production process.
In practice, however, we use this the other way around: on the basis of
movements of the points on the control chart, we want to see what
changes have taken place in the production process.
It is thus important that you practice this repeatedly so you can guess what
changes have occurred in the production process, as indicated on the
upper part of Fig. 5.34, 5.35 and 5.36, by looking at the movement of the
points on the control chart.

158
5.7.8 How to read control charts

As stated above, the purpose of making a control chart is to determine, on

the basis of the movements of the points, what kind of changes have taken
place in the production process. Therefore, to use the control chart
effectively, we have to set the criteria for evaluation what we consider an
abnormality. When a production process is in a controlled state, as shown
in Fig.5.34, this means that:

1. All points lie within the control limits, and

2. The point grouping does not form a particular form.

159
We would therefore know that an abnormality has developed if
a) Some points are outside the control limits (including points
on the limit lines), or
b) The points from some sort of particular form even though
they are all within the control limits.

The situation is obvious when some of the points are outside

the limits, so let us rather concentrate on the above (b) case and set up
more detailed standards.

160
Fig. 5.37 How to read a control chart
161
Non-randomness and its evaluation

Runs
When points line up on one side only of the central line (strictly
speaking, the median line), this is called a ‘run.’ The number of
points in that run is called the ‘length of the run’ (see Fig. 5.38). In
evaluating runs, if the run has a length of 7 points, we conclude that
there is an abnormality in the process. Even with a run of less than
6, if 10 out of 11 points or 12 out of 14 points lie on one side, we
consider there is an abnormality in the production process. On x
control chart, the central line and the median line almost correspond.

Fig. 5.38 Runs

162
B. Trends
If there is a continued rise or fall in a series of points, we say there is a
‘trend’ (see Fig. 5.39). In evaluating trends, we consider that if 7
consecutive points continue to rise or fall there is an abnormality. Often,
however, the points will go beyond the control limits before reaching 7.

Fig. 5.39 Trends

163
C. Periodicity
If the points show the same pattern of change (for example, rise or fall)
over equal intervals, we say there is ‘periodicity’ (see Fig.5.40). When it
comes to evaluating periodicity, there is no simple method as with runs
and trends. The only way is to follow the point movement closely and
make a technical decision.

Fig. 5.40 Periodicity

164
D. Hugging of the control line
When the points on the control chart stick close to the central line or to the
control limit line, we speak of ‘hugging of the control line’. Often, in this
situation, a different type of data or data from different factors have been
mixed into the sub-group.
It is therefore necessary to change the sub-grouping, reassemble the data
and redraw the control chart.
For evaluation, in order to decide whether or not there is hugging of the
central line, draw two lines on the control chart, one of them between the
central line and the UCL and the other between the central line and the
LCL.
If most of the points lie between these two lines, there is an abnormality
(see Fig. 5.41). To see whether there is hugging of the control limit lines,
two lines should be drawn at two-thirds of the distance between the
central line and control line, from the central line, as in Fig.5.42. There is
abnormality if 2 out of 3 points, 3 out of 7 points, or 4 out of 10 points lie
within the outer one-third zone (see Fig.5.42).

165
Fig. 5.41 Hugging of the central line Fig. 5.42 Hugging of the control line

166
 M ean values are the
sam e n
n
standard deviation is1/√
n
n
n

Fig. 5.43 Distribution of x sampled from the population

167
Fig. 5.44 Tolerance and control limits

168
 x control chart R control chart

Estim ated
distribution

Mean values vary Variation (of standard deviation) varies

(also influenced by the variation of standard
deviations of the lots)

Fig. 5.45 How to read a control chart

169
 CHAPTER 6

Quality Assurance of Every Quality Item

6.1 Approach to Quality Deviation
6.2 Defect Modes and Their Economic Impacts
6.3 The Process of Quality Assurance
6.4 QA Matrix
6.5 Principle of Quality Assurance
6.6 4M Analysis with PPA
6.7 Customer Service
170
6.1 Approach to quality deviation

171
Fig. 6.1
6.2 Quality Defect Modes and Their Economic Impact

Table 6.1: Quality Defect Modes (Example)

Quality Defect Mode Description (Example)

1.Deviation from
specified composition,
physical properties, etc.
2.Contamination
Chemical composition,
properties such as
thermal stability,
impurities
Rust, dust, splinters,
hair, bacteria,
broken machine parts,
tools, wrong pallets
172
3.Nonuniformity and Color variation,
dispersion irregular grain size,
uneven thickness,
unequal plate flatness

4.Visual defects Discoloration, cloudiness,

precipitation,
coagulation, crystal
clumping,
other visible deformities
5.Packaging defects Underweight improperly
sealed, burst sack, wet,
decomposed, mislabeled,
etc.
173
 6.3 The Process of Quality Assurance

Prepare QA matrix
Analyze production-input conditions (4M)
Two cases
No problem Problems

Maintain status quo Prepare problem chart

Two cases

Production-input Problems with unclear relation

conditions unfulfilled to process conditions

PPA, etc. DOE, etc.

Plan focused improvement
(analyze, test, evaluate)

Improve Improve Improve Improve Improve Improve Improve Improve

machine materials methods man machine materials methods man

Review production-input (4M) conditions 174

Checking : Checking :
Cannot be centralized * Centralized * Fixed setting

Confirm production –input

(4M) conditions

Reestablish
standards

* Inspection standards Observable standards

* Operation standards, actually followed
etc.

Fig. 6.2 175

6.4 QA Matrix : Example of Feedback from Defectives to the Processes by
Actual Numbers
Table 6.2

176
177
 6.5 4M Analysis with PPA
Quality Defect Factors (4M Analysis)
Caused by raw Caused by equipment Caused by method Caused by conditions
material conditions precision conditions of people involved

Inputting materials not Managing equipment Using right methods not Training operators not
to generate defects not to generate defects to generate defects to generate defects

Search for materials and Search for equipment

Quality Assurance Search for methods not Raise ability to find
energy not to generate conditions not to
to generate defects system troubles and to
defects generate defects
+ quickly and correctly
take actions.
Equipment management
Guiding vendors and Avoiding human errors
Pursue relationship between quality characteristics and KAIZEN of equipment KAIZEN of method
material control not to by fool proof devices,
material, equipment method and man conditions not to generate defects not to generate defects
cause defects etc.

Set conditions of Set conditions of Set standards of

Processing point materials not to generate equipment not to methods not to generate Educate and train to
analysis defects generate defects defects avoid human errors

Inspection QM Matrix Operating Training

Control points standards and fool
proof
devices
Management of conditions
Control items to check Check items to check not to generate defects
results causes

Follow-up control Prior countermeasures Zero quality defect

1) Countermeasures are delayed

2) countermeasure time is missed Fig. 6. 3 4M analysis with PPA
178
 Quality
assurance of Quality
every quality maintenance Process
issue activities
Q. C.

Control items

item I

item II
Item A
Inspection

Fig.6.4
Inspection
Cause I

7 basic steps

Product
evaluation
Cause II

Current conditions
Process
6.6 Principle of Quality Assurance

evaluation

Process examination
Trend checking Restoration

Factor analysis

Elimination of all
possible causes
Information management (data base)

Quality Assurance of Every Quality Issue

Establishment of the
proper conditions
CBM

Maintenance of
optimal conditions

Improvement of
Market claims the maintenance
179
 6.7 Customer Service
Establishment of a quality assurance system

Stratification of
Investigation of Map of quality Investigation of
current quality
causes defects causes (PPA, etc.)
defects

Establishment of operating
1. Audio & visual standards to assure quality
alarm
2. Automatic
control

Daily checking Establishment of Selection of

Checking the Identification of
Quality mainte- tentative operating proper sensors and
results measuring items
nance standards their installation

Establishment of quality
defects detection system

Fig. 6.5 Improvement of customer service

180
CHAPTER 7

The QC Seven-Step Formula--Solving Problems the QC Way

7.1 The Significance of the QC Seven-Step Formula

You can't get good without knowing the basics
7.2 The QC Seven-Step Formula
Find and address the causes
7.3 Putting the QC Seven-Step Formula into Practice
Move forward one step at a time
Step 1: Select topic
Step 2: Understand situation and set targets
Step 3: Plan activities
Step 4: Analyze causes
Step 5: Consider and implement countermeasures
Step 6: Check results
Step 7: Standardize and establish control 181
7.1 The Significance of the QC Seven-Step Formula
You can't get good without knowing the basics

The QC Seven-Step Formula is the basic procedure for

solving problems scientifically, rationally, efficiently,
and effectively. It is a fundamental problem-solving
stratagem that allows any individual or group to solve
even difficult problems rationally and scientifically.

182
7.2 The QC Seven-Step Formula
Find and address the causes
•Grasp problem
Expose problem Expose problem
•Set target
•Identify gap between
existing situation and target

Experience, intuition, Analyze causes

nerve, inspiration •Investigate causes

•Plan countermeasures
Implement Implement
countermeasures •Implement
countermeasures
countermeasures
•Institutionalize
(1) The conventional (2) The QC problem-
problem-solving solving approach
approach

Fig. 7.1 The Problem-Solving Process

183
 We are in the habit of thinking that,
if the symptom disappears, the
problem has gone away.

Act against We merely think

Problem Symptom Problem the problem has
phenomenon
arises disappears solved been solved;
(symptom)
actually it has not.

(1) The conventional problem-solving approach

Problem Identify its Act against

arises causes the causes

In this case, the

Symptom Problem problem really
disappears solved has been solved;
this is true
(2) The QC problem-solving approach problem-solving.

Fig. 7.2 Problem-Solving Approaches

184
 STEP7
Standardize and establish control
Standardize
STEP6 • Establish new standards and
Check results revise old ones
• Decide methods of control
STEP5 • Check results of countermeasures Establish control
• Compare results with targets • Familiarize relevant people
Consider and • Identify tangible and intangible with new methods
• Educate those responsible
benefits
implement countermeasures • Verify that benefits are
being maintained
Consider countermeasures
• Propose ideas for countermeasures
• Discuss how to put countermeasures into effect
STEP4 • Check details of countermeasures
Analyze causes Implement countermeasures
• Plan how to implement countermeasures
• Check present values of • Implement countermeasures
characteristics
STEP3 • List possible causes
• Analyze causes
Plan activities • Decide items to tackle
• Decide what to do
• Decide schedule, division of responsibilities, etc.
STEP2
Understand situation
and set targets
STEP1
Understand situation
Select topic • Collect data
• Decide characteristic to attack
• Identify problem Set targets
• Decide topic • Decide target (value and deadline)

Fig.7.3 The QC 7-Step Problem-Solving Formula

185
 Tab. 7.1 The QC 7-Step Problem-Solving Formula

Step No. Basic steps Action Items

1 Select topic •Identify problem

2 Understand Situation and
Set Targets
3 Plan Activities
4 Analyze Activities
•Decide topic
Understand situation
•Collect data
•Decide characteristic to attack
Set targets
•Decide target (value and deadline)
•Decide what to do
•Decide schedule, division of responsibilities, etc
•Check present values of characteristics
•List possible causes
•Analyze causes
•Decide items to tackle

186
 Step No. Basic steps Action Items
5 Consider and Implement Consider countermeasures
Countermeasures •Propose ideas for countermeasures
•Discuss how to put countermeasures into effect
•Check details of countermeasures
Implement countermeasures
•Plan how to implement countermeasures
•Implement countermeasures
6 Check Results •Check results of countermeasures
•Compare results with targets
•Identify tangible and intangible benefits
7 Standardize and Establish Standardize
Control •Establish new standards and revise old ones
•Decide methods of control
Establish control
•Familiarize relevant people with new methods
•Educate those responsible
•Verify that benefits are being maintained
Note:Although the above basic order should be followed, it may be adjusted in some cases. For example,
we may proceed from being given a target to understanding the situation, or we may select a topic
after first understanding the situation. 187
 7.3 Putting the QC Seven-Step Formula into Practice
Move forward one step at a time

Look for items causing trouble

Compare with ideal

Compare with policies

Look for items inconveniencing

next process

problems Organize Evaluate Select

Compare with specifications problems problems topic

Compare with standards •Prepare problem •Prepare problem

summary chart evaluation chart
Compare with past situation

Compare with other workplaces

Fig. 7.4 Approaches to Identifying Problem 188

Step 1: Select topic
A technique for selecting topics:
Substep 1: Check the roles of one's division, department, and job.
Substep 2: Check the policies and objectives assigned to the workplace.
Substep 3: Identity and list problems.
It is a good idea to pursue the identification of problems from the following tow perspectives:
• What kind of problems are giving us trouble?
• What things would we like to improve further?

Substep 4: Evaluate the problems and select a topic.

A "problem evaluation chart" such as that shown in Tab. 7.2
should be used to single one out.
A good way of expressing a topic is as follows:
Describing a topic
Action (Verb) Object (Noun) Location

Where? (process, machine,

operation, product, region,
What? (control characteristic) work station, etc.
How? (direction of improvement, level)
189
Seven points to note about describing topics:
1. State where the improvement is to take place (name of process, title
of job, name of product, etc.
2. Make it obvious from the title of the topic what is to be done and
what the objective is.
3. Express the topic in terms of attacking something bad rather than
improving something good (this is because the latter style of
expression tends to lead people to chase after the ideal and rely too
much on the help of others):

• Improve good-product rate reduce defect rate.

• Improve delivery reduce number of days late.
4. Express in terms of results rather than methods:
• Standardize fixtures and fittings for hotel guest rooms
reduce number of missed fixtures and fittings in hotel guest rooms.
• Prepare instruction manual for hotel reservation calls
reduce time callers are kept waiting when reserving rooms by telephone.
190
5. Do not confuse countermeasures with topics:
• Improve product education for sales staff
improve sales staff's product knowledge.
• Improve torque-fastening method
decrease torque-fastening defect rate.
6. Express in clear, commanding terms:
• Let's reduce the defect rate reduce defect rate.
7. If necessary, append subtopics. Do this when you wish to emphasize
a special characteristic of the problem-solving activity or the
uniqueness of a countermeasure. In these examples, the subtopic
follows the dash after the topic:
• Reduce changeover time --- solve difficult problems by having
people speak with facts.
• Reduce repair time for noncontact relay grinders --- creativity,
ingenuity, and study for mastering use of new machines.
• Reduce number of reversed joints --- a tale of hardship in QC team
activities by part-timers.
191
 Tab. 7.2 Problem Evaluation Chart
Item Suitability for Circle Need for Improvement
Is the How easy Will the How Will it How Does How What
problem is it for the members long help to great is it meet much sorts of
common members to be able to will raise the the need work- will the results
to all team tackle the cooperate the team’s for place activi- can be
members? problem as together? project abilities? improve- needs? ties expect-
a team? take? ment? cost? ed?
Evaluation criteria

•Too much affected by others outside team

•Highly relevant problem of great interest

•Difficult problem but will raise abilities

Order of priority
•Will raise abilities if effort is made
•Only relevant to a few members

•Reward in proportion to effort

•Important but not very urgent

Score
•Common to most members

•Is inconveniencing others

•Requires urgent attention
•Common to all members

•Will incur no extra costs

•No worries on this score

•Must be dealt with now

•Yes, with a little effort
•Topic too ambitious

•Fairly good results

•Minor results only
•6 months or more

•Not very relevant

•Just a casual idea
•Not satisfactorily

•Minor costs only

•2 months or less
•3-5 months

•Not urgent

•Expensive
Maximum scores 5 5 5 5 5 7 5 5 8 50
Eliminate grinding
cracks 5 5 5 5 5 7 3 5 8 48 1
Improve efficiency of
hole pitch process 5 3 3 5 5 7 5 5 8 46 2
Improve safety and
Topic

hygiene scores 3 3 5 3 3 5 1 5 2 30 5
Introduce computer
processing 1 1 3 1 5 2 1 1 5 20 8
Reduce assembly
labor-hours 5 5 5 1 5 5 3 5 8 42 3
192
Note: Figures in brackets against evaluation criteria indicate scores.
Well-chosen topics satisfy the following five conditions:

1. Common to all team members.

2. Highly necessary and relevant to one's job.

3. Challenging but achievable.

4. Linked to divisional and departmental policies and objectives.

5. Able to raise the ability levels of the team or group.

193
Step 2: Understand situation and set targets

Substep 1: Decide on the characteristic to be addressed.

Tab. 7.3 shows some typical control characteristics.

Substep 2: Understand the situation.

The term "situation" here means not just the situation at the
present time but the overall situation extending from past to
present.

"Understand the situation" means finding out how bad things

are now and what they were like in the past.

We therefore investigate at this stage how the control

characteristics have changed with time.
194
In understanding the situation, we should be aware of the following
seven key points:

1. Check pasta data concerning the characteristic values and collect

fresh data to ensure that the problem can be expressed numerically.
2. Investigate the flow of work and the state of the process.
3. Examine the situation over a period of time and find out what
sorts of changes have occurred.
4. Ferret out problems by stratifying the data (by place, person,
machine, method, etc.).
5. Pay attention to dispersion and deviation.
6. Be priority-oriented and narrow down the priorities.
7. Utilize the Seven QC Tools.

195
 Tab. 7.3 Examples of Control Characteristics
Target Characteristic Application
Number of defects Reducing annealing defects in steel plate, etc.
Number of mistakes Reducing mistakes in preparing invoices,
attaching parts, etc.
Number of reworked items Reducing number of defects reworked
Weight Controlling weights of tablets, parts, etc.
Quality

Time Controlling work times, processing times, etc.

Thickness Controlling plate thicknesses, parts
dimensions, etc.
Number of error-proofing devices Reducing human error
Power consumption, current, load Controlling central values and dispersion of
voltage electrical characteristics
Defect rate Reducing number of processing defects and
defective final products
Yield Controlling output of tablets and other
products
Cost

Consumption Reducing consumption of electrical power,

consumables, water, etc.
196
 Tab. 7.3 (-Continued)
Target Characteristic Application
Inventory Controlling stocks of consumables and
merchandise
Energy consumption Improving energy-saving, reducing heavy-oil
consumption per product unit
Cost

Personnel costs and other overheads Cost control

Labor-hours Reducing labor-hours
Budget/spending ratio Reducing manufacturing costs
Materials costs Reducing costs of resins, insulating materials,
etc.
Production output per unit time Controlling production volume
Productivity

Process time Increasing daily production volume

Lead time Reducing time taken from receipt of raw
materials to output of product
Yield Increasing yield of steel plate, etc.
Sales Increasing sales volume per person
Availability Reducing equipment downtime
Idle time Reducing idle time for input and output
media
197
 Tab. 7.3 ( -Continued)
Target Characteristic Application
Work efficiency Decreasing actual work times and standard
times
Changeover time Reducing equipment changeover times
Efficiency

Inspection time Reducing inspection labor-hors

Setup times Eliminating waste from setups
Transportation time Reducing transportation time
Administration time Improving efficiency of ordering,
transcribing, etc.
Job (computation) execution time Reducing number of program steps per unit
time
Compliance rate Improve delivery compliance rate (average
days late per unit delivered)
Total days late Improve on-time shipping rate (ratio of items
shipped on time to total items shipped) for
Delivery

different models
On-time delivery rate Improve on-time delivery rate (ratio of items
delivered on time to total items delivered)

198
 Tab. 7.3 ( -Continued)
Target Characteristic Application
Inspection holdups Eliminate delivery problems due to late
inspections
Delivery

Lot-out number Reduce number of rejected lots

Output Control daily output
Lead times Shorten lead times
Process delays Reduce number of process delays
Number of units sold Monitoring degree of achievement of sales
target
Sales amounts Checking budget achievement rate
Sales

Profit and loss Improving profitability

Number of sales visits Increase number of sales visits to retail
outlets
Added value Controlling profit
Number of sudden realizations and Preventing accidents at work
Safety

cold shivers
Number of danger anticipation Enhancing safety training
training courses

199
 Tab. 7.3 ( -Continued)
Target Characteristic Application
Number of accident-free days Improving safety consciousness
Effluent water BOD (biological Cleaning up the environment and preventing
oxygen demand) compliance rate pollution
Accident severity rate Comparing with previous years, raising
Safety

safety consciousness
Accident frequency rate Accident statistics
Seat belt wearing rate Preventing road injuries
Number of unsafe items reported by Eliminating unsafe places
safety patrols
Attendance rate Monitoring attendance
Number of suggestions Energizing the workplace and promoting
Human relations

improvement suggestion schemes

Number of morning meetings
Meeting attendance rate
Rate of participation in recreational
activities
Number of workplace discussion
meetings
Familiarizing with higher-level policies
Improving awareness of activities
Creating vigorous workplaces
Bolstering workplace communication
200
 Tab. 7.3 ( -Continued)
Target Characteristic
Meeting participation rate
QC tool utilization rate
Number of topics completed
Number of activity reports
QC circles
submitted
Number of topics presented
Annual financial benefits
Number of meetings
Number of suggestions
Circle activity evaluation score
Number of complaints
Time taken to transfer telephone
calls
Service
Telephone waiting time
Immediate-response rate
Time take to deal with
abnormalities
Repair times
Application
Improving participation in meetings
Raising circle’s abilities
Increasing number of topics completed
Identifying state of activities of circles
Keeping circles alive
Raising level of activities
Promoting circle activities
Raising morale
Raising circle’s abilities
Preventing recurrence of complaints and
improving service
Reducing time taken per call for call transfer
Reducing waiting time for outside callers
Improving rate of immediate responses to
inquiries
Controlling provisional and permanent
countermeasures
Reducing times taken to repair office
equipment
201
Substep 3: Decide on targets and the time limits for their achievement.

A target is a number indicating the level of improvement

that must be attained.

It is determined by balancing the ideal against restrictions

such as time constraints and the amount of manpower and
money available for investment in the project.

Do not set vague objectives such as "We would like to stop

giving the wrong change at the cash registers," or "We
would like to raise the recovery rate of accounts receivable."

202
Targets must clarify the following three points:

1. What? (control characteristic)

---e.g., value of mistaken change.

2. By when? (time limit)

---e.g., by November.

3. By how much? (target value)

---e.g., reduce from $500/month to $50/month.

203
There are no fixed rules deciding on target values, but they
are usually chosen from considerations such as the following:

1. The amount by which we want to reduce the number of defects

or nonconforming products.

2. By comparison with values set by other divisions.

3. Values that must logically be so.

4. Values that must be achieved regardless of other considerations

(e.g., those relating to safety and pollution prevention).

204
The following are some standard target-setting approaches:
• The zero approach --- reduce the number of defects
or nonconforming products to zero.

• The halving approach --- halve the number of

defects or nonconforming products.

• The one-third approach --- reduce the number of

defects or nonconforming products to a third of their
present values.

205
The seven conditions that well-set targets must satisfy are as follows:
1. They must produce benefits that outweigh the cost and effort of
producing them.
2. They must be high enough to provide motivation.
3. They must be capable of being achieved.
4. It must be possible to check whether or not they have been
achieved.
5. All involved must accept them and believe in them.
6. They must stimulate desire and action on the part of the group
members.
7. Their relevance to higher-level policies and other departments
must have been carefully considered.

206
Step 3: Plan activities
We do this by answering the questions "Who?" and "How?" In other words, we draw
up a plan for working together on the project, and allocate people's responsibilities.

Substep 1: Decide action items.

Here we decide on the action items: that is, we decide how to proceed with
investigating the existing situation, analyzing the causes, and so on, in
accordance with the QC Seven-Step Formula. Next, we assign responsibilities
for each of these items, taking account of the situation in the workplace and
the individual abilities of the team members.
Substep 2: Decide schedule of activities.
Discuss when each of the action items should be started and by when it
should be completed, and decide on a schedule. The project should generally
last for about three to four months. This is because activities like this
inevitably tend to run out of steam if allowed to go on longer, and the project
will grind to a halt.
Substep 3: Draw up an activity plan.
In this step, an activity plan is drawn up in the form of a bar chart, arrow
diagram, and the like.
207
Step 4: Analyze causes

Analyzing the causes means using QC tools to investigate

the relationship between causes and quality characteristics
and pinpointing the particular factors that are adversely
affecting the characteristics.

Here, "causes" means the main factors that are creating

problems and appear likely to be influencing the results of
the process.

208
The causes should be analyzed according to the procedure entailed in the
following substeps:

Substep 1: Summarize the system of characteristics and causes on a

cause-and-effect diagram.

Start by listing the various possible causes. Hold a brainstorming

session attended by all those directly and indirectly involved in the
work, gather large numbers of opinions, and draw up a cause-and-
effect diagram together with sketches of the phenomena.

Next, examine all the possible causes entered on the cause-and

effect diagram on the basis of technical knowledge and experience,
and single out those considered to have a particularly strong effect
--- the ones that ought to be checked by collecting data. Highlight
these on the diagram.

209
Substep 2: Analyze the relationship between characteristics and
causes using QC tools.

The important thing here is not to guess but to identify the facts
correctly. To do this, we should analyze data such as the following
using QC tools:

1. Past data
2. Stratified daily data
3. Fresh data obtained from experiments in the workplace

210
When analyzing data, we should remember to do the following :
1. Examine differences between strata Stratify the data according to the 4Ms
(Machines, Manpower, Materials, and Methods), prepare stratified graphs,
histograms, scatter diagrams, and control charts, and look to see whether or not there
are any differences between different strata.

2. Examine time changes Use graphs, checksheets, and control charts to see
whether or not the characteristics and causes are changing with time.

3. Investigate correlation Prepare scatter diagrams and check correlation between

paired sets of data --- that is, between causes and characteristics, causes and causes,
characteristics and characteristics.

4. Investigate the workplace and the hardware Carefully observe the workplace
and the people and things in it. If complaints have been made about nonconforming
items or products, use equipment such as electron microscopes if needed.
Substep 3: Summarize the results of the analysis.

Substep 4: Decide what items to tackle.

211
Step 5: Consider and implement countermeasures

Substep 1: Propose ideas for countermeasures.

To collect a wide range of ideas, it is best to use knowledge-pooling

techniques such as brainstorming.

Other effective methods for eliciting ideas include "idea-generating

strategies," defect listing, requirements listing, characteristics listing,
and the question-and-answer method (the checklist method).

Some idea-generating strategies are given in Tab. 7.4, and three

question-and-answer techniques --- the 4M technique, the 5W1H
technique, and the WUS (waste, unevenness, and strain) technique ---
are shown in Tab.7.5, 7.6, and 7.7.

212
 Tab. 7.4 Idea-Generating Strategies

Strategy Key point Example

1.Elimination What would happen if Replace milk bottles by
we did away with this cardboard cartons (eliminating
collection of empties)
2.Reversal What would happen if Replace static blood-doner
we did the opposite? centres with mobile vans (bring
things to people instead of
having people go to things – i.e.
do things the opposite way
round)
3.Normal and Is this unusual, or does Abolish timecards, monitor late
exceptional it happen all the time? arrivals and overtime only
(control abnormal situation
only)

213
 Tab. 7.4 Idea-Generating Strategies (Cont’d)

Strategy Key point Example

4. Consistent and What would happen if Divide dining-hall menu into
variable we only controlled the set menu and a la carte (control
things that change? exceptions)
5. Expansion and What would happen if Portable televisions and
contraction we made this bigger or cassette recorders (decrease
smaller? size to make transportation
easier)
6. Combination What would happen if Combine hammer and nail
and separation we combined or puller (combine functions)
separated these?
7. Collection and Try bringing things Combine telephone with
dispersion together or placing them answering machine, use trailers
apart for storage (streamlining)

214
 Tab. 7.4 Idea-Generating Strategies (Cont’d)

Strategy Key point Example

8. Addition and Try adding something or Combine broom, brush and
subtraction taking it away dustpan-vacuum cleaner
(integrate functions)
9. Changing order Try assembling in a Keep out of debt by earning
different order or money before spending it rather
changing the work than buying now and paying
sequence later
10. Same and Try making use of Use bolts of different color or
different differences shape for error-proofing
(highlight differences)
11. Sufficiency Can it be used for some Remove material from old
and substitution other purposes? Can it umbrella and use frame to dry
be replaced by rags on (re-use of scrap)
something else?
12. Parallel and Try doing things Use a blind brush to dust several
series simultaneously or after slats of a venetian blind at once
another (arranging tasks in parallel)

215
 Tab. 7.5 The 4M Technique
(1) •Are workers observing the standards?
•Are they working efficiently?
•Are they problem-conscious?
•Do they have a strong sense of
Manpower
responsibility?
•Are they skilled?
•Are they experienced?
•Are they assigned to the right jobs?
•Do they want to improve?
•Are human relations good?
•Are they healthy?
(2) •Do they meet production requirements?
•Do they meet process capabilities?
•Are they being properly lubricated?
Materials
•Are they being thoroughly inspected?
•Are they free of breakdowns and
stoppages?
•Are they sufficiently precise?
•Are they free of abnormal noise?
(3 •Is the quantity right?
) •Is the grade right?
•Is the brand right?
•Are they free of impurities?
Machines
•Are they stocked in the right quantities?
•Are they being used without waste?
•Are they being handled correctly?
•Are any materials-in-process left lying
around?
•Are they properly distributed?
•Are their quality levels satisfactory?
•Are they appropriately laid out?
•Are there too many or too few?
•Are they tidy and well-organized?
(4 •Are work standards satisfactory?
) •Are work standards kept up to date?
•Are the methods safe?
Methods
•Do the methods ensure good products?
•Are the methods efficient?
•Is the work sequence appropriate?
•Is changeover satisfactory?
•Are temperatures and humidity appropriate?
•Is lighting and ventilation adequate?
•Is there good liaison between previous and
subsequent processes?
216
 Tab. 7.6 The 5W1H Technique
(1) •Who is to do it?
•Who is doing it?
•Who should be doing it?
Who?
•Who else could do it?
•Who else should do it?
•Who is allowing WUS (waste, unevenness
and strain) to occur?
(2) •When is it to be done?
•When is it being done?
What?
•When should it be done?
•When else could it be done?
•When else should it be done?
•When is WUS occurring?
(3) •What is to be done?
•What is being done?
•What should be done?
Why?
•What else could be done?
•What else should be done?
•What WUS is occurring?
(4) •Where is it to be done?
•Where is it being done?
•Where should it be done?
When?
•Where else could it be done?
•Where else should it be done?
•Where is WUS occurring?
(5) •Why is that person to do it?
•Why do it?
Where?
•Why do it there?
•Why do it then?
•Why do it that way?
•Is any WUS occurring in our thinking?
(6) •How is it to be done?
•How is it being done?
•How should it be done?
How?
•How else could it be done?
•How else should it be done?
•Is any WUS caused by the method?
217
 Tab. 7.7 The WUS (Waste, Unevenness and Strain) Technique

Waste •Is the number of workers appropriate for the amount of work?
•Is there an excessive amount of time-on hand?
•Are the right materials in the right place at the right time?
•Is there any wasteful motion?
•Is there any waste in the way work is allocated?
•Is there any waste due to poor planning or setting up?
Manpower

Irregular •Are people in one area rushed off their feet while those in other
areas have nothing to do?
movement •Is the mix of experienced and inexperienced workers right?
•Are people too busy at one time and too idle at others?
•Is there any unevenness in the provision of training and
instruction?
Unnatural •Are there enough people to cope with the workload?
•Is any work being done manually that ought to be done by
operation machines?
•Are people getting much tired through working in strained
postures?

218
 Tab. 7.7 The WUS (Waste, Unevenness and Strain) Technique (cont’d)

Waste •Are machines being under-utilized?

•Are machines and tools being used effectively?
•Is there any waste due to poor layout of equipment?
•Are any machines lying idle?
Machines

•Are the production capacities of the various machines balanced?

Unevenness
•Is equipment being used unreasonably or wastefully?

Strain •Are equipment lifetimes being shortened by using them over their
designated capacity?
•Is equipment being looked after sufficiently well?
•Is low-precision equipment being asked to perform high-precision
processing?

219
 Tab. 7.7 The WUS (Waste, Unevenness and Strain) Technique (cont’d)

Waste •Are yields too low?

•Are still-usable items being thrown away?
•Are expensive materials being used where cheaper ones would
suffice?
Materials

•Are too many defective products being produced?

•Is necessary rework being done because of poor organization of
materials?
•Is corrosion being effectively prevented?
•Are supplementary materials being wasted?
•Is electric power being wasted?
•Is there any wasted due to poor design?
Unevenness •Are materials, parts, etc of uniform quality?
•Is there any irregularity in the properties of materials?
•Are products unevenly finished?
Strain •Is the strength sufficient for safety?
•Is there any strain in outsourced items (delivery requirements,
quality?)
•Is there any strain due to poor design?
220
Substep 2: Select countermeasures proposals.
Evaluate the countermeasure proposals put forward in the previous
substep from the following viewpoints, and select the ones that
appear effective and feasible:

1. Effect ---Does it seem likely to crack the problem effectively?

2. Feasibility --- Is it technically possible?

3. Economy --- How expensive is it to implement?

Substep 3: Discuss how to put the countermeasures into effect.

Answering the 5Ws and 1H is a good way to approach this.

221
Substep 4: Implement countermeasures.

Carefully consider how each countermeasure is to be implemented,

prepare provisional production standards and provisional work
standards, and implement the countermeasure in accordance with
these standards.

222
Step 6: Check results

Substep 1: Check results of improvements.

Stratify the data into data taken before and data taken after the
improvements were effected, and compare the situation before and
after using Pareto diagrams, histograms, and control charts.

Substep 2: Compare results with target values.

If the degree of attainment of the targets is insufficient, return to
Step 4 or Step 5.

Substep 3: Identify the benefits.

It is good idea to calculate the financial benefits as accurately as
possible, since this provides a common yardstick for evaluating
results.

223
The intangible benefits should be identified as well as the tangible
ones. Some typical intangible benefits are as follows:

1. Understanding of problem-solving methodology has deepened, and

problem-formulating and solving abilities have improved.
2. Leadership and teamwork have improved.
3. The QC mindset has taken hold.
4. Problem-consciousness, quality-consciousness, and improvement-
consciousness have been raised.
5. Problem-solving activities have become self-starting.
6. People have become able to utilize the QC tools skillfully.
7. A cheerful, competent workplace has been created.

224
Step 7: Standardize and establish control
The purpose of this step is to "apply the brakes" in order to lock our
hard-won improvements into place and to prevent backsliding. It
includes the twin aspects of standardizing and establishing control.
The following actions must be taken at this stage:

Substep 1: Make the temporary standards official.

When doing this, we should observe the following points:

1. Clearly spell out all the key points.

2. Note in the revisions column the reason for and date of any revision.
3. Obtain the agreement of relevant work areas.
4. Obtain the approval of superiors.
5. Follow the official guidelines for establishing and revising
company standards.

225
Substep 2: Decide on the method of control.
To make it possible to check whether or not the benefits of the
improvements are being maintained and the improved situation is
continuing, we must specify what control items and checkpoints
should be used and how the process should be controlled.

Substep 3: Disseminate the correct control methods thoroughly

among everyone concerned.

In this step, we hold special meetings or use the regular

morning assemblies to explain the specified control methods
and ensure that everybody affected is familiar with them.

226
Substep 4: Educate and train those responsible in the new working methods.
We cannot expect the work to be done to standard if we do no more
than hand over the new work standards to the workers and tell them to
get on with it. Some workers will not read the standards carefully
enough, while others will misunderstand them. Those in positions of
authority must lead their subordinates by the hand and give them
thorough education and training in the standards and the importance
of obeying them.

Substep 5: Check whether the benefits are being maintained.

Process abnormalities can be classified into the following three
types:

1. Abnormalities in control characteristics on control charts.

2. Product abnormalities, such as a sudden jump in numbers of
defective articles.
3. Abnormalities to do with the 4Ms, such as equipment failure.

227
Seven keys to skillful standardization and control
1. Raise everybody's quality-consciousness We must raise everybody's awareness
that quality is built in via the process.
2. Track down the causes of defects and mistakes and take action to prevent them
recurring
3. Lock the new working methods permanently into place To effect
improvements, we have to do something about the 4Ms (Manpower, Machines,
Materials, and Methods), and this means that our working methods are naturally
bound to change.
4. Follow work standards closely
5. Lock the control methods permanently into place Documents specifying
control methods are called "control standards." In setting them, we must take care
to answer the 5Ws and 1H in order to decide how data are to be collected and
processed, how the normal and abnormal states are to be distinguished, what sort of
corrective action is to be taken, and so on.
6. "Apply the brakes" by making use of control tools
7. Disseminate the new methods through education and training It is not good
enough simply to hand over new standards and tell the workers to get on with the
job. We must educate them in the reasons for the improvements and the key points
of the new methods to ensure that they are thoroughly understood. When the
workers have to master new skills in order to switch over to the new methods, they
must also be given the necessary training. 228
7.4 Case study
Step 1 : Select topic
Topic : skin pass scratches
Reason : The biggest quality problem is skin pass scratches.
Resultant losses due to reprocessing, delivery delay and
production disturbances are significant.
Step 2 : Understand the situation and set targets.

SKINPASS FEATHERING - Internal reject

1
0,9
0,8
% Internal reject

0,7
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0
ag 5
ju 5

ju 6
m 5

m 6
ab 5

ac 5

ab 6
05

no 5

ac 6
05

05

en 5

06
m 5

m 6
fe 5

se 5

fe 6
l-0

0
-0

-0
r-0

r-0
-0

-0
t-0

0
0
0

0
0

0
c-
n-

n-
p-

v-

u-

u-
b-

b-
e-

o-

e-
ay

ay
ar

ar
ju

oc

di
en

229
 Skin-pass feathering is a
distortion of the strip at the entry
of the skin-pass due to an
irregular elongation.

Target : Zero skin pass scratches by September, 2006

230
 Step 3 : Plan activities

Circle name: La Traviata Circle Date prepared : 21 March

Period
No. Action Item Leader
April May June July August

1 Select Topic Ikeda

Understand Situation and Hino

2
Set Targets

3 Plan Activities Ikeda

4 Analyze Causes Hino, Matsubara

Consider and Implement Matsubara

5
Countermeasures

6 Check Results Matsubara

Standardize and Takigawa

7
Establish Control

Note: Planned, Actual 231

Step 4 : Analyze activities
Phenomena
At the time of skin pass operation from rolling, annealing and pickling, and
skin pass processes, tiny foreign bodies stick to the surface of a skin pass
roll, get accumulated and copied to a product which went through
annealing and pickling processes. As a result pushed scratch-like quality
defects are generated on the surface of the product.
Analysis of foreign bodies
They mainly consists of Fe, Cr and Ni as stainless steel does and are tiny
metal pieces of metal wear caused by the contact between a product and a
roll.
Result of analysis

Si Mn Ni Cr Fe

0.3 0.6 5.1 12.4 55.0

232
How scratches are spreaded
When we magnify a skin pass scratch, it looks like an extremely tiny point-like
quality defect: Once a small foreign body sticks to the surface of a skin pass
roll, foreign bodies get accumulated to the point one after another.
The mechanism of generating skin pass scratches
At the time of skin pass operation, alcohol is dropped in order to remove dirt
on the surface of a roll and at the same time to improve elongation percentage.
After start up, rolls are warmed up and alcohol easily evaporates. If there is
defect on a roll surface, or if a foreign body escaping from the scraper sticks to
it, alcohol will condense and eventually evaporate at this point. Foreign bodies
will be accumulated at this point one after another, and the point will become
visible and grow as defect.
The problem
Metal pieces caused by rolling mill are unavoidable. At the annealing, removal
of oil fat is to be made and rolling oil can be removed, but metal pieces remain
on the surface of the product.

233
Step 5 : Consider and implement countermeasures
(3rd means)
Establish standards of acid
(2nd means) density
(Object) (1st means)
Install nitric acid cleaning
equipment
Establish cleaning standard
Eliminate metal
dust from material
surface Install the equipment of
removing stuck metal Establish roll replacement
dust standard

Establish brush replacement

Elimination
standard
skin pass
roll scratches Install roll polishers
Control suction power
Prevent metal dust
from sticking to the
skin pass roll Establish setting up standard
surface Change into a double
scraper
Establish replacement standards

Establish replacement standards

Maintain skin pass roll surface

Establish roll grinding standards

234
 Step 6 : Check results
Skin pass scratches have completely removed.

Step 7 : Standardize and establish control

Dirt collector
Double Replace at the time of skin
scraper pass roll replacement
Brush roll
Replace twice/month Material : bleached cotton cloth
Pressure : 10 + 2 A Replace after 2 coils or after stopping
Wiper more than 30 minutes
Pad
Replace after 1 coil
Pressure : 0.5 Kgf/cm2

Skin pass roll

Replace after 7 coils

235
CHAPTER 8

The Four Major Factors Influencing Process Capability

The most fundamental question about zero defects is :
“What are the conditions for zero defects?”
We will look at them from the viewpoints of 4M.
8.1 Materials : Material input control
8.2 Method : Establishment of SOP
8.3 Man : No human errors
8.4 Machine : Quality maintenance
8.5 Five Conditions for Zero Defect
8.6 Case Study 1
8.7 Case study 2
236
8.1 Materials
• Preparations for the materials (quality and quantity)
• Process of inputting the materials at the right moment, with the right
conditions (temperature, speed, etc.)
• Mixed material conditions (uniformity, etc.)

237
238
239
8.2 Method : Standardized method

• The method must be standardized.

• If the standard does not exist, operators carry out their jobs in their own
ways, resulting in the fluctuation of conditions, thus, change of quality. This
eventually leads to reduced yields.
• If the standard exists, but is not used at all, then it means that either
it is placed at the wrong point,
it does not explain how to do the job properly,
it is not possible to be followed as described,
or it produces a defective if it is properly followed.
• Confirm that it is followed correctly by the operator.

240
 The Content of O.S.

Standardize the operational method

Consistent results can be obtained Quality will stabilize

Any operator can obtain the same result.

Operational
Indicate the best method
standard
Instruct the know-how

Assure quality and safety

Fig. 8.1 The content of O.S.

241
 The Requirements of O.S.

It must be easy to read

It must be easy to understand

Documentation in one sheet !

Any misunderstanding should not take place
Operational Insert sketches
Must be written by operator’s words
standard
It must be written by operators

There should not be any omission of

important information

Confirm if the written instructions followed correctly

Fig. 8.2 The Requirements of O.S. 242

 Example 1 of SOP
Issue date : Approved by : (stamp)
Standard Operation Sheet
Approved by : (stamp)

Operation : Connect lead wires to snap terminal

Operation conditions : Snap terminal is set in jig and lead wires are individually connected by hand.
Materials : 1. Solder : H65S-W1.6
2. Snap terminal : Based on sample
3. Lead wires : Based on sample
4. Flux : 70 C melting point (manufactured by A Co.)
Technical standards
1. Keep solder vat temperature at 220 C. Check daily using temperature gauge and controller.
2. Add flux to solder whenever the operation voucher specifies a lot change (use a scraper to remove slag
build-up on solder surface.
3. Keep the flux vat at 80 C. The flux should be liquefied. Keep the flux level within the standard marks
on the vat.
4. Use the stripper to remove the plastic sheaths from the lead wire. Check sample to measure exposed
wire length (15mm). After stripping off the sheaths, bundle the wires to keep them together.
5. Always keep some solder on the soldering iron.
243
Operation method diagram
Operational steps Lot unit : 10 wires

No. Steps Time Points

(Sec.)

1 Cut lead wires 15 Use cutter

2 Remove sheaths 20 Use stripper

3 Apply flux, then 30 Do one wire at a

apply solder time and set
wires in cooling
jip when finished.
4 Insert wire through 60 Set snap terminal
plastic section in jig

5 Solder and set 60 Use specialized

down soldering iron

Special notes 6 Move from jig to 15 Jig must cool

1. The inspection consists of a tensile test on the jig down
soldered snap terminal (before cooling and before the
7 Remove from jig 60 Do tensile
plastic terminal has been screwed.)
and tighten screws strength test
2. Be sure to describe any abnormal parts or before assembly
operations and suggest improvement points.
Total 330 33 seconds per
wire

244
Fig. 8.3 Example 2 (Inspection standard) 245
 8.3 Man

Skills Overconfidence
Immaturity Education and Training

Man Bad habits due to past experiences

Attention Health problems, fatigue, worries

Excessive stress
Loose mind
Carelessness
Absent mindlessness

Error, misunderstanding, misjudgment, misoperation

246
Human forgetfulness and consciousness

Recognition Judgement Action

Short term Long term

memory memory
Image perception
Pattern percep-
Checking
tion
Information

Manipulation
Preprocessing
Sensing

Analysis Decision

109 bits/sec. 102 bits/sec. 107 bits/sec.

Root cause
Consciousness
of human
level
errors
247
Fig. 8.4 Information processing model of human beings
 Longest life span of short term memory 15 sec.
(by the experiment of Brown & Peterson)

Remembering Model
The rate of remembering words

Rehearsal

Short term Long term

Information memory memory

Forgetfulness Forgetfulness
(1) (2)

Time (sec.)

Fig. 8.5 Human forgetfulness (short term)

248
 Time Remembering Forgetting rate
rate
20min. 58% 42%
1 hour 44% 56%
9 hours 36% 64%
1 day (24 hours) 34% 66%
Remembering rate (%)

2 days 28% 72%

6 days 25% 75%
31days 21% 79%

Number of days

249
Fig. 8.6 Forgetfulness curve by Evinghouse
Human Consciousness

1. Consciousness depends on the environment.

2. Human errors are liable to lead serious errors when phase level goes down.
3. The situation of phase III last for 2 – 5 minutes.
4. Design for fail safe must be considered even in the case of phase I.

250
 Table 8. 1 Various phases of human consciousness

Phase Conscious- Direction of Physiologica Reliability

ness attention l condition
situation
Zero Unconsciou 0 Sleep, 0
s cerebral
attack
I Subnormal Carelessnes Tiredness, Below 0.9
Indistinct s monotonous
sleepiness,
drunkennes
s
II Normal, Passive Rested, 0.99 ~
Relaxed Inward Normal 0.99999
operation
III Normal Active Positive 0.999999
Clear Positive activity

IV Hyper- Too much At the time Below 0.9

normal focus on of emotional
one thing excitement
Panic
situation
251
Facts
：
• Man cannot stand excessive tension.

• Man gets nervous when a problem takes place.

• Man easily forgets what was informed.

252
Achieving zero human errors

1) Toward zero human errors

Growing capable Elimination of near misses

operators who do not
make mistakes Study meetings to eliminate human errors

Fool proof at the time of product changes

Fool proof at the time of changing

Introduction of equipment / doses
fool proof devices
Fool proof devices by proactive approach
to zero human errors

Eliminate unclear standard processes

Establishment of
standards
Reconsiderations of standards for zero
human errors
253
Fig. 8.7 Toward zero human errors
2) Typical human errors

(1) Errors in recognition

Mis-recognize visual information.

(ex.)
• Thermometer, pressure gauge.
• Check if the temperature is normal or not by looking at the thermometer
chart in the control room.
• Check the pressure gauge of the reactor within the range of 1kg/cm2.

254
(2) Errors in judgement

Take wrong actions after receiving information.

(a) There are time and distance lags.
(ex.) Receive information in the control room. (memorize)

Make a mistake in manipulating valves at the shop. (remind)

(b) Make mistakes in operating the equipment to reach a certain

target and in setting up.

(ex.) Open the valve by looking at the cumulative dose of

the measurement device.

Close the valve at a wrong timing.

(c) Convert the information into values and take actions.

(ex.) Make wrong calculations in determining the oil volume to
add by checking the oil level of the tank.
255
 Forget to do

There are time and distance lags.

Get occupied with other things.

(ex.) Open valves on the 3rd and the 1st floors.

After finishing another job, close the valve on the 1st floor
and forget to close the one on the 3rd floor.

(3) Errors in action

(ex. 1) Choose a wrong material.

(ex. 2) Choose a wrong measurement device.
(ex. 3) Choose a wrong packing material.
(ex. 4) Make a mistake in reading a scale.

256
3) Points of countermeasures

1st point: Make "the information" easy to see and read.

%
Obtaining rate 87%

7%
3.5% 1.5% 1%

Eye Ear Nose Skin Tongue

Fig. 8.8 Obtaining rate of information by five senses 257

Eyesight

Visual angle

Fig. 8.9 The range that people can watch closely

258
 The following shows the range of height, which is easy to watch, for the
panel (operator height : 165cm, eye height : 150 cm, distance from the
panel : 2 m).
A

Panel position
A : Utility
B : Graphic display
C : Indicator
Eye height D : Adjustment and recorder
E : Manipulation

Fig. 8.10 The range of height which can be easily watched

259
(ex. 1) Utilize not only letters but also marks, patterns and colours.

tank
tank

tank

(ex. 2) Clarify the range of normal standard.

Colour the gauge to clarify the

standard or normal value.

260
2nd point: Call the operator's attention when necessary.

(ex.) A buzzer sounds when the operator forgets to close the valve.

261
3rd point: Make a device in such a way as to control the action.

(ex.) Prepare a specific scale for each container.

262
4) Determine the basic conditions, etc.

As a prerequisite of making the “fool-proof device system”, it is

important to determine the “basic conditions of the workshop”.

(1) Stabilize the process operations

Troubles very often cause mis-operations directly, or indirectly.

It is inevitable to stabilize the process operations

・ Determine the basic conditions by inspecting

deteriorations at early stages, detecting small
defectives and carrying out thorough maintenance.

・ Investigate chronic defect.

263
(2) Secure the environment to be able to carry out accurate operations

Immature skills or irritation of operators may cause mistakes.

It is required to prepare comfortable working environments.

・ Promote 5S activities.

・ Prepare the manuals to cope with troubles.

・ Make every member of the workshop follow the manuals without

fail.
Leaders must take the lead to follow the manuals.

・ By clarifying unclear work assignment or procedures, standardize

operation.

・ Make the work flow clear so that the operation of the next stage
understands easily he has to do.

264
(3) Prevent mistakes in irregular operations

It is effective to predict or forecast mistakes.

By carrying TBM (Tool Box Meeting) before the operation,

confirm procedures or preparations, check mistakes which took
place in the past and arouse attentions.

265
5) Basic error-proofing method
1. Create methods of working that cannot be mistaken no matter who follows them.
2. Arrange things so that, if an error occurs, either it is immediately noticed or its
effect is nullified.

Implement error-proofing Good products

1. Make things visible (quality)
2. Reduce and eliminate the degree of freedom of choice
Guaranteed
(no room to mischoose a wrong thing)
3. Eliminate interchangeability (limited use, specific use) production volumes
4. Have workers give verbal and hand-signed confirmation (quantity)
5. Implement foot proof concept
6. Install warning lamps and buzzers Just-in-time supply
7. Hide unneeded items, use check lists (delivery)
8. Fit automatic shutdown mechanisms
9. Install mechanisms that prevent machines from working Trouble-free work
if something is wrong (efficiency, cost)
10. Automation (program, sequence)
…fixed, can not be changed by the program and/ or Zero accidents
sequence (safety)
Fig. 8.11 Implement error proofing
Fool proof: device not to make a mistake
Fail safe: device to prevent the worst thing to happen even if errors take place
266
 8.4 Machine
8.4.1 Seven Steps of Quality Maintenance
STEP7
Improvement of the
Establishment of

maintenance method
STEP6 of the conditions for zero defects
Conditions

Maintenance of the Efficient time-saving

Optimal

checking of the
proper conditions optimal conditions
for zero defects Carrying daily inspection and -- Trend checking, etc.
STEP5 scheduled inspection into effect based
on the inspection standard sheet
Establishment of the -- Quality maintenance matrix
Condition Analysis

proper conditions
STEP4 for zero defects
Establishment of the inspection
standard sheet by taking proper
Reducing and eliminating inspection items into consideration
all possible causes
STEP3
of chronic losses
Restoration of the equipment based on the PPA
-- Checking of the result by PPA
Factor analysis of
chronic losses
Factor analysis of unknown causes
STEP2 -- Processing point analysis
Current Conditions

Restoration
STEP1
Investigation of
current conditions
Clarify the relationship among
quality characteristics, equipment
and the operation method
-- Process FMEA, QA matrix
Restoration of the equipment to
proper working conditions for
known causes
-- Investigation of the 4M
conditions, table of the
countermeasures against the
defects

Fig. 8.12 Seven steps of quality maintenance 267

 Seven Steps of Quality Maintenance
STEP POINTS
Current Conditions
1. Investigation of current Clarify the relationship among quality characteristics, equipment and the
conditions operation method
-- Process FMEA, QA matrix

2. Restoration Restoration of the equipment to proper working condition for unknown causes
-- Investigation of the 4M conditions, table of the countermeasures against the
defects
Condition Analysis

3. Factor analysis of Factor analysis of unknown causes

chronic losses -- Processing point analysis

4. Reducing and Restoration of the equipment based on the PPA

eliminating all possible -- Checking of results by the PPA
causes of chronic losses

5. Establishment of the Establishment of the inspection standard sheet by taking proper inspection items
Establishment of Optimal Conditions

proper conditions for into consideration

zero defects

6. Maintenance of the Carrying daily inspection and scheduled inspection into effect based on the
proper conditions for inspection standard sheet
zero defects -- Quality maintenance matrix

7. Improvement of the Efficient time- saving checking of the optimal conditions

maintenance method of -- Trend checking, etc.
the conditions for zero 268
defects
 8.4.2 MQ Analysis
Inspection item
Q Process control item Machine M
characteristic
s Section Characteristics Check Large Medium Small

Screw
Clearance
clearance
Rubber • Mooney
property • Hardness No
Motor
• Foreign r.p.m. vibration
rotation
substances Output
Bank quantity: Rubber
quantity
constant supply
for Hot water 60 ℃
extruder supply
Rubber constant
thickness quantity

Bank Temperature Temperature

quantity of hot water

Cutter
Feed width position

Machine Feed Mandrel

characteristics thickness thickness

Roller
Crown crown Crown
Roller shape quantity
Diameter: 0.25
Offset: 5/1000 Degree of influence
Roller Offset
Roller
shape quantity M: machine
clearance 269
Fig. 8.13 Q: product characteristics
8.4.3 X matrix
X matrix to relate defect mode, phenomenon, equipment section and Q components.

Roller bearing
Roller

Paper tension too high

Paper tension too low
Position C Section

Irregular rotation of
Setting position A
Q
Abnormal
components
Position B

phenome-
non
Defect
Wear

roller
mode

Scratch
Deformed edge
Crack
Wrinkle paper

270
Fig. 8.14 X matrix to relate defect mode, abnormal phenomenon, section and Q component
8.4.4 Q Components
Clarify the Q components (configuration) required to satisfy the quality
characteristics.

271
 Table 8.2 Q component identification

Relation to
Quality Relation to
Main Targeted Characteristics Checking
Functions Optimal
Components Function Methods
Conditions
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4

272
Take preventive measures against quality defects due to
machine performance deterioration

Process control Process guarantee Manufacturing

system items standards

List of Q components

Review of Q components
measurement items control chart

Check sheet for

inspection
Fig. 8. 15 Q components control

273
 Table 8.3 Matrix of Inspection Items of Q Components

Equipment positions A B C D
Outer diame-
End
Inspection items Setting positions ter move- face Wear Vibration
ment
movement
Below
Standard values
X=a a Below Below c Below d
Y=b b

Measuring intervals at tool change at tool change Starting time Once / month
at setup at setup
Grinding trace
Surface
characteristics

finish

Uneven gloss
Quality

Trace of rough grinding

Roundness
Curvature
Scratches

274
Table 8.4 Direct and indirect quality components
NO. Quality Phenomenon Preventive Method of
component measure checking
(Direct-type)
1 Rollers scratches, rust, wear, clean by touch
adhesion of foreign
matter, soiling

2 Spools scratches, soiling, handle with measure

deformation, off- care using
centering gauges

3 Bearings play, wear lubricate by

stethoscope

4 Locators displacement, tighten

slackness
275
 5 Dies and wear, corrosion, accuracy dimensional
molds inaccuracy control measurement

6 Heaters cutout clean measure

current

7 Thermo- disconnection, fix in position visual check

couples removal

8 Hoses and blockage, cracking clean measure flow

pipes rate

9 Couplings play tighten check

dimensions

10 Belts slackness, wear clean measure slack

276
11 Chains slackness, stretching clean measure
tension

12 Brake shoes wear regular check

inspection dimensions

13 Chutes blockage regular visual check

inspection

14 Filters, blockage regular pressure

strainers inspection measurement

15 Press and misalignment accuracy measurement

other control
machines

277
 ( Indirect type) → cutting oil, coolant, air, and other fluids
1 Dirt and blockage, surface anti-source check for dirty
foreign damage measures filters
matter

2 Temperature dispersion, regular measurement

temperature drop inspection
between inlet and
outlet

3 Flow rate blockage regular visual check

inspection

278
4 Pressure pumping-system regular visual check
abnormalities inspection

5 Voltage, faulty contacts regular visual check

current inspection

6 Noise disturbance install measure

shields

7 Poles, slip wear regular measure

rings inspection

279
8.4.5 QM Matrix
Example :

280
8.5 Five Conditions for Zero Defects

Question 1 － Are the conditions to be set clear?

- fixed and agreed?
- a method to check them exists?
- the conditions are easy to read and see?
Question 2 － Are the conditions easy to set?
- difficult?
- easy?
- preset?
Question 3 － Does the value of a condition of item vary?
- during normal production?
- only at set-up / start?
- exceptionally?
281
Question 4 － Is the variation visible?
- difficult to see it or check it?
- standard method to check it?
- it is continuously visible ?
Question 5 － Is the variation easy to restore?
- by maintenance?
- by operator?
- it is automatically reset?

282
8.6 Case Study 1 : Example of Improvement and Control of
Production Process
In general, when the quality control is performed in the factory, an adequate control
method must be applied depending on the nature and condition of the manufacturing process.
Accordingly, the procedure shown in this example may not always be applicable to every
factory without modification. This example is characterized by the application of control
chart, and improvement may be made by using other methods than the control chart.
(1) Outline of production process An example of quality control actually applied to
the manufacture of rubber packing is described below.
The example given here was based on the actual control records.
(i) Standard for product The product cited here is a rubber packing, and its
standard for dimensions is given in Fig. 8.16. The standard specifies the
tensile strength, hardness, etc. in addition to the dimensions.

Fig. 8. 16 283
 (-Continued)

(ii) Outline of manufacturing method This product is manufactured by

putting a certain quantity of compounded crude rubber in a steel die, and
heating and vulcanizing it loading with a press.
(iii) Factors influencing quality The chief factors which influence the tensile
strength and hardness are the composition of crude rubber, and the
vulcanizing temperature and time. As for the dimensions, the diameter is
determined by the die, while the height which involves dispersion is
influenced by the quantity of rubber charged in the die and the pressure at
the time of loading. This is considered to be caused by the necessity of
making vulcanization by charging rubber in excess of finished quantity and
permitting it to be forced out by the pressure of press.
(2) Selection of characteristic value Defective article is sometimes caused by
inadequate tensile strength and hardness as well as flaws, but in most cases caused
by dimensional nonconformity in height. For this reason, it was decided to take up
the height as a subject of investigation here, leaving other items under separate
control.

284
 (-Continued)
(3) Analysis of present status Heights were measured with 1286 recent products, and
the result shown in Fig. 8.17 was obtained.

Fig. 8.17
The following items have been clarified by the histogram of Fig. 8.17.
(i) The center of distribution of products is near 9.14 mm which is about 0.06
mm smaller than the center of specified value 9.20 mm.
(ii) This shows that so many products are too low in height.
285
 (-Continued)
(iii) The dispersion of products is too large in comparison with the tolerance
in the standard.
This makes it necessary to shift the average of heights to the larger side
and also to reduce dispersion. It is observed from the histogram that the
fraction defective is reduced from the present 30% to approximately 18%
only by shifting the center to the larger side, leaving the dispersion
unchanged.
(4) Investigating causes It is considered that the height can be increased and
thereby nonconforming articles can be reduced, by slightly cutting the die to
increase the depth.
The factors affecting the height were arranged by a characteristic diagram.

As a result it was noticed that there might be some differences among the
dies. And on measuring the depths of dies the presence of differences was found.
286
 (-Continued)
(5) Taking Countermeasures The dies were decided to be cut to reform.
The correction of dies having been finished, 5 samples were picked at random
from the whole products once in the morning and once in the afternoon, and the
analysis of preliminary data was carried out with the samples of 20 sets.
The result obtained was as follows.
= = 9.204
x
_
R = 0.104

The control limits calculated from them were as follow.

For –x chart,
_
=
UCL = x + A2 R = 9.264
_
=
LCL = －A = 9.144
x 2 R
For R chart,
_
LCL = D4 R = 0.219
_
LCL = D3 R = —
The above result plotted in the
control chart is shown in Fig.8.18.
Fig. 8.18 287
 (-Continued)
Fig. 8.18 indicates that in –x chart the points corresponding to sample number 18
and 20 fall outside the control limit. Investigation of its cause has revealed the
following fact.
The crude rubber charged into the die is a piece cut from a rubber sheet
extruded into a constant thickness. In this case, the thickness of extruded rubber
sheet sometimes varies from various causes. It was found that the thickness of
rubber sheet increased for the sample numbers 18 and 20, and this caused an
increase in the quantity of the rubber charged into the die.

(6) Further improving production process Thereupon, actions were taken to obtain
rubber sheet of constant thickness by controlling the extruding machine. In
addition, the cutter used for this operation was the one that was formerly employed
for products not requiring so much accuracy, and was thought to be inadequate for
this operation, so it was replaced by a cutter with higher accuracy. Further,
measures were taken to control the quantity of charged rubber separately by
control chart.
After such improvement on the production process, samples of size 5 were
taken from the same practice as before, and the data on 20 sets of samples were
plotted. The result obtained is as shown in Fig. 8.19.

288
 (-Continued)
It is observed from Fig. 8.19 that the improved control on the charging quantity
of crude rubber has reduced the dispersion in products. The control limits were
calculated by adopting the data of Fig. 8.19 as preliminary data.
=
x = 9.201
_
=
UCL = x + A2 R = 9.243
_
=
LCL = x －A2 R= 9.159
_
R = 0.072
_
LCL = D4 R = 0.152
_
LCL = D3 R = —

When the control lines

were drawn, it was observed
that the point for sample
number 16 fell outside the
control limit in –x chart. The
cause was investigated, but no
conclusion was reached, and
so the control lines were left
unchanged.
Fig. 8.19 289
 (-Continued)
(7) Confirming effect In order to check whether the extension of the control line
calculated by (6) can be used for future control, the histogram was made again
with the preliminary data of (6). The result is as shown in Fig. 8.20. As it was
indicated by this histogram that the product was within the tolerance of standard,
the production process was found to be in a satisfactory state.

Fig. 8.20
290
 (-Continued)
(8) Control of production process As the investigation made through (7) has
revealed that the improved manufacturing process is in a satisfactory state, the
control line obtained with (6) was decided to be continuously used for the future
control of the production process.
After the control of production process was started, each five samples were taken
at random from the whole lots, once in the morning and once in the afternoon in
the same manner as before, and the results of their inspection were plotted on the
control chart as shown in Fig. 8.21. It is observed from this chart that the
subsequent production is making smooth progress.

Fig. 8.21 291

8.7 Case Study 2 : Example of Improvement of Cylindrical Grinder

292
293
294
295
296
297
298
Structural drawing
of the cylindrical
grinder

299
300
301
302
303
304
305
CHAPTER 9

Processing Point Analysis

306
9.1 Processing point analysis
9.1.1 The meanings of processing
“Processing” at the workshop stands for the activities
such as “transforming”, “changing”, “disassembling or
assembling” material or parts manually or by using a
machine or equipment.
This processing is carried out by using tools, moulds
and/or jigs.

307
9.1.2 Processing point

This can be best explained by referring to the

following examples :
① The processing
point of the drilling
machine is the point
where the processing
drill contacts the
material. By
continuously moving
this processing point
perpendicularly, the
material is processed.
308
② The processing point Lathe Cutting
of the lathe is the point
where the cutting tool Chuck
contacts the material. By
continuously moving this
processing point, the Workpiece
material is cut into a part.

Cutting tool

309
③ The processing point of the grinder is the point
where the grinding wheel contacts the material (or
parts).

310
④ The processing
point of the arc
welding machine
is the point where
each part and the
core wire is
welded by arc. By
continuously
transferring the
processing point
at the fixed speed,
the two parts are
welded.
311
⑤ The processing point of assembly is the contacting
point or plane for sub assembling and fixing more
than two parts.

312
⑥ The processing point of plating is the contacting
surface of the workpiece and the fluid. By feeding
electric current on the contact surface, plating film
on the workpiece surface is formed.

313
“Quality of every part and workpiece
can be assured by continuously and
stably moving the processing point.”

314
9.1.3 Dispersion of the processing point
In the machining or assembling process of parts or
workpieces, if the processing point moves unevenly,
defectives will be produced.
For machines and equipment, the following six
systems should be considered, except jigs and tools
and machining conditions.
① Lubrication system which moves rotating parts,
sliding sections and contacting sections smoothly.
② Oil pressure system which assures the smooth
movement of the processing point in linear and
rotational movements by oil pressure.
315
③ Air pressure system which assures quick and
smooth movement of the processing point by air
pressure.
④ a. Driving system which changes natural
energy into power,
b. Transmission system which increases or
decreases the power,
c. Power system which changes power
transmitted from the transmission system into the
power of operational unit to maintain the
continuous movement of the processing point.
316
⑤ Electric control system which is concerned with
the three elements; the formation, positioning and
continuity of the processing point, by changing
electric energy.
⑥ a. Main equipment system which maintains the
balance in processing and the datum level and the
required rigidity of the machine.
b. Fastening system which sub-assemble many
parts to the main equipment and assures accurate
operation of each system.

317
 Machine Main Fastening system
equipment
condition system

Base
Electric Machining material
Level adjustment Bolts, nuts Oil lubrication
control system bolt system
Machining conditions
Main switch of electric box Base bolt Screws Lubrication oil
Oil tank
Control board Main flame Suction filter
Operating board Workpiece Pump unit
Datum level Pressure control valve
Relay box Washers Non-return valve
Tools Piping, joint
Detector Solenoid valve
Distribution valve
transmission
Electric motor
Transmission

Driving Transmission Lubrication section

transmission

The Grease

Grease pack
Piping unit
Lubrication
Operating
Chain

Grease
transmission
Brake
motor

clutch

Piping
Shaft

section

Joint
Cam
processing

system
lubrication
operating
point system
system
Actuator
Oil supply nozzle
Air volume control valve Actuator
Cock
Direction control valve Piping joint
Oil amount control valve Piping, joint
Piping, joint
Oiler Direction control valve Oil amount control value
Line filter Pressure control value
Air pressure control valve
Pressure control valve Pump unit
Filter Pump unit Suction filter
Air pressure source system
Suction filter Cutting oil tank
Operation oil tank Cutting oil

Air pressure Oil pressure 318

system system Cutting oil system
Depending on the machining purpose, each
equipment has several or all of these systems.

319
 Many parts (points) belonging to one system are
linked on one line in order to fulfill one function.
Therefore the presence of the dispersion of the
processing point is determined by the quality of the
surface on which each system is integrated.
When a machine is a cause of producing defectives,
it is because one or several parts on a certain line in a
certain system does not function properly. Therefore,
the dispersion of the processing point takes place.

320
 Then after going through the principle and
o p er ating s tan d ar d s o f mach in in g its
constituent systems such as the main system
and its sub systems should be clarified by
means of proper statements and sketches.

321
 Operating Operating Principle Operating Standards

Lathe Cutting Turn chucked 1.Turn workpiece at

workpiece,applying the specified RPM
Chuck the cutting tool to its and check for
surface.Move absence of wobble.
cutting tool parallel
2.The cutting tool
to the workpiece’s
should always move
Workpiece rotational axis to
in a straight line.
remove material
from its surface 3. Make sure
until specified shape workpiece center is
and dimensions are aligned with top
obtained. edge of cutting tool.

Cutting tool

322
 While drill is 1.Turn the drill at the
rotating,press it (feed specified RPM and
Drilling forward) to enable the check for absence of
drill and chisel edge evenness and wobble.
to remove material
Drill 2.Make sure drill’s
from the workpiece
cutting edges are the
and expel the material
same shape and size
via the drill
all around (check drill
grooves.A band
length and angle)
around the drill’s
perimeter provides a 3.Make sure the
hole guide and helps spindle moves in a
the drill penetrate in a straight line.
Workpiece straight line.

323
 1.Align center of
Internal Grinding Using two shoes to workpiece with center
support the of grindstone.
workpiece,turn it on
Packing plate the drive plate. Turn 2.Make sure of the
Grindstone the grindstone at workpiece rotational
high speed and centers and grindstone
repeatedly apply it are parallel.
to the workpiece 3.Make sure the
surface until enough workpiece and
of the surface has grindstone are both
been removed to turning at the specified
obtain the specified RPM and are free of
Shoe Workpiece shape and mobble.
dimensions.
4.Run only at the
specified cutting speed.

324
 Create an arc in an 1.Do not allow the
Arc Welding inert gas between current to fluctuate
the base material during welding.
and the electrode
2.Maintain a constant
and use the heat of
distance between the
Electrode the arc to melt and
electrode and the base
fuse (weld) the base
material.
material.
3.Hold the electrode at
the specified angle when
Arc moving it forward to
weld along the base
Base Material material.

325
9.1.4 Processing point analysis

Defectives such as scraps and repairable defectives

caused by a machine and the machine losses are the
results of the multiple effect of defects of some part
on a certain point in each system.
In processing point analysis, neck analysis of
defectives should be carried out for each production
line and the most appropriate equipment or machine
should be chosen for efficient and effective
improvement.

326
9.1.5 Clarify all the check items for each
section and determine the overall check items.

It is not possible to clarify all the check items of each

section in each system unless the unacceptable state
of “the point” of each check item is clear.

327
The overall checking items of an oil tank.
Packing Oil inlet

Oil filter
Upper board

Tank Packing

Oil level gauge

< The overall checking items of an oil tank>

• Oil level gauge
• Damage of the tank
• Seals on the upper board of the tank
• Oil inlet and oil filter
• Dust and dirt on the inner bottom of the tank
328
9.1.6 Clarify know-why

After establishing the overall check items, clarify for

each check item the know-why of the following :
1)Checking method and evaluation criteria
2)Direction of improvement
3)Reason for the necessity of improvement
4)Outcome if improvements are not carried out

329
 Example:The overall check sections of an oil lubrication
system and check items;
①Oil leakage in the pipe or at the joint
①Oil leakage at the pipe connections
distribution valve
①Pulsation of the
②Checking of discharged oil
pump ②Crush and scratch on the pipe
②Abnormal noise joint pipe Distribution valve
of the motor
<Check items of the
③Temperature of Pressure control valve sliding section>
the motor Pump unit ①Pressure gauge
①Lack of oil film
②Refastening of the
pipe connections Rotating section ②Damage of dust removal
wiper
③Checking operation
of pressure control <Check items of the
valve rotating section>
①Lack of oil film
①Checking of oil type Oil tank ②Deterioration and
Lubrication oil ①Oil level gauge damage of the oil seal
②Change of oil color
③Mixing of dust and alien obstacles ②Damage of tank ③Wear metal

④Mixing of water ③Seal on the upper lid of the tank

⑤Mixing of air bubbles ④Oil inlet and oil charge filter
⑥Checking of viscosity ⑤Line filter
⑦Checking of oil temperature ⑥Dust, dirt at the bottom of the inside of the tank 330
Checking methods and know-why (1)
Section
Upper limit
Oil tank line

Checking items

(1) Check the level of

Lower
the oil level gauge limit line

Checking methods and evaluation criteria

•By cleaning the oil level gauge, check if the oil level gauge is broken or not, if the
upper and lower limit lines have disappeared or not and if the oil level is appropriate or
not.

331
Improvement directions in the case of “no”
•Change the oil level gauge.
•Draw the upper and lower limit lines of the oil level gauge.
•Supply lubrication oil up to the upper limit line.

Know-why (Why is this improvement required?)

・Breakage of oil level gauge → Dust will be mixed in lubrication oil.
・Dirty oil level gauge, disappeared upper and lower limit lines
→Impossible to read the gauge
→Overflow takes place at the time of oil supply
→ Waste of oil
→ Make the machine and the floor dirty
→Insufficient oil quantity
→Induction of air
→ Abnormal wear of the pump
→Lower air pressure
→Oil film of the lubrication required section being cut
→Unstable transfer of the processing point
→Defecting quality
→Lowered speed
→Stoppages by breakdown
→ Oil film of the lubrication required section being cut

332
Checking methods and know-why (2)
Section

Oil tank

Checking items

Oil filter
(4) Check the oil inlet
and the filter

Checking methods and evaluation criteria

•Remove the oil inlet cap and clean the inlet

•Check if there is oil filter installed
•Remove the oil filter and check if there is dirt, clogging or damage on the filter
•Check the mash of the filter
333
Improvement directions in the case of “no”
•Install the oil filter
•Clean the oil filter
•Exchange the oil filter with a new one

Know-why (Why is this improvement required?)

・Damage of the oil supply filter or no filter

→Invasion of dust and dirt
→Clogging of the suction filter element
→Occurrence of cavitations
→Unstable supply of oil to the lubrication required section
→Oil film of the lubrication required section being cut
→Abnormal wear of the lubrication required section
→Unstable transfer of the processing point
→Defecting quality
→Lowered speed
→Stoppages by breakdown
→Induction of dust and dirt
→ Abnormal wear of the pump and the valve
→Lower pressure
→Unstable oil supply to the lubrication required section
→ Abnormal wear of the lubrication required section
→ Forced deterioration of lubrication oil

334
Checking methods and know-why (3)
Section

Oil tank

Checking items Rust, alien Rust, alien

substance substance

(5) Check dust and dirt

on the inner bottom of
the tank Dirt, alien substance Magnetic bar

Checking methods and evaluation criteria

•By putting a magnet bar from the oil inlet and checking the bottom of the tank by the
magnet, check if there is any metal or alien substance stuck to the tank.

335
Improvement directions in the case of “no”
•Wash the tank
•Apply the rust inhibitor, which does not influence oil, on the inside wall of the tank
•Remove the source of rust
・Deterioration of the seals on the upper board of the tank and/or the piping section.
・Clogging of the element in the air breezier
・Oil pot

Know-why (Why is this improvement required?)

・Abnormalities within the tank

→Alien metal substance (mainly rust)
→Occurrence of seizing in the pump, valve and lubrication required section
→Unstable transfer of the processing point
→Deterioration of quality
→Lowered speed
→Stoppages by breakdown
→Dust and dirt
→ Deterioration of lubrication oil
→ Clogging of the suction filter element

336
9.1.7 Making of the overall check sheet

9.1.8 Detection of the defective states of the

parts surrounding “the processing point”.

337
 Overall Check Sheet
Oil lubrication system Section:lubrication oil Overall checking sheet
Step 4 - 1 Name of machine:
Headquarters Dept. Sec. Team Group

Classification
of factors Person
Check item Inspection method and Checking Improvement points Date
Fixed in
evaluation criteria results in case of NG
/Partly fixed charge
/Variable
① Check if
the •Check if the lubrication
specified oil sticker is pasted or •Paste the new
lubrication not.Even if it is, can it sticker of the
oil is used. be seen easily? specified
lubrication oil.
② Check if •By sampling the oil
the from the middle of the •If the color of oil
lubrication tank and check it by the is +2.5~3.0 than the
oil color is color sample. new color, remove
changed or the sources, wash
not. •Check the sampling oil the tank and change
by sight. the oil by the new
③ Check if one.
dust or •By putting 2 or 3 drops
alien of oil on the filter paper, •Remove the
substance check if there is any sources, wash the
is mixed in dust or alien substance tank and change the
the or not. oil by the new one.
lubrication
oil or not.
338
 •Check the cloudiness
④ Check if by sight.
water is •Remove the
mixed in the •By putting 2 or 3 sources, wash
lubrication drops on the test paper, the tank and
oil or not. check by color change the oil
samples. by the new one.
⑤ Check if air •By looking from
bubbles are •Remove the
mixed or not. outside, check if there sources.
are air bubbles rising. <Fixed
⑥ (Check the •(By using the factor:>
viscosity of viscosity measuring
lubrication The factor
oil.) tool, measure the which will not
stretched length.) change for
⑦ Check the •By putting the half a year
temperature thermometer from the after being
of oil supply inlet, check once restored
lubrication if the temperature is •Solve the or improved.
oil. between 20and 50℃ causes and take
countermeasures, <Partly fixed
•Check the or install the oil factor:>
temperature by cooler. The factor
touching. which changes
in several
weeks or
monthly.
<Variable
factor:>
The factor
which changes
daily or weekly.
339
9.2 Basic points of processing point analysis

(1) Study and inspect the target process, from the

viewpoint of quality or productivity.
(2) Understand the basic principle and operating
standards and grasp their meanings precisely.
(3) Analyze results and try to draw sketches of the
phenomena (individual phenomena, completed
phenomena and progressive phenomena) in detail
by yourself.

340
Progressive Phenomena : Part Positioning
Prongs
If a pair of mechanical prongs is used to center a
part, it must do so to within 0.05 mm accuracy. If
this standard is not met, the suction nozzle used to
pick up the part will not be able to get a good hold
on it, and the part may be dropped.
Suction nozzle

Part

Two prongs center part

○ so it can be picked up
×
firmly by the suction
nozzle. 341
Completed Phenomena and Individual Phenomena :
Parts
get caught, jammed, or wedged in the feeder
chute
Parts get caught
Counter
• What feature of the part gets Shutter

caught on what feature of the chute?

• What kind of dents or protrusions exist
in that particular segment of the chute?
Shutter
Use a magnifying glass to inspect them.
• Describe the features of those parts
Which tend to get caught.

342
Observation methods
Observations can be made with the naked eye, a
magnifying glass, or a small video camera (normal
home-use type).

Magnifying glass 343

High-speed video recording enables you to see
motions that are too rapid to be caught by the
human eye or by standard, home-use video
camera.
Under the proper conditions, high-speed video
cameras can record events that occur within
Clarify the phenomena - high speed camera
just a few milliseconds.
Analysis of phenomena Study the phenomenon of
stoppage by a high - speed
camera or (video).

344
(4) Analyze causes by clarifying the following six factors
for each system and its sections:

① Name
② Purpose
③ Function
④ Components
⑤ Principle (of the function)
⑥ Operating standards (the necessary conditions
and maintenance)
345
e.g. An oil lubrication system can be explained as follows ：

(a) Six factors of the compulsory central

lubricating method

① Name ： Compulsory central lubricating method

② Purpose ： Feed lubrication oil to the sections
which require lubrication oil.
③ Function ： Pump up lubrication oil from the tank
and supply the required amount of oil to the
lubrication required sections.

346
④ Components ：Oil tank, pump, motor, oil level
gauge, suction filter, oil supply inlet, drain plug,
electric terminal box, oil quantify adjustment bolt,
discharging inlet, rotational direction check
window, feeding button, pressure gauge, pressure
co n tr o l v alv e, j o in t, p ip es , d is tr ib u tion
valve, sliding sections, rotating sections, etc.

347
⑤ Principle : Based on the operating conditions of the
machine, the required amount of oil is pumped up for
each lubrication required section and feed oil
intermittently (by a timer) to the lubrication required
section.
⑥ Operating standards :
(The necessary condition) : There is the right amount of
lubrication oil.
(Maintenance) : Check the oil amount of the oil tank
regularly so that the required amount of oil is secured for
the lubrication required sections.

348
(b)Six factors of lubrication oil

① Name : Lubrication oil

② Purpose : Lubricate each lubrication required section
③ Function : Friction, washing, cooling, rust prevention,
corrosion protection, airtight.
④ Components : Base oil + additives
⑤ Principle : By making oil film between the two metals,
protect the metals from friction and let them move
smoothly.
349
⑥ Operating standards :
(The necessary condition) : At the lubrication required
section, there is the right amount of undeteriorated oil
without water, air bubble and/or foreign body.
(Maintenance) : Check periodically if there are no
water, air bubble, foreign body or deterioration at the
lubrication required section,

350
(c) Six factors of oil tank

① Name : Oil tank

② Purpose : Container for lubrication oil
③ Function : Secure the right amount of oil (within
the range of the upper limit line and the lower limit
line)
④ Components : Oil tank, oil level gauge, seal for
the upper lid of the tank, oil supply inlet, oil supply
filter

351
⑤ Principle : Lubrication oil in the tank is discharged
intermittently by the electric signals and thus the amount
of oil is reduced. It is controlled by the indication of
upper limit line and the lower limit line.
⑥ Operating standards :
(The necessary conditions) : The right kind of oil, the
right quantity of oil
(Maintenance) :
* Charge the right oil based on the label of the oil label.
* Control the amount of oil by periodic inspection.
352
(d)Six elements of a distribution valve

① Name ： Distribution valve, or resistance distributor

for intermittent oil supply
② Purpose ： Being equipped behind the pump, secure
the distribution of lubrication oil from the pump to the
several lubrication required sections.
③ Function ： Owing to the strength of the resistance
given to the discharged oil by the throttle valve in the
distribution valve, the required amount of oil is
distributed to each lubrication required section.

353
④ Components : Inlets, throttle valve, lock nut,
distribution valve bolts
⑤ Principle : After adjusting the amount of oil being
discharged by pump to the required amount for each
lubrication required section (by giving resistance to
oil flow), the lock nut is fastened.
In this way lubrication control is carried out.

354
⑥ Operating standards:
(The necessary conditions) : The lock unit is
securely fastened. No oil leakage.
(Maintenance): Check periodically the looseness
of the lock nut and oil leakage.

355
9.3 Seven steps of Processing Point Analysis
Step 1 : Conduct initial planning
1. General improvement goal for a particular process
2. Define the improvement theme and organize an im-
provement team.
Step 2 : Clarify the principles and operating standards by
making a sketch of the processing point.
Step 3 : Clarify the systems to constitute the processing
point, the systems to position the processing
point and the systems to maintain the continuity
of the processing point.
356
Step 4 : *Study abnormal quality phenomena and carry out
investigation from the viewpoint of the
processing principles and operating standards.
*Investigate the causes for moving the processing
point among processing conditions.
*Investigate the causes for moving the processing
point for each machine unit of each system.
Step 5 : Set clearly the processing conditions and the
machine conditions

357
Step 6 : Sum up the above via MQ analysis into the QM
matrix.
Step 7 : Continuously improve the process based on the 5
questions for zero defectives.

358
9.4 Examples
(1) Machine tools

359
(2) Aluminum extrusion

Extraction Positioning system

processing point
List up of checking
Die System to maintain
items based on the
continuity
functional structure
diagram of each
Tool system sub-system

34 sub-system Checking items:1224

Investigation of causal factors of cutting
section defectives
Center offset between the die
and the billet Die deformation

Aluminum flow Processing

resistance point

Processing Point Analysis of Aluminum Extrusion 360

 9.5 Visualization of the processing point
1. Quality Maintenance activities 2. Establish a quality assurance 3. Differentiating by
for machines system by letting hidden in-house
involving physical and processing points visible development of
chemical processes (Processing point quality
Defects
visualization) measurement
devices
Control of Q Inspection by Introduction of
components machines measuring a. Automatic device
Mode devices development to
analysis Control by results: Control by measure and test
•Inspection of causes:
sizes •Temperature
Analysis •Inspection of •Pressure
in relation of unevenness •Density
b. Process control
quality, physical and chemical •etc. techniques by the
processes •etc.
and equipment analysis of quality and
Setting
variable factors Visualize physical and chemical
to the fixing processes
points
Optimization
of process
conditions
Pump

Build-in quality at the process From operator’s responsibility to system

responsibility

Fig. 9.1 Visualization of the processing point 361

CHAPTER 10

Diagnostic Table to Check Quality Control

362
 Diagnostic Table to Check Quality Control
Line Score Evaluation
Ranking: Gold: 90-100 points Silver: 75-89 points Bronze: 60-74 points
Remarks

Step 1: Definition of current conditions

Contents of the activities Items to be assessed Score
1. Identification of all the defects and classification 1. Defect identification and
classification are satisfactory 5
of defect modes
All the defects occurred up to now have been identified
2. The identification and
and defect modes have been ranked into classes
classification of some issues 4
• Various manufacturing processes should be carried out with more
• Detailed description of defect modes (items, attention
measurements, point where it occurred,
direction) 3. Defects are identified, but no
2
• Conditions under which they occur (during classification is made yet
manoeuver, at the beginning of the manoeuver,
when the type of article changes, when
4. Defects are being identified
1
equipment fail)
• Treatment (scraps, repair)
• Defect mode occurrence (still taking place, in 5. Nothing has been done at the 0
the past, continuously, occasionally, seldom) moment
Remarks:
363
 Contents of the activities
2. Defect modes and zero defect conditions
To prevent defect recurrence, already ranked into
classes, what are we supposed to check within each
manufacturing process to put zero defect conditions
in order?
The important point is that zero defect conditions
are identified by cause-and-effect relationships.
Ex. : The speed during equipment manoeuvering
conditions, r. p. m., temperature, loading
capacity, etc.
Remarks:
Items to be assessed Score
1. Zero defect conditions (items to be
checked and standards) are clear
5
2. There are weak points in the
relationship between defects and zero 4
defect conditions but in general the
overall situation is positive
3. The identification of cause-and-effect 2
relationships is not careful enough
4. Cause-and-effect relationships are
being identified
1
5. Nothing has been done at the moment 0
364
 Contents of the activities Items to be assessed Score
3. A survey of the current conditions of 1. Assessment criteria are set and the
easiness of controls for zero defects
5
conformity
has been surveyed
How are conditions effectively checked, following
conformity? Is a survey carried out on the
2. Deeper surveys should be carried out
anomalies during maintenance check?
on some issues
4
It is critical to assess how easy it is to check
3. Checks are being surveyed
conditions for zero defects: 2
1. Is it possible to easily define zero defect
conditions for the various products? 4. Nothing has been done at the moment
2. Once these conditions are set, are they 0
stable?
3. In case change took place, is it easy to
recognize it?
4. In case change took place, is it easy to
restore the conditions for zero defects?

Remarks:

365
 Contents of the activities Items to be assessed Score
4. Fill in the QA Matrix 1. The QA Matrix has been filled in,
and at a glance it is possible to have
5
To assess the level of quality assurance in the an overall view of the quality
current situation, the previous points 1-3 have been assurance level
combined so as to create a QA matrix.
2. We are now filling in the QA Matrix
2
3. Nothing has been done at the
Important points in the matrix: moment 0
1. Is it possible to understand where defects
occur and which manufacturing
processes are involved?
2. Is it possible to understand the
relationship between conditions for zero
defects and defects?
3. Is it possible to understand the control
level for zero defects?

Remarks:

366
 Step 2: First restoring of the abnormal conditions
Contents of the activities Items to be assessed Score
1. Restoring and improving abnormal 1. Conditions have been restored,
improved and changed, and the QA
10
conditions and changes in the conditions for
zero defects matrix has also been completed

Are conditions for zero defects adjusted and 2. Restoration and improvement have
abnormal conditions improved based on the surveys been completed
7
carried out in step 1?

3. We are now restoring and improving 3

4. Nothing has been done at the
moment
0

Remarks:

367
 Step 3: Cause-and-effect analysis of chronic defects
Contents of the activities Items to be assessed Score
1. Cause-and-effect analysis through Process 1. More than 50% of the total number
of topics have been analyzed,
20
Point Analysis*
following the Process Point Analysis
Is a cause-and-effect analysis of the chronic defects steps
carried out by means of Process Point Analysis?
2. Around 30% of the total number of
10
topics have been analyzed

3. Process Point Analysis has just

5
started

4. Nothing has been done at the

0
moment

Remarks:

368
 Step 4: Attack against the main causes of chronic defects
Contents of the activities Items to be assessed Score
1. Restore and improve based on the plan of 1. More than 80% of improvement
and restoration have been 10
countermeasures
completed and a result has been
Are restoration and improvement carried out obtained with reliable data
following the plan of countermeasures based on the
cause-and-effect analysis of step 3?
2. Percentages of improvement and
restoration are lower than 80%
5

3. Improvement and restoration have

just begun
0

Remarks:

369
 Step 5: Definition of zero scrap condition
Contents of the activities
1. Establish criteria to check Q components
Have control criteria and Q components been
established to maintain the improvement and
restoring conditions?
To establish such criteria…
1. Determine the Q components
2. Define control criteria (control methods
and management criteria)
3. Review the different types of standards
(equipment control process sheet,
maintenance calendars, control sheets,
QA matrices)
4. Indicate the appropriate Q components
for the various parts of the equipment
Items to be assessed Score
1. The process for Q Components
determination has been completed
15
and the various equipment parts
have been indicated
2. Q Components have been
determined at least up to the revised
10
standards
7
3. At least the process to determine Q
components has been completed to
define control criteria
3
4. Only the determination of Q
components has been completed
5. The Q Component determination has
0
just started

Remarks:

370
 Step 6: Check conditions for zero scraps
Contents of the activities Items to be assessed Score
1. Control of Q components’ trend 1. Trend control has been carried out
with SQC over more than 50% of Q
15
Are controls carried out based on Q components components
control criteria? Are prediction made about quality
defects, based on the data obtained from the results
of the controls carried out? 2. The trend control has been carried 10
out on about 30-50% of Q
components
Check the trend
1. Carry out control based on control criteria 3. The trend control has started using
2. Derive the trend from the data coming SQC
5
from SQC application
3. Obtain quantitative variations of control
4. No trend control is carried out
limit values 0
4. Formulate a system concerning the
design of restoring and the preparation of
components replacement
5. Carry out restoration based on the design
6. Check results

Remarks:

371
 Step 7: Improvement of zero scrap conditions
Contents of the activities Items to be assessed Score
1. Increase in the precision level and control 1. The control method has improved
effectively and with high precision,
10
effectiveness
by assessing the level of influence
By statistically obtaining data from the control on over quality characteristics
quality characteristics, such as cause-and-effect
relationships affecting the process, are control
2. Improvement aiming at increasing
criteria and methods improved effectively and with
effectiveness and precision has just
5
more precision?
started
1. Reduction of control limits values,
concentration of check items, lengthening of 3. The current situation has not changed 0
check cycles
2. Improvement aiming at simplifying control
methods, reduction of check times through
critical points’ improvement
3. Transformation of check methods using a
scientific approach, by using diagnostic
techniques

Remarks:

372
Quality Control : Key Questions

1. Do you find TQM is vitally important in pursuing WCM? If yes, in the figure at
which stage do you locate your company in TQM activity? (Tick the appropriate
check box(es))

Vision, strategy
Satisfactions of
stakeholders
Management
R & D
Marketing
Product planning
Design
Production preparation
Business
Manufacturing techniques
Purchasing
Manufacturing
Quality control
Inspection control

Inspection QC
Process QC
Total Quality
Control 373

TQM
 2.a How is your company’s policy established, deployed, understood implemented
and followed up? In other words, how is “policy deployment” used? (Tick the
appropriate box (es))

Non-
Very Good Good Average Insufficient
existing

(1)Goals deployment □ □ □ □ □
(2) Identification of means
□ □ □ □ □
to achieve the goals
(3) Control of Processes □ □ □ □ □
(4) Follow up □ □ □ □ □

374
 2.b Are the employees well informed of the management policy, objectives and the
current results? How does your company convey them to the employees? (Tick the
appropriate check box)

Non-
Very Good Good Average Insufficient
existing

Information about
□ □ □ □ □
management policy
Information about
□ □ □ □ □
objectives
Information about
□ □ □ □ □
current results

375
3. Obviously, to pursue WCM, the roles of managers are very important. What
roles do you think managers should carry out in implementing WCM? (Please tick
the appropriate box(es))
Constancy □
Vitality □
Executive Ability
Decision □
Positiveness □
Leadership □
Understanding circumstances □
Ability in Human Persuasiveness □
Relations Understanding the others □
Resistance to stress □
Understanding oneself □
Capacity of analysis □
Capacity to solve Capacity to collect information □
problems Planning ability □
Discernment □ 376
4. Achieving customers’ satisfaction is essential in WCM. To assure various
quality aspects of the product, what kinds of methods does your company use?
(Please tick the appropriate check box(es))

1. Reliable quality function Quality function deployment □

2. Reliable product design Specifications of parameters □
Specifications of tolerances □
3. Reliable quality assurance Design review, FMEA, FTA □
4. Reliable quality confirmation Control of important points □
Reliability testing □
5. Other: (Please specify) □

377
5. To assure various quality aspects of manufacture, what kinds of methods does
your company use in the manufacturing system design and pre-production
processes? (Please tick the appropriate check box(es))

1. Design of reliable manufacturing processes — specification of

parameters, specification of tolerances, investigation of process □
capability
2. Reliable quality assurance — process QFD, quality assurance
over the entire process, control of important points, reliability □
testing during production preparations
3. 100 % inspection at the critical processes — automatic testing,
□
fool proof devices, screening system, debugging system
4. Reliable workforce — QC circles, evaluation of skills □
5. Other: (Please specify) □

378
6. What kinds of QC tools does the company use for quality control? (Please tick
the appropriate check box(es))

1. Histograms □
2. Cause-and-effect diagram □
3. Check sheets □
4. Pareto diagrams □
5. Graphs □
6. Control charts □
7. Scatter diagrams □
8. Variance analysis, etc □
9. Experimental design □
10. Taguchi methods □

379
7.a How does your company feed back the information on market quality
complaints, take necessary measures and resolve them?

7.b How many percents of your sales turnover does your company spend
for taking care of market claims?

380
8.a What is the purpose of inspection:
* Is it (1) for sorting out good products from bad ones or is it (2) for taking corrective
measures to resolve the quality problem?

* When an inspector (or an operator) finds a defect, what does he/she do?

* What kinds of corrective measures are taken?

* In case of a machine trouble, what does he/she do?

* In case of a human error occurred in the previous process, how quickly does he/she
inform the person who has caused the problem?

*How is this quality trouble recorded?

381
9.a Does your company continuously motivate workers to improve and/or assure
manufacturing quality?

9.b Does the company use QC circles, a suggesting system, a proposal system or
reward system? (Please tick the appropriate check box(es))

QC circles □
Suggestion system □
Proposal system □
Reward system □

382
 10. What is the stage of your company in the following customer-supplier relation
on quality? Please circle the relevant stage(s))

Supplier Customer
Stage Production Inspection Inspection Production
department department department department
1 - - - 100% inspection

2 - - 100% inspection
3 - 100% inspection 100% inspection
4 Sampling inspection
- 100% inspection
or check inspection
5 Sampling inspection
100% inspection Sampling inspection
or check inspection
6 Check inspection or
Process control Sampling inspection
no inspection
7 Check inspection or
Process control Check inspection
no inspection
8 Process control No inspection No inspection

383