Mehlhorn (ed.

)
Manual
Bridges
Designing, constructing,
calculating,
building and
maintaining

Jumper
Gerhard Mehlhorn (ed.)

Handbook Bridges
Gerhard Mehlhorn (ed.)

Manual
Bridges
Designing, constructing, calculating,
building and maintaining

With contributions from

Francesco Aigner, Hugo Bachmann, Manfred Curbach, Annette Detzel,
Eva-Maria Eichinger-Vill, Ekkehard Fehling, Ursula Freundt, Gerhard
Girmscheid, Masaaki Hoshino, Thomas Jahn, Manfred Keuser, Johann Kollegger,
Ulrike Kuhlmann, Ulf Lichte, Ingbert Mangerig, Gerhard Mehlhorn,
Christian Menn, Harald Michler, Joachim Naumann, Thomas Petraschek,
Günter Ramberger (†), Peter Ruse (†), Silke Scheerer and Jürgen Stritzke

2nd, expanded and revised edition

13
Professor Dr.-Ing. Dr.-Ing. E. h. Gerhard Mehlhorn
Eichholzweg 7
34132 Kassel Germany
gu.mehlhorn@t-online.de

ISBN978-3-642-04422-9 978-3-642-04423-6 DOI

10.1007/978-3-642-04423-6
Springer Heidelberg Dordrecht London New York

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Foreword to the second
support

The great interest in the first edition of the book, published in 2007, justifies the second
edition after only three years. The updated versions of the DIN technical reports, the
editions of DIN-FB 100, 2005 and DIN-FBe 101-104, 2009 as well as various updated
regulations have been taken into account. The book thus corresponds to the status of
the regulations as of summer 2009.
In addition to the thorough revision of the first edition of the book, the updated
chapter 1 also deals with the recent development of the use of ultra-high performance
concrete (UHPC) in bridge construction. Furthermore, a new section on bridge design,
competitions and bridge construction prizes has been included in Chapter 1. The author of
this section is Mr. Dipl.-Ing. Joachim Naumann, Federal Ministry of Transport, Building
and Urban Development, Department S 18, Bonn. In 2006 and 2008, bridge construction
prizes were awarded by the Association of Consulting Engineers (VBI), Berlin, and the
Federal Chamber of Engineers, Berlin, under the auspices of the Federal Ministry of
Transport, Building and Urban Development, Berlin. The bridges selected by the panels of
judges, nominated for the awards and awarded prizes are reported on in section 1.6.8 by
the relevant design authors. We would like to thank them for this.
Two new sections have been included in Chapter 11, namely Damage to steel and
composite bridges, written by Francesco Aigner, and Continuous, computer-aided long-
term monitoring, written by Eva-Maria Eichinger-Vill and Johann Kollegger. The latter
topic is often referred to as monitoring.
Please refer to the preface to the first edition for the objectives, content and
organization of the book. Apart from the aforementioned, nothing has changed.
However, the numerical examples contained in the book have been revised in line with
the updated status of the regulations.
I would like to thank the reviewers for the first edition of the book and for their
letters, in particular Dr.-Ing. Doris Greiner-Mai, editor of Bautechnik, Dipl.-Ing. Erich
Fiedler, Kleinmachnow, my brother, Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dieter-Jürgen Mehl- horn, Kiel, and
Dipl.-Ing. Eberhard Pelke, Hessisches Landesamt für Straßen- und Verkehrswesen,
Wiesbaden, for their comments.
It is with great sadness that the publisher announces that one of the main authors of
the book, Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Dr.-Ing. Günter Ramberger, died in February 2009. The authors
of the book and I will always remember Günter Ramberger fondly. He was a highly
respected, successful and amiable colleague, university lecturer and engineer. I
discussed the basic concept of the book and the selection of authors for the individual
chapters with him and Professor Kollegger during my guest professorship at the Vienna
University of Technology in 1999.
VI Forewor
d
We also mourn the unexpected death of Dipl.-Ing. Peter Ruse, who died in August
2009. The authors of the book and I will always remember him fondly. He was
instrumental in the preparation of the second chapter.
We would like to thank the authors of the book, our colleagues at le-tex publishing
services GmbH Leipzig, including Mr. Patrick Waltemate, and above all Springer
Verlag, in particular Dipl.-Ing. Thomas Lehnert and Ms. Sigrid Cuneus, both Berlin,
and Ms. Cornelia Kinsky, Heidelberg, for making it possible for the book to appear in its
present form. May it again be well received by readers and provide suggestions for
designing good bridges.
Finally, I would especially like to thank my dear wife Ursel for her always valuable,
idealistic and active support and for understanding that I spent a lot of time writing this
book.

Kassel, January 2010Gerhard Mehlhorn

Foreword to the first
support

The book is intended to provide civil engineers involved in the construction of bridges
with an overview of the basic and specialist knowledge required for the design,
construction, calculation, construction and maintenance of bridges according to the
current state of knowledge. It is also intended as a textbook on bridge construction for
students of civil engineering and to provide an overview of possible solutions to
problems, and it may also serve as a supplement to the lectures, exercises, coursework
and dissertations offered at universities and technical colleges. Some chapters may also
be instructive for those interested in bridge construction and its development who are
not civil engineers.
It is the conviction of the publisher and the authors of the book that the problems of
bridge construction are not primarily material-specific. They are the same in many
respects when different materials are used, even if the use of different materials results in
quite different solutions to problems with regard to the structural design, in particular the
detailed solutions, fabrication in the factory and fabrication on site, i.e. on the
construction site. Of course, there are also different approaches to the calculation and
design of bridges for specific materials.
In order to bring engineers, who have often proven themselves to be civil engineers
in bridge construction, out of anonymity, this book also makes a point of naming the
engineers responsible for the design and construction of the bridges, the architects
involved and the construction firms and companies, if known.
The book is divided into thirteen chapters. The first chapter provides an overview of
the development of bridge construction from antiquity to modern bridge building. It is
important to us to look back at the excellent bridges of the past centuries, even
millennia, and to learn from the engineers who designed and built these structures and to
endeavor to build on their fundamental ideas to continuously develop modern bridge
construction with today's many better possibilities and to find completely new
solutions.
The second chapter deals with the various tasks, from the design to the maintenance
and upgrading of bridges, of engineers working in bridge construction in building
authorities, engineering offices, companies and construction firms.
The third chapter deals with the design of bridges, which is of crucial importance for
the construction, costs, appearance, integration into the environment and durability of
the bridges. First, the basic principles to be observed and the objectives of the design are
discussed. Subsequently, in section 3.8, twelve invited engineers explain the design
concepts they have chosen for selected, particularly successful bridges.
VIII Forewor
d
Chapters 4 and 5 deal with the cross-sectional designs and systems of the main
superstructure structures. These depend on the system and the function as well as the
material used for the construction of the bridge and vary accordingly. Various
developments in bridge construction are also shown in these chapters.
The sixth chapter explains the bridge bearings that connect the superstructure to the
substructure. Among other things, the tasks of the bearings (including earthquake
isolation), the choice of bearings, basic principles for determining the forces and
movements, the bearing resistances as well as measurements of bearing forces and
movements and special features of the installation of bearings are discussed. The
following seventh chapter deals with the substructures (foundations, abutments and
piers) and the issues associated with the substructures.
The eighth chapter explains the basics of calculating both the superstructures and
substructures of bridges and uses numerous examples to explain the calculations of
various selected problems that occur in steel, concrete and composite bridges.
Calculation examples of substructures are also included. Special problems of bridge
construction, such as temperature, vibration and earthquake loading, are also dealt with.
It is essential to consider the construction of the bridge, i.e. the manufacturing process
in the factory and on the construction site, as early as the design stage, but also during
structural processing, which is why the ninth chapter devotes a great deal of space to the
manufacturing and execution methods that are particularly important for bridge
construction.
The tenth chapter explains the bridge equipment, i.e. the deck design and sealing, the
various types of bearings, the expansion joints, protective devices, caps, railings, bridge
drainage, lighting, the accommodation of utility connections and finally the noise
protection systems.
The most important tasks in bridge construction today already include the
monitoring, evaluation, assessment, maintenance and repair of bridges and, in
individual cases, the upgrading of existing bridges, and they will become increasingly
important. These issues are therefore dealt with in detail in the final three chapters 11 to
13. It is important to define the necessary scope and intervals of the required structural
inspections and to formulate their uniform quality. The further development of non-
destructive testing methods is of great importance here. The results of measured
changes in shape must be compared with the pre-calculated values in order to be able to
make qualitative and quantitative statements about the condition of the structure.
Even though the editor of this book has always endeavored to coordinate the
contents of the individual chapters from the outset and during the creation of the
individual chapters and to influence them to some extent from his point of view, the
responsibility for the contents of the various chapters and sections lies with the
respective authors. The book was compiled over a period of seven years. For this
reason, the versions of the regulations given in the various texts correspond to the dates
on which the individual chapters and sections were completed. The regulations are
constantly being updated, which means that some details of some regulations may have
already changed and will continue to be adapted to the latest findings in the future. It is
therefore necessary to take account of the latest developments in the design and
Foreword IX

The latest state of the art regulations must always be observed when calculating the
bridges.
We would like to thank the authors of the book, the colleagues who contributed to
section 3.8, all those who provided images, Reinhold Schöberl, Peter Grumbach and
Gerhard Hopfenmüller from Fotosatz-Service Köhler GmbH and, above all, Springer-
Verlag, in particular Dipl.-Ing. Thomas Lehnert and Sigrid Cuneus, for making it
possible for the book to appear in its present form. May it be well received by readers
and inspire them to design good bridges.
Finally, I would especially like to thank my dear wife Ursel for her valuable, idealistic
and active support throughout my entire professional life and also for her
understanding that I spent too much time writing this book over many years, no doubt
from her point of view.

Kassel, August 2006Gerhard

Mehlhorn
Table of contents

List of authors ...............................................XVII 1.6.1 Preliminary remark . . . . . . . . . 108

1.6.2 Building culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
..
1Bridge building on the way 1.6.3 Building Culture Initiative
from antiquity to the modern and Baukultur Foundation . . 111
Bridge construction ................................1 1.6.4 Design options
1.1 Introduction........................................1 for bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
1. 2Bridges in antiquity .........................2 1.6.5 Planning competitions
1.2.1 Bridges in China.................................2 in bridge construction . . . . . . . . 114
..
1.2. 2Bridges in Greece, 1.6.6 German
in the Persian Bridge building prize . . . . . . . . . 117
the rich and 1.6.7 Winners and nominees
in Mesopotamia..................................9 for the German
1.2.3 Roman Bridge Construction Prize
2006
The art of bridge building................14 and 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
1. 3Bridges in the Middle Ages...........23 1.6.8 Description of the
1. 4Bridges from the Bridge Construction Prize
2006
Renaissance until and 2008 nominated
to the present....................................31 Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
1.4.1 Stone bridges.....................................31
1.4.2 Wooden bridges ...............................37 2 Engineering tasks
1.4. 3Iron and steel bridges . . 41 in bridge construction . . . . . . . . . . . 165
.
1.4.4Bend , beam and 2.0 Preliminary remark . . . . . . . . . 165
Concrete rigid frame bridges 74 2.1 General design . . . . . . 166
1.4.5 Modern 2.1.1 Preliminary planning . . . . . . . . . 166
....
Cable-stayed bridges ........................90 2.1.2 Design development in the
1. 5Current developments, open or invited
Comments on the Realization competition . 168
Design of bridges and 2.2 Design planning . . . . . . . . 169
to special meanings 96 2.2.1 Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
1.5. 1Current developments . . . 96 2.2.2 Boundary conditions . . . . . . . 171
1.5.2 Comments on the 2.2.3 Construction operations and
Design of bridges . . . 99 Construction site equipment . . 173
..
1.5. 3Bridges with special 2.2.4 Design elements,
Meaning ..........................................104 Aids and static
1. 6Design of Pre-calculation . . . . . . . . . . 173
Bridges, competitions, 2.2.5 Notes on the
Bridge construction prices ............108 Building foundation . . . . . . 174
XII Table of contents

2.2. 6Notes on the 2.12.3 Reinforcement of

Substructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 bridge structures . . . . . . 191
2.2.7Storage instructions 2.12.4 Exchange or
and mobility . . . . . . . 175 Widening of
2.2. 8Notes on structural components or
Bridge drainage of entire supporting structures . 192
.
and sealing . . . . . . . . . 176 2.12.5 Demolition of
2.2. 9Notes on construction and bridge structures . . . . . . 193
Manufacturing process . . . . 176
2. 3Approval planning . . . 178 3 Draft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
2. 4Invitation to tender . . . . . . . . . . 178 3.1 Design principles . . . . . 195
.
2.4.1 Tender with 3.2 Building-specific,
Quantity determination . . . . . . . 178 transportation
2.4.2 Boundary conditions Specifications ............ 196
...
for special designs . . . . . . 180 3.3 Location-specific
2.4.3 Functional Boundary conditions . . . . . . . 197
Invitation to tender . . . . . . . . . . . 180 3.4 Functional
2.4.4 Obligation Requirements . . . . . . . . . . 197
for unambiguity . . . . . . . . 180 3.4.1 Load safety . . . . . . . . . . . 197
2.5 Quotation processing .... 181 3.4.2 Suitability for use ... 198
2. 6Submission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 3.4.3 Durability . . . . . . . . . . 201
2. 7Awarding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 3.5 Cultural requirements 202
2. 8Execution planning . . . . . 183 3.5.1 Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
2. 9Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 3.5.2 Aesthetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
..
2.10 Construction, 3.6 Aim of the design work . . 209
construction supervision, 3.7 Considerations when
Billing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 conceptual design . 210
2.10.1 Construction . . . . . . . . . . 184 3.8 Selected bridges . . . . 216
2.10.2 Local construction supervisors 185 3.8.1 Sunniberg Bridge, Switzerland 216
2.10.3 Site management . . . . . . . . . . 185 3.8.2 Kelheim pedestrian bridge,
2.10.4 C o n s t r u c t i o n Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
supervisor
with functional 3.8.3 Osormort Viaduct,
advertised Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
bridge structures ...... 187 3.8.4 Sacramento river trail
2.10.5 Billing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 pedestrian bridge, USA . . 222
2.10.6 Supplements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 3.8.5 Puente de la Barqueta,
2.11 Acceptance procedure (HOAI Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
phase 9)
and documentation . . . . . 188 3.8.6 Falkenstein Bridge,
2.12 Engineering tasks Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
in the bridge stock . . . . . . 189 3.8.7 Le Pont de Brotonne,
2.12.1 Monitoring, evaluation France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
and assessing 3.8.8 Danube Canal Bridge
of bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 in Vienna, Austria . . . . . . 230
2.12.2 Repair and maintenance 3.8.9 Mangfall bridge,
Table of contents XIII
Upgrading of bridges 190 Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
XIV Table of contents

3.8.10 The Normandie Bridge, 5.3.3 Rigid frame bridges

France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 as a composite and
3.8.11 Bendorf Rhine bridge, Mixed constructions . . . . 360
Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 5.4 Bow and
3.8.12 Cable-stayed bridge Tied-arch bridges . . . . . . . 362
Dubrovnik, Croatia . . . . . 238 5.4.1 Stone bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
5.4.2 Concrete arch bridges . . . . . . 375
5.4.3 Steel bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
4Cross-section design . . . . . . 241 5.4.4 Composite and
4.1 Cross-section design Mixed constructions . . . . 396
depending on 5.5 Cable-stayed bridges ..... 410
System and function . . . . 241 5.5.1 Design principles 410
4.1. 1General information . . . . . . . . . 241 5.5.2 Construction elements . . . 414
....
4.1.2 General 5.5.3 Storage conditions . . . . . . . 421
Explanations of the 5.5.4 Aerodynamic
Main cross-section types . . 244 Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
4.1.3 Cross sections for 5.5.5 Constructive design
Road bridges . . . . . . . . . . 246 the construction
4.1.4 Cross sections for elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Railroad bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 5.5.6 Additions to composite
4.1.5 Cross sections for and mixed constructions 443
Pedestrian and 5.6 Suspension bridges . . . . . . . . . . 450
.
Cycle path bridges . . . . . . . . . 248 5.7 Tensioning strap bridges . . . . . . 456
4.1. 6Special cross-sections . . . . . . 249 5.7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
4.2 Cross-section design 5.7.2 Load-bearing effect . . . . . . . . . . 457
..
depending on the 5.7.3 Building procedure . . . . . . . . . . 459
..
material used . . . 249 5.7.4 Stresses . . . . . . . . 460
4.2. 1Concrete bridges . . . . . . . . . . . 249 5.7.5 Economic efficiency . . . . . . 461
4.2. 2Steel bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 5.7.6 Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
4.2. 3Composite bridges . . . . . . . . . 271
4.2. 4Timber bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 6 Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
6.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
5 Main supporting structures 6.2 Tasks and assessment
of the superstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 storage . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
5.1Concrete slab bridges . . . . 291 6.3 Choice of storage
5.2 Beam bridges . . . . . . . . . . 302 and arrangement of the 470
bearings
5.2. 1Concrete beam bridges . . . . 302 6.4 Determining the forces
5.2. 2Steel beam bridges 335 and movements . . . . . . . . 476
5.2.3 Beam bridges as 6.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Composite bridges or 6.4.2 Example for determining the
Mixed constructions . . . . 340 Forces and movements
5. 3Frame bridges . . . . . . . . . 350 and the verification process
5.3.1 Rigid frame bridges for reinforced
made of concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 Elastomeric bearings . . . . . . . . . 477
.
Table of contents XV
5.3.2Steel frame bridges 358 6.5 Bearing resistances . . . . . . . . 487
XVI Table of contents

6. 6Planning documents . . . . . . 487 8.1. 4Effects from the

6. 7Measurement of forces Building utilization . . . . . . . . 528
and movements 8.1. 5Effects from the
on bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489 Building environment . . . . . . 534
6. 8Inspection and 8.1.6States of construction . . . . . . 535
.......
Maintenance of bearings 8.2Systems , load-bearing
behavior,
and bearings . . . . . . . . . 492 Internal forces . . . . . . . . . . . 536
8.2. 1Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
7Substructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495 8.2. 2Superstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
.
7. 1Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495 8.2. 3Substructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
7. 2Attachment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495 8.2. 4Overall systems . . . . . . . . . . 559
7.2.1 Definition, tasks 8. 3Calculation of
and design principle 495 Steel bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
7.2. 2Arrangement of 8.3. 1Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
Abutment wall and 8.3. 2Selected problems . . . 564
Splitting of trains - abutment types 497 8. 4Selected evidence
7.2. 3Construction of the 500 for a composite bridge . 590
components
7.2. 4Design of abutments 504 8.4. 1General information . . . . . . . . . 590
....
7. 3Supports and pillars . . . . . . 507 8.4. 2Stiffness of the
7.3.1Definition , tasks and Roadway slab . . . . . . . . . . 591
Design principle . . . . 507 8.4. 3Composite load-bearing effect 593
.....
7.3. 2Arrangement and 8.4.4 Evidence in the
Cross-section design Limit state of the
of pillars . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508 Load capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
7.3. 3Arrangement and 8.4. 5Fatigue verification . . . . . 602
Cross-section design 8.4.6 Verification in the limit state
of supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 the suitability for use 605
7.3. 4Pillar or column head 511 8. 5Concrete bridges . . . . . . . . . . . 606
7.3.5 Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513 8.5.1 Pre-tension
7.3. 6Pylons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513 of concrete bridges . . . . . . . 606
7.4 Foundations ............ 514 8.5.2 Internal forces due to
7.4. 1Tasks and overview . 514 Pre-tension . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
7.4. 2Flat foundations . . . . . . . . 514 8.5. 3Introduction of concentrated
7.4. 3Pile foundations . . . . . . . . 517 Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
7.4.4 Selection criteria and 8.5.4 Preload force losses
Draft of the foundation .. 519 as a result of creep and
shrinkage of the concreteand
8 Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521 the relaxation of the
8.1 Effects on Prestressing steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521 8.5.5 Conversion of internal forces
8.1. 1General information . . . . . . . . . 521 Storage at
....
8.1. 2Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525 System changes and
8.1. 3Effects from the Building in sections . 636
Table of contents XVII
Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527 8.5.6 Basis for calculation .. 640
XVII Table of contents
I

8.5.7 Calculation example, via 9.3.3 Influence of the construction 948

process . .
running through three fields, 9.3.4 System-dependent
prestressed Construction processes . . . . . . 954
........
Slab bridge ........... 660
8.6 Calculation 10 Bridge equipment . . . . . . . . . 959
of substructures ........ 692 10.1 Roadway training
8.6. 1Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692 and seals . . . . . . . . . 959
8.6. 2Calculation of 10.1.1 Roadways from
Abutments . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692 Road bridges . . . . . . . . . . 959
8.6. 3Calculation of pillars 10.1.2 Superstructure from
and supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710 Railroad bridges . . . . . . . 962
8.6.4 Calculation 10.2 Warehouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 966
..
of start-ups . . . . . . . . 720 10.2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 966
8. 7Special problems . . . . . . . 731 10.2.2 Deformation bearing . . . . . . . . 966
8.7.1 Temperature stress 731 10.2.3 Steel bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 974
8.7. 2Vibration problems . . . 754 10.2.4 Pot bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 976
8.7.3 Earthquake stress 778 10.2.5 Spherical bearings . . . . . . . . . . . 978
.
10.2.6 Retaining constructions
and guide bearing ...... 979
9 Production and 10.2.7 Special bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980
Execution methods . . . . . . 795 10.2.8 Installation and replacement
9. 1Concrete bridges . . . . . . . . . . . 795 of the bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980
.
9.1. 1Manufacturing on 10.3 Roadway transitions . . . . . . 981
falsework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795 10.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . 981
9.1. 2Manufacturing on 10.3.2 Roadway transitions
Launching gantry . . . . . . . . 813 for road bridges . . . . . . 982
9.1.3Free cantilever . . . . . . . . . . 825 10.3.3 Expansion joint
....
9.1. 4Push button . . . . . . . . . . . . 839 devices . . . . . . . . . . . 991
9.1. 5Segment construction . . . . . . . 849 10.4 Scuff plates,
.
9.1.6 Cable-stayed bridges ..... 878 Protective devices,
9. 2Steel bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . 900 Caps and railings . . . . 992
9.2. 1Workshop production . . . . . . . 900 10.4.1 Caps from
9.2. 2Installation of prefabricated Road bridges . . . . . . . . . . 992
Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904 10.4.2 Caps on
9.2. 3Free cantilever . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910 Railroad bridges . . . . . . . 993
9.2.4 Longitudinal insertion 10.4.3 Railings and
(launching) ............. 915 Guidance systems . . . . . . . . 994
9.2. 5Special procedures . . . . . . 918 10.5 Bridge drainage . . 996
9. 3Bridges in composite 10.6 Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998
and mixed construction . . . . . . 935 10.7 Utility connections . . . 1000
9.3. 1Fabrication and assembly 10.8 Noise protection systems . . . . . 1002
Steel superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . 935 10.8.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1002
9.3. 2Formwork and production 10.8.2 Noise protection systems on
Table of contents XIX
Concrete roadway slab . . . . . 938 Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1003
XX Table of contents

11 Monitoring, testing, 11.7.3 Measured variables and

Evaluation and assessment associated sensors . . . . 1063
of bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1009 11.7.4 Recording the
11. 1Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1009 Measurement data . . . . . . . . . . 1066
....
11. 2Causes of damage 11.7.5 Preparation and
on concrete bridges . . . . . . . 1009 Processing the
11.2.1 General information . . . . . . . . . . 1009 Measurement data . . . . . . . . . . 1067
.. ....
11.2.2 Damage to the concrete . . . . . . 1010
11.2.3 Damage to the 12 Bridge repair
Reinforcing steel ....... 1015 and refurbishment . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
11.2.4 Damage to the joints 12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
and bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021 12.2 Concrete bridges . . . . . . . . . . 1069
11. 3Damage to steel and 12.2.1 Planning of
Composite bridges . . . . . . . . 1024 Maintenance and
11. 4Monitoring and inspection Renovation measures 1069
of bridge structures 1035 12.2.2 Preparatory
11.4.1 Basic principles for Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
Monitoring of 12.2.3 Implementation of the
bridge structures ..... 1035 Maintenance and
11.4.2 Testing of Remediation measures 1075
Concrete bridges . . . . . . . . . . 1036 12.3 Steel bridges . . . . . . . . . . . 1083
11.4.3 Testing of steel 12.3.1 Corrosion protection . . . . . . . 1083
and composite bridges . . . 1045 12.3.2 Rivets and screws . . . 1083
11.4.4 Checking the 12.3.3 Repair of
Bridge equipment . . . . . 1052 Rusting . . . . . . . . . . . 1084
11.4.5 Checking the 12.4 Road surfaces . . . . . . . . . 1084
Bridge equipment . . . . . 1053
11.5 Condition assessment 13 Bridge reinforcement . . . . . . . 1087
and assessment 13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087
of bridges . . . . . . . . . . . 1054 13.2 Concrete bridges . . . . . . . . . . 1087
11.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . 1054 13.2.1 Bonded carbon fiber
11.5.2 Procedure for composite materials . . . . . . 1087
Condition assessment 13.2.2 External pre-tension . . . 1096
of bridges . . . . . . . . . . . 1055 13.2.3 Cross-section supplement . . 1100
11. 6Bridge management . . . . 1059 13.3 Steel and
11.6.1 General information . . . . . . . . . . 1059 Composite bridges . . . . . . . . 1104
..
11.6.2 Bridge management 13.3.1 Roadway reinforcement . . . 1106
systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1060 13.3.2 System reinforcement . . . . . . 1107
11.7 Continuous 13.3.3 System change . . . . . . . . 1112
computerized
Continuous monitoring . . . . . 1062 Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1115
11.7.1 General information . . . . . . . . . . 1062 Bridge directory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1171
..
11.7.2 Determination of a List of persons and companies . . . . 1181
Concept for the permanent Subject index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1185
monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . 1062
List of authors
Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Dr.-
Ing. FRANCESCO
AIGNER
Institute for Load-bearing
Structures/Steel Construction TU Vienna
Prof. em. Dr. techn. Dr.-Ing.
e.h. HUGO BACHMANN
Institute of Structural Analysis and
Design ETH Zurich
Prof. Dr.-Ing. MANFRED CURBACH
Institute for Concrete and Masonry
Structures
TU Dresden
Dr.-Ing. ANNETTE DETZEL
Instituut voor Bouw en Bedrijfskunde,
Hogeschool Rotterdam
Dipl.-Ing. Dr. techn.
EVA-MARIA EICHINGER-VILL
Federal Ministry for Transport,
Innovation and Technology
Infrastructure Road
Department II/St2-Technology, Vienna
Prof. Dr.-Ing. EKKEHARD FEHLING
Institute of Structural Engineering
Department of Concrete Structures
University of Kassel
Prof. Dr.-Ing. URSULA
FREUNDT Department of
Transport Engineering
Bauhaus University Weimar
Prof. Dr.-Ing. GERHARD GIRMSCHEID
Institute of Building Design and
Construction Management ETH
Zurich
Prof. Dr.-Eng. Dr.-Ing., M.Eng.
MASAAKI HOSHINO
Dept. of Transportation Engineering
and Socio-Technology,
Nihon University Tokyo/Japan
Prof. Dr.-Ing. THOMAS JAHN
Department of Civil
Engineering/Industrial Construction
University of Applied Sciences, Leipzig
Prof. Dr.-Ing. MANFRED KEUSER
Institute of Structural Engineering/
Solid Construction
University of the Federal Armed Forces
Munich
Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Dr.-Ing., M.Eng.
JOHANN KOLLEGGER
Institute for Load-bearing
Structures/Concrete Construction TU
Vienna
Prof. Dr.-Ing. ULRIKE KUHLMANN
Institute for Construction and Design/
Steel and Timber Construction
University of Stuttgart
Dr.-Ing. ULF LICHTE
Ingenieurbüro Lichte, Munich and
Leipzig
XVIII List of authors

Prof. Dr.-Ing. INGBERT MANGERIG Dipl.-Ing. Dr. techn.

Institute of Structural Engineering / Steel THOMAS PETRASCHEK
Construction ÖBB Infrastruktur Betrieb AG,
University of the Federal Armed Forces Infra Service, Technik Nord, Linz
Munich
Prof. em. Dipl.-Ing. Dr.-Ing.
Prof. i. R. Dr.-Ing. Dr.-Ing. E. GÜNTER RAMBERGER †
h. GERHARD MEHLHORN Formerly Institute for Load-bearing Structures /
Mehlhorn und Vier Ingenieurgesellschaft Steel Construction
mbH, Kassel; TU Vienna
Institute of Structural Engineering
Department of Concrete and Masonry Dipl.-Ing. PETER RUSE †
Structures formerly BUNG,
University of Kassel Heidelberg

Prof. em. Dr. techn. Dr.-Ing. E. h. Dipl.-Ing. SILKE SCHEERER

CHRISTIAN MENN Institute for Concrete and
Institute of Structural Analysis and Masonry Structures
Design ETH Zurich TU Dresden

Dr.-Ing. HARALD MICHLER Prof. i. R. Dr.-Ing. JÜRGEN STRITZKE

Institute for Concrete and Institute for Concrete and Masonry
Masonry Structures Structures
TU Dresden TU Dresden

Ministerialrat Dipl.-Ing.
JOACHIM NAUMANN Federal
Ministry of Transport, Building
and Urban Development
Division S 18
Bonn
1 Bridge building on the way from
antiquity to modern bridge building
GERHARD MEHLHORN and MASAAKI HOSHINO
1.1 Introduction
Ivo Andric, who was awarded the Nobel
Prize for Literature in 1961, wrote
[Andric, 1971]:
Of all the things that man builds and
constructs in his instinct for life, nothing
seems better and more valuable to my eyes
than bridges. They are more important
than houses, more sacred, because more
common, than churches. Belonging to all
and equally useful to all, always sensibly
built at the place where most human needs
intersect, they are more enduring than other
buildings and serve no secret or evil
purpose ... they are all basically one and
equally worthy of our attention, for they
show the place where man encountered
obstacles and yet did not allow himself to
be opened up, but overcame and bridged
them as he liked, according to his
conception, his taste and the circumstances
by which he was surrounded.
It is certainly a matter of personal
opinion when comparing the importance
of houses, bridges and churches. We will
not go into this question in depth here.
What is essential is that bridges are among
the most important structures in cultural
history. Bridges have always served and
still serve to connect people, be it to bring
people together or to transport trade
goods. Bridges have always had a special
significance for people.
Bridges often stand at prominent
locations in our cities and on our
transportation routes. Also
bridges must be built into nature.
Leonhardt has pointed out the special
significance of the design of our
environment and in particular the
importance of the beauty of the
surroundings in which people live for
their mental health [Leonhardt, 1970] (see
also [Leonhardt, 1974]). Engineers must
always be aware of this fact and the
resulting responsibility when designing
their buildings. Care must be taken to
ensure that the structures are not only
structurally sound and economical, but
also that they fit harmoniously into their
surroundings. Engineers must always bear
this in mind, especially in bridge
construction, which is almost exclusively
the responsibility of engineers. The
outstanding bridge constructions of
antiquity and the Middle Ages should be
an incentive for future generations to bear
witness to the high design skills of the
engineers of our time.
Robert Maillart, an engineer from the
first half of the 20th century and the
beginning of reinforced concrete
construction, mastered this art to an
outstanding degree. Figure 1.1-1 shows an
example of his most significant bridge, the
Salginatobel Bridge near Schiers in
Prättigau. You can see the empathy with
which Maillart integrated this bridge into
the landscape. Maillart also confronts the
unsymmetrical nature of the valley in the
composition of the bridge. Maillart also
took aesthetic considerations into
account, as this bridge is not only
beautifully integrated into the landscape.
2 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
landscape, but it is also an outstanding
testimony to the art of civil engineering
(see also section 1.4.4, Figures 1.4-44 to -46
and section 3.7, Figure 3-2).
These few references to the engineer's
special responsibility towards the aesthetic
feelings of fellow human beings and the
design of the environment may suffice. In
[Bonatz/Leonhardt, 1960] there is a
compilation of very well-designed bridges.
This book by Bonatz/Leonhardt, the book
by Max Bill about Maillart [Bill, 1969], the
books [Brüh- wiler/Menn, 2003],
[Billington, 1979], [Bil-
lington, 1990], [fib, 2000] [Holgate, 1997],
[Leonhardt, 1982], [Pauser, 2002] and the
exhibition catalogs on the buildings by
Robert Maillart [Marti/Honegger, 1996],
the buildings by Christian Menn
[Vogel/Marti, 1997] and the buildings by
Jörg Schlaich and Rudolf Bergermann
[Bögle et al., 2003] are recommended
reading for every bridge engineer and
anyone interested in bridge construction.
Reference is also made to the book by Dr.
Kunio Hoshino, a Japanese colleague, on
the problem of bridge design [Hoshino,
1972]. The book, written from a Japanese
perspective, is worth reading for engineers
struggling with design problems. Of
course
Figure 1.1-1
Salginatobel bridge
(photo from 1978)
The design and layout problems are
discussed here in various chapters,
especially in Chapter 3, see also Section
1.6.
1.2 Bridges in antiquity
1.2.1 Bridges in China
China is one of the oldest cultures in
history. The first technical structures include
simple bridges. A tree trunk accidentally
toppled over a stream and a stone slab
bridging a body of water certainly served as
models. We have no precise knowledge of
the beginnings of the development of bridge
building. Fortunately, however, the valuable
book [Mao Yisheng, 1986] gives us a
comprehensive overview of ancient bridges
in China. From this we know that the first
bridge whose existence can be
c o n s i d e r e d certain on the basis of
ancient literary sources was the ship bridge
(boats anchored side by side from bank to
bank and connected by a plank deck) over
the Wei River, a tributary of the Yellow
River. There is an ode in the Shijing, a book
of poetry written between 780 and 476 BC,
1.2 Bridges in antiquity
according to which the founder of the
Zhou dynasty had this bridge built there
as early as 1134 BC to receive his bride.
Another literary source states that in 541
BC, a wealthy man living in the Quin
kingdom used a makeshift bridge over the
Yellow River to flee from his nephew out
of fear for his head.
The first documented large ship bridge
over the Yellow River that existed for a
long time was the Pujin Bridge, built in
257 BC under the ruler Zhao Xiang Wang
of Quin, which was sung about in songs
and hymns from various eras and was also
mentioned by the Japanese monk Ennin
in 840. It can therefore be assumed that it
existed for at least around 1000 years.
After that, several ship bridges were built
across the Yellow River. The first ship
bridge over the Changjiang (Yangtze)
River, the Jiangguan (Huya) Bridge, was
built in 35 AD. All large ship bridges were
equipped with materials for repair
purposes (wood, anchors, ropes and even
replacement ships). Movable parts of the
bridge were extended so that ships could
pass the place where the bridge was
located.
Ancient China already had a variety of
bridge types. These included wooden
beam bridges. The geography book
Shuijingzhu, written by Li Daoyuan (496-
527), mentions a wooden beam bridge
supported on 30 wooden pillars (diameter
of the pillars: 1.25 m), which was built
between 557-531 BC over the Fenshui
River in Shanxi Province. The Shiji,
written by Sima Qian around 91 BC,
contains a story about a man who hid
under a bridge around 450 BC to avenge
the death of his master. The bridge, with a
total length of 135 meters and a width of
19.2 meters, had several openings and
spanned the Fenshui River. In the Quin-
3
During the Xianyang and Han periods
(221-207 BC and 205 BC to 220 AD), there
were three famous wooden beam bridges
over the Wei River in the then capital of
Xianyang, namely the Eastern Wei Bridge,
the Middle Wei Bridge and the Western
Wei Bridge. Commissioned by Prince
Zhao Xiang and built by Quin between
305 and 251 BC (the exact year of the
bridge's construction is unknown), the
Middle Wei Bridge with 68 openings was
the oldest and largest of the three bridges.
It was 524 meters long and 13.8 meters
wide.
With the construction of shipping
canals in eastern China in the first century
AD, several wooden bridges were built
there. We do not know any more details
about this. However, large wooden
bridges were often mentioned admiringly
in travel reports. The bridge at Sian, which
is known to have been a wooden beam
bridge on stone pillars, was mentioned
several times. The piers stood on a stone
slab and a stone slab was also arranged at
the pier head, which supported a
cantilevered wooden beam on which the
wooden girders of the bridge
superstructure rested. The wooden piers
used in previously constructed bridges
were exposed to rotting in the transition
area from water to air over time. Their
lifespan was therefore very limited. The
stone piers naturally had a significantly
longer service life.
Wooden cantilever bridges were also
built early on in the southern and western
parts of China, where wood was plentiful
and bridge piers were difficult to erect in
the river due to the deep valleys and the
enormous floods. It can be assumed that
as early as the
The first wooden cantilever bridges were
built in the 2nd century. The Shuijingzhu
mentions a bridge from the 4th century on
the border between Gansu and Xinjiang
Weiwuer. It was 48 meters long. It
consisted of the two banks projecting from
both sides.
4 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
Wooden beams placed in three layers on
top of each other and anchored on stone
abutments. The principle of timber
cantilever bridges (Fig. 1.2-1) is that stone
abutments are erected on both banks up
to the height of the frequently occurring
water level. Adjacent round timbers or
wooden beams are laid on top of these
abutments in such a way that they
cantilever slightly over the abutments
towards the water. A layer of stones is
placed on top of the timbers to weigh them
down. Then several of these timbers,
weighted down with stones and
cantilevering slightly over the wooden
layers below, are successively added until
the remaining opening can be bridged
with a wooden beam. This principle was
also used to build bridges across wide
rivers over several fields, with wooden
cantilever beams projecting on both sides
of the river pillars according to the
principle just described and then bridging
the remaining openings.
The variety of bridge types
characteristic of China includes stone slab
bridges [Wölfel, W., 1999]. In their
simplest form for bridging a stream, they
consist only of a single stone slab resting
on supporting stones on both banks, or
several meters long stone slabs or
-The bridge beams are laid side by side on
piers and together with these and the
support stones on the banks of a river
form the bridge structure. In the case of
longer bridges over several spans, the river
piers consist of hewn stones that are
stacked on top of each other, or the piers
each consist of a stone beam placed
vertically in the river bed. The stone slabs
are laid on top of the piers and abutments.
The advantage of stone slab bridges over
wooden bridges lies in their longer
durability, which justifies the higher
construction costs. As far as the
construction costs are concerned, it must
be remembered that the modern lifting
gear available to us today for transporting
and installing the heavy stones did not yet
exist. The oldest record of a presumed
stone slab bridge comes from an ode from
around 1000 BC, according to which a 900
m long stone bridge over the Min River
was built around 1040 BC.
v. Chr. It no longer exists today. To
illustrate the principle of stone slab
bridges, Figure 1.2-2 shows the Anping
Bridge, which is still in use today and was
built in the 12th century.
In ancient China, goods were mainly
transported on waterways. Stone arch
bridges were the main way for pedestrians
to bridge the waterways.
Figure 1.2-1 Example of
a timber cantilever
bridge, Zamalong Bridge
near Xining (image from
[Ding, 1993])
1.2 Bridges in antiquity
The bridge was actually built with an arch
and steep ramps. The arch spans were up
to 9 meters. The somewhat concave,
slender stones of the vault were placed on a
falsework without mortar and their
mutual displacements were limited to
harmless, very small relative
displacements by iron connecting dowels.
The arch thickness is only about 1/40 to
1/30 of the arch span (the load-bearing
arches of the Roman stone arch bridges,
which were also subject to greater loads
from wagon traffic, should be at least 1/10
of the arch span width). Vertical stone
slabs (clearly visible in Fig. 1.2-3) are
arranged on both sides of the arch within
the block stone masonry. The vertical
stone slabs separate the load-bearing vault
from the ramp area, transfer some of the
arch's loads to the foundation and support
the arch horizontally against the heavy
ramps. The ramps consist of outer walls
made of blocks on both sides with in-fill
between them.
5
Figure 1.2-2 Anping bridge
(image from [Wölfel, W., 1999])
Earth and gravel. The outer walls and the
intermediate filling of the ramps form a
cooperating composite body, which is
ensured by binder stones projecting from
the outer walls, which are deeply
interlocked with the intermediate filling.
Characteristic of the early Chinese stone
arch bridges, whose development began
not much later than that of the Roman
stone arch bridges, are (Fig. 1.2-3):
• the relatively slender vault, which often
consists of only one layer of stone,
• Vertical stone slabs on both sides
of the arch,
• strong bridge ramps on both sides of
the bridge with exposed surfaces made
of block masonry.
It can be assumed that stone arch bridges
were already in place by the end of the
Eastern Han period (25-220) at the latest,
because the semi-circular arch
construction was made of bricks of baked
earth, which were common for burial
vaults at the time.
6 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
Figure 1.2-3 Characteristics of the early Chinese stone arch bridges (image from [Wölfel, W.,
1999]), foundation shown in section
were used. The first Chinese stone arch
bridge mentioned in the literature was the
Luren Bridge from 282 in Luoyang, which
was built by 75,000 workers after a five-
month construction period. From the Jin
period (265-420) onwards, the
construction of stone arch bridges spread,
especially in northern China. In addition
to the above-mentioned stone arch bridges
with one arch and steep ramps as
pedestrian bridges, there were also stone
bridges with semi-circular, thicker arches,
often with several arches, in ancient
China. They were built for river crossings
by vehicular traffic with larger loads
compared to pedestrian traffic, and for
wider rivers with several arches. Like the
Roman stone arch bridges, the arch stones
had radial joints. They were very similar to
Roman stone bridges (see section 1.2.3).
very similar overall. The first of these
stone arch bridges with several spans are
said to have been built in the first
centuries AD on the Yellow River in the
provincial capital of Luoyang and its
surroundings. They are said to have been
built on the Yellow River in the provincial
capital of Luoyang and its surroundings in
the first centuries AD. The Japanese monk
Ennin reported in 840 that the many
bridges in Chi- na were already constantly
maintained at that time, looked very well
cared for and were subject to heavy traffic.
The Baodai Bridge near Suzhou in Jiangsu
Province, built in 806 as a stone arch
bridge with 53 arches and a total length of
317 m (Fig. 1.2-4), crosses the Dai-Dai
River and is still used for traffic today. So
that larger ships can also pass under the
bridge, there are three arches with larger
arch diameters in the middle of the river.
The perfection of its construction and
design requires a long period of
development.
 1.2 1.2-4
Figure Bridges in antiquity
Baodai Bridge near Suzhou (image from [Wölfel, W., 1999]) 7
8 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building

Figure 1.2-5 Anji Bridge (image from [Ding, 1993])

This is why it certainly cannot be the
prototype of this bridge system. It is
therefore likely that there were already
many predecessor bridges over the Yellow
River.
The Anji Bridge (Figures 1.2-5 and -6)
across the river, designed and built by Li
Chun at the end of the sixth century in the
11th to 19th year of the reign of Kaihuan
of the Sui Dynasty (581- 618), was built in
the 11th to 19th century.
Xiache is the world's first segmental arch
bridge (the Ponte Vecchio in Florence, the
first segmental arch bridge in Europe, was
not built until the 14th century) and also
the oldest surviving through-arched stone
arch bridge [Ding, 1993]. Its span is 37 m,
the radius of the arch 27.7 m, the pier
height 7.23 m and the variable thickness
of the arch up to 1.03 m, the roadway is
about 10 m wide.

Figure 1.2-6 Transom of the Anji Bridge (image from [Ding, 1993])
 1.2 Bridges in antiquity
wide. The ratio of arrow height to span
width is therefore approximately 1 : 5. The
greatest gradient of the rounded bridge
deck is 6.5%. The segmental arch is
composed of 28 parallel, butt-jointed
individual arches about 1.03 m thick, each
consisting of 43 stones with different
widths of between 25 and 40 cm and
different lengths of between 0.7 and 1.09
m. The total width of the segmental arch
at the transom is 9.5 m. The total width of
the segmental arch is 9.6 m at the transom
and just under 9 m at the apex. The idea
that the slight decrease in arch width from
the transom to the apex ensures transverse
stability (due to the horizontal arch effect,
ratio of the horizontal arch pitch to the
span about 1 : 123 and thin arch ribs) has
not been confirmed, as expected from
today's perspective. Between 1368 and
1911, five of the 28 individual arches on
the west side of the bridge and three
individual arches on the east side of the
bridge collapsed repeatedly and had to be
replaced. The stones were corrugated in
the diagonal direction and two stones
were connected with iron clamps in the
longitudinal direction (Fig. 1.2-6) in order
to improve the interaction of the arch
stones and individual arches. The last
9
Extensive repairs were carried out
between 1955 and 1958, during which it
was discovered that a third of the x-
shaped iron clamps were still in good
condition. During the last repair, five iron
anchoring rods with threaded heads were
used to improve the connection between
the individual arches.
Today, experts agree that the cradle of
suspension bridges lies in the Himalayas.
The ropes of the oldest of these bridges
were made of braided natural fibers.
However, as with other types of bridges, it
is not possible to determine when this
type of construction came into existence.
Some writings indicate that several
suspension bridges were already present
in the Himalayas in the 1st century BC. Fa
Xian, who made a pilgrimage to India in
399 because of Buddhist holy writings,
reported on several such suspension
bridges. It is possible, but not yet
confirmed, that an iron chain suspension
bridge was built over the Fan River in
Shanxi Province as early as 206 BC. Figure
1.2-7 shows a suspension bridge in Nepal
with a wooden walkway suspended from
sagging ropes stretched across the gorge.
Figure 1.2-7 Suspension
bridge in Nepal (image
from [Wölfel, W., 1999])
10 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
It is known that one of the seven
bridges that existed in southwest China,
the An-Lan Bridge, was a rope bridge
(rope bridges are understood to be
wooden walkways supported by
suspended ropes that were firmly
connected to the supporting ropes) with
ten supporting ropes woven from bamboo
fibers, The structure was built by Li Bing,
famous as the master builder of the Douji-
ang weir, in 251 BC in Guan County, Guan
Province. BC in Guan County, Sichuan
Province. According to the literature, it
existed for at least 600 years. It was
renovated several times. According to
[Ding, 1993], it was restored to its original
state in 1803 (Fig. 1.2-8). With 8 bays, it
has a total length of approx. 340 m, the span
of the largest bay is 61 m. The pre-
tensioned ropes must be checked at
regular intervals, re-tensioned if necessary
and replaced.
Figure 1.2-8 An-Lan
bridge (image from
[Ding, 1993])
1.2.2 Bridges in Greece, the
Persian empires and Mesopotamia
The Greeks are among the oldest civilized
peoples in the Mediterranean. The
Cretan-Mycenaean culture (2600 - 1150
BC) already exhibited a high level of
technical development; for example, there
were already wheeled carts and fortified
walls made of Cyclopean masonry
(unmortared masonry made of large stone
blocks). The corbel bridge was the most
common bridge construction at this time.
Remains of a large stone bridge made of
roughly hewn limestones were found at
the castle of Mycenae, which was probably
built as early as 1400-1200 BC [Wölfel,
W., 1997]. Here a bridge with a corbel-like
opening was inserted into a stone dam.
Later, the Greeks mainly built corbel
bridges from carefully hewn ashlar stones.
Initially, perpendicular walls were built on
both sides of the bridge opening. The
stone layers in the area of the arch
protrude slightly upwards in layers. In this
way, the
 1.2 Bridges in antiquity
Figure 1.2-9 Diagram of the Greek corbel
bridges (image from [Wölfel, W., 1997])
walls gradually until the colonels touched
each other or the remaining opening was
covered by a stone, see Fig. 1.2-9.
Slab bridges were also found as a
bridge type. One very interesting of these
slab bridges is found in Assos on the west
coast of Asia Minor (Figure 1.2-10), which
was built in the
4th century BC [Wöl- fel, W., 1997]. The
river pillars with center distances of 2.7 m
to 3.7 m were made of carefully hewn
stone blocks with a rhombic ground plan
and were built almost parallel to the
banks. Steps have been incorporated into
the horizontal joints to prevent the stone
layers from shifting due to the river's
current. The slab consists of stone beams
lying next to each other, which are 44 cm
to 64 cm wide and 34 cm thick. At the
Figure 1.2-10 Greek stone slab bridge from the 4th century BC, bridge in Assos on the west coast of Asia
Minor (image from [Wölfel, W., 1997])
11
dowel joints are recognizable on the
longitudinal edges of the still existing
beams.
The Assyrians already exceeded the
In the 9th century BC, the Assyrians crossed
mountain rivers on pontoon bridges on
their war raids against the kingdom of
Uratru (eastern Anatolia). One of the
pontoon bridges built by pioneers on
behalf of the Assyrian king Salmanas- saar
III (858-824 BC) is depicted on the door
fitting of the royal palace in Balawat in the
British Museum in London [Wöl- fel, W.,
1999].
In Babylon, around 600 BC, King
Nabopolassar had a wooden bridge built
across the Euphrates, about 125 m long
between the abutments, with six masonry
piers made of fired bricks to connect the
two parts of the city on either side of the
Euphrates. The distance between the piers
was 7 m to 9 m. It is considered to be the
first historically verified fixed road bridge
on massive river piers [Wölfel, W., 1997].
The span of the end span on the right
bank is said to have been 19.4 m. One
explanation for this span, which is
assumed from the pier positions found by
Koldewey in 1910/1911 (Fig. 1.2-11), is
that the bridge was built on the right
bank.
12 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
Fig. 1.2-11 Pillars uncovered by Koldewey (top view) of the Euphrates Bridge in Babylon, built
around 600 BC. Chr. of the Euphrates Bridge in Babylon (image from [Wölfel, W., 1997])
is not known. It is possible that the large
end field was necessary due to shipping
and was bridged by a movable ship's
bridge. To construct the piers, the
Euphrates was diverted into a specially
dug canal so that the piers could be built
in dry excavation pits. The six piers,
which were 9 m wide, 21 m long and
tapered at the base of the superstructure,
were 11.8 m wide and 23.8 m long,
considerably narrowing the flow of the
Euphrates and creating the risk of the
piers being washed out during floods due
to the piers being blocked. However, the
bridge did not collapse, but was no longer
needed due to the relocation of the
Euphrates, so it had lost its purpose. The
pillars had been buried by sandstorms over
many centuries and thus conserved.
Uncovered by archaeologists, it gives us
an idea of this important bridge of
antiquity.
Herodotus reported on Persian ship
bridges across the Bosporus [Wölfel, W.,
1999]. In 493 BC, the engineer
Mandroklos was commissioned by Darius
I to build a bridge with a wooden
superstructure consisting of numerous
ships lying side by side and anchored to
the side, over which numerous warriors,
[Jurecka, 1979] mentions 600,000
warriors, crossed the Bosporus.
crossed. Mandroclus had an image made
of this bridge, which he donated to the
goddess Hera as a votive offering. The
Persian king Xerxes had a bridge built
across the Hellespont in 480 BC. Because
the bridge was destroyed by a storm shortly
after its completion, he had the bridge
engineers beheaded. He then
commissioned the astronomer Harpalos
to build a new bridge. Harpalos and his
bridge engineers knew what they would
face if they did not succeed in building a
safe bridge that could withstand the
strongest storms. 674 galleys were
arranged and anchored in a double row.
There was a roadway in each direction.
Two hemp ropes and additional papyrus
ropes were laid across each of the rows of
galleys to firmly connect the ships. Wooden
planks were laid across the ropes close
together and fastened. Branches and twigs
were laid on top of these wooden planks
and covered with earth. It is said that
150,000 Persian warriors crossed the
Bosporus over this bridge, [Jurecka, 1979]
even mentioning 700,000 warriors.
Numerous stone bridges were built in
the Persian empires, the existence of
which is documented by records [Wölfel,
W., 1999]. When road construction was
stepped up, especially under Darius (522-
484 BC), many stone bridges were already
built.
 1.2 Bridges in antiquity
stone bridges were built. Even then, these
old stone river bridges had a Persian
peculiarity. The bridge was combined
with a dam, whereby the water dammed
up by the dam was channelled to the fields
for irrigation. These combined dam
bridges, also known in the literature as
bridge construction weirs, were also used
and further developed in later centuries
for almost all Persian river bridges as a
Persian bridge construction method, in
some cases right up to modern times.
After the turn of the century, Persian
bridge builders adopted Roman-style stone
arch bridges (described in section 1.2.3)
and built further developed dam bridges
with Roman arches, although the Persians
changed the semi-circular arch at the apex
to a flat top, which is considered
characteristic of Persian arch bridges. The
most important dam bridge is the one
built in the 3rd century AD over the Karun
near Shushtar, which survived for many
centuries and the Roman construction
technique is clearly recognizable in the
ruins that still exist today [Wölfel, W.,
1999]. Shapur I (241-272) wanted to use
the
In the 3rd century, the important cities of
Ktesi- phon and Pasargadeh were
connected by a road. To do this, the rivers
Kark- heh, Dez and Karun had to be
bridged. The dam bridge over the Karun
at Shushtar was the first to be built. The
Roman influence of the construction
method can be seen from the existing
ruins. As Shapur I had defeated a Roman
army and taken around 70,000 prisoners
of war, it can be assumed that the
prisoners included Roman pioneers and
engineers, who were probably involved in
the design and construction of the most
important dam bridge at Shushtar.
Together with the Roman bridge builders,
the Persian hydraulic engineers created
13
The builders constructed this important
building of antiquity. It was built in
successive construction phases I and II,
see Fig. 1.2-12.
In construction phase I, the detour
canal was first excavated and the bend of
the Karun was drained by constructing the
cofferdam labeled A in Figure 1.2-12a; a
weir was already in place at B to regulate
the water flow in order to channel
irrigation water into the Dariun Canal.
This existing weir at B was therefore
converted into a cofferdam in the opposite
direction. The water from the Karun now
flows through the detour canal. The Bend-
e-Mizam distributing weir, marked C in
Figure 1.12-12a, was constructed in the
dry bend of the Karun, thereby expanding
the outflow of the Gärgär Canal. The
Gärgär Canal flows back into the Karun
50 km downstream.
In construction phase II, cofferdam A
was removed again and cofferdam D (see
Fig. 1.2-12b) was built. As a result, the
detour channel was closed. Catchment
dam B was rebuilt as a weir in the flow
direction of the river. The water of the
Karun was now completely diverted into
the Gärgär Canal. This drained the Karun
downstream of cofferdam B. The dam
bridge could now be built in the dry.
The 500 m long and 15 m wide,
massive weir body, which is founded on
sandstone layers and also serves as a
banquet for the piers of the arch bridge,
was made of concrete and stone. It is clad
with hewn ashlars connected by iron
clamps. A 3.5 m wide arch bridge with 40
arches was built on top of the weir
(Figures 1.2-13 and -14). The 9 m long
and 6 m high piers with mutual distances
of 13 m to 14 m are 6 m
14 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building

a b
Figure 1.2-12 Construction sequence of the dam bridge near Shushtar, a) construction phase I, b)
construction phase II (image from [Wölfel, W., 1999])

Figure 1.2-13 Dam bridge near Shushtar (image from [Wölfel, W., 1999])

Figure 1.2-14 Ruins of the dam bridge near Shushtar (image from [Wölfel, W., 1999])
 1.2 Bridges in antiquity
thick so that they can withstand the flow
pressure at higher water levels. During
floods above the reservoir level, water
flows over the top of the weir through the
arch bridge. The arch bridge, which
served traffic for several centuries, was
repaired several times and finally left to
decay. The remaining arches and pillars
bear witness to the high standard of
ancient architecture. The still completely
intact weir body still serves the irrigation
system today.
1.2.3 Roman bridge building
The first bridges built by the Romans were
of course wooden bridges, as was the case
throughout the Americas. Wood was
available almost everywhere or was easy to
procure. One advantage of wooden
bridges compared to arched stone bridges
is that they do not constrict the drainage
cross-section as much as stone bridges in
the event of flooding. Woodworking and
the driving of wooden piles was already
possible in the 1st millennium BC.
[Vitruvius, 1796] wrote in detail as early
as around 30 BC in the
Chapter 9 of Book 2 describes the
different types of wood, their properties
and their advantages and disadvantages
when used as construction timber. The
Romans already impregnated
construction timber with oils and resins,
and they also knew how to differentiate
between qualities according to the
intended use and to select woods with
special durability, such as oak and ash,
especially for underwater pile
foundations. Nevertheless, the relatively
short service life of the wood was the
biggest disadvantage of the wooden
beams; in particular, the piles standing in
water and soil rotted.
After the development of concrete that
hardens in water by the Romans, the
foundations and pillars of the bridges
could be made of solid stone and concrete.
15
be built. The wooden superstructure was
first erected over the solid pillars. The
wooden superstructure did not come into
contact with the water and soil, therefore
had a longer lifespan and could be easily
repaired. The Pons Sublicius, a wooden
bridge built in the 7th century BC on stone
piers, was the only fixed crossing to the
Tiber Island in Rome at the time. The
bridge was destroyed in 62 BC during the
defense of Rome against the Etruscans
and rebuilt, this time as a stone bridge, but
fell victim to a flood in 23 BC. It then took
163 years for a new stone vaulted bridge to
reconnect the banks of the Tiber at this
point. This bridge survived until modern
times and was replaced by a cast-iron
superstructure in 1877.
Arched wooden structures spanning
between stone pillars were used by the
Romans in the following centuries,
especially in their colonies. Spans of up to
30 m were achieved with multiple parallel
spans arranged one above the other. The
Roman Rhine bridge built in the first
century about 30 m above today's
Theodor Heuss Bridge between Mainz
and the fort on a wooden pile grid (Fig.
1.2-15), stone piers and with a wooden
superstructure as a truss is a remarkable
example of this (Fig. 1.2-16) and the
Rhine bridge near Cologne (4th century)
should also be mentioned [Deinhard,
1964]. The wooden pile grid foundation of
the Roman bridge between Mainz and
Kastell shown in Fig. 1 . 2-15 was
removed around 1880 to improve
navigation and temporarily erected in the
courtyard of the electoral fitter's palace,
from which the photo was taken. Finally,
the 350 m long "Römerbrücke" (Roman
Bridge) is also worth mentioning, mainly
due to the remarkably short construction
time of just ten days (including wood
procurement).
16 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
Caesar's bridge over the Rhine at Neuwied
(Fig. 1.2-17), which was a makeshift
wooden bridge consisting of wooden
stretch beams with transverse decking
timbers, whereby the stretch beams rested
on spread yokes and connected them to
each other [Heinzerling, 1871]. A
description of the construction of the
wooden Rhine
Figure 1.2-15 Pile
foundation of the Mainz
Bridge, photo of the
picture from the
Landesmuseum Mainz.
Figure 1.2-16 Model of the
Roman Rhine bridge near
Mainz built in the first
century, photo of the
model from the Mainz
State Museum.
Figure 1.2-17 Wooden
bridge built under Caesar
in 55 BC over the Rhine at
Neuwied Image from
[Wöl- fel, W., 1997]
bridge near Neuwied is given by Caesar in
his books "De bello Gallico".
Figure 1.2-19 shows the very
remarkable Danube bridge near Turnu
Severin in Romania, built by Apollodorus
under Trajan around 105, which had a
wooden superstructure supported on
stone pillars as a truss. The bridge built by
Apollo
 1.2 Bridges in antiquity
Figure 1.2-18 Trajan's Column in Rome
Fig. 1.2-19 Danube bridge built by
Apollodorus under Trajan ca. 105, on the relief
band of Trajan's Column
17
dorus is depicted on a relief band on the
Trajan's Column built in 113, Figure 1.2-
18.
The stone bridges built by the Romans,
who proved to be true masters of the art of
bridge building in ancient times, were
mainly constructed as arch bridges arched
in a full semicircle or in a slightly different
segmental arch. The Romans learned arch
construction from the Etruscans, who
only built arch bridges with small spans.
The Romans developed arch constructions
into bridges with larger spans and are
therefore rightly regarded as the inventors
of the stone arch bridge. The Roman style
of bridge construction was developed with
the stone arch adopted from the
Etruscans, the ashlar construction
adopted from the Greeks and the concrete
(opus caementitium) first used by the
Romans. The defining basic form of the
Roman bridge is the arched semicircle of
the passage opening. This semicircle is
usually built on foundation beams so that
the transom line of the arch lies above the
water level. The spans of the arches are
almost always between 20 m and 30 m for
the larger designs. Equally characteristic of
Roman bridges is the closed execution of
the lateral parapet and, in later times, the
archivolt (profiled front side of an arch,
usually sitting on a transom) surrounding
the passage opening. The foundations
were often constructed in box dams
[Wölfel, W., 1997]. First, a double-walled
box made of horizontal planks held
together with tongs was constructed. The
box was attached to wooden piles driven
into it. The double walls were sealed using
clay or loam filled into baskets woven from
marsh grass (Fig. 1.2-20). After the clay or
loam had been filled in,
18 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
Figure 1.2-20 Foundation of a bridge pier box-
type cofferdam according to Vitruvius (image
from [Wöl- fel, W., 1997]
The space enclosed by the fencing was
drained by means of a very compacted
process. Vitruvius recommended the use of
water screws and water wheels or scoop
wheels for draining.
The first stone arch bridge in Rome was
the Ponte Mulvius, built around 200 BC.
Its dimensions are not known, the bridge
was already dilapidated about 100 years
later, was demolished and replaced by a
completely new bridge of better quality,
today called Ponte Milvio or Ponte Molle.
It was the most important bridge for
traffic on the Via Flaminia, two and a half
kilometers north of the Porta del Popolo.
The Ponte Mulvius has historical
significance. This is where the
October 28, 312, the important battle
between Emperor Constantine and his
rival Maxentius with the final,
victory of Emperor Constantine attributed
to the Christian God. In the following
hundreds of years, all armies coming from
the north crossed this bridge. During the
Second World War, it was able to withstand
the entire stage traffic of first the Italian
and German, then the Allied troops with
their extensive heavy war equipment,
whereby only the width of the bridge
(about 6.7 m between the parapets), but its
load-bearing capacity left nothing to be
desired. Of the four central, mainly
antique arched openings, two still show
the original structure with archivolts made
of travertine, while in the other two the
ashlar blocks were partially replaced by
brickwork during a thorough restoration
in
They were replaced in the 15th century.
As a result of increasing traffic, more
bridges were needed across the Tiber. This
is why the Pons Aemilius was built near
the Tiber Island around 180 BC. It was
probably a bridge built on stone pillars
with a wooden superstructure, which was
replaced by stone arches around 40 years
later. The bridge was destroyed by a flood
in 1229 and rebuilt. In 1289, it was again
destroyed by floods and not rebuilt. Only
one arch of the bridge, today's Ponte
Rotto, has survived (Fig. 1.2-21).
Around the turn of the century, a
whole series of other bridges were built in
Rome as stone arches with spans of
between 20 m and 30 m, some of which
have survived to the present day. These
include the Ponte Cestio and the Ponte
Fabricio as well as the Ponte St. Angelo
(Pons Aelius), the Bridge of the Angels,
built around 130 under Hadrian. The
oldest of the surviving Roman bridges in
Rome is the Ponte Fabricio, built in 62 BC
(Fig. 1.2-22). It consists of two semi-
circular passage openings, each with a span
of 20 m and an 18 m wide
 1.2 Bridges in antiquity
Figure 1.2-21 Preserved arch of the Ponte
Rotto (Photo: Dipl.-Ing. Sylvia Mehlhorn)
Figure 1.2-22 Ponte Fabricio in Rome (Photo:
Dipl.-Ing. Sylvia Mehlhorn)
Central pillar. This central pillar is pierced
by an arched culvert above the water level,
which is bordered at the sides by pilasters
- pillars connected to the wall and only
partially protruding from it. Any flood
water is supposed to flow through the
culvert. This opening in the central pillar
is found on almost all Roman bridges and
developed into a characteristic motif. The
arch ashlars at the apex are often slightly
larger than those at the imposts, so that
the arch is enclosed by a half-ring that
swells towards the middle. The parapet is
executed as a closed wall surface in the
plane of the substructure. The position of
the roadway, which rises slightly towards
the center of the bridge, is
19
The parapet is characterized by a strong
profile on the outside, while later Roman
bridges show a full cornice at this point.
The parapet is divided into three parts by
the plinth standing on the profile, the
smooth surface and the top plate, which is
always reversed later - increasingly
emphasized as time progresses. In front of
the pillar, not connected to it, i s a
template with a semi-circular ground plan
to protect against the current. The
approximately 40
v. The Ponte Cestio, built as an arch
bridge with a main arch, still connects the
city center and the Trastevere district
together with the Ponte Fabricio over the
Tiber Island. The two pierced bank piers
date back to the
19th century. The parapet, which is
horizontal in the middle and slopes rather
steeply to both sides, is more pronounced
than on the Ponte Fabricio. The Ponte
Sant' Angelo (Angel's Bridge), formerly:
Pons Aelius, in Rome (Fig. 1.2-23), one of
the nine Roman bridges over the Tiber, was
built around 130 under Hadrian and leads
to Hadrian's tomb (today: Castel Sant'
Angelo, Castel Sant'Angelo). The Angels'
Bridge was built with five arches, added to
during the regulation of the Tiber in the
19th century and today has eight arches,
of which the three in the middle are part of
the original structure and each span 18.3
meters. The bridge impresses with its
special beauty and balance. The ten angel
figures on the bridge, as a sacred assembly
in which the angels present one after the
other all the instruments of Christ's
martyrdom, were only erected in the 17th
century by Bernini, commissioned by
Clement IX, and his collaborators. The
Bridge of Angels was thus designed by
Bernini as a monu- mental crusade. All the
angelic figures that give the bridge its
current name have their backs turned
towards the river. The angel with the scroll
and the angel with the crown of thorns,
the
20 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
which today only stand as copies on the
bridge, were created by Bernini himself.
The originals of these two angel figures
can be found in the church of Sant'Andrea
delle Fratte.
It should also be mentioned that the art
of bridge building was held in very high
esteem by the Romans, as evidenced by the
fact that it was initially entrusted to the
colonel priest, the "pontifex" (bridge
builder).
Image 1.2-24 Pont du Gard near Nimes
(Photo: Mareike Wagner)
Figure 1.2-23 Bridge of
Angels in Rome
was entrusted to him. He was also
responsible for maintaining the bridges.
The title Pontifex passed to the Pope after
Christianity was recognized as the state
religion. Even today, the Pope is the
"Pontifex Maximus", the "greatest bridge
builder" between God and mankind.
With 59 arches and a length of 792 m,
this is probably the longest Roman bridge
in Merida in the province of Badajoz in
south-western Spain. It is 8 m wide, 12 m
high and has been crossing the city since
the end of the
1st century the Guadiana. It has been
repaired several times and is still an
important transport link to and from the
west.
To supply the Roman cities with water
from mountain springs or surface water,
the Romans built gravity-fed water pipes
and bridged valleys or other uneven
ground with aqueducts, which were single
or multi-storey arched constructions to
carry the gravity-fed water pipes with a
natural gradient of approx. 0.2% to 0.5%.
The first Roman aqueduct was the Aqua
Appia, built by Appius Claudius in 312
BC, which carried water 16.5 km from the
Alban Hills to the city of Rome.
One of the most remarkable of the
surviving Roman aqueducts is the three-
storey Pont du Gard near Nimes, built by
Marcus Vispanius Agrippa (Figure 1.2-
24).
1.2 Bridges in antiquity 21

20
Table 1.2-1 Selection of Roman arch bridges and aqueducts
Place Name Bridge or Built Numb Largest Lengt Slenderness: For Remarks Literature
aqueduct er of arch span h of Ratio of arch aqueducts:
sheets or clear the thickness to Number of
width struct span width arch storeys,
ure height up to
in m
Rome Pons Bridge 142 The bridge over the Tiber was [Wölfel,

1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building

Aemilius, v. Chr. destroyed by floods in 1229, W., 1997]
today rebuilt and then destroyed again
Ponte by a flood disaster in 1289. It
Rotto (the was then decided not to rebuild
destroyed it. Today, only one arch
bridge) remains, the 179
v. Its predecessor bridge was a
wooden bridge on stone pillars.

Near Marcia Aqueduct approx. 5,95 m 10.4 km Bridges the Deglio Archi valley [Wölfel,
Rom 140 and is part of the 91km-long Aqua W., 1997]
e v. Chr. Marcia water pipeline
Near Tepula Aqueduct approx. 9.2 km 2-3 [Wölfel,
Rom 125 W., 1997]
e v. Chr.
Rome Pons Bridge 104 7 23,7 m The previous bridge, built at the [Zucker,
Milvius v. Chr. beginning of the 3rd century 1921],
BC, was probably the first stone [Jurecka,
bridge built by the Romans. Two 1979]
of the four central arches of the
second bridge, built in 104 BC.
The original structure of the
bridge is still intact.
 1.2 Bridges in antiquity
Near Ponte del Bridge Approx. Pillars partly of Etruscan [Jurecka,
Vulci/ Diavolo 90 origin 1979],
Italy v. Chr. [Lamp-
recht,
1996]
Rome Pons Bridge 62 2 20 m The Pons Fabricius is the oldest [Zucker,
Fabricius v. Chr. preserved bridge in Rome. 1921],
Approximately 18 m wide [Menn,
central pillar with arched 1986],
passage for flood water. [Wölfel,
Together with the Pons Cestio, W., 1997]
the Pons Fabricio connects the
inner city and the Trastevere
district via the Tiber Island.

Rome Pons Bridge 40 3 The Pons Cestio was developed [Jurecka,

Cestio v. Chr. in 1979],
over the It was demolished in the 19th [Wölfel,
Tiber century and replaced by a new W., 1997]
bridge. The bridge served traffic
for around 1800 years.
Near Pont du Aqueduct 19 24,5 m 269 m 3 Stones, which were used to [Menn,
Nimes Gard v. Chr. 48,7m support the falsework, protrude 1986],
from the outer front of the [Wölfel,
masonry of the pillars and from W., 1997]
the vault soffit.
Rimini Bridge of Bridge 20 7 8,8 m 72 m 1:8,8 One of the best preserved [Jurecka,
Augustus bridges. In the middle, a temple 1979],
of honor in Roman Baroque [Wölfel,
style. W., 1997]

21
 22
Table 1.2-1 (continued)
Place Name Bridge or Built Numb Largest Lengt Slenderness: For Remarks Literature
aqueduct er of arch span h of Ratio of arch aqueducts:
sheets or clear the thickness to Number of
width struct span width arch storeys,
ure height up to
in m
Rome Ponte Sant Bridge approx. 7 19,2 m The three central arches still [Zucker,

1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building

Angelo, 130 retain their original structure 1921],
Bridge of [Jurecka,
Angels 1979]
Merida/ Bridge Bridge 1st cent. 59 21 m 792 m The remaining Roman bridge [Wölfel,
Spain over the 12m section (the 10 arches from the W., 1997]
Guadiana north bank) are still ancient and
almost 2000 years old.
At Nera Bridge 1st cent. 4 32,1 m 1:17 In the 8th century partial [Zucker,
Narnia bridge collapse and rebuilding, 1054 1921],
collapse due to flooding. Only [Jurecka,
the 1979]
19 m wide arch on the left [Wölfel,
bank and the pillars are still W., 1997]
ancient. The gate tower was
built in the Middle Ages.
Verona Ponte Bridge 2nd 5 Only the two arches on the left [Zucker,
Pietra cent. bank are still antique. In the 1921]
Renaissance, three arches were
replaced by segmental arches.
Ascoli- Roman Bridge 4 20 m Bridge over the Tronto with [Zucker,
Piceno bridge four stilted semi-circular 1921]
arches, 16 m above the water
level
1.3 Bridges in the Middle 23
Ages
Protruding ashlar stones can be seen on

W., 1997]

W., 1997]
[Zucker,

[Wölfel,

[Wölfel,
1921], the arched combatants and on the arches
themselves, which were built without
mortar. These structural elements were
used to support the falsework for the
result of the considerable pillar

[Zucker, 1921], only 15 arches

were built in the 17th century.

flow cross-section to 62% and

Bridge over the Guadalquivir.

Only a few arches in the bank

many repairs, it is still in use.
congestion. Nine new arches

result of the reduction of the

Several pillars collapsed as a

construction of the arches. At that time

Despite much damage as a

(and still frequently in natural stone
bridges built in the 20th century), they were

area are still Roman.

always incorporated into the formal design
of the structure with particular care and
are antique.

enhance the beauty of the appearance. In

order to reduce the dead loads, the arch
widths decrease towards the top.
In total, more than a thousand Roman
bridges have been found, many of them
made of opus caementitium with a shell in
ashlar technique. A selection is shown in
Table 1.2-1.

1.3 Bridges in the Middle Ages

With the decline of Roman culture, the art

of bridge building also fell into decline
178,7 m

274 m

and it was only later, especially from

around the 11th century onwards, with
the development of towns and cities, that
a period of revival emerged, from which
9,5 m

14 m

several technically and art-historically

interesting structures have been handed
down and preserved. In contrast to the
bridges of the Romans, where a sequence
27

16

of semi-circular arches was almost always

chosen, the bridges of the Middle Ages
differ on the one hand in their integration
into the local conditions and often into
the cityscape, and on the other hand in the
Bridge

Bridge

variation of arch shapes, e.g. flat

segmental arches and oval shapes. Bridges
built in the Middle Ages therefore usually
have individual characteristics. Examples
Tormes

Roman
Bridge

bridge

of medieval bridges include the following:

Cordoba Large

• the Puente de Alcántara over the Tagus

in Toledo, built by the Moors in the 9th
manca

century (Image 1.3-1)

Sala-
24 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
• the Danube bridge in Regensburg,
presumably built between 1135 and
1146, Figure 1.3-2, which is still
essentially in its repaired, unaltered
state today
• the famous 1176 to 1209 with
19 arches, the Old London Bridge was
densely covered on both sides with
rows of multi-storey houses around
100 years later. It was demolished in
1832
• dating from the years 1173 to 1222
Augustus Bridge in Dresden, which was
destroyed and replaced several times,
rebuilt by Pöppelmann in 1727-1731,
Figure 1.3-3, and finally replaced by a
concrete bridge in 1907/1910, Figure
1.3-4
• built at the end of the 12th century
Rhone bridge in Avignon with 21
segmental arches (Fig. 1.3-5), of which
only four are still preserved, with an
average opening width of 33 m and a
pier height of 13 m
• the Krämerbrücke in Erfurt (as a stone
Arch bridge completed i n 1325), Fig.
1.3-6
• in segmental arches with an opening of
around 30 m.
The arched bridge over the Arno
(Ponte Vecchio, Fig. 1.3-8) in Florence
(mid-14th century) with a span of 6 m
Toledo, the capital of the Castilla-La
Mancha region, one of the oldest cities
and former capital of the kingdom and
still today the ecclesiastical center of
Spain, is surrounded by the gorge-like
valley of the Tagus in a loop. As you
approach the city, which juts out of the
landscape, you only recognize the entrance
to the city of Toledo via the bridges and the
towers at the ends of the bridges when you
are already close to the banks of the Tagus.
Two bridges from the Middle Ages, the
Puente de Alcántara and the Puente de
San Martín, span the Tagus. The Puente
de Alcantára, which has been rebuilt
several times, is the older of the two
bridges. Built by the Moors, it dates back
to the second half of the 9th century. It
was probably the only access to the city at
times during the Middle Ages. The bridge
(Fig. 1.3-1) was built in the 15th century
in the Mudejar style (architectural style in
Spain in the
12th-15th century, a combination of
Moorish and Gothic forms). In the Gothic
tower on the side facing the town, built in
the 13th century, there is a double gate
through which access to the town is
gained. The Baroque-style gate at the
other end of the bridge was only built in
the 18th century.
Figure 1.3-1 Alcántara
bridge over the Tagus in
Toledo
1.3 Bridges in the Middle
Ages
Charlemagne had a ship bridge built
across the Danube in Regensburg at this
northernmost point of the Danube about
100 m downstream from today's Stone
Bridge. The Stone Bridge, which still exists
today, was built in the 12th century as part
of a common road and is the best-
preserved medieval bridge in Germany. It
was probably built between 1135 and 1146
and was the only fixed Danube crossing
between Ulm and Vienna. Regensburg was
one of the most important trading cities at
the time. The bridge crosses the southern
and northern arms of the Danube in one
go and thus also the two islands in
between. It had 16 semi-circular arches
with span widths increasing from 10.2 m
to 16.7 m towards the middle and
correspondingly increasing arch stitches.
The arches are about 90 cm thick at the
apex. The bridge was originally around 330
m long, of which around 30% was
accounted for by the 5.8 m to 7.6 m wide
piers. The width of the roadway on the
bridge today is around 8 m. The piers with
sandstone ashlars on the outside, filled
with cast quarry stone masonry on the
inside, form a closed mass, which can
withstand the
25
The bridges have withstood flood disasters
for almost nine centuries. The bridge piers
have wedge-shaped icebreaker heads
facing upstream. Towards the
downstream side, there are lower, smaller
forheads. The backwater caused by the
bridge's wide piers was once used to drive
mills located downstream, making the
bridge a verifiable early hydropower plant.
Today, only 14 of the 16 arches are still
visible, one on the side facing the city
center in the driveway to the bridge gate
and one on the opposite side. The ground
plan is slightly curved. The deviation of
the bridge axis from the straight line was
probably chosen to align the foundations
against the direction of flow of the
Danube. In elevation, the bridge rises
slightly by approx. 5 m from both sides to
the middle of the sixth visible arch. There
is a bridge tower and a courtyard on the
side facing the city center. In the 15th
century, the bridge was destroyed twice by
floods and in the
In the 16th century, the icebreakers in
front of the bridge piers were damaged by
heavy ice drift. During the 30 Years' War,
icebreakers were used for defense during
the Swedish invasion.
Figure 1.3-2 Stone
bridge in Regensburg
built in the 12th century
 26 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
A bridge arch was broken off during the
siege of 1633 and was not rebuilt until the
end of the 18th century. In the meantime,
the missing bridge span had been closed by
a drawbridge. In April 1945, German
soldiers blew up two arches on each side of
the Danube. The bridge was repaired by
1967 and is now around 310 m long. After
the cathedral, the Stone Bridge, which is an
impressive entrance to the city center, is
Regensburg's most important landmark
and also its oldest. As early as the end of
the 11th century, a wooden bridge was
built on the site of today's Augustus Bridge
on the important trade route from the west
to the east as a crossing over the Elbe in
Dresden, replacing the busy ferry traffic
that had existed until then [Löffler, 1956].
The margrave's fort (later extended to a
fitter) with the Hausmannsturm tower was
subsequently built at the bridgehead. The
bridge reached as far as the outer wall of
the fort, through which the trade route ran
to the east. The gate was later built at the
gateway to the wall. The main view of the
fitter was thus from the beginning on the
Elbe and facing the bridge. It can be said
that the city of Dresden developed from the
location of the bridge. In the 12th century,
the wooden bridge was destroyed by floods
and ice floes. In the following year, work
began on rebuilding a wooden bridge with
pillars and a stone foundation on the same
site. After construction was interrupted,
the bridge was completely rebuilt as a stone
arch bridge from 1173 to 1222. It too had
to be replaced in the 14th century.
According to pictures from 1570 [Löffier,
1956], this bridge had 23 arches. One of the
middle bridge spans was made of wood so
that it could be quickly burned down at any
time during the defense of Dresden. In the
14th century, the bridge was considered to
be one of the most beautiful, most
important and longest
Bridges. In the first half of the 16th
century, the wooden bridge section was
replaced by a stone arch with a drawbridge
and several arches were filled in.
According to pictures in [Löffier, 1956],
the bridge now only had 20 spans. Despite
extensive repair work, the bridge became
so damaged over the centuries that it fell
into disrepair. The Saxon Elector
Augustus the Strong commissioned his
master builder Matthias Daniel
Pöppelmann to rebuild the bridge. The
reconstruction took place from 1727-1731
and the bridge was widened by adding
lateral corbels. The pier heads, which
previously only went up to the abutments,
were walled up to the roadway, creating
large recesses on the bridge, which were
equipped with benches. Forty-eight
wrought iron lanterns were placed on the
steps, which shone at night and allowed
the beauty of the bridge to be appreciated
even in the dark. The drawbridge was
removed. On the Old Town side, fields
were filled in to make room for the
construction of the Hofhirche. The bridge,
Fig. 1.3-3, now h a d 17 arches. At the
beginning of the 20th century, the narrow
pier position and the low height proved to
be a hindrance to the increasing Elbe
shipping. It was therefore replaced by a
concrete arch bridge clad with sandstone
blocks built between 1907 and 1910. It
should be emphasized that the builders of
the new Augustus Bridge, with the
building materials and the requirements
of shipping and road traffic in the early
20th century, based its beauty on the
historic bridge, which was last designed by
Pöppelmann. The new bridge has 9 arches
with a clear width of approx. 18 m to
approx. 39 m, which are designed as
basket arches, and it is almost 330 m long.
The bridge was destroyed by the air raids
on Dresden in February 1945 and by the
blasting of
1.3 Bridges in the Middle 27
Ages

Figure 1.3-3 Augustus Bridge in Dresden (photo from the painting by Bernardo Belotto, gen.
Canaletto, Old Master Paintings Gallery in Dresden)

German soldiers partially destroyed in
May 1945 and rebuilt in 1947/1949 as it
was in 1910 and still serves today's traffic.
In the meantime, the Frauenkirche has also
been completed in an archaeological
reconstruction, thus restoring Dresden's
magnificent cityscape (Fig. 1.3-4).
Built at the end of the 12th century by
Saint Bénezet of the Frères Pontiffes
fraternity, the approximately 900 m
long stone arch bridge over the Rhone in
Avignon, of which four of the former 21
arches are still preserved today, had flat,
slender arches with a clear arch width of 33
m and a 13 m arch span and piers around
8 m wide, in which there are flow openings
in the style of the Roman bridges. There is
a chapel on one of the pillars. With a total
length of around 900 m, the bridge in
Avignon was the longest bridge in Europe
for a long time. The bridge in Avignon
from 1378

Figure 1.3-4 Augustus Bridge in Dresden, the dome of the rebuilt Frauenkirche in the
background
28 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
Figure 1.3-5 Part of the Rhone bridge in Avignon built at the end of the 12th century (Photo:
Friedegart Wagner)
Clement VII, who resided as antipope
until 1394, had several arches destroyed for
his own safety, and further arches fell in the
The bridge collapsed in the 17th century
due to flooding and heavy ice drift, so that
today only four arches remain (Fig. 1.3-5)
and bear witness to the bridge
construction of the Middle Ages. The
bridge became known to many people, at
least by name, through the song Sur le
Pont d'Avignon l'on danse tous en rond.
During the Middle Ages, Erfurt
developed into an important trading city.
The west-east connection of the Middle
Ages from Paris to Kiev, the Via Regia, led
through fords across the Gera in Erfurt. A
wooden bridge was probably built around
1000 on the site of today's Krämerbrücke
(Merchants' Bridge), which was probably
already used by merchants at the time.
Frequent fire damage prompted the city
lords to replace the wooden bridge with a
stone vaulted bridge at the end of the 13th
century. This stone bridge and the half-
timbered houses standing on it, as well as
the churches with gateways that originally
stood at the two bridgeheads, are still
standing today.
The two passages were completed by 1325
[Vockrodt/Sander, 1989] and [Vockrodt et
al., 2003]. Of the two churches at the
bridgeheads, the eastern one, the Ägi-
dienkirche, still exists today, while the
western one was demolished in the 19th
century. The approximately 80 m long
bridge had six approx. 19 m wide
sandstone vaults with clear widths of up to
7.8 m. Including the 20 m long ramps on
both sides, the total length of the bridge,
which was built with houses, was around
120 m. Small houses with stores were built
on the bridge for grocers. The stone
bridge, which was wider than the former
wooden bridge, could also be used by light
goods traffic. Bulky and heavy goods
traffic was not permitted and not even
possible. The piers, which vary in width
from 3 m to 6.5 m, contain cellar vaults.
Of the six vaults, only five had flow
openings. From the beginning, the outer
western vault was a land opening, which
was used for heavy carts to pass under the
bridge in order to reach the ford north of
the bridge. During the great fire of 1472 in
1.3 Bridges in the Middle
Ages
Erfurt also burned down houses and stores
on the stone bridge. The merchants then
had their houses built on the bridge. To do
this, the bridge had to be widened, which
was achieved by adding pillars on both
sides with wooden trusses in between,
allowing the half-timbered houses to
project beyond the width of the arches. At
the beginning of the 18th century,
craftsmen settled on the Krämerbrücke. Due
to damage to the arches, the bridge was
closed to heavy goods traffic in 1816. In
1855, five houses on the bridge burned
down. The fire and the poor condition of
the bridge, which had probably not been
maintained for hundreds of years (a date of
1676 on the outer western vault indicates
that the vault had been repaired),
prompted the government to issue a ban
on rebuilding. At the end of the
In the 19th century, the idea of
demolishing the bridge was even
considered. Fortunately, these
considerations failed because there was no
money available. As a result, initially only
the maintenance of the elevated structures
on the bridge was carried out. In the last
days of the 2nd World War, three houses
were destroyed by artillery fire in 1945.
29
were rebuilt from 1954. Further
reconstructions were then carried out on
the bridge's building structures. From
1985 onwards, the bridge underwent
extensive repairs to restore its load-bearing
capacity. Particular attention was paid to
preserving the existing structure in its
original form as far as possible and to
ensuring that the visible bridge surfaces
retained or restored their medieval
character when carrying out the
reconstruction work. Naturally, only
traditional building materials were used in
the areas of the visible parts. Concrete and
steel were only used for the inner, non-
visible parts of the bridge. A detailed
description of the work applied is given in
[Vockrodt/Sander, 1989]. The repair of
the bridge was completed in 1986. The
Krämerbrücke bridge in Erfurt (Figures
1.3-6 and -7) is an important engineering
structure in German history due to its
historical function in the Middle Ages and
its interesting design.
Between 1335 and 1345, Taddeo Gaddi,
a pupil of Giotto, probably built the first
segmental arch bridge in Europe with
Figure 1.3-6
Krämerbrücke in Erfurt
(photo by
MR Dr.-Ing. e.h. Dipl.-
Ing. Friedrich Standfuß)
30 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
Fig. 1.3-7 View of the hustle and bustle on the
Krämerbrücke bridge in Erfurt
three arches with a clear width of around
30 m and an arrow ratio of 1 : 5, the Ponte
Vecchio (Fig. 1.3-8) over the Arno in
Florence, which is still highly regarded
today, was completed [Zucker, 1921],
[Jurecka, 1979] and [Straub, 1992]. It is
lined with multi-storey houses with stores
in the basements, mainly goldsmiths,
silversmiths and jewelers. Above the
residential buildings
In 1564, Vasari was commissioned by
Cosimo I to build a covered walkway
linking the Uffizi and Palazzo Pitti,
enabling the Medici to cross the Arno
from their residence in the dry and without
being seen by the public. Like the Stone
Bridge in Regensburg, the Krämerbrücke
in Erfurt, the Charles Bridge in Prague
and the Rialto Bridge (section 1.4.1), the
Ponte Vecchio had a formative influence
on the cityscape. The bridge had to be
repaired, particularly as a result of flood
damage.
In Prague, there had already been a
building a little upstream from the site of
today's church, which was begun under
Charles IV in 1357 and completed at the
beginning of the
The Charles Bridge (Fig. 1.3-9), which was
repaired and completed in the 16th century,
was preceded by a stone bridge dating back
to the 12th century (the Judith Bridge). It
had narrow openings spanned by semi-
circular arches, existed until the 14th
century and was destroyed by flooding.
The Charles Bridge, built in the 14th
century by Peter Parler, is 505 m long and
has 16 almost semi-circular arches with
clear widths of approx. 18 m to approx. 23
m. The pillars are raised up to the parapet.
There are statues on the pillars, some as
individual and group figures, which were
added from the 17th century onwards.
Picture 1.3-8 Ponte
Vecchio in Florence,
behind it
the Ponte Santa Trinità
1.4 Bridges from the Renaissance to the present day
were built. The bridgeheads are closed off
by gate towers, the particularly beautiful
tower on the Old Town side was built by
Peter Parler. The Charles Bridge was
damaged by floods several times and had
to be repaired several times.
The Anji Bridge already mentioned in
section 1.2.1, built in 591-599, an
openwork stone arch bridge in Chi- na
(Figures 1.2-5 and -6) should also be
mentioned here.
1.4 Bridges from the Renaissance
to the present day
1.4.1 Stone bridges
Italy is the birthplace of the Renaissance.
The Renaissance began in the 15th
century with the liberation of the self-
confident city republics of northern and
central Italy from the feudal and
ecclesiastical order of the Middle Ages. It
led to a fundamental restructuring of
society and was therefore a significant
upheaval in history. It is the link between
the Middle Ages and the modern era, as
well as the spiritual and cultural root of
our time and a guiding light for European
development. The secular development of
human personality is the most important
characteristic of the Renaissance. The
comprehensive cultural and epochal
concept of the Renaissance is interrelated
with humanism.
31
Figure 1.3-9 Charles
Bridge in Prague
The development of new cultural content
and forms based on antiquity from the
15th century onwards. The development
of new cultural content and forms based
on antiquity from the 15th century
onwards and the liberation from medieval
ties to the ecclesiastical and feudal order
were accompanied by a social
restructuring which, alongside the nobility
and clergy, allowed the bourgeoisie to
become an educational institution and led
to the flourishing of art and culture.
Naturally, the advent of the Renaissance
did not mean the same upheaval and
fundamental innovation for bridge
building as it did for other types of
architecture. Medieval and Renaissance
bridge forms cannot be clearly separated
from each other. Only the buildings of the
early Italian Renaissance deliberately
returned to the semi-circular arch motif of
antiquity. Later on, as time progressed, a
gradual slimming of the pillars and a
gradual elongation of the arches can be
observed. The use of the basket bow and
the preference for eliptical bows with a
smaller bow engraving can be observed
from at least the second half of the
17th century common. The characteristic
motif of Roman stone bridges, the
archivolt, is often repeated in Renaissance
bridges. The Ponte Santa Trinità in
Florence (Fig. 1.4-1), built in 1570 by
Bartolommeo Ammannati, is a very
elegantly designed bridge with three
arches and accentuated projecting piers,
32 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
It is perhaps the most beautiful bridge of
the High Renaissance. It has very flat
arches with clear widths of 26 m to 29 m,
whose lower reveals are in the shape of
ellipses. It can also be seen in picture 1.3-
8, behind the Ponte Vecchio.
The transport network in Venice is
largely determined by canals and the
bridges that cross them. Venice has
around 400 bridges. In the past, they were
mainly built of wood. They had to be
renewed regularly because they were
naturally not particularly durable. The
Rialto Bridge over the Grand Canal, built
by Antonio da Ponte and well-known to
many and a striking feature of Venice's
cityscape, used to be a wooden bridge.
The wooden bridge is said to have been
built in the first half of the 13th century.
Figure 1.4-1 Ponte Santa
Trinità in Florence
Figure 1.4-2 Rialto Bridge
in Venice
(Photo: Dr. techn. Dipl.-
Ing. Eva Maria Eichinger)
It was built over with stores in the 15th
century. It had to be repaired regularly
and was eventually demolished. The Rialto
Bridge (Fig. 1.4-2), built by da Ponte
between 1588 and 1592 as a stone bridge at
the narrowest point of the Grand Canal, is
a pedestrian bridge with steeply rising
ramps and long steps. The lower span
consists of a circular marble arch with a
height of around 7 m and a clearance of
around 28 m, allowing ships to pass
straight through. The width of the bridge is
22 m and the bridge has three walkways
with two closed rows of stalls in between,
which are interrupted by an archway at
the apex of the bridge. The landscaping of
the stepped fun
1.4 Bridges from the Renaissance to the present day
The abutments were built on pile grids
because the subsoil consists of alluvial
sand. The two pile grids under the
abutments should each consist of around
6000 densely driven piles.
After the Thirty Years' War, the
Sternbrücke (Fig. 1.4-3) was built over the
Ilm in Weimar from 1651 to 1652 in
connection with the construction of the
city palace by Johann Moritz Richter on
behalf of Duke Wilhelm IV. It originally
had only three limestone arches with clear
widths of around 11 m to 14 m. The arches
are around 80 cm thick. There are oval
openings in the approximately 5 m wide
pillars, based on the Roman model. The
fourth opening at the eastern end of the
bridge, which spans the Leutra ditch, was
built later. The former end of the bridge
and the location of the added fourth arch
can be clearly recognized by the preserved
sandstone gate pillars and the gap between
the original bridge and the addition of the
fourth arch with a clear width of more
than 5 metres. The current railing was
made to a design by Clemens Wenzeslaus
Coudray and dates from the first half of
the 19th century. At the eastern end of the
original bridge is a staircase that leads
onto the bridge through the pier opening
found there. From the bridge, this
staircase and embankment ramps lead to
the
33
Figure 1.4-3 Star Bridge
in Weimar
Goethepark. Today, the bridge is used
exclusively for pedestrian traffic. The
design of the bridge in conjunction with
Goethepark and the fitter has a special
urban quality.
The Schlossbrücke bridge over the
Spree in Berlin, which was built between
1822 and 1824 according to a design by
Karl Friedrich Schinkel and has been
preserved in its external appearance, is
another bridge with a special quality that
characterizes the cityscape. The sandstone
arches of the side spans and the wooden
central opening, which could be folded
open for shipping, were successively
replaced by reinforced concrete arches
from 1912 to 1938. The visible surfaces of
the reinforced concrete arches of the bridge,
which was rebuilt in the first half of the
20th century, were clad in sandstone so
that the exterior design of the castle
bridge, which dates back to Schinkel, was
retained. Bombing raids and the fighting
in Berlin in 1945 led to severe damage to
the castle bridge. It was restored again in
1950/1951, preserving the design dating
back to Schinkel, and most recently in
1995/1997 as a reinforced concrete arch
bridge with sandstone cladding on the
visible surfaces (Fig. 1.4-4). On each side of
the bridge there are four sculptural
groups, eight in total, made of white
Carrara marble in the classicist style,
which go back to designs by Schinkel and
were influenced by the War of Liberation
in 1818.
34 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
were created. The sculptural groups allude
to scenes from Greek mythology, with
deities depicted as patron saints of the
soldiers. The beautiful wrought-iron
railings with their openings are also
decorative and, together with the closed
high stone pedestals on which the
sculptural groups stand, enhance the
monumental effect of the overall design of
the castle bridge.
The construction of the railroads
marked the beginning of a great upswing
in modern bridge construction in the form
of stone arch bridges and, above all, steel
bridges. After horse-drawn railroads had
already existed on rails since the beginning
of the 18th century, the first railroad lines
with steam locomotives were opened for
freight transportation in 1825 on the
Stockton-Darlington line in England and
for passenger transportation in 1830 on the
Liverpool-Manchester line. In Germany,
the first railroad connection was then
opened in 1835 on the 6 km Nuremberg-
Fürth line and between 1836 (initially the
Leipzig-Riesa line) and 1839 with its
extension to Dresden, the first longer line
(112 km) Leipzig-Dresden. In 1840, the
Magdeburg-Leipzig railroad line was
opened via Köthen and Halle and in 1841
the Berlin-Wittenberg-Köthen railroad line
was opened, continuing via the existing
connection from Köthen to Leipzig.
Figure 1.4-4 Castle bridge
in Berlin
zig went into operation. Leipzig was thus
Germany's rail junction in 1841, as all
three long-distance lines in Germany in
1841, Dresden-Leipzig, Magdeburg-
Leipzig and Berlin-Leipzig, led to Leipzig.
Otherwise, in 1841 there were only partial
railroad lines in Germany with no direct
connection. There had been plans to build
a railroad line between Leipzig and Bavaria
since 1836, which were pushed forward
from 1839. Following the state treaty
concluded in 1841 by the governments of
the Kingdoms of Saxony and Bavaria and
the Duchy of Saxony-Altenburg,
construction of the Leipzig-Altenburg
section began in the same year.
Construction of the Bavarian railroad
station began in Leipzig as a terminus
station, which was completed in 1844. The
line was extended beyond Altenburg until
1845 and opened to rail traffic.
An important stone arch bridge on the
Saxon-Bavarian railroad line Leipzig-
Altenburg-Zwickau-Plauen-Hof-
Nuremberg is the four-storey Göltzschtal
Bridge near Mylau/Vogtland in the most
difficult section Reichenbach-Plauen, built
between 1846 and 1851, probably the
largest bridge built of brickwork and with
granite and porphyry vaults [Beyer, 2001].
The Göltzsch valley had to be bridged over
a length of about 800 m.
1.4 Bridges from the Renaissance to the present day
Figure 1.4-5 Göltzschtal bridge near Mylau in the Vogtland region of Saxony
The railroad line was to be routed around
80 m above the valley floor. In addition to
the Göltzschtal bridge, the smaller
Elstertal bridge (length approx. 270 m,
height above the valley approx. 70 m) was
to be built near Jocketa. In 1844, experts
doubted the feasibility of the two bridges
and thus the viability of the railroad
project as a whole. Independent experts
were appointed to assess the chosen route
alignment and the feasibility of the
bridges. The experts included a group of
Belgian engineers and the well-known
technical director of the Bavarian Railway
Commission, Friedrich August v. Pauli.
All the experts confirmed that the route
alignment had been chosen sensibly and
that the bridges were feasible. The Belgian
engineers even included in their report a
design by Splingard for a three-storey
viaduct with pointed arches and
decreasing spans at the top. At the
beginning of 1845, a competition was held
for designs for bridging the two valleys. 81
designs were submitted. The review
committee, chaired by Prof. Johann Andreas
Schubert from the Dresden Technical
Education Institute, the chair
35
The committee, which is part of today's
Technical University of Dresden, came to
the conclusion that none of the submitted
designs were directly feasible, but that a
viable one could be developed from four
of them, a four-storey stone bridge similar
to an aqueduct with many pillars and
arches, which in the opinion of the
committee promised the greatest stability
and economic efficiency and minimized
the risk for construction and
maintenance. At the end of 1845, the
design for the bridge drawn up by Johann
Andreas Schubert and Robert Wilke, the
construction manager of the railroad line
and also the senior site manager of the
two bridges, was accepted and the
Göltzschtal Bridge was built according to
their design, although it had to be changed
several times during construction. The
builder of the Göltzschtal Bridge was
Ferdinand Dost. The foundation stone for
the Göltzschtal Bridge was laid on May 31,
1846. During the excavation work for the
foundation of the highest pier, it was
discovered that there was still no stable
subsoil at a depth of 15 meters. Wilke did
not want to go any deeper with the
foundation and therefore suggested
36 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
to omit this pillar and to bridge the
resulting larger openings between the two
neighboring pillars on the second and
fourth floors with wide-span arches. He
wanted to arrange a tension arch on the
second floor and a supporting arch on the
fourth floor. The neighboring pillar
distances and arch spans were reduced.
Schubert agreed with this proposal in
principle, but suggested, with reference to
the vault theory he had developed, that
only one arch should be built and that it
should be an elliptically elevated
supporting arch. Wilke disagreed with
this proposal, so that independent experts
were again appointed to resolve the
differences of opinion, who supported the
new solutions in principle and
recommended the bridging of the larger
openings with two arches as proposed by
Wilke, but in the elliptically elevated arch
form proposed by Schubert. Schubert and
Wilke followed this suggestion. Coupled
piers with smaller arches were arranged on
both sides of the large arch spans, and the
bridge was ultimately constructed in this
way. This change to the original design,
which was forced by the subsoil
conditions, with all the same
The new arch and pier spacing led to a
significant improvement in the design
quality of the Göltzsch Valley Bridge
(Figures 1.4-5 and 1.6-6). It is 574 m long
and the railroad line is 78 m above the
valley and the Göltzsch. The construction
consists of piers and arches. The piers of
the control bays (small arches) protrude
from the outer surfaces of the arches on
the three lower levels; only on the upper
level are the outer surfaces of the piers and
arches in one plane. The thickness of the
pillars is a maximum of 22.7 m at the base
and decreases from the bottom to 7.93 m
at the top with 1:48 storey steps and pillar
approaches. In the bays with the large
arches and the coupling piers, there are
more prominent piers, the width of which
decreases upwards from the bottom to the
railroad line. Up to the arch abutments of
the second floor, the piers are made of
natural stone; above that, they are mainly
made of cross-bonded brickwork.
However, the load-bearing arches of the
colonels are made of natural stone due to
the more intensive vibration and exposure
to moisture. The arches of the lower three
floors are divided in the transverse direction
(Fig. 1.4-6). The clear width of the largest
arch (upper central arch) is 30.9 m and the
Figure 1.4-6 Göltzschtal
bridge, oblique view
1.4 Bridges from the Renaissance to the present day
Apex height 31.7 m. A total of 135,676 m³
of masonry was used for the construction
of the bridge, of which 7,1671 m³ was
brickwork and 64,005 m³ was ashlar and
quarry stone masonry [Beyer, 2001].
1.4.2 Wooden bridges
The construction of wooden bridges in
the Renaissance and in modern times
must be viewed primarily from a
historical perspective.
In Tokyo, the Nihonbashi Bridge (Ja-
pan Bridge) is a bridge steeped in history.
It was first built in 1603 at the beginning
of the Edo period. The Edo period began
in 1603 when the Tenno appointed the
Japanese general Tokugawa Ieyasu as
shogun, Japan's crown general. The title
was hereditary, and the shogun dynasty,
which exercised military and civil power
in place of the powerless tenno, lasted
until 1867 when power was returned to
the tenno. Tokugawa Ieyasu, the first
shogun, had already moved his residence
to Edo, today's Tokyo. The Edo period
was characterized by a tight central
government and a stable state system with
omnipresent control. In the Edo period,
the shoguns were subordinate to the
shoguns.
37
The Nihonbashi bridge was a 12 m wide
wooden bridge (Fig. 1.4-7). The
Nihonbashi Bridge was a 12 m wide
wooden bridge (Fig. 1.4-7) with a span of
52 m. Fig. 1.4-7 shows the pompous start
of a daimyo's journey home to his region
over the Nihonbashi Bridge.
There is a legend that whenever the
shogun wanted to pass under the bridge
with his ship, the middle section of the
bridge was removed. The bridge burned
down several times. It was always rebuilt.
Finally, in 1911, the stone arch bridge with
two openings, which has survived to this
day, was built. The entire length of today's
bridge is 52 m and it is 30 m wide. There
is a bronze plate on the roadway in the
middle of the bridge, which indicates the
starting point of the seven (five in the Edo
era) main roads of Tokyo and from which
distances are measured.
Wooden bridges, which are quicker
and cheaper to build than stone bridges,
were and are being built in Europe,
particularly in southern Germany, Austria
and Switzerland, because there is
sufficient wood available here due to the
abundance of forests. Even if the wooden
bridges are relatively
Picture 1.4-7 Photo of a
picture of the old
Nihonbashi Bridge
from the 17th century in
Tokyo
38 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
Although timber bridges can be built
inexpensively, they require careful and
costly maintenance, which puts the
sustainability of this construction method
into perspective. Over time, timber bridge
construction has therefore become less
important. Nevertheless, timber bridges
are still common today, especially as
temporary bridges and pedestrian bridges.
In the USA, studies have been carried out
for around 30 years on improved wood
protection for freely weathered wooden
structural elements and bridge decks
made of glued laminated panels have been
developed [Werren, 1969]. In Styria in
particular, various modern timber bridges
have been built in recent years [Pischl,
1999]. At the Graz University of
Technology, Gerhard Schickhofer, in
collaboration with his Swiss colleague
Andrea Bernasconi, is carrying out
investigations into timber deck panels,
which promise an interesting
development for timber bridge
construction. To produce the deck panels,
wooden lamellas or wood-based material
lamellas are arranged vertically and
connected to form a panel by nailing,
screwing or gluing with or without pre-
tensioning or alternatively only by pre-
tensioning. Due to the available lengths of
the timber, joints of the timber parts are
necessary in the longitudinal direction,
which are usually made with staggered
butt joints (reduction of the calculated
load-bearing capacity compared to the
unweakened timber panel is required) or
finger joints. With the so-called QS panel,
the panel effect is only achieved by
prestressing, which is the most
economical way of producing the panel.
Here, the boards or planks are placed on
edge next to each other and clamped
together with tendons in the transverse
direction, whereby relative displacements
between the lamellas are limited to
insignificant values and the panel effect is
created.
The slabs also ensure the shear effect for
horizontal stiffening of the bridge, which
is why a wind bracing in the slab plane is
not necessary.
Many interesting older bridges are no
longer preserved today. Those that have
survived are often listed buildings. In their
simplest form, wooden bridges for small
spans consist of solid-wall beam bridges
that rest on wooden or stone abutments
and, in the case of several spans of the
bridge, also on piers. For somewhat larger
spans, trussed, suspended and under-
tensioned beams have emerged for timber
bridge construction, which have also been
developed as a combination of both into
suspended trusses. For larger spans, truss,
arch, suspension and span bridges are
preferred. The bridges are built as deck
bridges, through bridges or, especially for
weather protection, as closed bridges.
Bridges are also built as steel-wood and
concrete-wood composite bridges. Section
4.2.4 briefly discusses the different variants,
to which reference is made. Due to its
importance for timber bridge
construction, only the development of
timber bridge construction in the USA in
the 19th century in connection with the
start of railroad bridge construction and
the increased development of North
America will be touched on here. This too
is primarily of historical significance.
Due to the routing requirements of the
rail lines with the low permissible
gradients of the routes and, in the USA,
the forced development of large areas that
were far removed from the already
densely populated parts, the construction
of the railroads in the
In the 19th century, the construction of
many bridges was necessary, which had to
be built as quickly as possible. Forests and
thus wood as a building material were
available locally in the affected areas.
1.4 Bridges from the Renaissance to the present day 39

This was abundant in these areas and
therefore quick and inexpensive to
procure. Because of the wide valleys and
broad rivers that often had to be bridged,
many interesting constructions were built.
As an example, the arch bridge designed
by Burr and built in the second half of the
18th century with an attached roadway
with five openings spanning 49 m to 61 m
over the Delaware near Trenton in New
Jersey is shown in Figure 1.4-8 [Cul-
mann, 1851]. The arrow heights of the
supporting arches are about 1/10 of the
arch span. The cross-sections of the
arches were rectangular cross-sections
with dimensions of 40 cm × 94 cm, which
were formed from superimposed planks.
The transoms of the arches were located
directly under the roadway level, which
was supported by hangers.
was attached to the arch. To correct the
height of the roadway, the middle hangers
had screw threads and nuts with lock nuts
at their ends. Burr arranged additional
struts to give the bridge the necessary
stiffness. This set the bridge apart from its
European counterparts. The bridge initially
served road traffic for around 40 years
and was converted for rail traffic without
structural reinforcement when the
railroad was built from New Jersey to
Pennsylvania.
Near Washington, the approximately
1.6 km long road bridge over the Potomac
shown in Fig. 1.4-9 was built with a clear
width of 36.6 m, with a width of about
7.6 m. The two truss

Figure 1.4-8 Wooden arch bridge built in the second half of the 18th century over the Dela- ware
River near Trenton, New Jersey, image after [Culmann, 1851]

Figure 1.4-9 Timber truss road bridge over the Potomac at Washington, image after [Culmann,
1851]
40 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building

The main girders with a system height of

4.6 m had upper and lower chords, each
consisting of three square lumber
members measuring approximately 15
cm/15 cm. The chords surrounded the two
two-part posts, each measuring around 25
cm/15 cm and spaced around 3.05 m
apart. The two-part struts falling towards
the supports also had dimensions of 25
cm/15 cm each. They were in the same
plane as the posts and were embedded in Figure 1.4-10 Principle of the truss girder
them. The gaps between the two-part according to Long's system
posts and struts were approximately 7.6
cm. In these gaps, there were additional
struts with dimensions of about 7.6 cm/30 The position of the chords, posts and the
cm that were embedded from the heads of two different struts on the top chord knot
each strut in cast-iron shoes (detail a in can be seen in the diagram.
Fig. 1.4-9) located above the pillars. So Wooden bridges based on the Long
that the cast-iron shoe did not have to be and Howe systems are also interesting.
embedded in the lower chord, a 30 cm Both systems are truss girders with posts
long head piece was placed on each of the and intersecting diagonals as infills
shoes above the piers and a hardwood between the chords. In the truss girders
block was placed between each of the two according to Long's system (Fig. 1.4-10),
shoes above the piers. Detail b of Fig. 1.4- wedges are driven under the diagonals at
9 shows the arrangement of the the bottom chord, which gives the
diagonals a compressive pre-tension and
the posts are braced.

Figure 1.4-11 Truss rail bridge over the Chikapoe River built according to the Howe system in
Connecticut (image after [Culmann, 1851])
1.4 Bridges from the Renaissance to the present day
be tightened. The wedging must be strong
enough to ensure that the diagonal braces
are always under pressure under the pre-
tension and external influences so that
they do not loosen. The beams must be
checked regularly and, if necessary, the
wedges must be wedged again. The load-
bearing effect of the Howe system
corresponds in principle to that of the
Long system. However, in Howe's system,
which is the better known of the two
systems in Europe, the verticals are
replaced by round iron bars that are pre-
stressed. As a result, the individual
construction parts are simpler and the
precise carpentry work required for the
Long girder is not necessary to the same
extent.
In Connecticut, a railroad bridge over
the Chikapoe was built as a truss girder
with a span of 54 m according to the
Howe system (Fig. 1.4-11). The horizontal
bracing of the bridge was also designed as
a girder according to the Howe system.
1.4.3 Iron and steel bridges
1.4.3.1 Arch, beam and rigid frame bridges
Compared to the construction of stone
bridges, the construction of iron and steel
bridges only began relatively recently. In
order to be able to build bridges made of
iron or steel, two important prerequisites
had to be fulfilled first. The most
important, of course, was that the
technological conditions had to be created
to produce iron and steel in the required
quantity and quality for use as a building
material. Iron and steel are relatively
expensive building materials. They
therefore had to be used sparingly from
the outset in the construction of bridges
and other structures. The second just as
41
An important prerequisite for the
construction of steel bridges in particular
was therefore that well-trained engineers
were available to design and build
sufficiently safe structures with economical
use of the expensive building material.
Until then, bridges had mainly been built
on the basis of traditional experience.
Iron was successfully produced in large
quantities in Coalbrookdale in England
around 1735. This iron, smelted in a blast
furnace using hard coal coke, contained a
lot of carbon and the cast iron produced
from it had extremely low toughness
properties and could be stressed mainly in
compression and only very little in
tension and bending. The first iron bridge,
the cast-iron arched bridge (Figure 1.4-12),
was built in Coalbrookdale over the River
Severn in 1776-1779 by Abraham Darby. It
has a span of about 31 meters. It is still
preserved today and is used as a
pedestrian bridge. It was the first structure
to be included by the ASCE in the list of
International His- toric Civil Engineering
Landmarks. The town of Iron Bridge,
named after the bridge, was built in the
immediate vicinity of the bridge.
In the following decades, numerous
cast-iron bridges with arch-like shapes
were built in England and cast-iron bridges
were even shipped as far as North
America. In Lower Silesia, a small
footbridge of a similar design was cast as
early as 1794 and built in 1796 as a road
bridge with a span of 13 m near Lazany
(Laasan) near Swidnica (Schweidnitz) over
the Stregomka (Striegauer Wasser). It is
the first iron bridge on the European
continent [Mehrtens, 1900]. The castings
were produced in the Royal Ironworks in
Malpane.
A scaled-down image of the bridge over
the River Severn at Coalbrookdale with an
8 m span (Fig. 1.4-13) was made around
1800
42 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
recreated in Wörlitz Park. Wörlitz Park
near Dessau was laid out in the second
half of the 18th century during the reign of
Leopold III Friedrich Franz von Anhalt-
Dessau and later expanded. It was added
to the UNESCO World Heritage List in
2000. In the park, which has a large area of
water and many canals, there is a scaled-
down replica of the bridge over the River
Severn in Coalbrookdale as well as several
small wooden bridges (e.g. a bridge
modeled on the Severn Bridge).
Figure 1.4-12 Bridge
over the River Severn in
Coal- brookdale (Photo
by Prof. Dr.-Ing.
Wieland Ramm)
Figure 1.4-13 Wörlitz
Bridge, reduced image of
the bridge over the River
Severn in Coalbrook- dale
by Palladio), stone and iron, which are
intended to educate visitors about the
various possibilities and historical
development of bridge building at the
time. All the bridges are in good condition
and can be used as footbridges.
The second above-mentioned
prerequisite for the construction of iron
and steel bridges was the training of
capable engineers in engineering colleges.
The first universities were founded as early
as the Middle Ages, in the 11th and 12th
centuries. After in
1.4 Bridges from the Renaissance to the present day
While the sciences at universities were
initially based primarily on theology, law,
philosophy, medicine and the arts,
modern languages, mathematics and the
natural sciences were also included in the
following centuries [Cardini/Beoni-
Brocchieri, 1991]. The latter became
important scientific foundations for the
engineering sciences, which initially
played no role at universities. Building on
the laws of mechanics already formulated
in antiquity, such as the law of the lever,
the law of buoyancy of a body in a fluid,
the center of gravity of a body, the action
of the pulley and cinematic knowledge, the
science of mechanics in modern terms
emerged in the Renaissance, beginning
with Galileo Galilei's major work Discorse
e Dimonstratione Ma- tematiche. Further
significant contributions were made by
Johannes Kepler with his formulation of
the kinematic laws of planetary motion
and Christian Huygens with his work on
the oscillations of pendulums. Building on
this, Isaac Newton developed the basic
principles of mechanics in his
fundamental work Philosophiae Naturalis
Principa Mathematica, published in 1867,
which included in particular the law of
gravity and the law of momentum.
However, the infinitesimal calculus
developed simultaneously by Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz and Isaac Newton, an
important basis for the mathematical
treatment of mechanical problems, should
also be mentioned here. The Bernoulli
brothers, Hooke and Euler in particular
made further important contributions, on
which the foundations of engineering
science were later developed. From the
18th century onwards, secondary schools,
trade schools, drawing schools and
academies developed into technical
educational establishments and, as a result,
engineering schools.
43
Finally, polytechnic schools emerged, the
so-called polytechnics. The Corps des
Ponts et Chaussees, the first association of
engineers, was founded in 1716 after the
Corps des Ponts et Chaussees had already
been established in France in 1691. The
Corps was tasked with enforcing the
Kingdom of France's transport policy. This
was followed in 1744 by the founding of
the Bureau of Parisian Draughtsmen. In
1747, Jean-Rodolphe Perronet, who was
himself an engineer of the Corps des Ponts
et Chaussees, was appointed head of the
Bureau of Draughtsmen in order to
further improve the work of the Corps
with qualified staff. He was appointed to
instruct and supervise the geographers and
draughtsmen of maps and town plans, to
familiarize them with the science and
knowledge necessary for them to
competently carry out their functions in
the road and bridge building corps. This
decree is considered to be the founding
document of the École des Ponts et
Chaussées [Chatzis, 1998]. At the end of
the 18th century, bridge engineers
questioned the training principles of the
school. The main issue was the scientific
content of the training. The discussion led
to the founding of the École Centrale des
Travaux Publics in 1794, which was given
the name École polytechnique the following
year. The École polytechnique now
provided future engineers with a general
basic scientific education. Only after
successfully completing the École
polytechnique could graduates continue
their specialist training at the École des
Ponts et Chaussées [Chatzis, 1998]. In the
first half of the 19th century, the École
polytechnique was home to some of the
most important scientists in the
engineering sciences of the time,
including Lagrange, Poisson and Cauchy.
For the École des
44 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
Ponts et Chaussées, Navier's work was
particularly important. In particular, his
contribution to the mechanics of beams,
his contributions to elasticity theory,
material strength and flow movements are
still of fundamental importance today. The
École des Ponts et Chaussées, which was
founded in 1747 and received a new
organizational structure in 1804, together
with the École polytechnique, which was
established in 1794, served as a model for
technical colleges and universities, at least
for continental Europe. This created the
second important prerequisite mentioned
above, namely that civil engineers were
taught the necessary scientific principles
for the design and construction of modern
bridges.
As already mentioned, the construction
of rail employees around 1825 marked the
beginning of a major upswing in modern
steel bridge construction. In the
meantime, technological development in
iron production had progressed so far that
forgeable iron, known as welded iron,
could be produced using the puddling
process. From the beginning of the 19th
century, it was also possible to produce
bar and shaped iron on an industrial scale.
This paved the way for the construction of
iron beam bridges. The advantages of steel
bridge construction, in particular the
lower weight of the structure and the
resulting foundation costs, but also the
shorter construction times, gradually
pushed natural stone bridges aside. The
first long-span single beam bridge was the
Bri- tannia Bridge over the Menai Strait,
built by Robert Stephenson from 1846 to
1850 [Wer- ner, 1969], which had the
largest spans of 140 m in the two middle
spans. The bridge consisted of two separate
and parallel full-walled box girders made
of wrought-iron plates and angles as a
riveted construction, each spanning four
spans.
which are arranged one behind the other as
single-span beams. The top and bottom
plates were double-walled. Each box was
intended for the operation of a rail track,
the rail employees ran inside the boxes.
Such a design was unprecedented at the
time. There was no experience with the
use of forgeable iron in bridge
construction. Only shipbuilders had
experience with the use of forgeable iron
for long-span constructions at the time.
The thinking was that if the iron
steamboats could withstand the stresses of
the sea and steam engines with their
shocks, the iron must also be suitable for
building bridges. Bad experience had
already been made with the use of cast
iron for railroad bridges with their shock
loads. Stephenson initially wanted to
suspend the box girders from a
suspension structure, but then came to the
conclusion that the box girders alone were
sufficiently strong. Open questions were to
be clarified through tests. Tests were first
carried out to clarify the behavior of the
wrought iron and the sheet metal.
Professor Eaton Hodgkinson suggested
carrying out additional tests on a 1:6 scale
model box, which Stephenson took up and
had the tests carried out by the
manufacturer William Fairbirn, the long-
time partner of his father George
Stephenson, the famous rail employee and
locomotive builder. The test results led to
the conviction that both the forgeable iron
was suitable and that the unstiffened box
girders alone were sufficiently strong
without a suspended structure.
Nevertheless, pylon-like masonry piers
were placed above the box girders so that
the beam bridge could be suspended from
cables if necessary. The bridge was in use
until 1970. After a
1.4 Bridges from the Renaissance to the present day
After fire damage, it was dismantled and
replaced by truss arch bridges [Ramm,
2004].
Around the middle of the 19th century,
steelworks made great efforts to mass-
produce molten steel. Around the middle
of the 19th century, the steelworks made
great efforts to produce steel in a liquid
state, so-called mild steel, as a mass
product, which was made possible by
inventions in 1855 by Sir Henry Bessemer
(Besemer process), 1864 by Pierre Émile
Martin (Siemens-Martin process, Siemens-
Martin process, steel production in the
regenerative furnace developed by the
brothers August Friedrich and Carl
Wilhelm Siemens) and in 1879 by Sidney
Gilchrist Thomas (Thomas process, wind-
fresh process for reducing the phosphorus
content by blowing air into the Thomas
bulb lined with basic lining at the
bottom). This created all the prerequisites
for building the many steel bridges
required for railroad construction. Due to
the very low permissible gradients,
significantly more bridges were required
for the construction of railroad lines than
for the existing traffic routes.
When railroad bridge construction
began, there were only a few engineers
who were trusted with the design,
construction and maintenance of iron and
steel railroad bridges. Railroad
administrations therefore began to retain
engineers to whom they could assign these
tasks. This required not only a theoretical
understanding of the flow of forces in a
building structure, but in particular the
necessary understanding of the
implementation in the structural design,
including all details. Only those who
master the theory and translate it into a
good construction are true architects
[Mehrtens, 1900]. This not only applies to
the 19th century, but is also of
outstanding importance for civil
engineering today and in the future.
45
One of the few engineers who had this gift
at the time was Carl Lentze, the builder of
the oldest long-span girder bridge on the
European continent, the Dirschau Vistula
Bridge. The situation improved with the
ongoing development of technical colleges.
In addition to imparting good theo- retical
knowledge, technical colleges and
universities attach great importance to
teaching students in a timely manner that
the calculation of the structure is not an
end in itself, but an important prerequisite
for good construction with the actual
purpose of our work, to erect the
structure.
The Old Vistula Bridge Dirschau,
which is still partially preserved today,
was built in 1850-1857 as a close-meshed
lattice girder bridge over the Wisla
(Vistula) near Tczew (Dirschau), about 30
km south-southeast of Gdansk (it is
thanks to Wieland Ramm that this bridge
has been brought back to our attention
today) in the course of the construction of
the Prussian Eastern Railway on the
Berlin-Königsberg line. The boundary
condition for the construction of the
bridge was that the flow cross-section of
the floodplain should be restricted as little
as possible during floods on the Vistula
and the annual ice drift. Carl Lentze, who
was commissioned to build the Dirschau
Vistula Bridge and the bridge over the
Nogat near Marienburg, which was to be
built as part of the same construction
project, therefore initially intended to
build the Dirschau bridge as a chain
suspension bridge over five spans, each
with a span of 158 m. After a study trip to
England to see the Britannia Bridge, he
decided to build the Dirschau Bridge as a
beam bridge [Mehrtens, 1900]. He chose
three continuous girders arranged one
behind the other, each spanning two
spans of 131 m [Ramm, 2004]. In contrast
46 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
For the Britannia Bridge, which was
designed as a closed box girder with solid
sheet metal walls and chords (see above),
Lentze constructed the torsionally rigid
hollow cross-section from 12 m high lattice
walls (Fig. 1.4-14) with articulated upper
and lower chords, which are composed of
close-meshed diagonals crossing at 45°
with iron angles arranged vertically on the
inside and outside as well as two upper
wind bracings and one lower wind
bracing. The spacing of the angles
arranged vertically for stiffening decreases
towards the supports in accordance with
the shear force distribution. Lentze had the
idea that
the design of the beam as a close-meshed
lattice girder would reduce the wind load
acting on it compared to a solid wall
girder. Today we know that this is not
true. The structural design and static
calculations were essentially carried out by
the Swiss engineer Rudolf Eduard Schinz,
who had received his engineering training
in Paris at the École Polytechnique and the
École des Ponts et Chaussées. However,
because Lentze still had doubts as to
whether the load-bearing capacity of the
superstructure was actually as calculated,
it was initially considered to build a 1:1
scale test girder at the factory in Dirschau.
Figure 1.4-14 Lattice
walls of the Old Vistula
Bridge Dirschau (Photo:
Prof. Dr. Ing. Wieland
Ramm)
Figure 1.4-15 Current
condition (detail) of the
Old Vistula Bridge
Dirschau (Photo: Prof.
Dr. Ing. Wieland Ramm)
1.4 Bridges from the Renaissance to the present day
with regard to its load-bearing behavior
[Mehr- tens, 1900]. Ramm has compiled
very detailed knowledge about the design,
construction and fate of the Dirschau
Vistula Bridge and published the results in
an article worth reading [Ramm, 2004].
The book published by him also contains
several contributions by other authors
that round off our current knowledge of
the Dirschau Vistula Bridge.
Gustave Alexandre Eiffel's great-great-
grandfather came from Marmagen in the
Eifel region and had lived in France since
1710. He replaced his family name
Bönickhausen, unpronounceable for the
French, with Eiffel. Gustave Alexandre
Eiffel was born in Di- jon in 1832. After
completing his engineering training,
specializing in chemistry, at the École
Centrale des Arts et Manufactures in Paris
in 1855, he initially joined Charles
Nepveu's company, where he became
familiar with the construction of railway
bridges at an early stage [Bonet, 2003]. It
was thanks to Charles Nepveu that Eiffel
was able to join the most important
railroad company in France at the time
and was employed there. He was
entrusted with the construction of the
Saint Jean Bridge over the Garrone in
Bordeaux, which was built from 1857 to
1860. Instead of constructing the bridge as a
solid-wall beam as usual, Eiffel built the
superstructure as a light truss structure,
the type of construction he preferred for
all his bridges and other engineering
constructions from then on. He moved to
the engineering firm Pau- vels & Cie as
head of design. At the age of 34, Gustave
Alexandre Eiffel founded his own steel
construction company in Paris in 1866.
He designed, constructed and built
numerous bridges and other steel
structures. Of the latter, only the
supporting structure of the Statue of
Liberty in New York and the Eiffel Tower
in Paris are worth mentioning. The
bridges built by Eiffel include the two
bridges built between 1867 and 1869.
47
Neuvial and Rouzat viaducts on the
Commentry-Gannat railroad line of the
Orléans railroad company to the west of
Vichy (both bridges consist of steel truss
girders with crossed diagonals between
vertical posts for the superstructure and
truss supports with vertical cast iron tubes
filled with concrete in the four corners,
braced by girders), the Maria Pia steel
arch bridge over the Duoro near Porto
completed in 1877 with a span of 160 m,
the Garabit railroad bridge built between
1880 and 1884 and the Cubzac road
bridge over the Dordogne built in 1883.
As part of the construction of the
Beziers-Marvejols-Neussargues railroad
line, the deep gorge over the Truyère had
to be crossed. Léon Boyer, who carried out
the local surveying work in 1878, suggested
bridging the gorge with an arch bridge. He
had in mind the Maria Pia steel arch
bridge over the Duoro near Porto,
designed and built by Eiffel. This bridge
was admired by engineers of the time and
was a great boost to Eiffel's fame and the
rise of his company. His reputation and
his experience and that of his company
led to Gustave Alexandre Eiffel being
awarded the contract to build the Garabit
Bridge (Fig. 1.4-16) in 1879 [Stiglat, 1997].
The Garabit Bridge is the most important
bridge built by Eiffel and is undoubtedly
one of the most important bridges of the
19th century. Maurice Koechlin, a Swiss
engineer and student of Karl Culmann,
was responsible for the structural design
and static calculations of the bridge. De
Boissanger and Robaglia were in charge of
construction management, Léon Boyer
was the project owner's permanent assistant
and Emile Nouguier was responsible for
the entire construction process and
assembly. At times, up to 500 workers
were employed on the construction site.
The construction work
48 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
began in January 1880 with the
construction of the abutments and the
foundations of the piers. The first pier
(the piers were designed as truss
constructions) was erected in August
1882. The pre-assembled truss girders of
the superstructure were inserted from
both sides of the abutments. The arch
assembly began in June 1883. The arch
was constructed in two parts in a
suspended cantilever construction. The
suspension cables ran over the heads of
the piers above the transoms to the
abutments and were anchored there. The
crown was completed in April 1884. Once
the arch, with a span of 165 m, had been
constructed, the two truss girders of the
superstructure were connected to each
other and to the sickle-shaped truss
double-hinged arch at the crown. After
completion of the railroad line in 1888,
load tests were carried out on the bridge.
Under the load of 22 wagons weighing 15
tons each and a locomotive weighing 75
tons as a stationary load, the arch only had
a vertical displacement of 6 mm. Under
dynamic loading when driving over the
bridge at speeds of up to 55 km/h, the
vertical displacement of the crown of the
arch was around 4 mm [Stiglat, 1997].
Figure 1.4-16 Garabit
Bridge (Photo: Dr.-
Ing. Klaus Stiglat)
The village of Cubzac, north of Bor-
deaux, is connected to Bordeaux by a
country road. The Dordogne has to be
crossed on a bridge. Originally, this was
done on a suspension bridge over several
fields dating from 1837, which had to be
replaced by a new bridge at the end of the
19th century. With its cast iron pillars, the
length of the structure and the great height
above the water, the suspension bridge
was one of the grandest bridges of its time
[Stiglat, 1997]. Compared to masonry
piers, the cast-iron piers have significantly
lower dead loads, which led to cost
savings, especially in the construction
work. Ch. de Sansac, engineer at Ponts et
Chaussées, initially designed the
reconstruction of the suspension bridge.
In order to save costs and speed up the
construction work, he wanted to keep the
cast-iron piers of the old bridge [Bonet,
2003]. In 1897, Eiffel was awarded the
contract for the reconstruction of the
bridge, i.e. the construction of the new
superstructure. The superstructure with
eight spans was designed as a closed steel
truss. After the assembly of the first three
spans as seen from the abutment, the two
central openings, each with a span width
of around 73 m, were built without
assembly scaffolding from near the bridge.
1.4 Bridges from the Renaissance to the present day
the sides to the central pillar in the
cantilever. Once each section of the
superstructure had been installed, the next
section was installed, whereby the
calculated and actual deflections were
checked and controlled when connecting
the now installed section so that the bridge
was in the specified target position once the
complete superstructure had been
completed. The existing cast-iron piers
were stiffened by cross bracing during the
conversion (Fig. 1.4-17). In the closed
truss of the superstructure, the two-part
trusses, which are designed for tensile
loading, are
Figure 1.4-18 Closed truss of the road bridge
at Cubzac over the Dordogne (Photo: Dr.-Ing.
Klaus Stiglat)
49
Figure 1.4-17 Road
bridge at Cubzac over the
Dordogne (Photo: Dr.-
Ing. Klaus Stiglat)
The diagonal braces were arranged on the
outside on both sides of the diagonal
braces connected with tie plates (Figure
1.4-18). Eiffel claimed to have introduced
the cantilever construction method in
France. The connection of the cast-iron
supports remaining from the demolished
suspension bridge from 1837 with the
truss superstructure from 1897 seems
contradictory. Eiffel considered the
broken cast iron supports to have a very
peculiar appearance.
The viaduct over the Wupper near
Müngsten in the Bergisches Land was
planned by the Royal Railway Directorate
of Elberfeld in cooperation with the
Prussian Railway Administration from
1889 as part of the new construction of
the twin Remscheid-Solin- gen railroad
line [Berg, 1997]. Three variants were
considered for the bridge: a truss bridge, a
cantilever bridge and an arch bridge. In
1891, four major German bridge
construction companies were asked by the
Royal Railway Directorate in Elberfeld to
prepare designs and submit cost proposals.
The companies were allowed to choose
freely from the aforementioned variants.
There were specifications for the
scaffolding and cantilever bridge, from
which only minor deviations were
permitted. There were hardly any
specifications for the arch bridge designs.
50 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building

However, it was expressly required to be

constructed without an apex joint; the
choice of the arrangement of transom
joints or the omission of such was optional.
All tenders were to include only the iron
superstructure, not the pier masonry and
earthworks. A static calculation, a design
drawing, an explanatory report and a cost
estimate had to be submitted.
Three of the four companies invited to
tender submitted bids. The most cost-
effective bid was submitted by
Maschinenbau-Ac- tien-Gesellschaft
Nürnberg with a filigree parabolic truss
arch bridge designed under the direction
of Anton Rieppel without joints both at
the apex and at the transoms with an arch
span of 170 m and an arch span of 71 m
(however, a variant with transom joints
was also examined in comparison when
preparing the bid). The design was based
on the considerations of government
master builder Carstanjen, Royal Railway
Directorate Elberfeld [Berg, 1997].
Figure 1.4-19 Müngsten Bridge, sections (image after [Grüning, 1929])

Carstanjen, together with government

master builder Rohlfs, was also entrusted
with the supervision of the construction
work.
A parallel chord truss beam is elevated
on the arch on truss pendulum supports,
to which truss parallel girders are
connected (on the side to Remscheid: two
spans of 45 m each and an edge span
spanning over 30 m; on the Solingen side:
one span of 45 m followed by two spans of
30 m each; note: the information refers to
the span lengths between the supports, see
Fig. 1.4-19). Figure 1.4-19. The double-
track railroad bridge is thus 465 m long in
total. It is 8.5 m wide between the railings.
The upper edge of the rail is 107 m above
the water level of the Wupper. The
vertical chord center distances of the arch
are 4 m at the apex and around 12.2 m at
the transom. The arch
1.4 Bridges from the Renaissance to the present day 51
the River Main on the
The width of the trussed arch is 5 m at the
apex and around 25.7 m at the transoms;
the inclination of the sides on the outside is
1:7. All the uprights of the trussed arch are
connected by crossbars and crossbuckles
(truss cross plates), the wind bracing of
the arch is arranged in the lower chord
[Mehrtens, 1900] because the lower chord
is wider and therefore stiffer than the
upper chord. The advantages of the rocky
subsoil could be exploited by the design of
the clamped truss arch. The arch offered,
clamped at the transoms, was thus
designed completely differently from the
crescent-shaped arch of the Gara-bit
bridge completed nine years earlier (165
m arch span, arch span 52 m, chord center
distances of the arch both at the apex and
at the transom: 4 m), which is particularly
advantageous for the assembly days, which
did not require any assembly scaffolding.
All bearings of the lateral spatial truss
supports and the girder are anchored in
the masonry of the foundation, whereby
the anchorages are prestressed.
Maschinenbau-Actien- Gesellschaft
Nürnberg was awarded the contract to
build the bridge according to their
proposal, whereby the contract was
extended to include the earthworks and
foundation work as well as the
construction of the masonry so that the
construction of the bridge was in one
hand.
Construction began in 1894. The iron
construction work, river iron was used,
and the pre-assembly was carried out at
the Brückenbau-Anstalt Gustavsburg of
the Ma- schinenbau-Actien-Gesellschaft
Nürnberg. The Brückenbau-Anstalt Gus-
tavsburg was established in 1860 on the
occasion of the construction of the railroad
bridge over the Rhine in Mainz as a
branch of the Maschinenfabrik und
Eisengießerei Klett & Comp., Nuremberg,
and was subsequently retained [Berg,
1997]. From 1873, the company Klett &
Comp. traded as Maschinenbau-Actien-
Gesell- schaft Nürnberg with the
workshops in Gustavsburg (at the tip of
 52 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building

Main flows into the Rhine) with the

simultaneous founding of Süddeutsche
Brückenbau A.-G., Munich. Süddeutsche
Brückenbau A.-G. was dissolved in 1884, and
the workshops were incorporated into the
main plant of Maschinenbau-Gesellschaft
Nürnberg as the Gustavsburg Bridge
Construction Institute. Later, Vereinigte
Maschinenfabrik Augsburg and
Maschinenbau-Gesellschaft Nürnberg
merged to form Maschinenfabrik Augsburg-
Nürnberg AG (M.A.N.).
The four-legged spatial truss columns
supporting the truss girders of the lateral
spans, including the two four-legged spatial
truss columns above the abutments of the
girder, were installed first. All of these truss
supports are 15 m wide in the longitudinal
direction of the bridge. In the transverse
direction, the supports are inclined 1:7
against the perpendicular like the arch and
have a transverse spacing of 5 m at the top.
Slewing cranes with a radius of 10 m were
mounted on the truss girders, from which the
arch in the free stem, the truss supports
above the arch as pendulum disks and the
truss girders above the arch were mounted at
the same time. As already mentioned,
clamping the arch to the transoms had the
advantage that the arch could be assembled
without scaffolding. In addition, as is well
known, clamped arches have a more
favorable material distribution compared to
two- or three-hinged arches, the larger iron
cross-sections are required at the transoms
and the cross-sections and thus the quantities
of flow iron are reduced towards the apex.
Like the arch of the Garabit Bridge, which
was completed in 1888, the arch was
constructed with back suspension in a free
cantilever. During assembly, temporary
joints were provided at the transoms,
allowing deformation and inclination
corrections to be made during construction.
 1.4 Bridges from the Renaissance to the present day
Figure 1.4-20 Müngsten Bridge
The multi-span truss girders to the side
of the arch and above the arch (here
supported by truss pendulum supports
after 30 m and 15 m towards the middle
of the arch) run the entire length of the
bridge. Their chord spacing is 6 m
vertically and 5 m horizontally at the
bottom and 7.5 m at the top. The
horizontal bracing for absorbing the wind
and braking loads is arranged continuously
in the upper chord plane and in some cases
there is also a wind bracing in the lower
chord plane of the continuous truss
girder. The horizontal forces are absorbed
in the two outer supports, which are
stiffer due to their lower height.
Transverse frames are arranged in the
transverse planes to transfer the
horizontal support forces to the bearings.
In addition, the horizontal forces are also
transferred to the abutments via the arch.
The mesh divisions of the trusses of the
arch and the continuous truss girders were
designed in the same way, which is both
structurally advantageous and
aesthetically pleasing (Fig. 1.4-20). The
arch closure and the completion of the
continuous truss girder above the arch
took place in March 1897.
53
bridge, then known as the Kaiser Wilhelm
Bridge, was the widest-spanning arch in
Europe. After a test run with two trains,
each with three locomotives and 18
wagons loaded with gravel, operation over
the bridge was opened in July 1897.
Shortly before the end of the Second
World War, the bridge survived a
bombardment without major damage. It
was to be blown up by German soldiers
before the approaching Allied troops,
which was fortunately prevented by the
delaying tactics of officers and soldiers of
the demolition command. The bridge is
still in operation today for regional rail
traffic. In 1997, its 100th anniversary was
celebrated and a special stamp with the
image of the bridge worth 100 pfennigs
was issued by Deutsche Post to mark the
occasion. Since spring 2006, there has
been a bridge park below the bridge on
the Solingen bank of the Wupper. One
attraction there is the floating ferry, a
draisine suspended on ropes, with which
you can float over the Wupper.
For the Wutachtal Railway, which runs
in the southern Black Forest/Hegau
around the Swiss
54 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building

Figure 1.4-21 Biesenbach viaduct (Photo: Dr.-Ing. Klaus Stiglat)

Figure 1.4-22 Support of two adjacent fish belly girders of the Biesenbach viaduct on a truss support
(image based on photo by Dr.-Ing. Klaus Stiglat)

Canton Schaffhausen, four bridges had to
be built for the construction of the middle
section between Weizen and Zollhaus-
Blumberg, all of which were built between
1888 and 1890 as iron structures mounted
on auxiliary scaffolding. One of them is
the Biesenbach viaduct near Epfenhofen,
which is horizontally curved with a radius
of 350 m [Stiglat, 1997]. The viaduct
(Figure 1.4-21) consists of seven single-
span fish-bellied girders on truss supports.
Five spans have spans of 37.5 m, the other
two spans 30 m. One fixed and one
movable bearing are arranged on each of
the truss supports (Fig. 1.4-22). Since the
Wutachtalbahn was built according to the
German
Built for strategic military reasons during
the French War of 1870/71, it was
designed to transport a 140-ton gun barrel.
Its importance as a strategic bypass of
Switzerland and also for public passenger
and freight transport was limited. The
bridges remained intact during the
Second World War. As the railroad line
was practically unused after the war, it was
not adequately maintained and was
gradually decommissioned by the German
Federal Railways from 1955 onwards.
However, NATO prevented the final
dismantling of the track for military
reasons, renovated the railroad line and
maintained it until 1976, after which it
was finally closed.
 1.4 Bridges from the Renaissance to the present day
was built. The middle section of the line
has been operational as a museum
railroad since 1977 and it is thanks to this
that the bridges have been preserved as
witnesses to the technical development of
iron construction in particular from the
end of the 19th century.
One of the most famous bridges in the
world is the railroad bridge over the Firth
of Forth near Queensferry in Scotland.
The bridge was designed by John Fowler
and Benjamin Baker as a truss Tanner
girder over four spans with the largest
spans of the middle spans of around 521
m and was built from 1883 to 1890. The
bridge system is shown in Figure 1.4-23.
During construction, the huge cantilever
girders were built in front of the 44 m and
79 m wide steel truss piers on both sides.
After completion of the cantilever girders,
suspension girders were placed in the
center openings at the ends of the
cantilevers, which were delivered by ship
and assembled from the water. The
cantilever girders are connected to each
other via the suspension girders spanning
107 meters. The chords of the mighty
cantilever girders were assembled from
sheet metal to form tubular trusses as a
riveted construction. The outer disc-like
truss walls are splayed outwards towards
the supports to increase stability. After its
completion, the Firth of Forth Bridge was
the longest-spanning bridge for a long time
with a span of 521.24 m until it was
replaced in 1917 by the construction of
the trussed Gerber girder bridge.
55
Figure 1.4-23 System of
the Firth of Forth Bridge
near Queensferry
bridge built over three spans across the St.
Lawrence River in Quebec/Canada with a
span of 549 m in the middle span.
However, this bridge was only built on the
third attempt. As early as 1907, during the
first attempt to build the bridge, lower
chord bars buckled during construction
and led to the total collapse of one half of
the bridge [Scheer, 2000]. After the
structural design was improved and the
bridge was built for the second time, the
suspension girder collapsed while being
lifted into the river. Only then could the
bridge be completed in 1917.
One of the most scenic spots in
Dresden is the sharp curve of the Elbe
with the graceful terrain of the Elbe slope
near Loschwitz. Blasewitz lies on the left
bank of the Elbe and Loschwitz on the
right, which until 1893 were only
connected by ferry. From 1874, citizens
and the then still independent
municipalities of Loschwitz and Blasewitz
petitioned the Royal Saxon Ministry of
Finance for permission to build a bridge
over the Elbe between Loschwitz and
Blasewitz [Helas et al., 1995].
Claus Koepcke, Professor of Rail,
Hydraulic and Bridge Engineering and
Head of the Engineering Department at
the Polytechnic in Dresden from 1869 to
1872, was Technical Officer at the Royal
Saxon Ministry of Finance at the time. He
was responsible for the entire railroad
system. As early as 1861, at the age of 30,
he was involved in the construction of the
port and the port railroad in
Geestemünde.
56 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
Koepcke published his extensive studies
on the construction of chain suspension
bridges and raised the question of what
means could be used to minimize the
oscillation behaviour of suspension
bridges. He comes to the conclusion that
this is best achieved by what he calls the
stiffened suspension bridge, in which the
hanging chains are connected to the deck
as chords of trusses, creating stiff truss-
like discs whose large construction height
limits the changes in deflection under
unsymmetrical and moving loads in the
same way as they would occur with a
correspondingly high beam girder.
Koepcke was also particularly interested in
the effects of temperature changes in the
structure. On the basis of mathematically
substantiated considerations, he
concluded that, as with the hingeless solid
arch bridges, joints in the apex and at the
support points were expedient to avoid
overstressing from bending. His concept
for the construction of suspension bridges
was thus developed.
In 1883, the local association and the
Loschwitz municipal council again
submitted petitions to the Royal Saxon
Ministry of Finance for the construction
of the desired bridge over the Elbe, this
time enclosing elaborate bridge designs,
the design by Königin-Marien-Hütte from
Cainsdorf near Zwickau with a parabolic
girder bridge over six spans with a pier in
the middle of the river, as well as the
design by civil engineer Kitzler with a
suspension bridge. A state subsidy for the
bridge construction was promised in
1884, and in April 1885 the "Commission
for the preparation of a draft statute for
the bridge association to be formed" was
formed. The commission determines the
distribution of the shares to be contributed
by the 11 participating municipalities.
and be liable for the financing. At the
same time, the commission submits a
proposal for the bridge tolls to be levied to
finance the construction of the bridge. In
July 1885, a stiffened suspension bridge
was designed by the Royal Hydraulic
Engineering Directorate, and in October
the Commission received the first drafts
from the Hydraulic Engineering
Directorate, which envisaged a so-called
stiffened suspension bridge for
construction. In August 1886, the
Ministry of Finance decreed that the
Hydraulic Engineering Directorate would
take over further work on the bridge
design. Nevertheless, in September 1886,
the commission commissioned the
company Felten & Guille- aume to draw
up an additional design. For the
construction of the bridge, the Royal
Hydraulic Engineering Directorate
stipulated, among other things, that the
bridge must have a clear width of at least
135 m of the river opening and flood
openings at least 55 m wide on both sides.
It was also stipulated that the three main
openings must have statically determined
iron structures. The bridge association is
founded in September. The design
submitted by the company Felten &
Guilleaume met all the conditions set by
the hydraulic engineering directorate for
the construction of the bridge, with one
exception: the bridge was statically
indeterminate. However, the commission
had no illusions that this design, which
envisaged the construction of a light and
elegant cable-stayed bridge and was also
cheaper than the competing designs,
would have any chance of being realized
by Claus Koepcke, the man in charge at
the Ministry. The design by Felten &
Guilleaume was therefore not included in
the new petition for the construction of
the bridge submitted by the bridge
association in 1887. In 1890, a limited
tender was issued for the construction of
the bridge as a stiffened suspension bridge
based on Koepcke's design. The contract
for the construction of the
 1.4 Bridges from the Renaissance to the present day
Joint Pylon Pylon
Central parietal joint
61,8 m 146,7 m
Abutment
roller bearing
Anchor
chamber
bridge was awarded to Königin-Marien-
Hütte Cainsdorf after it had conceded a
significant price reduction on its offer.
Construction could now begin in April
1891.
The Loschwitz-Blasewitz Elbe Bridge,
Fig. 1.4-24, called the Blue Wonder by the
people of Dresden, has span widths of
61.8-146.7-61.8 m [Raboldt, 1970].
Koepcke described the bridge's system as a
stiffened suspension bridge. Although the
bridge appears to the layman to be a
suspension bridge, the central span is
actually an externally statically
determined, tensile three-hinged arch
with a central crown joint at the bottom,
whose horizontal forces are transferred at
the pylon tips via the side spans into the
abutments (Fig. 4.1-25). Lever mechanisms
with ballast made of heavy cinder concrete
are accommodated in the two abutments
and absorb the horizontal bearing force.
The joints were designed as spring joints
because
57
Figure 1.4-24 Loschwitz
Elbe Bridge in Dresden
Joint
61,8 m Figure 1.4-25 System of
Abutment the Loschwitz Elbe Bridge
Anchor (image after [Raboldt,
chamber
1970])
pin joints had proved to be ineffective due
to the frictional forces. In a departure
from earlier designs, Koepcke placed the
center joint at the level of the roadway
instead of in the upper chord. As a result,
he not only increased the height of the
pier, but above all achieved a low-torsion
transfer of horizontal forces between the
two halves of the bridge. An additional
stiffening chord absorbs the bending
stresses occurring in the middle section of
the bridge.
Koepcke intended to limit the
vibrations of the bridge by designing what
he called a stiffened suspension bridge.
Instead of using the usual hangers,
Koepcke connected the strong upper
chord of the bridge with the lower and
load chord by means of a diamond-
shaped infill, so that stiff truss-like discs
with a central chord were created to
stiffen the diagonal nodes. The
arrangement of the joints
58 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
the system became soft and therefore
prone to resonance. To partially
compensate for this effect, Koepcke
arranged so-called bridge brakes at the
center joint of the bridge and on the piers
between the lower chords of the side spans
and the center span. The bridge brakes
each consist of finger-like overlapping
steel plates, which bridge the gap at the
pivot point starting from the two chords,
and nine bolts with diameters of 35 mm,
which are arranged in slotted holes.
Friction is generated between the plates
due to the pre-tension of these screws. The
frictional forces increase the damping of
the bridge, but are too small to lead to
constraints in the event of deformation
under load or temperature changes. The
girder grid arranged at an angle to the
main girders (the cross girders of the deck
are arranged at 45° to the bridge axis
[Beyer, 1956], there p. 625) was intended to
prevent both main girders from vibrating
equally and thus also contribute to
damping; at the same time, they serve as a
lower wind bracing. According to Koepcke,
the above measures prevented resonance
phenomena in columns moving in step.
However, today's heavy traffic caused
disturbing vibrations in the bridge.
Between 1930 and 1934, the bridge was
widened and reinforced under the
direction of government building officer
Dr. Kirs- ten and Professor Kurt Beyer.
Koepcke had already planned for the
bridge to be widened when it was built,
making it very easy to move the sidewalks
to the outside.
During the Second World War, three
bombs ripped through the bridge deck,
leaving behind considerable destruction.
The bridge was prepared for demolition at
the end of the Second World War.
Fortunately, these were prevented. From
1956, the bridge, with the exception of the
Trolleybuses and trams were closed at
walking speed for vehicles over 3 tons,
and since 1985 also for tram traffic.
Repairs were then carried out, including
strengthening the spring joints in the
middle of the bridge by installing tendons.
The bridge is still serviceable under the
designated usage restrictions, even if it
can hardly cope with today's traffic
volume. Anyone using it by car during
rush hour needs patience. Buses, trucks
and cars stand still more than they drive,
even when approaching the bridge.
Compared to the beauty of elegant
suspension bridges, the Loschwitz Bridge
does not look elegant overall, which is
reinforced by the aesthetically disruptive
stiffening of the central joint with
superimposed girders. However, the bridge
is by no means clumsy, on the contrary.
The bridge emphasizes the beautiful
landscape of the Elbe bend with the
Dresden districts of Loschwitz and Blase-
witz. From a sufficient distance, its lines
appear clear, from close up like a tangle of
struts. It looks most beautiful when you
take the Elbe steamer from the Elbe
Sandstone Mountains to Dresden. When
you see it and the northern slopes of the
Elbe and the Elbe meadows to the south,
you feel that you have left the Elbe
Sandstone Mountains, Pirna and Pillnitz
behind you and have arrived in Dresden.
The bridge is thus a landmark that
characterizes the cityscape of Dresden.
The Spree played a key role in the
founding of Berlin and its earlier economic
development. The river in the city center,
once a traffic route, goods transshipment
point and drive for mills, has lost this
significance today. Today, the Spree is
mainly used by tourist and excursion
boats to view Berlin's historical and modern
sights from a different perspective from the
water. Especially when
 1.4 Bridges from the Renaissance to the present day
Passing around the Spree Island on the
Spree and especially through the Spree
Canal and the adjoining Kupfergraben
Canal under the Gertrauden Bridge and
the Jungfern Bridge (Fig. 1.4-26) with the
subsequent passage under the Palace Bridge
(Fig. 1.4-4), past the Schlossplatz and
Lustgarten with a view of the cathedral on
the right and the Zeughaus on the left,
and finally the Museum Island with its
impressive museums at the northern end,
it becomes clear that the Spree as a river in
the city center has had a particular
influence on the city of Berlin and its
cityscape. The Jungfernbrücke with two
59
Figure 1.4-26 Maiden
bridge over the
Kupfergraben in Berlin
The sandstone arch with the movable
culvert in the middle was originally built
in 1798 as a draw bascule bridge based on
Dutch models and was repaired at the end
of the 20th century. The middle culvert
has movable flaps, which were originally
made of wood but are now made of steel
girders with planking. They could be
moved with rollers, iron chains and
counterweights. The Jungfernbrücke is
preserved as a historical example of such
bridges, which used to allow barges with
sails to pass through the city's waterways.
Figure 1.4-27 Weiden-
dammer Bridge in Berlin
60 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
The Weiden- dammer Bridge, Figure
1.4-27, crosses the Spree in Fried-
richstraße in Berlin. The bridge, a
continuous girder with variable girder
heights over three spans of 16.3 m - 38.5 m
- 15.5 m, was initially built from 1895 to
1897, dismantled with the construction of
the subway in 1914 and rebuilt in 1922
with a widened roadway and a modified
foundation for the river piers. The bridge
was intended to be representative, which is
why artisans were commissioned to design
the wrought-iron bridge railings and the
neo-baroque lampposts. Following repairs
in the 1970s, the bridge was extensively
renovated.
A steel bridge was built across the
Rhine between Mainz and the suburb of
Castell on the right bank of the Rhine,
now part of Wiesbaden as Mainz-Kastel,
as early as 1883/85. The bridge was
erected over five spans of 87 m - 99 m -
103 m - 99 m - 87 m as a truss double-
hinged arch, each with four parallel arches
in the transverse direction, with an
elevated roadway and a usable width of
13.8 m. In 1931/33, two additional parallel
arches were added. In 1931/33, two more
parallel arches were added, giving it a
usable width of 18.8 meters. It was
destroyed during the war in 1945 and
rebuilt in 1949/50 in its 1933 form. Due to
the
The rhythmic increase in the span widths
towards the middle of the river and the
red sandstone piers in front give the
bridge a very harmonious appearance
(Fig. 1.4-28).
To connect Wiesbaden and Mainz, the
1180 m long Schierstein road bridge was
built over the Rhine in 1961/62. The Rhine
is divided into two arms at this point by
the Rettbergsaue. The two river bridges
were designed as steel solid-wall girders
with two-span open cross-sections with
variable girder heights, each spanning three
spans and with an orthotropic deck. The
orthotropic slab is supported by lattice
girders arranged in longitudinal and
transverse directions. The largest span of
the larger of the two river bridges over the
right branch of the Rhine is 205 m (Fig.
1.4-29) and that of the smaller is 170 m.
This construction method was typical for
bridges of this span length at the time. The
foreland bridges and the part of the bridge
between the river bridges were separated
from the river bridges and constructed as
solid wall girders with composite steel
plates.
Jörg Schlaich has designed several
bridges as circular ring girders suspended
or supported at one edge only. The design
is based on the knowledge gained from
me-
Figure 1.4-28 Theodor
Heuss Bridge over the
Rhine between Mainz
and Mainz-Kastel
 1.4 Bridges from the Renaissance to the present day
The circularly curved girder in plan and
the corresponding circular segmental slab
only need to be supported longitudinally
at either the inner or outer lateral edge.
He reports on the first bridge he designed
on this basis, the Kehlheim pedestrian
bridge over the Main-Danube Canal, in
this book, section 3.8.2.4-30 and -31), in
contrast to the Kehlheim pedestrian
bridge, which is suspended from the inner
edge, is supported by an arch shaped as a
space curve with a span of 77 m on which
individual columns and V-columns
support the walkway in the middle [Bögle
et al, 2003].
In Berlin, the building was constructed
to designs by architects von Gerkan, Marg
and Partners.
Figure 1.4-29 Schierstein Bridge over the Rhine
Figure 1.4-30 Pedestrian bridge over the Rhine-Herne Canal in Oberhausen (image by Schlaich
Bergermann und Partner, Stuttgart)
61
The new main station was built on the site
of the current Lehrter Bahnhof. The upper
east-west route of the fast train and
railroad with a total of six tracks runs over
Humboldthafen. In 1997/99, two double-
track and two single-track horizontally
curved bridges were constructed as steel
tube tied arches as vertical double arches
and with upper concrete slab beams
[Schlaich/Schober, 1999-2]. The bridges
follow the continuously widening track
alignment. The tied arches made of thick-
walled pipes run between the abutments
and the connections in the concrete slab
beams in vertical planes (see Section
1.6.8.7). The largest span width is 60 m.
The tied arches are connected to the
concrete slab beams in a particularly
visually appealing way by integrating the
arches into the concrete slab beams.
62 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
Figure 1.4-31 Pedestrian bridge over the Rhine-Herne Canal in Oberhausen, detail (image by
Schlaich Bergermann und Partner, Stuttgart)
The upper concrete slab beams are
connected to the steel tube rod bends and
the forces are transmitted via closely
spaced supports made of vertical steel
tubes. The upper concrete slab beams are
connected to the steel tube tied arches and
the forces are transferred via closely
spaced vertical steel tube supports. Some
of the pipe nodes were welded and some
were designed as cast steel nodes (arch
heads, transoms, transom diagonal
bracings).
1.4.3.2 Modern suspension bridges
Although there were some iron chain
suspension bridges in China very early on
(in the 6th century at the latest), mostly
without stiffening girders, and even large
chain suspension bridges are known, such
as the Luding Bridge with a span of 103 m
over the Dadu He in Sichuan Province
from 1705, it can be said that the era of
modern suspension bridges began with the
construction of the Jakobs Greek chain
suspension bridge in Pennsylvania. It was
built in 1796 by J. Finley with a span of 21
meters and a width of 3.8 meters. Seven
years later
Finley patented his construction system.
By 1810, 50 chain suspension bridges had
been built according to his patent. The
largest of these bridges, with a span of
100.4 m, was the one over the Schuylkill in
Philadelphia.
In England, Sir Samuel Brown
developed various eye rods instead of
chains for the cables of suspension
bridges. The Union Bridge with a span of
137 m and a width of 5.5 m over the
Tweed near Berwick from 1820 is one of
the suspension bridges whose cables were
made from eyebars. It was destroyed by
wind in 1821. The suspension bridge for
the dockyard in Brighton, which was also
built by Sir Samuel Brown in 1823, was
another example of this construction
method. It was 347 m long, 3.8 m wide
and had four openings (it was torn apart
in 1836 due to the vibrations caused by
the violent storm). Subsequently, eyebars
were used for the cables on almost all
suspension bridges in England, such as the
bridge over the Menai Strait with a span of
168 m by Thomas Telford in 1826, the
Clifton Bridge over the Avon near Bristol
with a span of 214 m by
 1.4 Bridges from the Renaissance to the present day
Isambard Kingdom Brunel from the year
1864 etc.
In France and Switzerland, wire ropes
were predominantly used for the cables.
This technique had already been used for
small suspension bridges in England and
America in 1816. The Séguin brothers
(Marc and Camille Séguin) and Louis
Joseph Vicat are to be named as the key
figures in the development of wire rope
bridges in France. The most famous wire
rope bridge of this period was the bridge
over the Saane in Fribourg, Switzerland,
built in 1835 by M. J. Joseph Chaley, a
French engineer, with a clear span of 273
m. Although the air-spinning method for
assembling the cables was already known
and was strongly promoted by Louis
Joseph Vicat, Chaley used the
conventional assembly method with
prefabricated parallel wire ropes for the
Grand Pont over the Saane in Fribourg.
There seems to have been a euphoria for
cable bridges in France at the time, and
more than 200 cable bridges are said to
have been built there between 1830 and
1850. However, the lack of sufficient
stiffness caused several collapses of bridges
of this type, such as the Basse-Chaîne
bridge over the River Maine near Angers
in France in 1850, where 226 of 487
soldiers marching on the bridge lost their
lives. Because of such collapses, doubts
about the safety of cable bridges grew so
strongly in Europe that initially only a few
bridges of this type were built.
Johann August Röbling played a
pioneering role in the construction of
modern suspension bridges. Therefore, in
recognition of his special merits, special
attention is paid to him, his development
and his contribution to modern large
bridge construction. Reference is made to
the books by David Bernard Steinman
[Steinman, 1957] and David P. Billington
[Billington, 1985] as well as the
elaboration of
63
Suspension Bridges - A Century of Pro-
gress by John A. Roebling' Sons Company,
Trenton/New Jersey.
Johann August Röbling was born in
Mühlhausen in Thuringia in 1806. After
completing his schooling, first at the
grammar school in Mühlheim and then at
the private teacher training college in
Erfurt, the 17-year-old Röbling began his
studies at the then Royal Polytechnic
Institute in Berlin. He studied civil
engineering and bridge construction,
hydraulics and dyke construction,
mechanical engineering and architecture.
His favorite subject was bridge
construction, which he studied under
Dietleyn. Dietleyn introduced his students
to the then new bridge design of the
suspension bridge. Among other things, he
explained five smaller suspension bridges
that had just been built in England, in
which the subway was suspended from
chains made of articulated rods. Diet- leyn
pointed out that two of these chain
suspension bridges had collapsed after a
short time in windy conditions. Johann
August Röbling also learned about the first
chain suspension bridge of modern design
built by Finley in 1796 over Jacobs Creek
near Greeburgh in Pennsylvania and
about the brass wire rope suspension
bridge over the Schuylkill waterfalls in
Philadelphia, which was built in 1816 and
collapsed under the weight of ice and snow
in the same year. He was fascinated by the
new construction system for bridges and
realized early on the dangers that could
arise from inadequate designs. Although
he was enthusiastic about suspension
bridges, he had never seen one before.
During his studies in 1824, he heard that
the first chain suspension bridge as a
pedestrian bridge in Germany was being
built over the Regnitz in Bamberg. He
traveled to Bamberg, made a careful study
of the bridge, analyzed the construction
and determined the material required. He
64 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
summarized everything in a report and
submitted it as his engineering thesis. He
never lost his enthusiasm for the design,
construction and building of suspension
bridges. The chain suspension bridge was
completed in 1825, remained in its original
state until 1880, was replaced by a new
structure in Bamberg (Fig. 1.4-32) and
then destroyed in the war.
Johann August Röbling completed his
studies at the age of 20 as a civil engineer, as
civil engineers used to be called in Austria.
It is a pity that the former designation was
not retained throughout the German-
speaking world. It tri@ the job title and
the versatility of the profession more aptly
than the one used today. Röbling
emigrated to America in 1831. He was
initially involved in building the
Saxonburg settlement (initially called
Germania) in Pennsylvania for those who
had emigrated with him and was therefore
active in agriculture, but Röbling was not
particularly successful as a farmer.
After six years, he returned to the
engineering profession. He became a
technical assistant for the canalization of
the canal network in the state of
Pennsylvania. In the process, he became
familiar with the operation of cable
railroads.
Figure 1.4-32 Former
chain suspension bridge
in Bamberg (Photo: Hans
Möller, copyright:
Stadtarchiv Bamberg)
familiar. These were used to connect
waterways where the canals were
interrupted by mountain ranges. Tracks
were run up and down the slopes of the
mountain in between. The mountain
railroads, which ran on inclined planes,
had considerable gradients. The canal
barges were dismantled and loaded onto
wagons, the freight and passengers were
pulled up the mountain by steam engines
located at the highest point to be bridged
using endless hemp ropes on a double
track and lowered on the other side (a
wagon was pulled up, a wagon drove
down as a counterweight) to the next
canal. There the canal barges were
reassembled and the freight loaded. The
hemp ropes constantly chafed, which
often happened without warning. If a
hemp rope broke, the wagons and their
cargo were wrecked. Because the
expensive hemp ropes had to be replaced
at short intervals, even when no accidents
occurred, this resulted in constantly high
costs. Röbling came to the conclusion that
it would be better to replace the hemp ropes
with wire ropes. He remembered that wire
ropes were already being made in Saxony
by twisting wires together. He was
determined to do the same.
 1.4 Bridges from the Renaissance to the present day
do. This idea was the birth of the wire
rope industry, which revolutionized the
construction of large bridges and also
paved the way for many other
applications. He produced his first wire
rope on his farm in Saxonburg in 1841 and
applied for a patent for a method of
manufacturing wire ropes, which he was
granted in 1842. During the first test
demonstration on one of the inclines of
the Pennsylvania Canal, he was the victim
of sabotage. Someone cut the wire rope,
causing it to break during the
demonstration. After the damaged section
was repaired, the wire rope did its job for a
long time under the toughest conditions,
making Röbling a complete success. All
cable railroads were then equipped with
wire ropes. Above all, the dangers of
transportation over the mountains were
reduced, but the costs were also lowered.
The great demand for wire ropes, which
were also used in mines for transportation
both in vertical shafts and in inclined
mining, for cable cars and excavators as
well as in shipping, led to the expansion of
his company for the manufacture of wire
ropes, which he initially founded in
Saxonburg and which grew quickly and
steadily. It was therefore moved to
Trenton in 1849 and still exists today as
John A. Roebling' Sons Company Trenton,
New Jersey. He applied for another patent
for cables with parallel wires, which was
granted. With the development of the
wire rope, he became convinced that the
wire was the solution for the construction
of bridges with large spans. In the wire
rope suspension bridges built in Europe at
that time, the individual cables were laid
out along the bank, transported to the
bridge and suspended over the pylo- ne.
Röbling realized that with this method of
construction, the curvatures of the
individual cables could not be arranged in
such a way that the same tension was
maintained in all the wires.
65
emerged. He therefore developed the
cable-air spinning process based on ideas
from Henry Vicat. Each wire is pulled
individually over the pylons with a rolling
device and suspended in the air in the
required shape. The successive wires are
suspended at the same length with the
same stitch of slack and thus inevitably all
receive the same tension. A certain
number of wires are then bundled together
to form a cable strand and finally the
strands are pressed together to form a
compact cable. The finished cable is
tightly wrapped (spun) with soft annealed
wire and painted on the outside. This
created a tight air seal and prevented
moisture from penetrating the cable. The
further developed process has been used
on all large American suspension bridges
to this day. Well prepared, he was now
determined to apply for the construction
of suspension bridges. As early as 1841,
i.e. at the same time as producing his first
wire rope, he published the first
fundamental work [Roebling, 1841] on the
construction of suspension bridges for the
development of modern suspension
bridge construction.
In the winter of 1843/44, a canal bridge
of the Pennsylvania Canal over the
Allegheny in Pittsburgh was severely
damaged by ice and was to be replaced by a
new bridge. Johann August Röbling
proposed the construction of a canal
suspension bridge and was awarded the
contract to build the canal bridge within
nine months, which Röbling completed on
time as an engineering contractor. The
bridge had seven openings, each with a
span of 49 meters. The two wire cables
had a diameter of 18 cm and ran through
the entire length of the bridge in an
unbroken garland shape. The wooden
trough was continuously suspended from
them via hangers. To the
66 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
For the first time in the history of bridge
construction, large cables for a suspension
bridge were produced in their final
position on site.
In the following years, Röbling built
further canal bridges and the very light
Monongahela Bridge in Pittsburgh, where
he for the first time arranged additional
stay cables to stiffen and increase wind
stability, which ran from the heads of the
pylons to the wooden stiffening girders.
By 1850, Johann August Röbling had built
six suspension bridges, five canal bridges
and one road bridge, the Monongahela
Bridge in Pittsburgh, in six years.
In 1847, the construction of a
combined rail and road bridge over the
Niagara about 3 km below the famous
waterfalls was put out to tender. Johann
August Röbling applied for the contract,
but the contract was not awarded to him,
but to Charles Ellet, who only came until
the completion of a 2.30 m wide
temporary bridge in July 1848 for the
workers and the transportation of
materials for the actual construction work.
The temporary bridge was initially used as
a footbridge for ten months and, after a
few reinforcements, was also used for a few
years by light vehicles to cross the Nia
Gara. Only one lane was available for
traffic on the swaying bridge. It was
eventually demolished.
Johann August Röbling was awarded
the contract to build the combined rail
and road bridge over the Niagara in 1851.
The Niagara Bridge was built as a
suspension bridge with a span of 247.5 m
and four cables with a diameter of 25.4 cm
made of wrought iron wire as a two-storey
bridge. The railroad track was on the
upper and the road on the lower bridge
level. The Niagara Bridge was the first
suspension bridge with a fully effective 5.5
m high stiffening girder, which, as a truss
girder, connected the two roadway slopes.
connected them. The arrangement of the
cables was unique. Two cables were
directly connected to the upper bridge
panel by wire rope suspensions, the other
two to the lower bridge panel. To stiffen
and increase wind stability as well as to
absorb part of the load, Röbling again
arranged inclined cables, as on the
Monongahela Bridge, which ran from the
pylons to the two roadways in clusters (see
Figure 5.2.1-35 for definition according to
Feige). The bridge was completed in
March 1855. Despite the constantly
increasing weight of the trains and
locomotives, the bridge carried the loads
from its commissioning in 1855 until
1897, i.e. over 42 years. Due to the
increase in rail traffic, the threefold
increase in load weight compared to its
completion and the additional need to
accommodate trams, the bridge was
demolished in 1897 and replaced by a
wider steel arch bridge designed for
greater loads.
In 1857, Johann August Röbling was
commissioned to build another
suspension bridge over the Allegheny in
Pittsburgh to replace a 40-year-old
covered bridge. Building this bridge was a
dream come true for him. His eldest son
Washington Roebling, who had studied
engineering at the Rensselaer Polytechnic
Institute in Troy, New York, from 1854 to
1857 and had worked for some time in the
Trenton factory, joined him in Pittsburgh
in 1858 and worked with him on the
construction of this bridge, which was
completed in 1860.
The construction of a bridge across the
Ohio from Covington to Cincinnati had
been under discussion since 1839. Johann
August Röbling had been working on this
since 1846 and had drawn up plans for the
bridge across the Ohio from Covington to
Cincinnati, which led to the contract to
build the bridge in 1856. After the
 1.4 Bridges from the Renaissance to the present day
After the foundation work for the two
pylons began, construction work was
initially halted due to a lack of funds. Due
to the outbreak of the Civil War in 1860,
work was stopped completely and not
resumed until 1863. The bridge over the
Ohio from Covington to Cincinnati has a
span of 322 meters. It was the largest span
of any bridge up to that time. The
suspension cables have a diameter of 32
cm and were the cables with the largest
diameter up to that time. First, a light
working bridge had to be built. The end of
the 63 mm diameter wire rope was pulled
from the anchoring abutments on the
Cincinnati side over the pylon on the
Cincinnati side, the rest was loaded onto a
barge and towed across the Ohio, lowered
to the bottom of the river, to the opposite
bank in Covington. A steam-powered
pulley was used to pull the double cable
out of the water to the head of the pylon
on the Covington side and up into its
required slack between the two pylons,
where it was friction-locked to the cable
anchoring abutments. Wooden cross
beams were placed on the wire ropes and
floor boards were laid on top of them in the
longitudinal direction. The rest of the
work, in particular the spinning of the
cables for the suspension bridge, could be
carried out from this working platform.
The suspension bridge itself was again
fitted with stay cables to stiffen it and
increase its wind stability, which ran in a
radial pattern from the pylons to the
stiffening girder. Two pairs of diagonal
cables running in opposite directions were
added as a new construction element to
stiffen the suspension cables. From 1865
until the bridge was completed in 1867,
Washington Roebling assisted his father
as deputy chief engineer in completing the
construction of the bridge, which still
fulfills its purpose today, albeit because of
the
67
The cable had to be reinforced in
1896/1897 by the addition of two further
cables with a diameter of 25.4 cm.
Well prepared and experienced, father
Johann August and son Was- hington
Roebling applied to design and build the
bridge in New York over the East River
connecting Manhattan to Brooklyn. The
construction of the Brooklyn Bridge was
to develop into a tragic story. As early as
1857, Johann August Roebling had
written a letter to the mayor of New York
explaining the feasibility of bridging the
East River. In 1865, he drew up plans for
the construction of the bridge, which he
presented to representatives of the
Brooklyn citizenry. In December 1866,
Henry C. Murphy, William C. Kingsley and
Alexander Mc Cue made the necessary
preparations for the New York State
Legislature to pass a resolution in April
1867 to build the Brooklyn Bridge. One
month later, the New York Bridge
Company was founded as a state-owned
enterprise to build and maintain the bridge
over the East River between the cities of
New York and Brooklyn. Johann August
Roebling was commissioned to design and
build the bridge. His son Washington
Roebling, who had been involved in the
design of the Brooklyn Bridge from the
very beginning, then traveled to Europe to
learn about the latest knowledge on
various problems of engineering
construction and in particular about
pressurized air methods for lowering the
caissons to create foundations. Johann
August Röbling determined the location
of the bridge by comparing various route
alignments of the roads with their ramp
inclinations and the traffic possibilities,
prepared the planning documents
including the necessary surveying work up
to the
68 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
Röbbing completed the design and
estimated the costs for the construction of
the bridge, which, with a span of 486.3 m
for the main opening and 284.4 m for
each of the two side openings, was to go
down as a technical masterpiece of the
19th century and a milestone in the history
of bridge construction. Röbling
innovatively proposed using cold-drawn
steel wire instead of iron wire for the
suspension ca- ble for the first time. The
Brook- lyn Bridge was groundbreaking for
several subsequent suspension bridges
with spans of between 400 and 600 m,
whereby the required load-bearing
capacities of the subsequent bridges
increased due to the increase in traffic.
Röbling's plan for the construction of the
bridge was accepted by the planning and
surveying committee. However, renowned
engineers expressed doubts as to whether
the construction of the long-span bridge
was feasible. Two commissions, one of the
consulting engineers and one of military
engineers, dealt intensively with the
question, visited
including the suspension bridges already
built by Röbling over the Niagara and
over the Ohio between Covington and
Cincinnati. Both commissions finally
confirmed the feasibility of building the
Brooklyn Bridge according to Röbling's
plans in their reports in May and June
1869. The resistance of the experts was
overcome and construction of the bridge
over the East River could finally begin.
But what tragedy was to befall Johann
August Röbling and his son. During the
final surveying work in the summer of
1869, Johann August Röbling, who was
standing on the dolphins of a ferry
landing stage and engrossed in his work to
determine the exact position of the pylon
on the Brooklyn side, overlooked an
incoming ferry. The ship crashed with full
force against the fender, the fender frame
pressed against the post and Röbling's foot
was trapped and crushed. The toes of his
right foot
had to be amputated. After two weeks of
pain, Johann August Röbling, the brilliant
engineer of the 19th century, died as a
result of the accident. In August 1869, 32-
year-old Wash- ington Roebling, who had
been very familiar with the design,
construction and building of the bridge
from the very beginning, was appointed
chief engineer as his father's successor.
Compressed air caissons, a new
method for foundations in deep water at
the time, were used for the foundations of
the neo-Gothic granite pylons. The pylon
on the Brooklyn side was founded at a
depth of around 12 meters, the one on the
New York side at a depth of around 24
meters. The upper end of the first wooden
caisson on the Brooklyn side, which was
open at the bottom, was a 4.5 m thick slab
made of wooden beams (the wooden slab
of the caisson on the New York side was
even 6.7 m thick). The timbered wooden
walls were 2.7 m thick at the top and
tapered downwards to a cutting edge,
which consisted of a rounded iron casting
armored with sheet metal as a shoe. A
seamless zinc sheet was laid over the
entire caisson. The caisson was built on
slipways on the bank and floated and
lowered to the foundation site. The
excavation work in the caisson was carried
out in three eight-hour shifts. The inputs
each worked eight hours in the caisson.
From today's perspective, the working
conditions in the caisson were
unacceptable. Mud, quicksand and a huge
amount of rock had to be removed by
petroleum light, and at times dynamite was
even used to blow up the rock. The
dangers associated with staying in
compressed air for too long (caisson or
diver's disease) were still unknown at the
time. When lowering the caisson for the
foundation of the pylon on the Brook-
 1.4 Bridges from the Renaissance to the present day
ly side with air pressures of up to 1.6 atü,
there were hardly any problems for
healthy workers, apart from temporary
effects on the eardrums during the infeed
and outfeed. This changed with the
caisson for the foundation of the py- lon
on the New York side. When the air
overpressure here rose above 1.7 atü, the
dwell times in the caisson were gradually
reduced to two hours when the
foundation depth was reached with 2.5
atü overpressure. Despite additional
extensive preventive measures, a large
number of the workers suffered from the
effects of being in the compressed air. 110
workers required medical treatment and
three workers died.
Because he was aware of the risks
involved in working in the air box and
knew that any minor mistake could be
fatal, Washington Roeb- ling himself was
always in the caisson when things got
critical. He spent more hours in the
compressed air box than anyone else. In
the summer of 1872, he was brought out
of the caisson almost unconscious and his
death was expected every hour. He
recovered after a few days, but then
collapsed again. He remained paralyzed in
pain for the rest of his life, and at the age
of 35 he was a victim of caisson disease.
However, he was determined to complete
the construction of the bridge as chief
engineer. He sat at home with a direct view
of the bridge construction site from his
window. Because he feared he would not
live much longer, he feverishly wrote,
drew and worked out detailed instructions
for the construction of the pylo- ne, the
spinning of the suspension cables and the
suspension of the steel deck, including
difficult and special assembly processes.
Armed with binoculars, he directed the
construction site from the window of his
house. His wife, Emily Warren Roebling,
supported him with great dedication.
Under his guidance, she studied the
69
She learned about the areas of
mathematics required to build the bridge,
the behavior of cable constructions,
material behavior and bridge regulations.
She had her husband explain his ideas to
her and familiarized herself with the
language of engineers. She went to the
bridge construction site every day to
check on the work in progress and to pass
on her husband's instructions to the
engineers on site. When, shortly before
the completion of the construction of the
Brooklyn Bridge in 1882, doubts were
expressed that Washington Roebling could
continue to fill the position of chief
engineer due to his health (note that
Roebling had already been paralyzed for
ten years and yet continued to work as
chief engineer!), Mrs. Emily Warren
Roebling made such a convincing plea
before the American Society of Civil
Engineers (ASCE) that her husband's
replacement as chief engineer was
rejected.
In 1876, the more than 106 m high,
completed granite pylons supporting the
suspension cables rose up on the
concreted caissons. The abutments for
anchoring the cables were also ready.
Preparations for spinning the cables began.
In principle, the cables were constructed
in the same way as the bridge over the
Ohio from Covington to Cincinnati. Only
a few local changes were made. Instead of
two, as with the Ohio Bridge, four cables
were required for the Brooklyn Bridge.
These also had larger cross-sections (39.4
cm diameter) than on the Ohio Bridge
and, for the first time on a suspension
bridge, they were made of galvanized steel
wire. As with the previous bridges over the
Niagara and the Ohio, additional stay
cables were arranged in clusters from the
heads of the pylons to the stiffening girder.
Before the start of spinning the cables for
the suspension bridge
70 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
temporary cables had to be stretched from
bank to bank for the installation of the
endless traction cables for spinning the
cables and the necessary working
platform. In addition, two cables were
stretched between the two pylons as
reversing cables bent in opposite
directions to prevent the light temporary
cables and the working platform from
being lifted by the wind. The spinning of
the cables was completed in October 1878.
All strands of the cables were drawn
together in an exact cylindrical shape
using press-fitting machines and the
cables were wrapped with an
uninterrupted wire, whereby the winding
wire was pre-tensioned by a rotating
machine so that the friction between the
wires was so great that it was impossible
to pull a cable wire out of the bundle. The
stiffening girder was then hung over the
hangers on the suspension cables and then
the stay cables were installed. The bridge
was opened in May 1883, after the bridge
approaches had also been completed, in
the presence of the President of the
United States, Chester Arthur, and many
prominent figures. The Brooklyn Bridge,
originally with four lanes for horse-drawn
vehicles, two tracks for the tram (instead,
from 1898 to 1944: two tracks each for
trams and trolleybuses and two lanes for
car traffic) and one track for cars, was built
in 1883.
A promenade for pedestrians, which is
arranged lengthwise in the middle of the
bridge above the levels of the traffic lanes,
is still in full operation today. From 1944
to 1954, David Bernard Steinman
extended and upgraded the bridge for
today's traffic. In the process, rail traffic
was discontinued and the tracks for the
trams were removed. The bridge (Fig. 1.4-
33) now has six lanes for motor vehicle
traffic and a promenade for pedestrians
above the levels of the lanes.
After Wilhelm Ritter had already
published his theory for the calculation of
suspension bridges taking cable strains
into account in 1883 [Ritter, 1883], Joseph
Melan presented his analytical method
based on the solution of the differential
equation "Theory of Iron Arch Bridges
and Suspension Bridges" in 1888 [Melan,
1888]. In it, he presented a fundamental
calculation method based on the
deformation of the supporting structure,
which had a significant influence on the
design of large suspension bridges. This
calculation method was first used by Leon
Solomon Moisseiff in the design of the
Manhattan Bridge in New York, built
between 1901 and 1909 (in the
background of Fig. 1.4-33), which has a
span of 448 m, and was incorporated into
the design of the bridge.
Image 1.4-33 Brooklyn
Bridge in New York
(Photo: Giesela Schmitz)
 1.4 Bridges from the Renaissance to the present day
introduced in practice. The theory was
later improved and expanded by Stephen
P. Timoshenko, Leon Solomon Moisseiff,
David Bernard Steinman and Kurt
Klöppel/ Kuo Hao Lie, among others.
Another important milestone in the
construction of suspension bridges was set
by Othmar Hermann Ammann, which is
why his development is also briefly
touched on. Reference is made here to
[Stüssi, 1974]. Othmar Hermann
Ammann was born on March 26, 1879 in
Feuerthalen in the canton of Schaffhausen.
When he was six years old, the Ammann
family moved to Kilchberg on Lake Zurich.
He grew up here. He first attended
elementary school in Kilchberg and then
the industrial school in Zurich (technical
department of the cantonal school). After
completing his schooling, Ammann began
studying civil engineering at the Swiss
Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich
in 1897, graduating in 1902. His most
important teacher during his studies was
Wilhelm Rit- ter, who taught structural
analysis and bridge construction. After
two years of engineering practice in a steel
construction company in Brugg and in a
concrete construction company in
Frankfurt/Main, he emigrated to America
in 1904.
Othmar Hermann Ammann initially
worked in the engineering office of Joseph
Mayer in New York, where he was
involved in the design of several steel
railroad bridges. From 1905 to 1909, he
worked for the Pennsylvania Steel
Corporation, primarily to gain practical
experience in the design of steel bridges.
Here he was first a designer and then
assistant to the chief engineer of the
company F. C. Kunz. His tasks included the
construction of the Qeensboro Bridge in
New York and assisting his boss in the
preparation of the investigation report to
clarify the causes of the collapse of the
Quebec Bridge over the St. Lawrence
River in Canada mentioned in section
1.4.3.1. From 1909 to
71
In 1912, Ammann was an employee in the
engineering office of F. C. Kunz and C. C.
Schneider in Philadelphia. Among other
things, he drew up a design for the
reconstruction of the Quebec Bridge. In
1912 he joined the engineering office of
Gustav Lindenthal in New York. He was
entrusted with the design of the Hell Gate
Bridge and the technical issues arising
during its construction. The Hell Gate
Bridge is a truss double-hinged arch
bridge with a span of 298 m for rail traffic
with four tracks. At the time of its
construction, it was the longest-span arch
bridge. As an employee of Gustav
Lindenthal, Ammann was also involved in
the design for a suspension bridge over
the Hudson in New York. This design at
the height of 57th Street proved to be too
expensive and was not commissioned for
execution.
In 1923, Othmar Hermann Ammann
set out on his own to develop his own
design for a bridge over the Hudson. In
December 1923, he submitted a report to
the Governor of New Jersey, George S.
Silzer, on the need for a bridge across the
Hudson in the upper part of Manhattan.
After examining the report, Governor
Silzer forwarded it within three days to the
Port of New York Authority, which was
responsible for New York. Ammann
justified the request with the expected
rapid increase in motor vehicle traffic.
The rapid increase in traffic ensured solid
financing. The planned bridge in the
upper part of Manhattan at the height of
the
179th Street and the northern part of New
Jersey near Fort Lee did not have to be
built for railroad traffic, but was initially
intended for road traffic only, which is
why it could be built relatively easily and
at relatively low cost. The bridge was
initially to have six lanes for vehicles on
both sides.
72 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
The new road should have sidewalks about
3 m wide and leave open the possibility of
increasing the number of lanes to eight
and arranging four lanes for rapid transit
or motor vehicle traffic on a level below.
The first contracts for the construction
of the bridge were awarded in 1927. The
bridge was completed in 1931 and named
the George Washington Bridge. The
George Washington Bridge in New York
(Fig. 1.4-34), with a span of 1067 m, is a
suspension bridge with a stiffening girder
of very low stiffness. Leon Solomon
Moisseiff, who had built the
aforementioned Manhattan Bridge in New
York, was involved in the design and
calculation of the bridge in an advisory
capacity. The George Washington Bridge
was the first bridge with a span of over
1000 m and was the longest-span bridge
and the only bridge with a span of over
1000 m until the construction of the
Golden Gate Bridge over San Francisco
Bay (Fig. 1.4-35), designed by Joseph
Baermann Strauss and Charles Alton Ellis
with the support of Leon Solomon
Moisseiff, which was completed in 1937
with a span of 1280 m. When building
suspension bridges with low stiffness of
the stiffening girder, such as the George
Washington Bridge in the first expansion
in 1931, some speak of a suspension bridge
without a stiffening girder, e.g. [Stüssi
1974], it is essential to consider the overall
concept of the structure of the bridge.
Figure 1.4-34 George Washington Bridge in New York
such as the ratios of the span to the sag of
the cables and to the heights and widths of
the stiffening girder, the cross-sectional
shape of the stiffening girder (in particular
bending stiffness and torsional stiffness,
position of the twist resting point, wind
slip), the horizontal bracing in the case of
truss stiffening girders or stiffening
girders with open cross-sections, the
heights of the dead loads of the cables and
the stiffening girder, the ratio of the
occurring wind load to the dead load and
the natural frequencies of the structure.
Ammann had dealt with these problems
very thoroughly before building the
George Wash- ington Bridge. In 1960, as
planned by Ammann, the lower level was
installed to add another four lanes for
motor vehicle traffic, which significantly
increased the stiffness of the stiffening
girder as a closed truss box. After all, the
bridge had been in operation for almost
thirty years without any particular
vibration problems with the stiffening
girder of low stiffness, confirming
Ammann's opinion.
From 1933 to 1939, Othmar Hermann
Ammann was chief engineer of the
Triborough Bridge Authority, which was
responsible for financing, building,
maintaining and operating bridges in New
York. During this time, he built the
Triborough Bridge (suspension bridge
with a span of 421 m) and the Bronx-
Whitestone Bridge (suspension bridge with
a span of 701 m), among others. With the
Bronx-Whitestone Bridge, medium winds
caused
 1.4 Bridges from the Renaissance to the present day
At high wind speeds, there were occasional
unpleasant vertical vibrations, which were
insignificant for structural safety, but
caused feelings of insecurity among
drivers. However, no unpleasant
vibrations occurred at high wind speeds.
The disturbing vibrations occurring at
medium wind speeds could be reduced by
installing inclined cables from the heads
of the two pylons to the stiffening girders
and by blocking the longitudinal
displacements of the stiffening girders.
In 1939, Othmar Hermann Ammann
founded his own engineering firm and in
1946, together with Charles S. Whitney,
transformed it into the engineering
partnership Ammann & Whitney. The
Ammann & Whitney engineering
partnership became
was commissioned with the planning and
construction of the Verrazano-Narrows
Bridge. It spans the entrance to New York
Harbor and connects the boroughs of
Brooklyn and Staten Island. The Verrazano
Figure 1.4-36 Verrazano-Narrows Bridge
73
Figure 1.4-35 Golden
Gate Bridge over San
Francisco Bay
Narrows Bridge (Fig. 1.4-36), designed for
two traffic levels (the lower traffic level
was installed in 1969), has a span width of
1298 m and a closed truss box as a
stiffening girder. At the time of its
completion in 1964, it was the bridge with
the largest span width.
In 1940, one of the most spectacular
disasters in the history of bridge
construction ever occurred. The Tacoma
Narrows Bridge in Washington
State/USA, whose stiffening girders had an
extremely low torsional stiffness due to the
very narrow width of 11.9 m in relation to
its span of 855 m and the light H-shaped
cross-section, collapsed after coupled
torsional bending vibrations caused by the
rather weak wind (speed: 19 m/s)
occurred and gradually increased. The
bridge was designed by Leon Solomon
Moisseiff, one of the most experienced
and capable bridge engineers of the time.
Not only he, but also
74 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
Almost all bridge engineers at the time
had no precise knowledge of the
aerodynamic effects of wind, although
collapses similar to the aforementioned
suspension bridge for the Brighton
shipyard had previously caused a stir
among the public. This incident of the
collapse of the Tacoma Bridge prompted
bridge engineers to carry out extensive
research into the wind stability of
suspension bridges, which was mainly
carried out experimentally in wind tunnel
tests. In America, first in Europe and later
in Japan, the use of rigid truss girders was
used to counteract this problem. Here are
a few examples of this:
• the second Tacoma Narrows Bridge (in
1950, 853 m span),
• the bridge over Makinac Street in the
State of Michigan (1958, 1158 m),
• the Verrazano Narrows Bridge over
New York Bay (1964, 1298 m, the
bridge with the largest span at the time),
• the Tancerville Bridge over the Seine in
France (1958, 608 m),
• the Firth of Forth road bridge in
Scotland (1964, 1006 m),
• the bridge over the Rhine in Kleve-
Emmerich, Germany (1966, 500 m),
• the Ponte 25 de Abril over the Tagus in
Lisbon, Portugal (1966, 1013 m),
• the Tsingma Bridge in Hong Kong
(1997, 1337 m),
• Six out of ten suspension bridges between
Honshu and Shikoku including the
Akashi Kaikyo Bridge in Japan (1998,
1991 m span of the center opening,
Figure 1.4-37, currently the bridge with
the largest span).
For the cable assembly of the above-
mentioned suspension bridges in America
and Europe, the air-spinning method was
used, while assembly methods with
prefabricated parallel wire ropes were
preferred for the suspension bridges in
Japan.
In the meantime, a different, new
concept has been introduced in Europe
with regard to the aerodynamic stability of
suspension bridges. The basic idea of the
concept, which originated with Fritz
Leonhardt in 1953 [Leonhardt, 1982], see
there
p. 290/291, is to use wind-slip box girders
with an aerofoil-like cross-section (instead
of truss girders) as stiffening girders in
order to dampen the effect of the wind as
far as possible. After several
Figure 1.4-37 Akashi-
Kaikyo Bridge (Image
by Kawasaki Heavy
Industries, Ltd.)
 1.4 Bridges from the Renaissance to the present day
Figure 1.4-38 Zhoushan Xihoumen
After several wind tunnel tests had been
carried out and good results had been
obtained, the Severn Bridge in Beachley
with a span of 986 m was built for the first
time in the UK in 1966 using this design
principle. This was followed by, among
others, the first Bosporus Bridge in Turkey
(in 1973, 1074 m span), the Humber
Bridge in Kingston upon Hull, England
(1981, 1410 m, the bridge with the largest
span at the time), the Jiangyin-Changjiang
Bridge in Jiangsu Province, China (1999,
1385 m), the Höga- Kusten Bridge in
Sweden (1997, 1210 m), the Storebælt
Bridge in Denmark (1998, 1624 m) and
the Runyang- Changjiang Bridge in
Jiangsu Province, China (2005, 1490 m). In
addition, several large bridges are
currently under construction in China,
such as the Zhoushan Xihoumen in the
province of Zhejiang, China (1650 m),
Fig. 1.4-38, which are also to be stiffened
with wind-slip box girders. There are also
plans for a suspension bridge with a central
opening of approx. 2500 m over the
Qiongzhou Haixia (strait) between Hainan
Island and mainland China.
Table 1.4-1 lists the 24 suspension
bridges with the largest span widths at
present.
75
1.4.4 Concrete arch, beam and rigid frame
bridges
With the rediscovery of concrete - the
Romans were already known to have used
concrete (see section 1.2.3) - at the end of
the 18th century and especially in the first
half of the 19th century (Joseph Aspdin
registered the patent for the invention of
Portland cement in 1824), it was also
possible to build solid bridges with
relatively small spans compared to steel
bridges economically. Initially, stamped
concrete bridges were built based on the
model of natural stone arch bridges. The
invention of iron and steel concrete was
then important for the further
development of concrete construction.
The American Thaddeus Hyatt carried
out the first tests with reinforced concrete
beams as early as 1850. In his reinforced
concrete test beams, the reinforcement
was correctly arranged in the bending
tension zone and anchored to the
supports, and stirrup-type reinforcement
was present in the compression zone. This
shows that Thaddäus Hyatt already had a
good understanding of the load-bearing
behavior of reinforced concrete. Although
there were already older patent
specifications from Joseph Louis
1.4 Bridges from the Renaissance to the present day 75

Table 1.4-1 Suspension bridges with the largest spans in 2008

Largest
Year of
Name span Location of the bridge State
completion
width in
m
Akashi-Kaikyo
1991 Kobe-Naruto Japan 1998
Bridge
Xihoumen 1650 Zhejiang Zhoushan China 2008
Storebælt Bridge 1624 Corsor Denmark 1998
southern Runyang Jiangsu Zhenjiang-
1490 China 2005
Bridge Yangzhou
Tsinglung Bridge 1418 Hong Kong China 2007
Humber Bridge 1410 Kingston-upon-Hull Great Britain 1981
Jiangyin-Changjiang
1385 Jiangsu China 1999
Bridge
Tsingma Bridge 1377 Hong Kong China 1997
Verrazano-Narrows New York Bay
1298 USA 1964
Bridge (Narrows)
San Francisco,
Golden Gate Bridge 1280 USA 1937
California
Yangluo 1280 Hubei Wuhan China 2007
Höga-Kusten Bridge 1210 Kramfors Sweden 1997
Connection across
Bridge over the
1158 Lake Huron and Lake USA 1957
Mackinac Strait
Michigan, Michigan
Huangpu-Zhujiang
1108 Guangdong Huangpu China 2007
Bridge
Minami Bisan-seto 1100 Kojima-Sakaide Japan 1988
Fatih Sultan Mehmet
1090 Istanbul Turkey 1988
Bridge
Bosphorus Bridge 1074 Istanbul Turkey 1973
George Washington
1067 New York, NY USA 1931
Bridge
3rd Kurushima Bridge 1030 Onomichi-Imabari Japan 1999
2nd Kurushima Bridge 1020 Onomichi-Imabari Japan 1999
Ponte 25 de Abril 1013 Lisbon Portugal 1966
Forth road bridge 1006 Scotland Great Britain 1964
Bisan-seto daycare 990 Kojima-Sakaide Japan 1988
center
Severn Bridge 988 Bristol Great Britain 1966
76 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building

Figure 1.4-39 First iron-

concrete bridge in
Chazelet from 1875
(Photo: Dr.-Ing. Klaus
Stiglat)

Figure 1.4-40 Bridge

deck of the reinforced
concrete bridge in
Chazelet (Photo: Dr.-
Ing. Klaus Stiglat)

Lambot from 1855, at least in Germany, is
the French gardener Joseph Monier,
whose patents,
including for reinforced concrete bridges,
dating from 1867-1881, as the founder of
reinforced concrete construction.
However, he was probably the first to
recognize the development potential of
this construction method. In 1875, he also
built the first reinforced concrete bridge
in the world that still exists today, Figure
1.4-39, with a span of around 16.5 m and
a width of 4 m in a park over the moat
surrounding the fitter in Chazelet near
Saint-Benoit-du-Sault in western France.
The bridge railing (Fig. 1.4-40) is made of
concrete, which is molded from branches
[Stiglat, 1997].
The use of reinforced concrete for the
construction of buildings quickly became
widespread in Europe. Matthias Koenen
developed the first very simplified
theoretical principles for calculating
reinforced concrete structures in
conjunction with tests on slabs and vaults
carried out by Wayss and Freytag &
Heidschuch in Berlin. The most important
contributions to the clarification of the
load-bearing behavior of reinforced
concrete and the application of the
construction method in the early days of
the use of reinforced concrete came from
Francois Hennebique, Friedrich Ignaz von
Emperger and Emil Mörsch.
Hennebique's main contribution is the
monolithic production of the slab beam
with the interaction of the web and
pressure plate ensured by stirrups and the
reinforcement that is attached.
Hennebique also designed the first
reinforced concrete bridge with a larger
span, the very slender Risorgimento Bridge
in Rome,
1.4 Bridges from the Renaissance to the present day 77
such a way that they were initially
which was built in 1911 with a clear width
of 100 m as a cellular structure with a box
cross-section with internal longitudinal
and transverse slabs, making it the first
reinforced concrete bridge with a span of
over 100 m. Von Emperger and Mörsch
carried out numerous experimental
studies and thus developed an
understanding of the new construction
method. By translating their findings into
the theoretical principles of reinforced
concrete construction and due to its cost-
effectiveness, the construction method
quickly became established. Mörsch in
particular shaped the construction method
through the truss analogy he developed
for the calculation and structural design of
reinforced concrete with the assignment of
tensile forces to the reinforcement and
compressive forces to the concrete. He
summarized the knowledge gained
through theory and experimentation in
the book Der Eisenbetonbau, seine An-
wwendung und Theorie, published by
Wayss & Freytag in 1902. Mörsch, who was
born in Reutlingen in 1872, studied civil
engineering at the Technical University of
Stuttgart, was head of the technical office
of Wayss & Freytag for a long time and
later a professor at the Technical University
of Stuttgart.
These include the reinforced concrete
arch bridge over the Isar in Munich-
Grünwald, built in 1903/1904 with two
three-hinged arches one behind the other,
each with a span of 70 m and a pier height
of 12.5 m, and the Gmünder tobelbrücke
over the Sitter near Teufen in the canton
of Appenzell, built in 1908 as a single-
span arch bridge with a span of 79 m and
a pier height of 26.5 m.
Joseph Melan, born in Prague in 1853,
developed a construction method for
building reinforced concrete arch bridges
without falsework at the end of the 19th
century. The reinforcement did not
consist of concrete steels, but of rigid,
riveted, self-supporting steel trusses,
which were erected in cantilever
construction and were dimensioned in
 78 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building

also carried the concrete formwork and the

fresh concrete alone, which is why the
falsework was unnecessary. Using Joseph
Melan's method, the so-called Melan
construction method, the first bridges were
built between 1896 and 1900 over the Kansas
near Topeka with a span of 38 m, over the
Steyr in Steyr with a span of 42 m and over the
Werra in Meiningen with a span of 40 m. In
North America in particular, several bridges
with spans of up to around 120 m were built
in the first half of the 20th century. In
Germany, the Echelsbach bridge over the
Ammer (about 75 km southwest of Munich),
which still exists today, was built in 1929 with
a span of 130 m using the Melan
construction method. This construction
method is no longer common in Europe and
America today due to the high price of steel.
In Ja- pan, however, the center sections of
long-span arch bridges were recently built
using the Melan construction method, after
the edge sections of the arches had previously
been built by the cantilever method. In
China, the Wan Xian highway bridge over
the Yangtze, which is currently the longest-
span concrete arch bridge with a span of 420
m, was completed in 1997. It was built
according to the Melan construction method.
The concrete arch consists of a three-cell
concrete box girder, which is reinforced with
a composite steel framework supporting the
formwork and the concrete. The upper and
lower chords of the steel composite skeleton,
each consisting of five steel pipes with an
outer diameter of 402 mm and a wall
thickness of 16 mm, are filled with C60
concrete and, in the final state, form the main
longitudinal reinforcement of the 16 m wide
reinforced concrete arch with a construction
height of 7 m, see [Ewert, 1997 and 1999a],
[Ding/Yongfu, 2001].
One of the most important civil engineers
in concrete bridge construction at the beginning
of the 20th century was Robert Maillart, who
was born in Bern in 1872 and studied at the
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology.
 1.4 Bridges from the Renaissance to the present day
Polytechnic in Zurich had studied civil
engineering. It is to him that we owe the
delicate, particularly bold design of the
concrete bridges, optimized for the
distribution of internal forces, whereby he
designed the structures in such a way that
all parts participated in the transfer of the
loads. He was always able to achieve a
good design for his bridges with his
economical structural forms. For many of
his structures, he was both the designer,
constructor and executing contractor. The
combination of good theoretical
understanding with practical experience
was important for Robert Maillart's
success as an engineer, with new insights
and solutions emerging from the
interplay. Being responsible for the design,
construction and execution of buildings
for decades was a decisive factor in the
success of this ingenious civil engineer.
Particularly noteworthy are the three-
hinged arches he designed, which taper to
thin plates at the transom and apex and
have ∩������� or box cross-sections with
relatively high webs in the areas subject to
bending stress, the so-called mail- lart
arches. The prototype of this innovative
form of construction, which can be
described as his first masterpiece, is the
bridge he designed and built in 1905.
Cross section Box girder
in the quarter Plate girders
point:
Vertical concrete slab
connecting the roadway slab to
the arch
Figure 1.4-41 Longitudinal and cross-section of the bridge over the Rhine at Tavanasa (image
after [Billing- ton, 1990])
79
Bridge over the Rhine at Tavanasa in
Graubünden, Fig. 1.4-41. The bridge
system can be classified as a three-hinged
arch. The span width is 51.25 m and the
arch span is 5.7 m (l/f = 9). The greatest
bending stress under concentrated loads
occurs in the areas subject to bending stress
near the centers between the transom and
apex joints (quarter points of the three-
hinged arch), the single-cell box-shaped
arch has a relatively large construction
height and thus a large cross-sectional
resistance. In contrast, the arch is thin at
the transoms and at the apex. The webs of
the box-shaped arch are cut out at the
transoms, separating the lower chord,
which continues as an arch, and the ∩-
shaped upper chord, which acts as a
roadway support. This directs the
longitudinal force of the arch directly to
the transom. Concrete disks are arranged
in front of the abutments on each of the
transoms, which connect the arch to the
∩������� roadway girder. The bridge
was built on a falsework. Initially, only the
lower slab was concreted. Only after the
concrete of the slab had hardened were the
footbridges and carriageway slab concreted.
The falsework therefore only had to
support the lower slab alone, while the
falsework and the slab supported by the
concrete had to bear the loads from the
footbridge and the roadway slab.
Apex joint with concrete block flush with the roadway slab
Fighter line
80 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
The lower slab stiffened by the falsework
worked together. This led to significant cost
reductions compared to conventional
dimensioning of the falsework for the
complete dead load of the bridge. This
low-cost construction was maintained for
all subsequent bridges based on the
Maillart system, which was particularly
cost-effective when building bridges in
difficult terrain, e.g. the Salginatobel
Bridge. Unfortunately, the Tavanasa bridge
was destroyed by an avalanche in 1927,
causing boulders to fall onto the bridge.
How did Maillart come up with the
system first used for the Tava- nasa
Bridge? For the second concrete bridge he
designed, the bridge over the Inn in Zuoz
in the Engadine, built in 1901, Maillart
had already chosen a two-cell box-shaped
three-hinged arch with a span of 38.25 m
and an arch section of 3.6 m (l/f = 10.6),
Figure 1.4-42. For the bridge in Zuoz,
however, the box-shaped cross-section
was initially retained from the apex to the
transoms, which was also retained for his
third bridge built in 1904 with two arches,
each with a span of 35 m, the Thur Bridge
near Billwil in the canton of St. Gallen.
About two years after the completion of the
Inn bridge in Zuoz, vertical cracks
appeared in the footbridges near the two
transoms. There were three cracks near
one transom and one crack near the other
transom. In the vicinity of both transoms
Apex joint with concrete block between arch and roadway slab
Base plate
Figure 1.4-42 Longitudinal section of the bridge over the Inn in Zuoz (image after [Billington,
1990])
horizontal cracks also formed in each of
the two areas. All cracks occurred on the
web most exposed to the sun. The stresses
on the webs due to the effects of external
loads were low and could not be the cause
of the crack formation, especially as the
cracks were vertical. The cracks must
therefore have been caused by forced
stresses. During drying out, or shrinkage,
the volume of the concrete is reduced and
the concrete shortens without restraint if
it is not prevented from doing so. The
bridge's footbridge, which is exposed to
the sun, dries out faster than the roadway
slab and this dries out somewhat faster
than the lower arch reveal located directly
above the river Inn, which is also cooled
and moistened somewhat by the river.
Therefore, if deformation were
unhindered, the web would shorten more
than the deck slab and the deck slab slightly
more than the floor slab (see Fig. 1.4-43).
On the less illuminated side of the bridge,
the same phenomena occur in principle,
but to a lesser extent. As the individual
parts are connected in a deformation- and
force-locked manner, constraint stresses
arise, tensile stresses in the web and
compressive stresses in the deck and floor
slab, which led to cracking in the web.
After clarifying the cause of the cracks,
Maillart came to the conclusion that it
would be best to omit the webs in the
transom areas because they are not needed
there to transfer the forces. Others would
perhaps have
Web Concealed transom joint
 1.4 Bridges from the Renaissance to the present day 81

Unhindered shortening of the

roadway slab from shrinkage
Pressure in track slab
Vertical cracks in the web
Tension in web
Unhindered shortening of the web
from shrinkage
Pressure in base plate
Figure 1.4-43 Vertical cracks in the bridge over the Inn in Zuoz (image after [Billington, 1979])

The architects tried to counteract the
formation of cracks by increasing the
reinforcement content and selecting
smaller reinforcement diameters in the
web and would certainly have failed,
because arranging more reinforcement
and selecting smaller reinforcement
diameters cannot prevent cracks, but, as is
well known, can only limit the crack
widths to smaller values.
The most important of the bridges of
this type designed by Maillart is the
Salginatobel Bridge near Schiers in
Prättigau. The small mountain village of
Schuders can be reached from Schiers on
a narrow road that crosses the 80 m deep
gorge of the Salginabach stream on the
bridge built in 1929/1930. On the bridge,
the road has only one lane and is
therefore only 3.5 m wide here. Like the
Tava- nasa Bridge, the system of the
Salginato- bel Bridge (Figures 1.1-1, 1.4-
44 to 1.4-46) is a three-hinged arch, albeit
with a significantly larger span of 90m.
The height of the arrows is around 13 m,
so the arrow ratio is approximately 6.9.
The roadway and arch have been
developed into a technically and
aesthetically optimal solution with the low
construction heights at the apex and at the
transoms and the markedly greater
construction heights at the two quarter
points of the arch. The cross-section at the
transoms is rectangular. Towards the
apex, it initially turns into a U-shaped
cross-section that is open at the top with
increasing height and, in the area of the
quarter point

132,3 m
A - -A

4,00
13 m

A-A 90 m

3,5 m
Figure 1.4-44 Salginatobel Bridge, sections
82 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
into the box cross-section (see section A-
A in Fig. 1.4-44). The joints at the
transoms and in the apex are designed as
concrete spring joints with intersecting
reinforcement. The deck girder is a two-
span slab girder. The joints supporting the
slab girder and
Figure 1.4-46 Salginatobel Bridge, oblique
view from below
Figure 1.4-45 View of the
Salginatobel bridge
The supports standing on the arch are I-
shaped.
Eugène Freyssinet built three arch
bridges over the Allier in 1908/1912,
which are similar in all essential dimensions
as well as in the construction method: the
bridges at Le Veudre, at Boutiron and at
Chatel de Neuvre. The bridges each
consisted of very shallow three-hinged
arches with spans of 68 m - 72.5 m - 68 m
and pier heights of 4.6 m for the two
smaller lateral arches and 5.2 m for the
slightly larger central arch. The ratios of
the spans to the pier heights are thus
around 15 and 14, which is extreme. The
roadway is supported by triangular
trusses, which contribute to the buckling
stability of the arch with the rising and
falling diagonals and the connection to
the roadway. In the case of these bridges,
the equipping of the arches with the lifting
of the arch from the framework was
applied for the first time by generating
compressive forces by means of presses in
the apex joint, which simultaneously
minimized the elastic deflections of the
arch due to dead load. In the two years
following completion, creep deformations
caused the crowns to lower by 10 cm to 13
cm. With presses inserted into the joints
at the apex joint and the resulting
 1.4 Bridges from the Renaissance to the present day
The arches were lifted back into their
target position using the pressure forces
generated. The joints were then filled with
concrete. For Freyssinet, the knowledge
gained during the construction of the
three concrete arch bridges over the Allier
that concrete creeps under constant
compressive stresses was important for the
later development of prestressed concrete.
In order to test the lifting of the arch from
the formwork and the scaffolding during
equipping, Freyssinet had a three-hinged
arch built as a test specimen with a span of
50 m and a pier height of 2 m during the
construction of the three concrete arch
bridges, whereby the two abutments were
connected with a prestressed tension chord
made of prestressed, cold-drawn wires ∅ 8
mm with tensions close to the yield point.
The prestressed wires were anchored with
wedges arranged in an anchor plate. This
first application of pre-tensioning in
concrete bridge construction on a test
specimen is considered the first milestone
in the later development of prestressed
concrete bridge construction
[Grote/Marrey, 2000]. The first bridge
built at Le Veudre was destroyed in 1940,
the one at Chatel de Neuvre was blown up
by German troops in 1944. Only the
second of the bridges, the one built in
1910/1911 at Boutiron near Vichy, still
exists (Fig.
Figure 1.4-47 Bridge over the Allier near Boutiron (Photo: Dr.-Ing. Klaus Stiglat)
83
1.4-47) and is approved for limited vehicle
traffic up to 3.5 tons.
The Albert Louppe bridge (Fig. 1.4-48)
was built over the Elorn between Brest
and Plougastel in 1926/1929 according to
a design by Freyssinet, with three arches,
each with a span of 186 m and a pier
height of 38 m. This means that the ratio
of span to pier height is slightly less than
5. The ratio of span to pier height is thus
slightly less than 5. The arches are three-
cell reinforced concrete boxes. The two-
storey roadway girder is located above the
arches as an openwork box girder. The
upper level accommodates road traffic.
The lower level was intended for rail
traffic, but was never used. During the
construction of the bridge, only one
falsework was used for the three arches,
which was floated in and pulled up and
anchored to the pre-concreted transoms
of the concrete arches.
The possibility of prestressing concrete
was an important step in the development
of concrete bridge construction. Eugène
Freyssinet, who was born in Objat
(Corrèze) in 1879, studied civil
engineering at the École polytechnique
and the École des ponts et chaussées in
Paris, held various management positions
with the state and in construction
companies, is probably best known as the
father of prestressed concrete, also known
as prestressed concrete.
84 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
when the first ideas for prestressing
concrete already existed before him.
However, he was the first to clearly
recognize that prestressing steel must
have high strength and that the
prestressing steel tension must be high
because the prestressing steel tension
decreases over time as a result of the creep
and shrinkage of the concrete. His ideas
led to a revolution in structural
engineering, because the spans of pre-
tensioned concrete bridges could be at
least tripled compared to those without
pre-tensioning, the slenderness doubled
and the weights and costs significantly
reduced. As early as 1908, Freyssinet
prestressed a concrete specimen for the
first time, see above, which was the first
milestone in the later development of
prestressed concrete bridge construction
[Grote/Marrey, 2000]. He developed the
Freyssinet prestressing method with high-
strength wires and wedge stakes. He was
the advocate of full pre-tensioning, which
has turned out to be a mistake from
today's perspective. In 1933
([Grote/Marrey, 2000] cite the year 1936),
the company Wayss & Freytag, which had
been Freyssinet's licensee since 1934,
produced a 1 : 3 scale model of a possible
prestressed concrete bridge with a span of
60 m based on Freyssinet's designs in
Frankfurt
Figure 1.4-48 Albert Louppe
bridge over the Elorn
near Plougastel (Photo: Dr.-
Ing. Klaus Stiglat)
([Grote/Marrey, 2000] cite a prestressed
concrete truss designed by Karl Mautner
for a hall with a span of 55 m; the
prestressed concrete truss for the hall was
not executed due to a lack of references,
which is said to have been the reason for
the model experiment). The prestressing
steels ∅ 5 mm were anchored with
concrete blocks. The stirrups were also
prestressed in the same way in accordance
with Freyssinet's concept of prestressed
concrete. Extensive tests on the load-
bearing behavior of the prestressed
concrete girder were initially carried out
on these model girders in Frankfurt,
which were then repeated in Stuttgart
([Grote/ Marrey, 2000] refer to Dresden).
These tests confirmed to both Freyssinet
and German civil engineers that pre-
tensioning was ready for use in
construction practice. Freyssinet put the
results of the tests into practice around
1936 when he used the first prestressed
beams for a structure in the construction
of a 20 m wide service bridge for a weir in
Oued-Fodda in Algeria. Freyssinet built
the first prestressed bridges in 1941 as slab
bridges with 12 m and 20 m spans. In the
same year, he began the design work for
the Marne Bridge
 1.4 Bridges from the Renaissance to the present day 85

Figure 1.4-49 Longitudinal

and cross-section of the
Marne bridge Esbly, image
after [Mörsch, 1958]

in Lucancy with a span of 54 m, which sinet in the design, Wayss & Freytag built
was not allowed to be built at the time by the first prestressed concrete bridge with a
order of the German occupation composite structure as early as 1938. This
authorities [Freyssinet, 1949]. It was only bridge (Fig. 1.4-51), a field path overpass
after the war that this bridge could be over the A2 highway near Oelde in
built by the Campenon-Bernard company Münsterland, with four prestressed
in 1945. This was followed by five more precast longitudinal girders with an I-
bridges over the Marne near Esbly section,
between 1947 and 1952 with some
improvements based on the same
principle, again built by the Campenon-
Ber- nard company. The bridges with Corner first carrier piece
section in follows
spans of 74 m to 80 m were made from
the cable
prefabricated parts. All prefabricated parts pull
for all five bridges were manufactured in a
temporary prefabrication plant near
Esbly. The first of the five bridges to be Corner pieces and first
built, the Marne Bridge Esbly with a span support pieces fitted
of 74 m, is shown in longitudinal and
transverse section in Figure 1.4-49. The
Center sections
two-hinged rigid frame bridges with five- in the cable pull
cell box cross-sections were formed from
six precast girders. These girders are
transported to the banks of the Marne
from approx. 2 m long prefabricated parts
manufactured in the factory and then
tensioned together with auxiliary tendons
to form larger girder sections. The girder
sections were transported to the
installation site on the water and
Installing tendons at the top and bottom
assembled and tensioned on site using
cable cranes. The assembly process is self- Figure 1.4-50 Assembly of the Marne Bridge
explanatory and can be seen in Figure 1.4- Esbly, image after [Mörsch, 1958]
50. With the significant cooperation of
Freys
86 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
Figure 1.4-51 Prestressed concrete bridge over the A2 highway near Oelde
which are laid at mutual intervals of 1.4
m. The beam height of these beams is not
constant, but variable. It is 1.46 m at the
support and 1.60 m in the middle of the
bridge. The lower chord of the girders runs
horizontally, while the upper chord
follows the curve of the dirt road overpass.
The span width of the bridge is 33 m. A
6.4 m wide, in-situ concreted, reinforced
concrete deck slab is arranged on the
longitudinal girders. The transverse load-
bearing effect is ensured by four 25 cm
wide, reinforced concrete cross girders
concreted in situ, the upper reinforcement
of which is located in the deck slab, while
the lower reinforcement was inserted
through the longitudinal girders, in
addition to that of the deck slab [Mörsch,
1943].
In addition to Freysinet, Franz
Dischinger, Ulrich Finsterwalder and Fritz
Leonhardt were particularly important
pioneers of prestressed concrete in bridge
construction. Dischinger was born in
Heidelberg in 1887 and worked in the
technical office of Dyckerhoff & Widmann
after completing his studies in civil
engineering at the Technical University of
Karlsruhe before being appointed
professor of solid construction at the
Technical University of Berlin. During his
During his work at Dyckerhoff &
Widmann, he dealt with the pre-
tensioning of concrete structures, among
other things. He first applied pre-
tensioning without bracing to bridges in
1927/28 when building the arch bridge over
the Saale in Alsleben [Dischinger, 1949-2],
which, however, cannot be described as a
prestressed concrete bridge as we
understand it today. Dischinger also
designed the first prestressed bridge ever
built, the bridge in Aue built in 1935/37.
Ulrich Finsterwalder was born in
Munich in 1897 and worked for
Dyckerhoff & Widmann throughout his
professional life after studying civil
engineering at the Technical University in
Munich. He was responsible for the first
known design of a prestressed concrete
beam bridge, the 1930 design for the
construction of the Three Roses Bridge in
Basel [Finsterwalder, 1965]. The design for
an unbonded prestressed bridge over three
spans with span widths of 52.5 m - 105.8
m - 52.5 m (Fig. 5.2.1-6) with a joint in the
middle of the inner span already showed
essential features of the later construction
systems of the early days of cantilever
construction. However, the design was not
realized. Presumably the
 1.4 Bridges from the Renaissance to the present day
The time was not yet ripe for the
proposed solution. Finsterwalder
developed the Dywidag prestressing
method with prestressing bars with
threaded anchorages with rolled threads
and nuts, later with threaded steels, and
he introduced the free prestressing of
bridges in concrete construction, which
was based on the construction method
that had long been tried and tested in steel
construction. The reinforced concrete
bridge over the Rio Peixe in Brazil (Figure
5.2.1-3), which was built in 1930/31, had
already been built as a non-prestressed
concrete bridge using the cantilever
method. After special proposals with
designs for cantilever bridges had already
been submitted for competitions from
1948 onwards, but these were not
commissioned, the bridge over the Lahn
in Balduinstein (Figures 1.4-52 and 5.2.1-
12) near Limburg was built by Dyckerhoff
& Widmann in 1950 according to
Finsterwalder's design as the first
prestressed concrete bridge to be built as a
cantilever structure. Finsterwalder was
also the pioneer of limited pre-tensioning,
whereby the pre-tension is only selected to
such an extent that the tensile strength of
the concrete is not reached or only slightly
exceeded for frequent impacts, so that the
crack widths in the concrete are limited to
low values. This idea
Figure 1.4-52 Lahn Bridge Balduinstein
87
has proven to be correct for the further
development of concrete construction.
Fritz Leonhardt was born in Stuttgart
in 1909 and, after studying civil
engineering at Stuttgart Technical
University, deepened his knowledge
during a semester as an exchange student
at Purdue University in West-Lafayette,
Indiana/USA. After his return from the
USA, he worked for the colonel in charge
of the construction of the
Reichsautobahn, as a consulting engineer
and for the Todt organization. After
studying Freyssinet's article Une Révolu-
tion dans l' Art de Bâtir (A Revolution in
the Art of Building) published in the
magazine Tra- vaux in 1941, which
familiarized him with Freyssinet's ideas on
prestressed concrete, he met Freyssinet in
Paris in 1943. After the war, he set up his
own business as a consulting engineer
and, together with Wolfhart Andrä,
founded the Leonhardt und Andrä office,
which was and still is active in many areas
of structural engineering and now trades
as Leonhardt, Andrä und Partner.
Together with Willy Baur, he developed
the BAUR- LEONHARDT prestressing
method for pre-tensioning bridges with
concentrated tendons and the LEOBA
prestressing method for pre-tensioning
with smaller tendons. Au-
88 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
is supported from one pier by a
In addition, Fritz Leonhardt and Willy
Baur developed the incremental launching
method, a process that is frequently used
today to build long beam bridges. The
development of prestressed concrete is
discussed in detail in section 5.2.1.
Selected developments are presented
below.
Of particular importance for the
development of concrete bridge
construction were the cantilevered
launching method, the incremental
launching method, construction with
launching girders and, in recent years, the
use of externally and internally guided
tendons of unbonded prestressed
concrete. At present, the focus is on
developments in material technology and
the sustainability of construction.
With the development of cantilever
construction for prestressed concrete
bridges by Finsterwalder, prestressed
concrete bridge construction for bridges
with larger spans over rivers and valleys
became competitive compared to steel
bridge construction. The first bridge to be
built using this construction method was
the aforementioned Lahn Bridge
Balduinstein with a span of 62 m, which is
the prototype of prestressed concrete
cantilever construction in bridge building,
followed by the bridge over the Neckar in
Neckarrems with a span of 71 m in 1951.
The prestressed concrete bridge over the
Rhine in Worms [Finsterwalder/Knittel,
1953], which was built between 1951 and
1953 using the cantilever construction
method, then caused a sensation. With the
largest span in the middle span of 114.2 m,
it was the longest-span concrete beam
bridge at the time and was also the first
concrete bridge over the Rhine in
Germany. The spans of the bridge were
specified for the design so that the caisson
foundations of the piers of the steel bridge
built in 1898/1900 and destroyed in the
war, which had been constructed from
three-hinged truss arches, could be
reused. The principle of the classic
cantilever construction is that the bridge
 1.4 Bridges from the Renaissance to the present day 89

Figure 1.4-53 Completed cantilever of the

Nibelungen Bridge Worms in the construction
stage (Image: Dywidag Archive)

The bridge sections are successively

concreted using a cantilevered carriage
carrying the formwork, reinforcement and
fresh concrete. This is usually done from
piers in an almost symmetrical manner on
both sides. The production sections are
usually between 3 m and 5 m long. This
means that only a relatively small amount of
reusable formwork is required, but it must be
possible to change it in order to adapt it to
the beam geometry being formed. By repeating
similar cycles many times, a significant
reduction in working hours is achieved,
especially for large bridges. In adverse
weather conditions, even in light frost, work
can be continued by enclosing and heating
the relatively small area in which intensive
work is being carried out. Figure 5.2.1-13
shows the longitudinal section and cross-
section of the Nibelungen Bridge Worms. The
prestressing reinforcement of the
90 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
Figure 1.4-54 Nibelungen Bridge in Worms
cantilever beams is adapted to the course
of the main tension span trajectories
determined according to state I and
graded according to the bending moment
curve. Most of the prestressing steels are
guided in the webs (Fig. 1.4-56) and thus
used for shear restraint. Figures 1.4-53
and -54 show the construction status of a
completed cantilevered girder and the
current bridge. The Nibelungen Bridge
has joints in the centers of all three spans
that serve to transfer shear forces. As a
result, unsteady deflections have occurred
in the area of the joints over time, which
had to be corrected. Figure 5.2.1-34 uses
the example of the Moselle bridge in
Thörnich to show the design of the joints
used in the past and still used today to
transfer transverse forces. The problem of
the joint arrangement at points of larger
deflections with corresponding buckling
due to the joints as a result of the time-
dependent differences in inclination is
discussed in more detail.
in section 5.2.1.
Today, the Nibelungen Bridge is
overloaded, especially during peak traffic
hours. For this reason, a second Rhine
bridge was built between 2005 and 2008.
The new bridge stands at a distance of 30
m from the bridge axes next to the existing
bridge. The superstructure of the new
The single-span box girder bridge spans
the Rhine as a continuous girder over three
spans with spans of 101.85 m, 114.20 m
and 105.55 m. This means that no joints
were arranged in the centers of the spans.
The pier axes and abutment locations are
based on the existing bridge (see Fig. 2.2-1).
The superstructure of the current bridge
was pre-tensioned using a mixed
construction method (internal and
external pre-tensioning). The transverse
direction is loosely reinforced.
The power bridge was built as a
cantilever construction from the two
power piers symmetrically to either side.
However, the edge spans could only be
constructed up to a length of 60 m in this
way. The construction of the bank-side
superstructure halves of the river bridge
was therefore carried out as a cable-
tensioned cantilever over auxiliary pylons,
which stood on the separating piers
located between the river bridge and the
foreland bridges during construction. The
auxiliary pylons were tensioned back with
strands to the previously completed
superstructures of the foreland bridges.
In 1962/1965, the Bendorfer Bridge
over the Rhine (Figures 1.4-55 and 5.2.1-
14) was built at Bendorf near Koblenz
[Finsterwalder/Schambeck, 1965], a
cantilever highway bridge with a
maximum span of 208 m for the central
opening, which was used for the
1.4 Bridges from the Renaissance to the present day 91

Image 1.4-55 Bendorfer Bridge

Nibelungen Bridge Worms

57,10 57,10

Rhine bridge Bendorf

104,00 71,00

Fig. 1.4-56 Comparison of the arrangement of the prestressing reinforcement on the Nibelungen
Bridge in Worms and the Bendorfer Bridge, image from [Finsterwalder/Schambeck, 1965].

At the time of its completion, it was by far
the longest-span concrete girder bridge.
Figure 1.4-56 shows that the
reinforcement layout differs from that of
the Nibelungen Bridge. While the
longitudinal reinforcement of the
Nibelungen Bridge built in 1951/53 was
mainly pulled into the webs as shear
reinforcement and anchored there in
sections, the pre-tensioning longitudinal
reinforcement and the prestressed shear
reinforcement were separated in the
Bendorfer Bridge built around 10 years
later.
After the economically successful
designs for large span widths of the free
prestressed bridges, many prestressed
concrete bridges were built worldwide.
bridges were built using this construction
method. A particularly large number of
such bridges, some in modified form, were
built in Japan and Scandinavia, including
the Hamana Bridge in Japan (Fig. 1.4-57)
with a span of 240 m and the currently
longest-span concrete beam bridge with a
span of 301 m, the Stolma Bridge in
Norway (Fig. 9.1.3-14). In the section
9.1.3 deals with cantilever bridges in
detail.
For concrete bridges of medium spans,
numerous methods with relocatable and
movable scaffold girders have been
developed for the economical construction
of bridges. Reference is made primarily to
section 9.1.2, but also to the section
92 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
Figure 1.4-57 Hamana Bridge in Japan
section 5.2.1, in particular Figures 5.2.1-
20 to -24, are referred to. Section 5.2.1
also discusses the problems associated
with this production method with the pre-
tensioning of tendons at joints in
construction section boundaries.
The incremental launching method
developed by Fritz Leonhardt and Willy
Baur combines the advantages of factory
production in a field factory with those of
in-situ concrete construction in an ideal
way for the production of monolithic
load-bearing structures. The production
plant offers protection from the weather
and working conditions are practically the
same as in a factory. The constantly
repeating work processes reduce the time
required for the individual work steps. It
is one of the most successful construction
methods for the production of concrete
bridges because, in addition to the
advantages mentioned above
Image 1.4-58 Aji River Bridge (Image: Kobe City Museum)
is also particularly economical. The
production of bridges using incremental
launching is discussed in detail in section
9.1.4.
1.4.5 Modern cable-stayed bridges
The basic concept of cable-stayed bridges
is not new and was already used for some
bridges in the 18th and 19th centuries. In
Japan, a cable-stayed bridge that could be
rotated on the pier, the Aji River Bridge
near Osaka (Fig. 1.4-58), was built in 1873
and was called a magnetic needle bridge at
the time [Japan Ass., 1984]. Johann
August Röbling had already arranged
additional inclined cables for his
suspension bridges. Dischinger took up
this design idea again and developed
1.4 Bridges from the Renaissance to the present day
them further [Dischinger, 1949-1]. He
pointed out that, in addition to the vertical
hangers, Röbling installed stay cables
tensioned by winches in his suspension
bridges after assembly to increase the
stiffness of the bridge. Because Röbling
could only use winches to pre-tension the
stay cables at that time, the cable pre-
tension was only moderate. The permissible
tensions were also relatively low at the
time. The stay cables were therefore only
partially effective (cable sag, ideal
modulus of elasticity of the cables), which
was one of the reasons for the necessary
repair of the Brooklyn Bridge, which was
carried out by David Bernard Steinman
from 1944 to 1954 while at the same time
strengthening the bridge. Röbling and
Dischinger can be regarded as the spiritual
pioneers of the modern cable-stayed
bridge system.
The two bridges that opened the door
for the rapid development of modern
cable-stayed bridges with large spans are
the Strömsund Bridge in Sweden with a
span of 182 m with a bundle-like
arrangement of the cables (definition
according to Feige, see Fig. 5.2.1-34) of
two cables from the two pylon heads to
each side, which was built in 1955 by
DEMAG Duisburg and which was built in
the years 1955 to 1957 according to the
design of Helmut Homberg with a harp-
like cable arrangement (definition
according to Feige, see Fig. 5.2.1-34) and
with a 260 m span of
Figure 1.4-59 Theodor Heuss Bridge in Düsseldorf
93
Theodor Heuss Bridge in Düsseldorf, built
by a consortium under the technical
leadership of Hein, Lehmann AG. This
was followed by the Severin Bridge in
Cologne (1959, 302 m), the Norderelbe
Bridge in Hamburg (1963, 172 m), the
Rhine Bridge in Leverkusen (1965, 280 m),
the Rhine Bridge in Maxau (1966, 175 m),
the Rhine Knee Bridge in Düsseldorf
(1969, 319 m) and the Rhine Bridge in
Duisburg (1970, 350 m). The common
features of the first cable-stayed bridges in
Germany mentioned above are the design
of both the pylons and the girders as steel
structures, the use of the orthotropic slab
as a lightweight steel deck and the
arrangement of the few thick, fully
enclosed cables with large spacings. The
Onomichi Bridge in Hiroshima, Japan
(1968, 215 m), the Erskin Bridge in
Glasgow, England (1971, 305 m), the
Danube Bridge in Bratislava, CSSR (1972,
303 m) and the Danube Bridge in Linz,
Austria (1972, 215 m) were also built
using this construction method.
The Theodor Heuss Bridge in Düssel-
dorf (Fig. 1.4-59), one of the milestones in
the construction of modern cable-stayed
bridges, is 15 m wide, 26.6 m wide
between the railings and symmetrical to
the longitudinal axis. It has two box-
shaped 1.6 m wide main girders with a
constant construction height of 3.4 m, in
each of which the three parallel inclined
cables for suspending the
94 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
beams are anchored via transverse
bulkheads arranged in the boxes. The
pylons are connected to the stretching
girder in a bending stiffness and form an
upwardly open half frame with transverse
bulkheads in and between the box girders.
The bridge is horizontally immovable on
one pylon and movable on two linear
tilting bearings on the other pylon. On the
pylon, the lower and upper of the three
cables are supported longitudinally on
rotatable sector bearings, while the middle
cable is fixed to the pylon saddle bearing
[Lange et al., 1974].
After that, many cable-stayed bridges
with harp arrangements were built in
various countries, regardless of whether
they were built using the reinforced,
prestressed concrete or composite
construction method. Among them is the
so-called Düsseldorf bridge family (Fig.
1.4-60), which consists of the three inner-
city Rhine bridges that were planned
simultaneously in 1952 by the bridge and
tunnel construction office of the city of
Düsseldorf under the direction of senior
building director Erwin Beyer with the
participation of the architect Prof. Dr. h.
c. Friedrich Tamms as a cable-stayed
bridge in harp form. These are the
aforementioned Theodor Heuss Bridge with
a main span of 260 m, the Oberkassel
Bridge with a main span of 258 m and the
Rheinknie Bridge with a main span of 319
m. Although the concept of the bridge
family with equalized cable inclinations is
uniform, the three bridges differ
significantly in terms of design [Lange et
al., 1974]:
• Theodor Heuss Bridge: two 43 m high
Pylon pairs (pylon heights above the
pillar), each with three parallel cable
pairs, symmetrical to both sides in
longitudinal direction, stretching girder
as two-span slab girder with approx. 3.4
m high box girders as webs and
orthotropic roadway slab
• Oberkassel Bridge: a 103 m high
Pylon with four parallel cables each, in
Longitudinal direction asymmetrical to
both sides, stretch girder with 3.15 high
hollow cross-section with the top chord
as an orthotropic track slab
• Rhine knee bridge: a100 m high py-
pair of lanes, each with four parallel
cable pairs, slightly asymmetrical in the
longitudinal direction, stretch beam as
a double-webbed slab beam with
approx. 3 m web height and
orthotropic track slab
The particularly interesting Oberkasse
bridge is discussed in sections 5.5.5.1.3 and
9.2.5.
With the construction of the Friedrich
Ebert Bridge over the Rhine in Bonn
(1967, 280 m), which was supported by
many cables, t h e pioneering
arrangement of the cables as a multi-cable
system (Figures 1.4-61 and -62) was
realized. The cables are arranged like a fan
(definition according to Feige, see Fig.
5.2.1-34). The two Rhine bridges built
shortly afterwards in Rees-Kalkar (1967,
255 m) and in Ludwigshafen (1968, 140
m) were also constructed as multi-cable
systems. The step from the previously
built two- and three-cable systems to the
multi-cable system - the Friedrich Ebert
Bridge is a 20-cable system - would hardly
have been possible if powerful electronic
data processing systems had not been
available in the meantime. During the
construction of the George Street Bridge
in Newport, England (1964, 152 m), a
combination of prestressed concrete and
steel girders and concrete pylons was
successfully tested. This construction
method was also used for the Rhine bridge
between Mannheim and Ludwigshafen
( 1971, 287 m), the Rhine bridge between
Mannheim and Ludwigshafen (1971, 287
m) and the Rhine bridge between
Mannheim and Ludwigshafen (1971, 287
m).
bridge in Düsseldorf-Flehe (1979, 368 m),
the Askeröfjord Bridge in Gothenburg,
Sweden (1980, 366 m), the Normandy
Bridge in
 1.4 Bridges from the Renaissance to the present day 95
France (1995, 856 m), the Tatara
Bridge in Hiroshima, Japan (1999, 890
m) and the Shantou-Dangshi Bridge
in China (1999, 518 m). The pylons of
these bridges, with the exception of
the Rhine
96 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building

Image 1.4-60 Düsseldorf bridge family (image provided by the City of Düsseldorf)

Figure 1.4-61 Friedrich Ebert Bridge in Bonn

Fig. 1.4-62 Pylon on the left bank of the

Rhine with stay cables of the Friedrich
Ebert Bridge in Bonn
 1.4 Bridges from the Renaissance to the present day 97

Fig. 1.4-63 Inclined cable

bridge at Farbwerke
Hoechst in Frankfurt
(Image: DYWIDAG
Archive)

bridges. Here a r e just a few of them: the

bridge Mannheim-Ludwigshafen and the
Magliana Bridge in
Tatara Bridge are made of concrete.
Although parallel wire bundles with
plastic wrapping were used instead of fully
sealed cables in the construction of the
above-mentioned Rhine bridge in
Mannheim-Ludwigshafen, this cable
construction method remained an
exception in Germany. In Japan, however,
after the completion of the Toyosato
Bridge in Osaka (1970, 216 m), parallel
wire bundles became the standard cable
construction method, initially surrounded
by plastic wrapping and later by
polyethylene (PE) sheathing. This cable
construction method with PE protective
conduits is currently also being used in
many other countries.
In 1962, R. Morandi built a prestressed
concrete cable-stayed bridge over Lake
Mara-Caibo in Venezuela (see Fig. 5.2.1-
36) with a maximum span of 235 m. He
also designed other prestressed concrete
cable-stayed bridges, e.g. the Polcevera
Bridge in Genoa, Italy (1966, 208 m) and
the Wadi el Kuf Bridge in El Beida. He also
designed other prestressed concrete cable-
stayed bridges, e.g. the Polcevera Bridge in
Genoa, Italy (1966, 208 m) and the Wadi
el Kuf Bridge in El Beida in Libya (1971,
202 m, see Fig. 5.2.1-37). In addition to
these bridges by Morandi, there are many
other prestressed concrete cable-stayed
 98 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
Rome, Italy (1967, 145 m), the Main
Bridge of the Farbwerke Hoechst in
Frankfurt [Schambeck, 1973] (1972,
148 m, pictures
1.4-63 and -64, see also Figure 5.2.1-
39), the Tielse Bridge in Tiel,
Netherlands (1975, 267 m, see Figure
5.2.1-38), the Brotonne Bridge in Le
Havre, France (1977, 320 m), the
Pasco-Kennewick Bridge in America
(1978, 299 m), the Ganter Bridge
designed by Menn near Brig,
Switzerland (1980, 174 m, Figure 1.4-
65), the Barrios de Luna Bridge in
Leon, Spain (1984, 440 m), the Parana
Bridge in Posadas-En- carnacion,
Argentina-Paraguay (1984, 330 m),
the Skarnsundet Bridge in Norwe-

Figure 1.4-64 Pylon head of the cable-

stayed bridge of the Farbwerke Hoechst in
Frankfurt (Image: Dywi- dag Archive)
1.4 Bridges from the Renaissance to the present day
gen (1991, 530 m) and the Changjiang
Bridge in Chongging, China (1996, 444 m).
There are also numerous prestressed
concrete cable-stayed bridges in Japan.
The combination of the building
materials steel and concrete with the
economical absorption of compressive
stresses by the concrete in composite
construction offers ideal advantages of
this construction method for cable-stayed
bridges. It is astonishing that although
composite construction had already been
used in the construction of the Büchenau
Bridge in Bruchsal, Germany (1956, 56
m), the Sitka Harbor Bridge in Alaska,
America (1972, 137 m) and the Yamato
Bridge in Osaka, Japan (1974, 83 m), it
was not until 1986 that a large bridge was
built using this construction method with
the construction of the Alex Fraser Bridge
in Vancouver, Canada, with a span of 465
m. The pyloids of the bridge are made of
concrete. Subsequently, this construction
method spread very quickly in various
countries except Japan. Only a few bridges
are mentioned below: the Second Hooghly
Bridge in Calcutta, India (in 1992, 457 m
span), the Mezcala Bridge in Mexico (1993,
312 m), the Yangpu Bridge in Shanghai,
China (1993, 602 m), the Fred Hartman
Bridge near Baytown, America
99
Figure 1.4-65 Ganter
Bridge near Brig,
Switzerland
(1995, 381 m), the Second Severn Bridge
in England (1996, 456 m), the Tingkau
Bridge in Hong Kong, China (1998, 475
m), the Seohae Bridge in Korea (2000, 470
m), the Second Changjiang Bridge in
Nanjing, China (2001, 628 m).
Many large cable-stayed bridges have
been built in China in recent years, a total
of around 16 cable-stayed bridges with
spans of over 500 meters. The largest
cable-stayed bridge in China is the Sutong
Bridge over the Changjiang River in
Jiangsu Province (Figures 1.4-66 and -67).
The span width of the central opening is
1088 m. This puts it ahead of the Tatara
Bridge in Japan with a center span of 890
m, the largest span of a cable-stayed bridge
to date.
Figure 1.4-66 Sutong Bridge, lake view
100 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
Image 1.4-67 Sutong Bridge, pylons
bridge with the largest span on earth. It is
worth mentioning that piles for the pylons
had to be driven 120 m deep in some
places.
To round off, we refer to the section
3.8, in which under
• 3.8.1 by Christian Menn the Sunni-
berg Bridge in Switzerland,
• 3.8.7 by Jacques Mathivat of Le Pont
de Brotonne in France,
• 3.8.8 by Alfred Pauser the Danube Canal
Bridge in Vienna, Austria,
• 3.8.10 by Michel Virlogeux the Nor-
mandie bridge in France,
• 3.8.12 by Herbert Schambeck the cable-
stayed bridge Dubrovnik in Croatia,
modern cable-stayed bridges will be
presented and explained by the designers.
1.5 Current developments,
Comments on the design of
bridges and special meanings
1.5.1 Current developments
In recent decades in particular, the
performance of building materials used in
structural engineering has been
increasingly improved. This includes, in
particular, developments in concrete
technology for concrete construction.
From 1998, after some bridges had already
been built from high-performance
concrete abroad, e.g. in Japan, Denmark,
Norway and France [König/Grimm, 2000],
the first bridges were also built from this
building material in Germany [Bernhardt
et al., 1999], [Zilch et al., 2002], [König et
al., 2002], see also Section 5.1. High-
performance concrete (HPC) is the term
used today for concretes of strength classes
C55/67 to C100/115. High performance
concrete has a density comparable to
normal concrete. The slightly higher
densities (approx. 5 to 10% of the cement
weight) compared to normal concrete,
which are negligible in construction
practice, and higher strengths are mainly
achieved by an improved matrix structure
(addition of pozzolanic additives -
microsilica, coal fly ash - and a higher
density due to the low water-cement ratio)
and a good bonding effect in the contact
zones between the matrix and the coarse
grains of the concrete aggregate. This not
only leads to higher strengths compared
to normal concretes (strength classes up
to C50/60), but also results in a higher
resistance to environmental influences and
thus also a higher durability [Grübl et al.,
2001]. The time-dependent deformations
of high-performance concrete compared to
normal concrete must be taken into
account.
1.5 Comments
Current developments,
on the design
comments
of bridges
on the design of bridges and special meanings
concrete. The creep deformations decrease
with increasing strength, their final value is
reached after a shorter time. The chemical
shrinkage component is significant in
high performance concrete and is
considerably greater than in normal
concrete. The drying shrinkage, on the
other hand, is lower than with normal
concrete. As a rule, prestressed high-
performance concrete results in lower
time-dependent prestressing force losses
compared to normal concrete [Taferner et
al., 2009, Section 4.1], because the
influences of concrete creep and drying
shrinkage dominate. On the other hand,
the reduction of constraint effects and
constraints from settlement is lower than
when using normal concrete. It is
particularly important to note that the
high chemical shrinkage component
occurs during the hardening of the
concrete and must therefore be
superimposed with the stresses from the
effects of the dissipation of the hydration
heat. This is particularly important for
concrete joints.
In recent years, concretes with even
higher strengths have been developed,
with compressive strengths of 200 N/mm2
and even up to 800 N/mm2 under
laboratory conditions. They are called
ultra high-strength concrete (UHPC) or
ultra high performance concrete (UHPC).
The first developments were reported
from France. Some bridges were then built
abroad, e.g. in Canada, South Korea and
the USA [Müller/ Reinhardt, 2009,
Section 12.5].
Ultra high-strength concrete is a
particularly dense concrete. The largest
grain sizes of concrete aggregate used are
16 mm or less. The current state of
concrete technology makes it possible to
reliably produce concrete compressive
strengths of up to around 200 N/mm2 and
slightly above [Schmidt, 2003], [Schmidt/
Fehling, 2007-2]. The compressive
strength is therefore almost as high as that
of steel.
97
The high performance is mainly based
on the low water/cement ratio, which is
around 0.2, a high solids content (addition
of suitable mineral additives), a high
packing density in both the cement paste
and the coarse-grained concrete
aggregates with a low water requirement
of the fresh concrete with the resulting
very low porosity of the hardened concrete
and the use of steel and other fibers
[Schmidt, 2003].
In 2005, the first pedestrian and cycle
bridge was built in Germany as a pilot
project to replace a corroded steel
footbridge connecting a sports field and a
swimming pool in Niestetal near Kassel as
a longitudinally prestressed prefabricated
bridge made of fiber-reinforced ultra-
high-strength concrete (UHPC). Apart
from the prestressing reinforcement, the
bridge only contains reinforcing steel in
the area where the prestressing forces are
introduced into the concrete. The span
width is approximately 12 m, the width 3
m. The bridge was manufactured in one
piece in the precast plant, weighing
around 12 tons, and transported to the
installation site on a lowboy trailer. In
Niestetal, a total of four pedestrian and
cycle bridges, one of them made of
reinforced precast slabs on a steel
structure, were built from UHPFRC by
2005 [Schmidt et al., 2006]. During the
construction of the bridges, it was found
that they were more cost-effective than
conventional construction methods,
despite the need to obtain the necessary
approvals in individual cases.
The first major bridge made of
UHPFRC in Germany was then built, the
Gärtnerplatzbrücke in Kas- sel, a
pedestrian and cycle bridge as a continuous
girder over six spans with a total length of
133 m, which was completed in 2007. The
spans of the six spans are 19.2 m - 24.0 m
- 21.0 m - 36.0 m - 21.0 m - 12.0 m. The
bridge was to be built on the occasion of the
federal
98 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
The wooden bridge was no longer fit for
purpose. The wooden bridge was no longer
fit for purpose and stable,
Among other things, one side member was
badly damaged by fungal attack. It had to
be demolished. The foundations and piers
of the wooden bridge were to be used for
the new Gärtnerplatz Bridge, resulting in
the above-mentioned spans for the new
bridge.
After 10 years of intensive research in
the field of ultra-high performance
concrete at the University of Kassel
[Schmidt/Fehling, 2007-1] and with the
good experience with the smaller bridges
made of UHPFRC described above, the
engineering office IBB Fehling und
Jungmann designed the bridge [Fehling et
al., 2007]. Although it is designed as a
pedestrian and cycle bridge, it is also
intended to allow the passage of a rescue
or maintenance vehicle with a total weight
of 6 tons. Loads from ice drift and ship
impact were taken into account in the
design. The existing piers are at an angle
to the axis of the bridge, which is why the
three-chord truss was chosen, resulting in
a clear view (Figure 1.5-1). In the area of
the river, the gradient is curved in the
vertical plane. The bottom chord and the
diagonals of the longitudinal girder, which
is triangular in cross-section, consist of
steel tubes, while the top chords are made
of prefabricated UHPFRC elements
prestressed in the prestressing bed. The 8
cm to
12 cm thick, transversely prestressed
precast slabs with dimensions of 2 m × 5 m
in plan are bonded to the top chords.
Bonding was chosen because the small
cross-sectional dimensions of both the top
chords and the precast slabs hardly
allowed the use of mechanic fasteners. For
the final state, a continuous tendon with 2
MN pre-tensioning tendons is required for
each top chord over the entire length of
the bridge.
Figure 1.5-1 Gärtnerplatz bridge in Kassel
tension force, whereby the bonded panels
are also prestressed in the longitudinal
direction. The pre-tension is selected so
that the top chords are overstressed both
in the serviceability limit state and in the
load-bearing capacity limit state.
The Gärtnerplatz Bridge, a demanding
pilot project in bridge construction, is
subject to continuous monitoring. The
aim of continuous monitoring is to check
the validity of the assumptions made for
the design of the structure with regard to
the behavior of the building materials, the
structure and the fasteners on the finished
bridge under real conditions in practice
and to determine structural changes over
time. Local distortions and relative
displacements between the slabs and the
top chords are monitored. At the same
time, the prevailing temperature and
humidity must be recorded. The
continuous long-term monitoring, which
is carried out via an experimental model
analysis, begins with the verification of the
design assumptions for the validation of a
structural-dynamic finite element
calculation model, which then serves as
the initial model for the subsequent
models [Fröhlich et al., 2009]. In addition
to the measured vibration
1.5 Comments
Current developments,
on the design
comments
of bridges
on the design of bridges and special meanings
data also includes the influence lines for
the inclinations of the bridge measured
during quasi-static passage of a load
vehicle.
Section 11.7 deals with continuous
monitoring in general, to which reference
is made here.
1.5.2 Comments on the design of
bridges
It has already been explained in section
1.1 that bridges are often located at
prominent points on our cities and
transport routes. It is important to build
bridges sustainably. By this we mean not
only the optimized construction costs in
relation to the lifetime of the bridge, but
also its significance for the well-being of
people. The engineer must always be
aware of his responsibility in the design
and harmonious integration of the bridges
into their surroundings, whether in the
city or in the landscape, and their effect
on people. Sometimes the difference in
cost between a well-designed bridge and a
so-called cheap solution is small. In this
case, the decision should always be made
to build the well-designed bridge. To
avoid any misunderstandings, it is not
meant that a well-designed bridge is not
inexpensive. On the contrary, a well-
designed bridge does not need any
decorative accessories. The bridge should
only have what is necessary for the
structure. Clear forms that allow the flow
of forces to be recognized are particularly
important. This is the only way to achieve
the art of engineering. Robert Maillart has
shown us with his bridges that economical
construction can lead to good solutions.
Emulating him as a role model is a
rewarding task for every engineer. The
bridges listed in section 3.8 are all
examples,
99
which can serve as models for the design
engineers. In some cases, it is advisable to
involve architects in the design process.
However, it must be clear that a good
design can only be created through
genuine collaboration and dialog from the
very beginning. In the section
1.4, some of the architects collaborated
with the designing engineers on some of
the bridges shown. On the bridges of the
Düsseldorf bridge family (Fig. 1.4-60), this
was Friedrich Tamms, and on the Rhine
bridges in Worms and near Bendorf, Gerd
Lohmer.
Please refer to the following section 1.6.
Here are some examples of subjectively
selected, and in our opinion, well-
designed bridges.
First of all, the Glemstal Bridge in
Schwieber- dingen, Figure 1.5-2, built
between 1960 and 1962 by Wayss &
Freitag and Karl Kübler according to the
design of civil engineer Hermann Bay and
architect Wilhelm Tiedje, is worth
mentioning as a real work of engineering
art. The bridge consists of a box-shaped
concrete arch spanning 114 m and the
continuous concrete box girder above it,
which is spanned by the arch in the apex
area.
Figure 1.5-2 Glemstal bridge in Schwieberdingen
100 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
and supported by slender pendulum
supports. The arch and the box girder
penetrate each other in the middle third
of the arch bridge. The arch is therefore
only loaded by the box girder in this area.
In accordance with the vertical load (in the
middle third from the box girder and the
dead load of the arch, in the outer third
only from the dead load of the arch), the
arch shape roughly follows the support
line under dead load, which is somewhat
similar to that of a truss. From the center
of the bridge, the first two piers stand on
the transom foundations. The arch
spreads out towards the imposts to
increase the transverse stiffness. In the
longitudinal direction, the box girder has
its fixed point at the arch apex and the box
girder runs seamlessly through to the
abutments, where the horizontal
displacements from the thermal expansion
are ensured. The slender pendulum
supports supporting the box girder in the
slope areas follow the movements of the
box girder almost without constraint. In
the longitudinal and transverse directions,
the arch acts like a frame whose gravity
axes largely follow the support line under
dead load. Transverse washers are built
into the arch at the junction of the arch
bases and the connection to the
superstructure. They ensure that the
transverse
Figure 1.5-3 Pragsattel II pedestrian bridge in Stuttgart (image by Schlaich, Bergermann und Partner)
The shape of the section is maintained
and supports the mutual transfer of
internal forces between the arch and the
box girder.
The Prag- sattel II pedestrian bridge in
Stuttgart, designed by Schlaich,
Bergermann und Partner, is a very
interesting bridge in terms of design,
Figure 1.5-3. The 30 cm thick, or should
we say thin, strongly inclined, continuous
concrete slab rests on branched steel tubes
made of vertical supports, which are
divided into four branches in the upper
area like a tree. They are therefore referred
to as tree supports. Despite the many
supports, the view is hardly impaired. All
parts are involved in the load transfer, no
part can be dispensed with, none is
decorative. The bridge thus fulfills the goal
of not adding anything that is not
necessary. The nodes and connection
points to the concrete slab and the
foundations are cast parts. The bridge is
delicate and almost appears to float. The
bright red color also gives the bridge an
independent look and makes it stand out
clearly from its surroundings without
being disruptive.
In 1966/1967, the footpath bridge over
the entrance to the Schierstein Rhine
harbor in Wiesbaden was built according
to a design by Finsterwalder with
architectural
1.5 Comments
Current developments,
on the design
comments
of bridges
on the design of bridges and special meanings
The bridge was built on the advice of Gerd
Lohmer and the technical work of Rudolf
Ohlig and Klaus Alsen from Dyckerhoff &
Widmann. The prestressed double-hinged
arch bridge made of lightweight concrete
using white cement with a span width of
96.4 m and a pier height of 12 m is a very
elegant bridge (Fig. 1.5-4). The arch is so
slender at the apex that it behaves almost
like a three-hinged arch. The 1.5 m high
T-section at the apex has a 3 m wide slab
with a 1.5 m wide web. To dissipate the
wind forces, the cross-section of the arch
changes as a lower flange forms laterally in
the web, the width of which increases to 3
m at the transom. Ramps in the form of
triangles, which are suspended from the
arch like backpacks and act as
counterweights and tension members to
reduce the horizontal thrust, are used as
bridge slopes. The ramps and the part of
the bow from the transom to the end of
the bow-ramp triangle were constructed
on a falsework with auxiliary yokes at a
distance of 10 m from the transoms. In
order to maintain ship traffic during the
entire construction process, the
construction of the middle section of the
bridge was carried out on a
Fig. 1.5-4 Bridge over the exit from the Schierstein Rhine port in Wiesbaden
101
The cantilever in the cantilevered front
section. The arch effect was achieved by
closing the apex and lowering the
auxiliary yokes.
Due to the height conditions of the
roads on the Danube Canal in Vienna in
the area of the Rossau Bridge, the
construction height of the Rossau Bridge,
which spanned over 54.4 m and was
supported at an angle, was extremely
limited, so that only a prestressed concrete
slab/ slab girder construction with a
spider-like support could fulfill all the
given boundary conditions, which also
included the accommodation of the open
supply lines. Designed by Alfred Pauser
and built by the companies Universale
and Porr, the very slender 1.3 m thick slab/
slab girder construction of the Rossau
Bridge, Fig. 1.5-5, has a frame-like effect
due to the bending stiffness of the
connections with the supporting
structure, which is divided into four
struts. In the edge spans and beyond the
supporting structures to the inner span, the
superstructure consists of a solid slab,
which is recessed in strips along the
longitudinal axis to accommodate the
utility connections at the bottom and
prestressed in the transverse direction in
the areas of the supports.
102 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
Figure 1.5-5 Support structure of the Rossauer Bridge over the Danube Canal in Vienna (picture
by Prof. Dr. techn. Alfred Pauser)
is. The central area of the inner span was
constructed using eight prefabricated
prestressed concrete beams with hollow
cross-sections to reduce the dead load and
a cast-in-place concrete slab, which is
connected to the precast beams, the solid
slab and via these to the supporting
structure in a bending and shear-resistant
manner. The frame effect of the composite
structure is reinforced by the site-specific
necessary inclination of the spider-like
support, which has a favorable effect on the
reduction of the field bending moments.
The lifting support forces at the ends of
the bridge resulting from the unfavorable
support width ratios are also reduced by the
frame effect. The site-specific,
interestingly resolved support and the
consistently developed supporting
structure of the bridge impress people
strolling along the quay with their view of
the underside of the bridge, which is
enhanced in the dark by accent lighting.
The most economical construction is
achieved if the loads are transferred by
structures that are only subjected to
longitudinal forces. This can be achieved,
for example, by using a
bow or a rope is selected. If the bend has
the appropriate shape, it is mainly
subjected to compressive stress. The rope
is subjected to tensile stress instead of
compressive stress. Suspension
constructions have the further advantage
that the bending stress is reduced under
increasing load due to the changes in
shape of the system. The largest spans to
date have been achieved with suspension
bridges with a span of around 2000 m, see
above. If the most important structural
parts of suspension bridges - the
suspension cables and the stiffening girder
- are combined, the result is the
prestressing band, which is based on an
idea by Ulrich Finsterwalder and which he
called a system of concrete bridge
construction. Finsterwalder first proposed
the construction of a span bridge with a
free span length of 190 m in 1958 on the
occasion of the bridge competition for the
bridge in Istanbul over the Bosporus; it
was not built according to Finsterwalder's
proposal. The system of the proposed
bridge is shown in Fig. 1.5-6. A second
design by Finsterwalder from 1961 for the
construction of the Zoo Bridge in Cologne
with a free span length of 166 m was also
not realized.
1.5 Comments
Current developments,
on the design
comments
of bridges
on the design of bridges and special meanings 103

The first tensioning belt bridges were
later built in Switzerland and Japan. It was
not until 1969/1970 that Finsterwalder's
design was realized in Freiburg/Breisgau.
The system of this bridge can be seen in
Fig. 1.5-7. Figures 1.5-8 and -9 show the
elegance of the Freiburg span bridges.
cke. Figure 1.5-9 in particular clearly
shows the beautiful integration with the
transition to the leisure area. Section 5.7
discusses span bridges in detail.
In the course of the Stuttgart-
Vaihingen eastern bypass, directly
between

Figure 1.5-6 Finsterwalder's proposal for the construction of the Bosporus Bridge as a span

Figure 1.5-7 System of the tensioning belt bridge in Freiburg (Image: Dywidag Archive)

Figure 1.5-8 Tensioning belt bridge in Freiburg

104 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
two tunnels, the 151 m long, horizontally
curved Nesenbach Valley Bridge with spans
between 8.25 m and 49.5 m. The concrete
roadway slab is supported by a spatial
framework of steel tubes made of tree-like
splayed columns, to which it is
monolithically connected to form a
composite structure, Figures 1.5-10 and -
11. The tube nodes are made of cast steel.
The tunnel cross-section is visually
continued at the top by a continuous
cover serving as noise protection above
the roadway and below the footpath and
cycle path over the entire bridge. Due to
the location of the footpath and cycle path
above the roadway with the noise
protection cover, pedestrians and cyclists
do not have to overcome unnecessarily
large differences in height and the
footpath and cycle path are free of noise,
exhaust fumes and splash water. Tubular
steel arches span the roadway at the sides.
The tubular steel arches carry noise
protection lamellas, which are arranged
on the slope or valley side depending on
the development. Because the bridge is
monolithic, jointless and without
bearings, even with
Fig. 1.5-9 Tension bridge
in Freiburg, view from
the cathedral tower
The construction of the roadway slab,
which was firmly connected to the
adjoining tunnels, completely eliminated
the most disruptive source of noise in
roadway transitions. The concrete mix of
the deck slab and the reinforcement were
optimized so that the crack widths
occurring were limited to 0.3 mm. The
bridge was built in 1997/1999 by the
companies Wolff & Müller, Stuttgart and
Stahlbau Illingen according to a design by
Schlaich, Bergermann and Partner.
1.5.3 Bridges with special significance
In the past, bridges have sometimes had
fateful and symbolic significance. The
historical significance of the Ponte
Mulvius has already been mentioned in
section 1.2.2.
When Germany invaded Poland on
September 1, 1939, triggering the Second
World War, significant parts of the Old
Vistula Bridge near Dirschau (see section
1.4-3) and also the later da
1.5 Comments
Current developments,
on the design
comments
of bridges
on the design of bridges and special meanings 105

Figure 1.5-10 Nesenbachtal bridge, section (image after [Bögle et al., 2003])

Figure 1.5-11 Nesenbachtal Bridge, image by Schlaich, Bergermann und Partner

106 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
Figure 1.5-12 Illuminated Nesenbachtal bridge in the dark, image by Schlaich, Bergermann und
Partner
The second bridge, built next to it, was
blown up by the Polish army as a
defensive measure. Three spans of the Old
Vistula Bridge were destroyed and three
were preserved. Today, the three
remaining spans of the bridge are an
important testimony to the early days of
railroad bridge construction (Fig. 1.4-15).
The remaining part of the Old Vistula
Bridge near Dirschau was added to the list
of International Historic Civil
Engineering Landmarks by the ASCE in
2004. The battles that developed around
the prepared detonation points for the
bridge at the beginning of the Second
World War were possibly the first fighting
of the Second World War. The bridge,
which was praised as a technical
masterpiece of bridge construction when
it was built in the mid-19th century, took
on a sad historical significance in 1939.
German pioneers erected a temporary
bridge over the Vistula, which was then
replaced by a new double-track railroad
bridge. The destroyed parts of the Old
Vistula Bridge were not replaced during
the war. At the end of the war, the railroad
bridge was destroyed by the retreating
German soldiers.
blown up. After the end of the war, the
Polish state rebuilt the two bridges while
retaining the existing parts, replacing the
missing parts with new structures and
superstructures that had been dismantled
elsewhere. In December 1947, single-track
rail traffic was initially able to cross the
bridge again. Eventually, both double-track
rail traffic and road traffic could be
guaranteed.
In 1973, when a steel box girder bridge
was being built near Zeulenroda in eastern
Thuringia over six spans with end spans
of 55 m each and inner spans of 63 m each
for a country road over a future reservoir
in cantilever construction, a tragic
construction accident occurred on August
13, the 12th anniversary of the
construction of the Berlin Wall. During
assembly, the floor plate, which was
subjected to centric pressure, failed. The
bridge section, already projecting 31.5 m
into the second span, buckled and fell to the
valley floor, taking workers and
equipment with it. Four people lost their
lives, several were injured, some of them
seriously, and a great deal of damage to
property was caused. According to the
state of steel bridge construction at the time
1.5 Comments
Current developments,
on the design
comments
of bridges
on the design of bridges and special meanings 107

Figure 1.5-13 Zeulenroda reservoir bridge

This was an innovative project. In the five is placed. Those who died in the accident
preceding years, there had been several are commemorated with a memorial
similar cases of damage in the democratic stone, Fig. 1.5-14.
states (Danube Bridge Vienna, The Glienicke Bridge in Berlin has
Cleddaubrücke in Milford-Haven in another political significance, Figure 1.5-
Wales, Westgate Bridge in Melbourne and 15. During the division of Germany,
Rhine Bridge Koblenz), of which there was political prisoners were exchanged
only insufficient knowledge as a result of the between East and West at the Glienicke
access to information prevented by the Bridge. This made the bridge world-
ruling party in East Germany (the famous.
previous cases of damage triggered
conferences on the subject, research and
adjustments to regulations in the West)
[Ekardt, 1998].
The causes of damage will not be
discussed here. Please refer to [Ekardt,
1998] and [Scheer, 2000]. However,
because the construction accident
occurred on August 13, the Ministry for
State Security and the GDR judiciary
initially assumed that it was a case of
sabotage. Later, the institutions saw the
construction accident as the negligence of
technology-loving intellectuals at the
expense of the working people.
Objectively, the accident was due to the
inadequate safety in the assembly state as
planned at the time and a misjudgement
of the load-bearing capacity of the bottom
chord of the box girder. The bridge,
Figure 1.5-13, was completed after the Image 1.5-14 Memorial stone at the
accident. Zeulenroda reservoir bridge
108 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
1.6 Design of bridges,
Competitions, bridge construction prizes
JOACHIM NAUMANN
1.6.1 Preliminary remark
The consideration of good design in the
planning and execution of bridges and
engineering structures has a long tradition
in Germany. Many historical structures
still show very clearly today how much
effort and care was put into this. Bridges
Figure 1.5-15 Glienicke
Bridge in Berlin
In the past, master builders naturally
regarded large engineering structures as
part of the building culture and often
served to impressively represent the rulers
or wealthy cities. Examples of this include
the successful ensemble of the Stone
Bridge with the mighty city gate in
Regensburg dating from 1146 (Fig. 1.6-1)
or the Old Main Bridge in Würzburg with
the twelve bridge saints on the pulpits
above the river as a representative link
between the two parts of the city (Fig. 1.6-
2). Further interesting examples can be
found in [Standfuß/
Figure 1.6-1
Regensburg Stone
Bridge
1.6 Bridge design, competitions, bridge construction prizes
Figure 1.6-2 Old Main Bridge Würzburg
Naumann, 2006] and [Standfuß/Naumann,
2007].
This self-image of good design only
changed when the all-encompassing tasks
of the builder were increasingly divided
between the fields of architecture and civil
engineering due to technical
developments and the use of new
materials. For civil engineers, the focus
was then often more on the optimal
technical solution for bridges, while the
demands on the aesthetics and design of
the buildings were only given appropriate
attention by a few outstanding engineers.
After the Second World War, the
economic upswing and the associated
dynamic growth in traffic also ensured that
an enormous number of engineering
structures had to be built in a very short
space of time in order to keep pace with
the expansion of the urgently needed traffic
routes. Planning processes were therefore
always under great time pressure and the
traffic-friendly function of the roads was
also a priority in general social
understanding.
109
and their buildings had absolute priority. At
times, design requirements were of
secondary importance, and design
competitions were limited to a few
prominent buildings.
Fortunately, an intensive and creative
discussion has developed over the last ten
years, both at specialist level and among the
public, which has positively changed the
awareness of good design of
transportation structures. In many events,
symposia and discussion groups,
numerous suggestions have been made as
to how the design of structures can be
improved and what significance this has
for our daily environment. The positive
results can be seen in many places, even if
not all design efforts have always been
successful straight away. There is no
doubt that the Architecture and Building
Culture Initiative, which was launched in
2000 by the Federal Ministry of Transport
together with the Federal Chamber of
Engineers and the Federal Chamber of
Architects, has made a significant
contribution to this and provided much
food for thought. With the establishment
of the Federal Foundation of Baukultur in
2007, this process is now to be consolidated
and thus do justice to its social
significance in the long term. Ultimately,
however, it depends on those involved in
planning and construction in the
administrations, engineering offices and
construction companies whether the many
good ideas are also put into practice.
Competitions can make an important
contribution to this.
Two recent examples illustrate just how
controversial the issue of building culture
can sometimes be in bridge construction.
While Dresden has been arguing for years
about whether a bridge in the Elbe Valley
is compatible with the World Heritage Site,
Stralsund has shown that a good and
balanced bridge solution over the
neighboring Strelasund Strait is possible.
110 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
Figure 1.6-3 Strelasund crossing
can harmonize with the cityscape, which is
also recognized as a World Heritage Site,
and at the same time give the region new
impetus (Figure 1.6-3). Bridges and world
cultural heritage are therefore clearly not a
contradiction in terms if all those involved
have the good will to find an optimal
solution.
1.6.2 Building culture
When most people hear the term
"Baukultur", the first thing that comes to
mind is examples of building
construction, such as residential buildings,
churches, theaters, museums, castles and
fitters, which stand out due to their
function and size alone and often impress
with their prestigious architecture. But
building culture is of course much more
than that, because building culture
represents the built expression of the
cultural, economic and political
constitution of a society. It is not limited
to architecture alone, but also
encompasses the inte
The culture of building is indivisible - it
includes all parts of the built environment
and each party bears responsibility for its
own area. Baukultur is indivisible - it
includes all parts of the built environment
and everyone involved bears
responsibility for their own area.
Engineering structures are the most
dominant parts of traffic routes in terms
of design, as bridges, tunnels, retaining
walls and noise barriers usually catch the
eye of road users due to their dimensions
alone and often form prominent
landmarks on a route. They are an
essential part of our daily environment
and therefore also an important part of
our country's building culture. No one can
escape their design impact, even if this is
often not consciously perceived as such.
For the public project owner, who is
responsible for the planning, construction
and maintenance of roads, this results in a
great responsibility, not only in technical
and design terms, but also in social and
societal terms.
1.6 Bridge design, competitions, bridge construction prizes
The exhibition "Road Bridges -
Engineering Art in Germany", which was
organized by the Federal Ministry of
Transport together with the Federal
Chamber of Engineers in 2001 as a
contribution to the Architecture and
Building Culture Initiative, showed that
citizens are very interested in the
achievements of engineers and in bridges
in particular.
has tightened 400,000 visitors. In addition
to many historic bridges, which can still be
admired today as cultural heritage,
especially in the urban environment, the
exhibition also presented many examples
of modern bridge construction, which are
characterized by a wide range of different
designs, shapes and construction methods
due to technical developments.
1.6.3 Baukultur Initiative and Baukultur
Foundation
The main aim of the Architecture and
Building Culture Initiative was and is to
initiate a broad discussion among those
involved in planning and building about
expectations and requirements for
building culture. At the beginning of the
initiative, several employee survey topic
areas were concretized:
• Ensuring future-oriented planning and
architectural quality. The main issue
here is the extent to which the forms
and content of planning and
construction management need to be
adapted or redefined due to
demographic, technological and
economic change.
• The potential of architecture and
construction
culture for innovation and further
development. The construction
industry continues to be one of the
largest investment sectors with a
considerable
111
Innovation potential. The first step here
is to gather existing experience and pass
it on in the sense of best practice, as
well as to identify opportunities for
further incentives for innovation, e.g.
through competitions.
• Preserving cultural heritage and existing
utilize and further develop existing
resources. After a long phase of new
construction and expansion, the
maintenance, preservation and renewal
of existing buildings will be
increasingly in focus in the future. In
some cases, this will give rise to
completely new tasks, which are also of
great importance in terms of building
culture.
• The international competitiveness of the
German architects, planners and
engineers. In a coalescing Europe and
increasing globalization, it is important
to adapt to the new framework
conditions in good time. The initiative
therefore also aims to develop and
promote the export of architectural and
engineering services.
In addition to the Architecture and
Building Culture Initiative, a few years ago
the German government introduced a law to
establish a Baukultur Foundation in order to
stabilize the activities and dialogue. After
the law was passed by the German
Bundestag, the foundation's inaugural
meeting was held in Potsdam in October
2007 and work has now begun.
The aims of the foundation are as
follows:
• Continuation of the nationwide public
slide show on building culture
launched as part of the Architecture and
Building Culture Initiative.
• Collaboration with the architectural
regional, national and international
agencies.
112 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
Figure 1.6-4 Logo of the Baukultur Foundation
• Highlighting the achievements of
German architects and civil engineers
in the field of construction.
• Preparation of analyses and reports on
the state of building culture in
Germany in order to highlight
developments and the need for action
in this area.
The Architecture and Building Culture
Initiative and, in future, the Building
Culture Foundation offer a great
opportunity to make the achievements of
engineers better known to the public
through appropriate activities. However,
it is crucial that the work is not left to the
commitment of a few players, but that as
many engineers as possible actively
participate in their field and with their
possibilities (Figure 1.6-4).
Bridge construction can make a
significant contribution to this, as many
new transportation structures will have to
be planned and built in the future in view
of the continued dynamic growth in
traffic. In addition, the expansion of
existing traffic routes and the preservation
of the building fabric are also a major
challenge that will have a lasting impact
on and influence the building culture in
our country. The federal government, as
the largest and most important project
owner and responsible body in the
transport sector, will continue to actively
support the goals of the Baukultur
Foundation and feels obliged to implement
this in its buildings. In addition to road
bridges on federal highways, this includes
water and waterway structures.
The main examples of this are the
shipping authorities in the area of federal
waterways and the many Deutsche Bahn
AG construction sites. However, the other
authorities responsible for construction,
such as the federal states, districts and
local authorities, are now also increasingly
committed to these goals and are making
their contribution.
1.6.4 Design options for bridges
The technical requirements and therefore
The design options for traffic structures on
roads, waterways and railroads are also
quite different. While the main focus for
waterways is on crossing structures over
rivers and canals or, in individual cases,
the crossing of two waterways, the
requirements for railroads are completely
different due to the high traffic loads and
operational requirements. Road bridges,
on the other hand, have to fulfill a wide
variety of functions and, above all, be able
to cope with the ever-increasing volume of
traffic on sight.
In contrast to many other European
countries, only a small number of type
designs have been used for road bridges in
Germany to date. The relevant federal and
state guidelines stipulate that for larger
bridges, an individual structural design
must be created for each structure, which
must be adapted to the specific local
conditions and other boundary conditions.
For larger bridges, variant studies must
first be carried out, which should include
different designs, construction methods
and construction methods as well as
different spans, shapes and materials. For
the engineers involved, this is a great
opportunity for largely free design, which
can be realized with cre- ation.
1.6 Bridge design, competitions, bridge construction prizes
Figure 1.6-5 Saale bridge Beesedau
ativity and inventiveness [Naumann,
2002].
The construction and design of a bridge
depend primarily on the location where a
path, road, line, river or valley is to be
bridged. The ground situation, terrain and
site environment are therefore essential
parameters that must be taken into
account in the initial design
considerations. Finding a technically,
economically and creatively balanced
solution in each individual case is the real
"art" of the engineer, for which a high
degree of creativity and imagination is
required in addition to sound specialist
knowledge (Fig. 1.6-5). The design phase
is therefore also the most interesting phase
in the creation of a bridge, in which the
engineers have the choice between a large
number of different building materials,
constructions and construction methods.
In addition to the very important
stakes involved in the aesthetics of the
construction and the design of the
113
The individual components of bridges
naturally have to m e e t further
requirements, which
u. This may restrict the scope for design. It
goes without saying that the requirements
for the stability and traffic safety of the
structures must always be guaranteed and
that no restrictions can be imposed by
special design ideas. As traffic structures
are financed almost exclusively from
public funds, the authorities responsible
for construction also have a great
responsibility to use these funds
economically and sparingly. This can be a
significant restriction with regard to the
implementation of some design ideas.
Realistically, however, it must be
recognized as an important primacy and
taken into account in the design process.
Buildings that cost considerably more
than other possible technical solutions for
design reasons alone are generally not
acceptable, unless a particularly exposed
location or a
114 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
very difficult urban environment justify
this. In terms of structural architecture,
however, expensive solutions will generally
also contradict the principles of good
design, as this tends to indicate
unnecessary design ballast, statically and
constructively unsuitable constructions or
an exaggerated need for prestige on the
part of the designer.
Bridges are generally subject to high
traffic and environmental loads. Users
rightly demand robust and durable
structures, as any interference with traffic
through repairs and other work can cause
enormous economic damage in the form
of congestion, operating and accident
costs. This is also an important criterion
for operators, especially in view of the
further strong increase in traffic. Design
and innovative ideas have their limits here
if they lead to risks during the service life
of the structures. However, pilot projects
for further technical development in
bridge construction are justifiable in
individual cases. In addition, the
requirements for the uncomplicated
execution of structural inspections and
any maintenance and repair work that
may be necessary at a later date must be
taken into account as early as the bridge
design stage.
The engineer's task is to consider all
requirements in a balanced relationship to
each other during the design process. The
aim must be to design a statically and
structurally sound load-bearing structure
in which economy and aesthetics are
optimally balanced and the other
requirements are also met as well as
possible!
The increased cooperation between
engineers and architects during the design
phase has had a very positive effect on the
design of engineering structures in road
construction in recent years. This relates
to both
The design of individual structures as well
as the design of longer road sections. To
this end, engineers and architects first
compile a design manual, which is used to
compile the essential design elements for
the structures and recommendations for
the selection of materials, colors and
shapes in accordance with the history,
landscape and buildings. They then serve
as a basis and guideline for the design of
the individual structures along the route.
The structural engineer retains the
freedom to choose suitable constructions,
but the architect is on hand to provide
advice throughout the design phase.
Even in the case of railroad bridges, the
design of which was previously subject to
relatively rigid framework planning due to
the special requirements of railroad
operations, a rethink has taken place at
Deutsche Bahn AG following fierce
criticism of the design of some bridges on
new lines. In future, major bridge
constructions must be submitted to a
bridge advisory board, which reports
directly to the DB AG Management Board
and has an important say in the design of
the bridges. A new guideline "Design of
railroad bridges" [Mehdorn/Schwinn,
2009] also provides many tips for good
design and shows numerous alternative
solutions to conventional framework
planning.
1.6.5 Planning competitions in bridge construction
One important way of promoting creative
or innovative ideas for bridges and
showcasing the achievements of civil
engineers and architects to the public is to
hold design competitions.
1.6 Bridge design, competitions, bridge construction prizes
were common in exceptional cases. The
Architecture and Building Culture
Initiative has brought this option back
into the awareness of project owners and
has been successfully practiced in many
projects. Planning competitions have the
advantage that citizens are more closely
involved in the planning process through
the publication of the competition results
and that there are good opportunities to
present design ideas and innovative
developments in bridge construction to
the public.
However, competitions for bridges are
nothing new. Back in 1845 - over 160
years ago - a bridge competition was held
for the construction of a railroad bridge,
namely the Göltzschtal bridge in the
Vogtland region of Saxony. 81 designs
from all over Germany were submitted.
They came not only from architects and
construction engineers, but also from
bricklayers, master carpenters,
construction companies and even
technical amateurs.
Figure 1.6-6 Göltzschtal bridge (photo by Wolfgang Zahn, Fotografik Zahn, Mylau)
115
At the time, however, the six-member
examination committee of Saxony's best
construction experts came to the
conclusion that none of the designs could
be implemented on their own, but that a
new one could be created from four of
them. The result was a four-storey brick
bridge with numerous pillars and arches,
which can still be admired today as a
railroad bridge and is a well-known
architectural monument (Fig. 1.6-6). A
detailed description of the structure can
be found in section 1.4.1.
With the exception of a few open
procedures with over one hundred
participants in some cases, the
competitions for bridges held in the past
were predominantly realization
competitions with a limited number of
participants of five to ten in accordance
with the
"Contracting Regulations for Professional
Services (VOF)" were chosen. As a rule,
consortia of civil engineers and architects
participated, with the engineers always
taking the lead.
116 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
This approach has proven its worth. The
basis for the implementation of the
competitions to date has been the
"Principles and Guidelines for
Competitions in Land Use Planning,
Urban Design and Construction (GRW
95)" [Guidelines for Spatial Planning,
2003], which were amended in 2009 by
the
"Guidelines for planning competitions
(RPW 2008)" [Guidelines for planning
competitions, 2008].
According to § 1 of the RPW 2008,
competitions should aim to find
alternative ideas and optimized concepts
for the solution of planning tasks and the
suitable contractor for further planning.
They can also aim to solve conceptual
tasks. In particular, competitions should
serve to promote the quality of planning,
building and the environment and make
an important contribution to building
culture.
The following aspects are to be
included in the tender as evaluation
criteria for bridges:
• Design and integration into the
landscape
• Construction costs, economic efficiency
• Environmental compatibility
• Robustness, durability, usability and
sustainability
• Feasibility, construction method,
construction time
• Static-constructive concept
• Innovation.
The drafts submitted are subjected to a
preliminary review before the drafts are
finalized.
The proposals must be submitted to the
jury, consisting of specialist judges who
should be experts in civil engineering and
structural engineering, and the expert
judges who have appropriate expertise for
the construction project due to regional or
other references.
A whole series of competitions have
been held in recent years, particularly for
road bridges, footpaths and cycle paths. In
the area of federal highways, these
included
• Saalebrücke Jena Göschwitz in the
course of the A 4 motorway with the
design of a new bridge next to a listed
stone arch structure (Fig. 1.6-14).
• Saale bridge Salzmünde in the course of the
A 143 motorway as a new construction
with partial noise protection enclosure
(Figure 1.6-7).
• St. Kilian viaduct in the course of the
A 73 motorway near Schleusingen as a
new construction with a steel truss
structure.
• Waschmühltal bridge in the course of the
A 6 motorway near Kaiserslautern with
the design of a new bridge next to a
listed stone arch structure (Fig. 1.6-8).
• Gottleuba viaduct in the course of the B
172
near Pirna as a new building across a large
valley.
• Rhine bridge Wiesbaden-Schierstein in
the course of the A 643 motorway as a
new replacement construction with
widening.
• Lahntal Bridge Limburg in the course of the
BAB A 3 also as replacement
construction with widening.
Figure 1.6-7
Salzmünde Saale
bridge (visualization)
1.6 Bridge design, competitions, bridge construction prizes
Figure 1.6-8 Waschmühltal bridge (visualization)
• Elbe bridge Wittenberge in the course
of the A 14 motorway as a new
construction next to an existing federal
highway bridge (Figure 1.6-9).
As expected, many creative and
innovative ideas were submitted to all of
the competitions that would not have been
achieved in the same way with
conventional design processing by the
administration or a single selected
engineering firm. However, this comes at
the cost of considerable additional
personnel, time and costs for both the
competition organizers and the
competition participants. Planning
competitions will therefore remain limited
to selected buildings in prominent
locations in the future.
1.6.6 German Bridge Construction Prize
The idea of awarding and presenting a
separate prize exclusively to
117
Figure 1.6-9 Elbe bridge
Wittenberge (visualization)
for bridge structures was created during
the successful touring exhibition "Road
Bridges - Engineering Construction Art in
Germany". The pleasingly large response
from experts and the public showed that
bridge construction is still a fascinating
subject for many people and one in which
there is great interest. The fact that a large
number of new bridges were built within a
short space of time during the construction
and expansion of transport routes in the
new federal states as part of German
reunification certainly also played a role in
this, attracting increasing attention in the
media due to their special design,
innovative developments and good
integration into the landscape. In addition,
there was the realization that due to the
looming shortage of young talent in the
field of civil engineers, more advertising
will be necessary for this interesting and
creative profession, for which bridge
construction, as the supreme discipline of
engineers, is particularly suitable. So what
could be more obvious than
118 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
The best bridge builders will be honored
and their work presented at a high-profile
event.
The Federal Chamber of Engineers
(BIngK), as a nationwide professional
association, therefore took up the idea
very quickly and enthusiastically and,
together with the Association of
Consulting Engineers (VBI), launched the
first competition for the "German Bridge
Construction Prize" in 2005. The Federal
Ministry of Transport actively
accompanied and supported the idea of a
bridge construction prize from the very
beginning. The Ministry is involved both
by assuming the patronage and by
providing a substantial amount of
funding. Deutsche Bahn AG was secured
as the main sponsor at an early stage.
Other sponsors are helping to ensure that
the prize is also secured in the long term
(Fig. 1.6-10).
Image 1.6-10 Prize sculpture Bridge Construction Prize
The fact that a separate bridge
construction prize was actually long
overdue was also shown by the fact that a
search identified around 25 architecture
prizes, but only 6 civil engineering prizes.
And this despite the fact that the
approximately 52,000 engineering offices
in Germany generate an annual turnover
of € 28 billion, almost three times as much
as architects. This clearly shows that the
design and economic potential of
engineering firms is considerably
underrepresented in the public eye.
Up until then, two prizes had been of
nationwide importance. These were the
Engineering Construction Prize from the
publishing house Ernst & Sohn and the
Fritz Leonhardt Prize from the Baden-
Württemberg Chamber of Engineers. The
latter honors an individual who is
responsible for pioneering buildings. This
prize is not so much about a famous
building.
1.6 Bridge design, competitions, bridge construction prizes
The Civil Engineering Award, on the other
hand, encompasses the entire breadth of a
civil engineer's work. The Civil
Engineering Award, on the other hand,
encompasses the entire breadth of civil
engineers' work. The prize is awarded to
buildings that have been realized in the
past five years and demonstrate an
innovative achievement. This can be a
bridge, a hall, a tunnel or other structures.
However, it can also be an intelligent
repair measure or an innovative
construction process.
The German Bridge Construction
Award very quickly established itself in
the group of pure civil engineering awards
and deliberately limited itself to this
special but very important field of
engineering. All bridges are included here,
i.e. rail employees and other rail bridges as
well as road bridges, cycle and footpath
bridges and, as a special form, also
pipeline or supply bridges.
The German Bridge Construction Prize
is to be awarded for outstanding
achievements by civil engineers in bridge
construction. The award-winning
performance can be achieved in different
areas. For example, a good choice of
system and its implementation, a good
design and adaptation of the structure to
the surrounding site, a new technology, a
resource- and cost-saving solution or even
interesting and innovative maintenance
measures, the use of new building
materials or construction methods can be
decisive for the award.
The prize is awarded to the structure
and the engineer or engineers who have
made a significant contribution to the
outstanding engineering achievement.
The German Bridge Construction Prize is
a non-material prize and consists of:
• a certificate for the award winner(s)
• a price sculpture
119
• a plaque for the building
• a special presentation of the building.
The award ceremony takes place as part of
a festive ceremony with accompanying
public relations and media participation.
The German Bridge Construction Prize is
awarded every two years; the first award
ceremonies were held in Dresden on
March 13, 2006 and March 10, 2008.
Two categories of bridges were
awarded:
• Category A: Road and rail employee
bridges
• Category B: Pedestrian and cycle bridges
and supply bridges.
All civil engineers who have contributed
to the success of a bridge in Germany in a
responsible position are eligible to enter.
Bridge structures can be submitted if they
were completed no more than five or two
years ago and the inputs for the structure
have already been completed by the
closing date. The engineering work can be
a new construction, a fundamental repair
or a conversion or extension measure.
Participants in the competition must
submit the following documents:
• Participation form A with details of the
building and the parties involved
• Participation form B with a questionnaire
talogue of the building
• Explanatory report (max. 2 pages)
• 5 Photos of the building and the main
parts
• a maximum of 5 construction drawings.
The following evaluation criteria apply in
accordance with the invitation to tender:
• Design
• Construction
• Function
120 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building

• Innovation The competition and award ceremony

• Economic efficiency for the German Bridge Construction Prize
• Planning and construction process were an immediate success. The award
• Sustainability ceremony, which was jointly held by the
presidents of the Federal Chamber of
The Jury Board selected by the
Engineers and the Association of
competition organizers was made up of
Consulting Engineers as well as the
the following experts for both
Federal Minister of Transport, Building
competitions:
and Urban Development, was attended by
MinRat Joachim Naumann, Engineer over a thousand participants in 2006 and
(Chair) 2008 at the Technical University of
MinRat a. D. Klaus Bernhardt, Engineer Dresden, and the response in the media
Prof. Hans-Günther Burkhardt, Architect was also extremely positive. The results of
Dr.-Ing. Hans-Gerd Lindlar, Engineer the competition for the German Bridge
Dr.-Ing. Hans-Ulrich Litzner, Engineer Construction Award are subsequently
Dr.-Ing. Steffen Marx, Engineer documented in an exhibition and a book
Prof. em. Dr.-Ing. Gerhard Sedlacek, publication. The next award ceremony for
Engineer the German Bridge Construction Prize will
Prof. i. R. Dr.-Ing. Jürgen Stritzke, engineer again be held in Dresden in spring 2010.
Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Dr.-Ing. E. h. Konrad
Zilch, engineer.
1.6.7 Winners and nominees for the
The competition organizers intend to
German Bridge Construction Prize 2006 and 2008
regularly change the composition of the
Jury Board in the future.
A total of 70 bridge structures were
As part of a formal preliminary review,
submitted for the first competition for the
it is first determined whether all entries
German Bridge Construction Prize 2006.
submitted have been submitted on time
During the formal preliminary
and fulfill the conditions of the call for
examination, however, five entries had to
entries. The Jury Board then decides which
be eliminated due to non-compliance with
entries will be shortlisted during an initial
the tender conditions, so that in the end 34
one-day jury meeting based on the
structures for category A road and railroad
evaluation criteria. For this purpose, the
bridges and 31 structures for category B
Jury Board will select a maximum of three
pedestrian and cycle bridges were
bridge structures from each category in
admitted for evaluation.
several evaluation rounds, which will be
The Jury Board found that almost all the
nominated for the final round. The
entries submitted were of a pleasingly high
nominated structures are then announced
technical and design standard and that it
by the awarding authorities. In a second
was extremely difficult to select the
Jury Board meeting shortly before the
buildings to be shortlisted. In the end, the
award ceremony, the Jury Board finally
following buildings were nominated for
selects a winner from the nominated bridge
the award ceremony:
structures, which is not announced until
the award ceremony. This keeps the
suspense alive for everyone involved until
the very end.
1.6 Bridge design, competitions, bridge construction prizes
Category A Road and rail employee
bridges
• Wilde Gera viaduct in Thuringia
Forest
• Railroad bridge over the Danube near
Ingolstadt
• Luckenberg Bridge in Brandenburg
on the Havel.
Category B Foot and cycle path bridges
• La-Ferté footbridge over
Haldenrainstrasse in Stuttgart
• Pedestrian bridge over the Gahlensche
Street in Bochum
• Wooden bridge over the Freiberger
Straße in the Tharandt Forest Botanical
Garden.
In the second jury meeting, the winner in
category A was the Wilde Gera viaduct
and the winner in category B was the La-
Ferté footbridge in Stuttgart.
A few excerpts from the Jury Board's
statement of reasons for the nominated
buildings are quoted below. A detailed
description of the structures is compiled
in section 1.6.8. Further information can
be found in [Naumann, 2006] and
[Dokumentation Brückenbaupreis, 2006].
121
Category A Road and rail employee
bridges
Viaduct Wilde Gera, federal highway A
71 near Gehlberg in the Thuringian
Forest (Image 1.6-11)
Author of the design: Dr. sc. techn.
Roland von Wölfel.
The construction of the A 71 required
an approx. 110 m high route alignment
across the deeply indented valley of the
Wilde Gera. The constraints were a line, a
road, the course of the river and a landfill
site at the bottom of the valley. A beam
bridge was put out to tender, but a special
proposal with a convincing design for an
arch bridge prevailed.
An extraordinarily elegant arch with a
span of approx. 252 m was realized -
currently the largest concrete arch bridge
in Germany. This span with an arch span
of 70 m resulted from the topographical
conditions and the desire to cross the
valley with as few supports as possible.
The arch rests almost vertically on the
valley flanks. The elegant line of the arch
with its well-proportioned tapering
convinced the jury.
Figure 1.6-11 Viaduct
Wilde Gera
122 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
Conclusion:
Germany's largest concrete arch bridge
(span of the arch 252 m) impresses with
its extraordinary design elements. The
construction of an arch of this dimension
in cantilever construction represents a
very special engineering achievement. The
special proposal realized with the bridge
over the Wilde Gera also resulted in a
significant cost advantage over the
administrative design. The bridge is a
convincing example of how landscape and
structure can be combined to create a new
quality. The drama of the deep valley
incision can only really be understood in
this way.
Railroad bridge over the Danube near
Ingolstadt (picture 1.6-12)
Author of the design: Dipl.-Ing. Andreas
Keil, Prof. Dr.-Ing. Drs. h. c. Jörg Schlaich.
The new ICE line crosses the Danube at
Ingolstadt directly next to the existing truss
bridge of the railroad and a nearby road
bridge. These existing bridges determined
the span width of the new bridge. The
integration into the cityscape also required
a high degree of transparency of the new
building and close proximity to the existing
bridge.
to the neighboring bridges, as there was
little space in the Danube area. Due to the
constraints from the gradient, only an
overhead supporting structure was an
option.
Instead of the obvious design of a
modern truss, a multi-span through
bridge was chosen, whose main girders
are shaped to match the moment curve.
The reinforced concrete slab forms the
trough together with the steel main
girders. The result is a slender supporting
structure that spans the Danube in the
shape of a wave, creating a discreet and
surprising ensemble effect that could not
have been achieved in such an ingenious
way with another truss girder.
Conclusion:
The Jury Board sees this design as the
development of a completely new form of
trough bridge. The design impressively
demonstrates that innovative design and
technical solutions are also possible for
railroad bridges with their very high loads.
This proves that the sometimes lamented
aesthetic monotony of such structures can
be counteracted.
Figure 1.6-12 Rail
employee bridge over the
Danube near Ingolstadt
1.6 Bridge design, competitions, bridge construction prizes
Luckenberg Bridge in Brandenburg an
der Havel (Image 1.6-13)
Author of the design: Dipl.-Ing. Peter
Poitzsch, Dipl.-Ing. Thomas Kolb.
The Luckenberg Bridge in Branden-
burg has to meet several conflicting
requirements. In addition to urban private
transport, the bridge has to accommodate
the tram, which actually requires a rigid
and solid construction. In direct
contradiction to this, more free space was
also to be created for the shipping lane
and the newly created riverside paths. An
overhead support structure was not
possible for urban planning reasons. This
resulted in extreme requirements for the
slenderness of the superstructure
combined with high stiffness.
The then new idea of using high-
strength in-situ concrete together with
prefabricated elements led to the design of
a flat blast structure. The resulting
inclined-stem frame bridge is very well
crafted and fulfills the contradictory
requirements in an extraordinarily
convincing way. The slender, elegant lines
in correspondence with the course of the
forces
123
and the design of the abutments
impressed the Jury Board.
Conclusion:
The Luckenberg Bridge is a good example
of how innovative construction methods
and material combinations can lead to
savings in construction costs and make a
structure particularly cost-effective. The
then new idea of using high-strength in-
situ concrete together with prefabricated
elements led to the design of a flat blast
structure. The slender, elegant route
alignment in correspondence with the
course of the forces and the design of the
abutments adapt the structure excellently
to the difficult urban environment.
Category B Foot and cycle path bridges
La-Ferté footbridge in Stuttgart,
Haldenrainstrasse (Fig. 1.6-14)
Author of the design: Dr.-Ing. Matthias
Schüller.
The La-Ferté footbridge is a highly
frequented connection to the indoor
swimming pool, school and fairground via
a four-lane road with a central streetcar
line
Figure 1.6-13
Luckenberger Bridge in
Brandenburg an der Havel
124 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
across. The structure adapts perfectly to
the topographical conditions - a steep
slope to the south of the road and flat
terrain on the north side - in an even,
elegant curve with a gradient of approx.
6%.
The massive, cantilevered abutment on
the steep embankment stands in deliberate
contrast to the barely visible support at the
other end of the bridge. This creates the
impression that the structure grows
dynamically out of the embankment, only
to run out flat in the plain. The unusually
narrow design of the southern abutment
creates a very elegant, light impression. All
details such as the railings, lighting and
column bases are also carefully designed.
Conclusion:
The La Ferté footbridge is an engineering
structure in which everything is
harmonious and which blends in perfectly
with its surroundings. The shape of the
bridge, with a radius of 53 m, enabled low
constraint deformation in a radial
direction, so that the consistently
implemented jointless and bearingless
construction method was possible. Since
Figure 1.6-14 La Ferté
footbridge in Stuttgart,
Haldenrainstrasse
The result is a low-maintenance and
sustainable construction of exceptional
elegance that not only delights the
beholder but also offers the user a special
experience.
Bridge over Gahlensche Strasse in
Bochum (Figure 1.6-15)
Author of the design: Dipl.-Ing. Knut
Göppert, Prof. Dr.-Ing. Drs. h. c. Jörg
Schlaich.
The bridge over Gahlensche Strasse
connects two parallel, offset paths in a
pedestrian-friendly S-curve. The narrow
pedestrian bridge is an elegant crossing
over a dreary conglomerate of railroad
facilities, industrial sites and remaining
industrial buildings. It adds a positive
element to this urban wasteland, whose
"wild" form is in keeping with its "wild"
surroundings.
The S-shape resulting from the path
structure is consistently implemented in
the supporting structure. The principle of
the suspension bridge is further developed
into a spatial supporting structure, in
which the pylons are each positioned on
the concave side of the strongly curved
pathway and are supported by the pylons.
1.6 Bridge design, competitions, bridge construction prizes
emphasize the load-bearing effect through
their inclination. A single suspension
cable is sufficient, which makes the
structure appear particularly light and
delicate.
Conclusion:
The bridge over Gahlensche Strasse is the
first ever double-curved suspension
bridge supported on one side. It provides
a completely new approach to the further
development of curved bridges. Despite
its complexity, the load-bearing behavior
and function of the load-bearing elements
are easy to read. The structure is free of
any ornamentation and impresses with its
elegant design. As a deliberate contrast to
its surroundings, it sets standards for
future development in this urban area.
Wooden bridge over the Freiberger
Straße in the Tharandt Forest Botanical
Garden (Image 1.6-16)
Author of the design: Kathrin Gädeke,
André Dreßler, Dipl.-Ing. Uwe Fischer.
The bridge connects the old and new
parts of the forest botanical garden in
Tharandt, crossing the Zeisig-
125
Figure 1.6-15 Bridge over
Gahlensche Strasse in
Bochum
bach and the S 194 state road at a
maximum height of 13 m. The bridge was
planned in such a way that no trees had to
be felled. The 117 m long and 2.50 m wide
bridge consists of 15 bridge spans with a
length of 7 m and one span with a span of
12 m over the S 194 state road.
As a park bridge for pedestrians, it was
to be made of local wood wherever
possible and its design was to blend in
harmoniously with the garden as an
organically interwoven structure. The
design responds to the uneven terrain and
meanders with even radii through the
hardwood-covered valley.
Conclusion:
The wooden bridge for pedestrians is a
graceful, continuous wooden band with
an elegant alignment and offers
extraordinary views of the treetops at eye
level. What is new and innovative about
this successful structure is the
interconnected glulam construction of
individual elements with hidden
connections. The result is a remarkable
building in terms of design and ecology
with a high level of sustainability.
126 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
As expected, the number of structures
submitted to the second competition for
the German Bridge Construction Prize
2008 was significantly lower, as this time
the structures could only be from the last
two years and not from the last five years
as in the previous competition.
After all, over 40 buildings had been
submitted by the closing date, all of which
were once again of a pleasingly high
technical and design standard.
Only one entry had to be eliminated as
part of the preliminary examination,
which meant that 20 road and rail
employee bridges and 21 pedestrian and
cycle bridges were able to take part in the
competition. The following structures
were nominated for the award ceremony
at the first jury meeting:
Category A Road and rail employee
bridges
• New Saale bridge Jena-Göschwitz
• Humboldthafen Bridge at Berlin
Central Station
• Lautrupsbach valley bridge in the
course of the
East bypass Flensburg.
Figure 1.6-16 Wooden
bridge over Freiberger
Straße in the Tharandt
Forest Botanical Garden
Category B Foot and cycle path bridges
• Pedestrian and cycle bridge over the
Inn near Wernstein-Neuburg
• Gessental Bridge in the New Land
Ronneburg near Gera
• Three-country bridge over the Rhine
between Weil am Rhein (D) and
Huningue (F).
In the second jury meeting, the
Humboldt Harbour Bridge Berlin was
chosen as the winner of category A and the
Dreiländerbrücke near Weil am Rhein
was chosen as the winner of category B.
Excerpts from the Jury Board's
statement of reasons for the nominated
buildings are also quoted below and
presented in section
1.6.8 detailed descriptions of the structures.
Further information can be found in
[Naumann, 2008] and [Dokumentation,
Brückenbaupreis, 2008].
Category A Road and rail employee
bridges
Humboldthafen Bridge at Berlin Central
Station (Image 1.6-17)
Author of the design: Prof. Dr.- Ing. Drs.
h. c. Jörg Schlaich, Dr.-Ing. Hans Schober
1.6 Bridge design, competitions, bridge construction prizes
The Humboldthafen Bridge, located in
a prominent urban location in the new
center of Berlin, is a milestone in modern
railroad bridge construction. It is an
integral part of the adjoining central
station and spans the Humboldthafen with
six tracks. With its extraordinarily filigree
design, the structure is at the limits of
what is feasible in terms of construction
technology. The reversed design compared
to conventional solutions with concrete
columns and steel superstructure also
opens up new aesthetic possibilities.
In terms of innovations that will be
groundbreaking for the further
development of railroad bridge
construction, the contractor Deutsche
Bahn AG has really outdone itself here.
The first use of cast steel nodes of this
dimension should be emphasized, which
have proven to be an excellent technical
alternative to the previously used welded
nodes on the Humboldtha Bridge.
However, economic efficiency is not the
main focus of this technically very
innovative structure in an exposed
location. However, the initially high
development costs of the cast steel nodes
have now paid off.
127
Figure 1.6-17 Humboldt
harbor bridge at Berlin
main station
and are also used for other bridges.
Conclusion:
The bridge was an excellent solution to a
highly complex construction task and paved
the way for a new generation of railroad
structures. In conjunction with the new
central station, the new bridge forms a
successful ensemble in the middle of
Berlin.
New construction of the Saale bridge
Jena-Göschwitz in the course of the A 4
motorway near Jena (Fig. 1.6-18) Author
of the design: Dipl.-Ing. Thomas Kleb
The new construction of the Saale
bridge in Jena-Göschwitz is the successful
transfer of the listed arch motif of the
existing structure to the modern material
of prestressed concrete. The special
engineering task of erecting a second
structure at a close distance to the existing
arch bridge with 17 stone arches rising
proportionally to the height of the valley
from the Reichsautobahn era was solved
very well. The new and existing buildings
form a harmonious ensemble in the
charming floodplain landscape of the
Saale valley.
The new Saale bridge is an outstanding
128 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
example of building in existing structures.
It is one of the few successful attempts to
combine old and new. The solution found
in a competition takes up the old form of
the historic bridge, but transforms it into a
different supporting structure using
modern construction technology. The
main design element is the arched pier
discs, which are connected at the top by
two barely visible tie rods. By spreading
the pier discs at the column head, the
spans are significantly reduced. This
enabled a relatively slender superstructure
cross-section as a prestressed concrete
slab beam. Thus, the relatively massive
construction of the
Figure 1.6-18 Saale
bridge Jena-Göschwitz
Fig. 1.6-19 Lautrups
bridge in Flensburg
The new building combines the existing
building with its flat roadway slab in a
richly varied interplay of overlapping curves
and views.
Conclusion:
With the new Saalebrücke bridge, the task
of taking up the form and character of the
existing bridge was solved perfectly. The
resulting ensemble effect of new and old
serves as a model for the combination of
monument protection and modern
architecture.
Lautrupsbachtal bridge in the course of the
eastern bypass in Flensburg (Fig. 1.6-19)
Author of the design: Dipl.-Ing. Wigand Grawe,
architect Olaf Düvel.
1.6 Bridge design, competitions, bridge construction prizes
The Lautrupsbach Valley Bridge is a
structure made from a single cast and
initially impresses with the elegant shape
of the continuous curvature. The bridge
and soundproofing are cast into a single
whole within the structure. The futuristic,
lightweight effect achieved by the surface
structure of the noise barriers and their
conclusion with a smooth glass panel is all
the more commendable as the aesthetic
design of bridges with noise barriers is
still considered problematic. In addition
to noise protection across the entire
bridge, it was particularly important to
offer only minimal resistance to the cold air
currents that are important for the
microclimate of the city of Flensburg.
The prestressed slab cross-section of
the superstructure of the Lautrupsbach
Valley Bridge is asymmetrically shaped in
accordance with the position of the bridge
in an arch. This is structurally favorable
and also results in the characteristic
aerodynamic shape, which is continued
upwards into the curved noise barriers.
The combination with an interesting
lighting solution that avoids glare is also
innovative.
Conclusion:
The bridge in the course of a four-lane
bypass road over a sensitive landscape and
settlement area near Flens-
129
burg meets the complex requirements
resulting from the special environmental
conditions. The structural and design
solutions have resulted in excellent
acceptance of the bridge despite its
proximity to a residential area and the
nature conservation aspects that had to be
taken into account.
Category B Foot and cycle path bridges
Three-country bridge over the Rhine
between Weil am Rhein (D) and
Huningue
(F) (Figure 1.6-20)
Author of the design: Dipl.-Ing. Dietmar
Feichtinger/ Dipl.-Ing. Wolfgang Strobl.
The pedestrian bridge over the Rhine
initially impresses with a record span of
230 meters. Due to the low height of the
arched spans, the structure appears
measured and never obtrusive. This is
made possible by the movable wall
bearings - an exceptionally innovative
solution that enables the bridge's extreme
span to be managed without dampers. By
clamping the ends of the arches into the
detached abutments, the structure rests
light-footedly on the foundation pillars
located close to the shore in the water.
The bridge deck is an asymmetrically
designed orthotropic slab that also acts as
a tension band. Together with the arch,
the bridge deck results in a bridge deck
that is wind and pedestrian resistant.
Figure 1.6-20 Three-country
bridge over the Rhine between
Weil am Rhein
(D) and Huningue (F)
130 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
low-vibration solution. The absence of
river piers simplified the construction
process. Measures against ship collisions
were therefore superfluous.
Conclusion:
The Dreiländerbrücke bridge symbolizes
the bridge between Germany, France and
nearby Switzerland. It impresses with the
perfect logic of its design, which has
resulted in an aesthetically perfect
engineering structure. This border
structure is already a symbol of modern
bridge building and has quickly become a
popular attraction.
Pedestrian and cycle bridge over the Inn
at Wernstein-Neuburg (Fig. 1.6-21)
Author of the design: Dipl.-Ing. Erhard
Kargel.
This asymmetrical suspension bridge
with a pylon on one side elegantly spans
the Inn river as a pedestrian and cycle
path crossing between the German town
of Neuburg and the Austrian town of
Wernstein. The principle of "integration
instead of confrontation" applies here.
The bold bridge supports the typology of
the location in a convincing way. The 30
m high pylon on the Neuburg side, which
is crowned by a castle, draws the eye to a
classic river landscape
with steep and flat banks. On the flat side,
the bank of Wernstein, the suspension
cables were anchored in two low triangular
sheaves.
The free-span suspension bridge with
its single-sided pylon is extremely slender
and light. It achieves a fascinating
elegance due to the narrowness of the
walkway over the long distance of 144 m.
This gracefulness is also the result of the
clever way in which it is pre-tensioned by
two cables, which stabilize it horizontally
and vertically against deformation and
vibrations. This enables a low-vibration
construction that manages without any
stiffening beams thanks to the curved sub-
tensions in the upright and ground plan.
Conclusion:
The border bridge between Bavaria and
Upper Austria is technically, creatively
and economically convincing because it is
reduced to the essentials in terms of
construction - a bridge where nothing can
be added, but nothing can be left out
either. The construction process was also
relatively simple and rational. The special
appeal of the Wernstein-Neuburg
pedestrian and cycle bridge lies in its
material reduction to an absolute
minimum.
Figure 1.6-21 Foot and
cycle path bridge over the
Inn at Wernstein-Neu-
burg
1.6 Bridge design, competitions, bridge construction prizes
Gessental Bridge in the New Ronneburg
Landscape near Gera (Fig. 1.6-22) Author
of the design: Dipl.- Ing. Richard J.
Dietrich.
At 225 m, the Gessental Bridge on the
grounds of the Federal Garden Show 2007
is one of the longest and most innovative
timber bridges in Germany. The structure
contains technical innovations,
particularly in the sophisticated design of
the tensioned band superstructure. As
part of a long-distance cycle path, the
bridge is particularly impressive due to its
shape. For the first time, the Gessental
bridge features a tensioning band with
compact, block-glued glulam panels. Like
a rope, this only 50 cm thick tension band
made of an integral timber-steel
composite construction swings in waves
over three spans with spans of over 50 m.
The bridge deck consists of larch wood
planks, which, in addition to their
function as a walkway, also serve to reduce
vertical vibrations. The span is supported
by extremely slender and light-colored
groups of pendulum supports that branch
out in the "crown".
The tensioning strap system is
characterized by
131
Figure 1.6-22 Gessental
bridge in the new
Ronneburg landscape near
Gera
The building is characterized by a very
economical prefabrication in the factory.
The timber construction, which is
protected by sheet steel and plywood
cladding on the sides, has been designed
to be durable and suitable for the material.
Wear parts and railings are easy to replace.
Conclusion:
The Gessental Bridge is an innovative and
sustainable construction that blends in
well with the landscape thanks to its
slender supports. Its unusual shape makes
the bridge a cheerful and poetic part of the
terraced landscape of the BU- GA site.
1.6.8 Description
of the structures nominated for the Bridge
Construction Prize 2006 and 2008
Preliminary remark
The individual award-winning and
nominated bridges are explained below,
usually by the relevant design authors.
132 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
1.6.8.1 Viaduct Wilde Gera, Thuringia
ROLAND VON WÖLFEL
Photo: Klaus Kappes, foto schüler, Zella-Mehlis
The German Unity Transport Project No.
16 provided for the construction of a
highway through the Thuringian Forest. It
connects Thuringia with Bavaria and links
the Thuringian Forest and the regions of
Suhl and Meiningen to the highway
network. The route crosses the ridge of
the Thuringian Forest from Ilmenau to
Zella-Mehlis. The main ridge crossing is
the 8 km long Rennsteig Tunnel.
Immediately before this tunnel, the
highway is routed east-west across the
deep valley of the Wilde Gera. The chosen
alignment results in heights of approx.
110 m above the valley floor. Furthermore,
a state road and a railroad line running in
the valley will be crossed.
In the administrative design, a girder
bridge was tendered with a constant
construction height in the valley field and
linearly variable construction heights in
the slope fields. The construction height
of the superstructure was reduced from 5
m in the valley field to 4 m or
project owner:
Federal Republic of Germany, DEGES
Design and project manager:
Dr. sc. techn. Roland von Wölfel, Leonhardt,
Andrä und Partner, Erfurt (then Köhler und
Seitz, Nuremberg)
Implementation planning:
Dr. sc. techn. Roland von Wölfel, Leonhardt,
Andrä und Partner, Erfurt (then Köhler und
Seitz, Nuremberg)
Examination:
Dr.-Ing. Zichner, Berlin (substructures) Dr.-Ing.
Haensel (†), Prof. Dr.-Ing. Hanswille, Bochum
(superstructure)
Execution:
Adam Hörnig Baugesellschaft, Aschaffenburg
Construction period: 1997-2000
3.79 m towards the abutments. The spans
amounted to 90 + 108 + 114 + 102
+ 78 + 60 = 552 m.
A special proposal was implemented as
an arch bridge. The advantage here was
that an economical arch variant was only
possible with the one-piece superstructure.
A variant with a two-part concrete
superstructure and two arches next to each
other was more cost-intensive. In addition,
the motorway is routed at an oblique
angle across the valley, and the two offset
arches would also have design
disadvantages. The special design resulted
in a cost advantage of several million DM
compared to the administrative design. For
economic reasons, but also due to the
special aesthetic design, the special arch
bridge proposal was selected by the
contractor. As a result, no foundation
measures were carried out in the area of the
existing landfill in the valley floor, and the
originally planned relocation of the landfill
was avoided.
1.6 Bridge design, competitions, bridge construction prizes
is therefore no longer necessary. Special
safety measures in the area of the existing
100-year-old embankment, which is
inclined at an angle of approx. 60° and
over 20 m high, and also near the state
road, were also no longer necessary. It was
no longer necessary to relocate the Wild
Gera.
In order to achieve an "arch-friendly"
design of the structure, some geometric
boundary conditions were changed
compared to the administrative design.
The ground plan radius of the gradient
was increased from 5200 to 7800 m in the
area of the structure in order to achieve
lower eccentricities of the arch piers on
the straight arch in the ground plan. A
further increase in the radius or even a
straight line was not possible, as the
directly adjacent Schwarzbach Valley
Bridge was already under construction.
This meant that only a limited distance
was available for the alignment change. In
addition, the entire structure was shifted
by 3 m to the west in order to fit the arch
symmetrically into the valley and to set
the transom foundations at the same
height, which benefits the aesthetics, see
also Fig. 1.6-11. The spans of the arch
bridge are 30 + 36 + 10 ∙ 42 + 36 + 30 =
552 m, with the overall length of the
structure remaining unchanged.
The arch span of 6 ∙ 42 m = 252 m was
built to ensure that the arched bridge was
far enough away from the embankment
and on a stable foundation. This made it the
largest arch bridge at the time.
133
Germany with the largest arch span. The
dimensions of the rectangular hollow
pillars are 2.5 ∙ 9.0 m for the rectangular
pillar and 3.5 ∙ 9.0 m for the transom
pillar. The wall thickness is 30 cm and 40
cm for the transom pier. The pier head is
dimensioned in such a way that, in
addition to the bearing pedestals,
hydraulic jacks can be set up on both sides
to lift the superstructure.
As the structure is suitable as an
intermediate roost for bats to colonize, all
pillars at the door openings at the upper
end were given an entrance slit approx. 10
cm high. Access areas of the abutments
and hollow piers are equipped with stone
or gravel fillings. Plastic pipes for draining
and ventilating the arch were replaced by
rough unglazed clay pipes to ensure better
ultrasound transmission. The usual bird
flight protection devices were completely
dispensed with.
The arch cross-section was a 10.3 m
wide, two-cell box with wall thicknesses of
40 cm for the outer webs, 35 cm for the
upper and lower arch plate and
134 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
30 cm at the inner web. The construction
height is 5.5 m at the transom and
decreases to 3.3 m at the apex. The central
web is arranged for structural reasons in
order to utilize the entire upper and lower
slab for the structural contribution to the
bending load during construction. A solid
arch would cause fewer problems with
reinforcement and bracing, but would
require greater bracing measures due to
its higher weight with the same bending
stiffness.
The arch shape was statically optimized
in the course of the design planning in
order to keep the bending moments small
in the final state. The dead load of the
arch would result in a parabolic arch
shape as a support line. Concentrated
loads on the arch pillars create kinks in
the support line. For aesthetic reasons,
these were rounded out slightly to create a
parabolic arch shape. Each half of the arch
was constructed by the fighters in 24 cycles
from both sides at the same time in free
cantilever construction. The arch was
closed in the final cycle. The cut-off
lengths were 6 m each. The individual
cycles were straight, as the required
curvature would have been different for
each cycle, which would have considerably
increased the amount of formwork
required. This results in a polygonal arch
shape, which is not visually noticeable. In
order to be able to assemble the cantilever
carriage, the first cycle was
with a length of 7 m on falsework.
Type VBF 12-150 strand tendons with a
permissible force of 1752 kN were used for
the post-tensioning with temporary
corrosion protection. They were only used
up to a maximum of around 1500 kN.
From the 13th cycle onwards, additional
steel auxiliary pylons were required on the
transom piers in order to achieve a
sufficient inclination of the bracing. The
introduction of the back-suspension forces
of the arch halves was realized with rock
anchors in the axes 1 + 2 and 10 + 11. For
this purpose, overlapping joints were
formed within the foundation between the
bracing and the rock anchors. The bracing
was connected via coupler anchors.
DYWIDAG AS 6815 with a permissible
prestressing force of 2009 kN were used
for the ground anchors. After the
construction of sections 124 and 224 in
the cantilevered, post-tensioned state, a
pre-stressed arch closure was carried out
before concreting the final section. A steel
pressure piece was used for this and
subjected to pressure by slightly releasing
the tension so that the stresses from
temperature fluctuations during the
hardening of the end piece were absorbed.
Such temperature fluctuations or even
one-sided heating of the arch would
displace the ends of the two halves of the
arch by a few centimetres against each
other, which cannot be expected of the
concrete in the hardening process.
Subsequently
1.6 Bridge design, competitions, bridge construction prizes
The bracing was dismantled except for a
few cables that were necessary for the
construction of the roadway slab of the
superstructure.
The bridge superstructure is a
composite cross-section consisting of a
trapezoidal steel trough and lateral truss
bracing as well as a concrete deck slab for
both carriageways with a width of 26.5 m
between the railings.
Since the early 1980s, it has been
stipulated in the Federal Republic of
Germany that separate superstructures
must always be provided for two-lane
roads in order to be able to close one lane
and divert traffic to the opposite lane
during major maintenance work. In
addition to the higher costs of the
resulting double substructures, high
bridges also result in unsatisfactory design
solutions. For this reason, the project
owner opted for a one-piece cross-section.
As early as the tendering stage,
replacement of the wearing part of the
carriageway slab was planned in sections
of 15.0 m under ongoing one-way traffic.
This value was reduced to 14 m and thus
amounts to 1/3 of the span width, so that
the construction joint is never in the area
of the high column moments and the
resulting high tensile stresses.
A pure steel superstructure with a one-
piece
135
Cross-section was ruled out both for cost
reasons and due to the exposed location
and the associated increased risk of ice
formation. A pure concrete superstructure
is too heavy and, even with a width of 26.5
m at this height, is costly to construct.
The individual steel assembly parts
were assembled behind the west
abutment. On the 80 m long assembly
area, three sections were pre-assembled or
prepared and completely welded together.
In the area of the assembly joints, the
corrosion protection applied at the factory
was supplemented or repaired
immediately after the welding work. The
final top coat was applied after concreting
the roadway slab. After the completion of
a 63 m-long shunting cycle, the steel
structure was pushed over the piers using
approx. 2 m-long shifters.
After inserting the steel trough and
moving it onto its final bearings, the
roadway slab was constructed "in situ".
For this purpose, two formwork units
were set up at the two abutments, which
started at different times so that they met
approximately in the middle of the arch.
For this purpose, one layer of the arch
bracing was reactivated in order to
counteract the uneven loading of the arch.
136 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
1.6.8.2 Railroad bridge Ingolstadt
ANDREAS KEIL and
JÖRG SCHLAICH
Picture: Roland Halbe, Stuttgart
In Ingolstadt, a new single-track mainline
bridge spans the Danube. It is located on
the city side directly next to an existing
double-track line. The existing three-span
bridges with two separate superstructures
and classic overhead trusses, each with a
span width of 55 m, date from 1961.
The immediate surroundings of the
bridge are characterized by the green, tree-
lined banks, the view over the Danube
with the historic old town and the New
Fitter in the background.
The immediate vicinity of the existing
bridge created further boundary
conditions, because if you look down the
Danube, you can see the new bridge in
front of the old truss bridge. Looking
upstream from the neighboring road
bridge, you can only glimpse it through
the four trusses of the old bridge. The task
was therefore to design a bridge with the
specified spans, which, in addition to
holding back the old truss bridges, would
also be
project owner:
Deutsche Bahn AG, PB DE Nuremberg
Design:
Schlaich Bergermann and Partner
Implementation planning:
Schütz engineering office, Kempten
Execution:
Dyckerhoff & Widmann
Construction period: 1999-2001
20-30 years with the same - or a further
developed - construction.
As there is actually no justification for a
large span over the left bank, the new
bridge has only two main spans of 55 m
each over the Danube compared to the
truss bridges, plus one edge span of 19.5
m on the right bank and three edge spans
of 22.3 - 19.0 m on the left bank.
- 13,4 m.
After several variant studies, the result
was a flat, compact design, in deliberate
contrast to the current bridge, which is
divided into bars: a continuous through
bridge with steel webs that are corrugated
according to the course of the moment
and are placed on both sides of the
reinforced concrete floor slab under the
tracks.
With the selected web shape, the tensile
force in the flange of the steel web and the
compressive force in the concrete slab
under an equal load across the
1.6 Bridge design, competitions, bridge construction prizes
Danube
Danube
13.42 19.00 22.30 55.15
184.09
The load trasnfer is constant over the
entire length of the bridge and visualizes
the prevailing load trasnfer.
The stiffeners of the webs are arranged
at an angle and in a fan shape so that they
reflect the direction of the main
compressive forces and their path into the
supports. Where these support forces have
a lifting effect, i.e. in the end fields, pairs
of tension pendulums are arranged under
the webs.
If this bridge needs to be widened in 20-
30 years, it makes sense to simply double
the construction. This is because, unlike
other types of construction such as tied
arches or trusses, which tend to look
confused and obstructive in sequence, the
chosen waveforms work well when added
together and then appear even more
beautiful and three-dimensional.
The bridge is not only very demanding
due to the structural calculations and the
structural design. For example, the
composite construction without
longitudinal prestressing, the use of plate
thicknesses greater than 60 mm and the
articulated bearings in the pendulum
supports in the foreshore were not only a
challenge.
Main dimensions:
Spans13 .42 - 19.00 - 22.30 - 55.15 - 54.72 - 19.50 m
Total length184 .09 m
Total width6 .70 m
Construction
height column 5.35 m
137
54.72 19.50
The DB guidelines were not followed in
this area and approvals had to be obtained
on a case-by-case basis as well as internal
company approvals.
In addition to the stress, serviceability
and fatigue strength verifications, the
static calculation and measurement of the
bridge also required detailed
considerations of the lateral upper chord
stability of the steel sail. The assembly
process with its various construction
stages and the resulting "frozen" stress
states also had to be taken into account
when determining the internal forces.
The steel structure was assembled
without scaffolding. Large prefabricated
steel parts were lifted in with mobile
cranes and joined together to form the
continuous steel trough. The longitudinal
concrete beams were produced using a
formwork carriage running on the top
chords of the longitudinal beams. The
concrete slab was also produced in site-
cast concrete with suspended formwork
between the steel cross girders.
138 1 BridgeField
building
2.30on
m the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
Concrete slabD = 25 cm
 1.6 Bridge design, competitions, bridge construction prizes
1.6.8.3 The Luckenberg Bridge in
Brandenburg an der Havel
PETER POITZSCH
The Luckenberg Bridge is an inner-city
structure. It spans the Havel in the city of
Brandenburg. The structure is an
expression of the client's creative will and
the fruitful collaboration between
engineers and architects in all phases of
planning and construction.
The construction is the basis for the
design concept. Construction and design
form a single unit. They were consistently
developed from the functional and
technical boundary conditions. No purely
decorative elements were used.
The adjacent buildings and the
topography of the banks of the Havel
require a gradient that is as flat as possible
with tangent gradients that are also suitable
for cyclists. At the same time, the
requirements with regard to the shipping
profile under the bridge must be met.
These stakes limit the construction height
of the superstructure, including the bridge
deck, to 75 cm.
139
project owner:
City of Brandenburg, Tiebau- und
Grünflächen- amt
Design:
VIC Brücken und Ingenieurbau GmbH Potsdam
Architectural consulting: Kolb+Ripke
Architekten, Berlin
Execution:
Heinrich Klostermann Baugesellschaft mbH,
Velten
Kemmer Brothers, Berlin
Construction time: 2000-2001
A reinforced concrete structure was
chosen as a sensible and appropriate
construction for the boundary conditions.
The slender construction without pillars
fits perfectly into the sensitive urban
planning situation of the park-like area
and makes a self-confident statement that
respects the surroundings.
At l/h = 63 m, the slenderness of the
bridge achieves a value that is almost
unparalleled in comparable solid
structures. The bridge cross-section is a
four-span slab girder with a width of 12.50
meters. The cross-section carries two tram
tracks in the roadway area and a footpath
and cycle path on both sides. The bridge
bearings are each founded on 12 large
bored piles with a diameter of 1.20 m and a
maximum length of 20.70 m.
To enable this very slender construction
and to minimize long-term deformations
and susceptibility to vibrations, the bridge
was built in high-performance concrete of
strength class B 85
140 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
(C 70/85). This made it the largest bridge
built with high-performance concrete in
Germany at the time of its construction.
As an integral construction without
bearings and transition structure and
thanks to the high-performance concrete
used, the bridge is a very robust structure
that can be expected to be economically
maintained.
Various technical and technological
measures were implemented for the
realization of the structure, which took
into account the special features of high-
performance concrete and ensured the
quality and cost-effectiveness of the
construction project.
The inclined struts of the blasting plant
were prefabricated in the factory and
inserted into the correspondingly
prepared falsework on the construction
site.
During concreting, the superstructure
was divided into two sections, which were
separated by a 1 m wide gap at the bridge
apex.
were separated and not yet connected to
the abutments. To minimize cracking due
to early shrinkage, both sections were
centrally prestressed. After the concrete
had hardened, horizontal presses were
used in the final gap to push the
superstructure out of the falsework. The
final gap and the use of the presses made it
possible to avoid forced stresses on the
superstructure. The horizontal settlements
of the structure resulting from the blasting
effect were largely anticipated and the
superstructure components could be
aligned according to the target gradient
before closing the final gap and making
the bending stiffness connections to the
abutments.
With a technically innovative solution,
it was possible to design and build a
bridge that meets high standards of
functionality, aesthetics, cost-effectiveness
and durability.
 1.6 Bridge design, competitions, bridge construction prizes
1.6.8.4 La-Ferté footbridge Stuttgart-Zuffenhausen
ROLAND WETZEL
Photo: Dietmar Strauß, Besigheim
Draft
The La-Ferté footbridge is a highly
frequented connection to the indoor
swimming pool, school and fairground
across a four-lane road with a streetcar line
in the middle. The design, the result of an
interdisciplinary collaboration between
architect and engineer, envisages an
asymmetrical beam bridge 119 m long over
seven spans, with a slope on one side and a
wide, almost flat meadow on the other side
of Haldenrainstrasse, which spans into a
wall slab on the slope side and then almost
light-footedly crosses the 28.50 m wide ver-
sion.
freely spans the traffic area.
In plan, the axis of the bridge describes
the shape of a circular arc with a radius of
53.70 meters.
The resulting easy-to-follow and clear
routing helps with orientation and traffic
safety on the bridge. This is an important
aspect when you consider that pedestrians
and cyclists travel together on the same
surface. The circular shape of the bridge
favors
141
project owner:
City of Stuttgart, Civil Engineering Office
Design:
Peter und Lochner, Beratende Ingenieure für
Bauwesen GmbH, Stuttgart; project manager:
Dr.-Ing Matthias Schüller
Architectural consulting:
'asp', Arat - Siegel & Partner, Stuttgart
Execution:
Max Früh GmbH & Co KG, Achern
Construction time: 2000-2001
not only the integral construction method
without crossover structures, but also
enables support only along the central axis
of the cross-section. This serves the
transparency under the bridge and thus
creates a calm overall appearance.
Design
To ensure that the bridge - even in the
area of the large span - can be understood
as a single unit, the walkway and cycle
path slab is constructed with consistent
dimensions. The lower contour of the slab
girder is given a parabolic shape towards
the abutments and thus ties into the terrain
in a curve to emphasize the "growing out"
of the superstructure from the terrain.
The transition from the slab girder bridge
to the wall panels is fluid. A formal
separation is deliberately not made in
order to maintain the monolithic
character of the load-bearing elements of
the slab beams and wall panels, which
belong together and are cast in one piece.
142 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
As the height of the bridge above ground
decreases, the spans of the superstructure
are shortened so that the proportions
between the span widths and the height of
the bridge above ground remain balanced.
The height of the plate girder web is also
reduced in line with the decreasing spans.
As a result, the superstructure still appears
very slender at ground level and therefore
also in the immediate vicinity of the
observer. On the east side, the plate girder
with a construction height of 45 cm leads
inconspicuously into a small abutment,
which also preserves the proportions.
The various load-bearing elements - on
the one hand, the massive slab beam that
grows organically out of the slope and, on
the other, the thin, silver-colored steel
supports - document the contrast in
material and function. The inconspicuous
supports make the superstructure appear
to float, giving the concrete beam a
lightness that places little strain on the
urban space. The very thin cornice band
and the filigree filler rod railing make a
significant contribution to this and are an
essential part of the overall design concept.
Load-bearing behavior
To keep temperature constraints to a
minimum, the lateral deflection of the
superstructure must not be hindered. The
steel supports are shaped at their ends so
that they practically behave like
"pendulum supports".
 1.6 Bridge design, competitions, bridge construction prizes
Photo: Dietmar Strauß, Besigheim
For this reason, they essentially only
receive normal forces, even if the
superstructure expands or contracts as a
result of temperature fluctuations. The
supports were each assembled in the
factory from two cast parts and a tube.
143
Photo: Dietmar Strauß, Besigheim
The pipes are welded. The castings are
made of high-strength cast steel (GS-
18NiMo- Cr3-6, strength level I,
according to SEW 520) with good
weldability, the pipes are made of mild
steel St 52 and have a diameter of 219 mm
and 168 mm respectively.
The "wheat beer glass shape" of the
castings was chosen in direct relation to
the desired load-bearing behavior.
To allow for the temperature
movements of the superstructure, the
castings at the ends of the columns must
be constricted to ensure that the
temperature movements associated with
the
The deformations in the critical cross-
sections associated with the "swaying" of the
supports do not lead to unsustainable
stresses.
The reinforced concrete slab beam of
the La Ferté footbridge supports the
vertical loads like a classic circular ring
beam. In simple terms, it can be regarded
as a spatial bending beam that is fully
restrained at both ends and is only
supported along its axis by horizontally
displaceable point bearings.
144 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
For safety reasons, the superstructure
was designed for the catastrophic load case
"failure of support 1", despite the impact
protection provided.
Integral design
Joints are often weak points in bridge
construction that have to be extensively
repaired. If the constraints associated with
jointless construction can be controlled, this
is particularly beneficial to durability. The
constraints are best controlled using the
evasion principle, i.e. the constraints are not
allowed to develop in the first place. Due to
its arched shape in the ground plan, the
superstructure can easily avoid constraints
caused by temperature. Different settlements
also cause no problems for the slender and
therefore relatively flexible beam. A
continuously inserted minimum
reinforcement with a diameter of 14 mm
every 10 cm ensures small crack spacing and
thus small crack widths. The bearingless
design was made possible by the special
column shape and the associated "column
oscillation". This is particularly beneficial for
construction and maintenance, but also for
the design, as the details can be kept simple.
In addition, there is no need for the work
associated with inspections or bearing
changes.
the effort involved.
Bridge equipment
A glass bead blasted stainless steel railing
with a flat steel handrail and round steel
infill bars was used. In order to keep the
filler bars of the slightly inwardly inclined
railing as thin as possible, the railing is
stabilized by two struts every 2 m. The
cylindrical stainless steel lighting fixtures
are attached to every fourth pair of struts
on the inside of the curve.
The cantilevered edge cap with its thin
cornice band serves as a
Photo: Dietmar Strauß, Besigheim
The new design also provides a delicate
contact protection to the high-voltage lines
of the light rail system that protrudes only
36 cm above the cap.
The steel stair tower is an independent
structure and is not connected to the
bridge so that the lateral deformations of
the superstructure can adjust to
temperature fluctuations without
hindrance. The two four-deck supports,
the stair stringers and the railing are made
of S235JR mild steel. The treads of the
steps and landings are made of stainless
steel tread plates supported on neoprene
strips for sound insulation and to prevent
contact corrosion.
Manufacture
Once the bored piles and foundations for
the abutments and supports had been
constructed, the falsework was erected.
Due to the small distance between the edge
of the superstructure and the light rail
overhead line, it was decided to use a
shoring structure consisting of
longitudinal girders with suspended cross
girders.
In order to keep the shrinkage
deformations as small as possible, the
superstructure was concreted in three
sections, with a shrinkage gap in the
middle of the bridge, which was not closed
until four weeks later.
 1.6 Bridge design, competitions, bridge construction prizes
1.6.8.5 Bridge over Gahlensche Straße,
Bochum
KNUT GÖPPERT and ANDREA WITTEL
Photo: Thomas Riehle, Cologne
project requirements specification
The ideas for three bridges in the Westpark
were developed directly on site as part of a
concentrated competition over two days
in 1997. The bridge over Gah- lensche
Strasse, developed in the competition with
the collaboration of Gerkan Marg und
Partner Architekten, was proposed by the
Jury Board for realization as the link
between Westpark and Erzbahntras- se.
This gave the ore railway line, which is
now used as a cycle and hiking trail and is
currently 20 km long, a direct connection
to the converted Jahrhunderthalle.
Design idea/concept
Based on the routes taken by cyclists, the
bridge "dynamically" covers the confusing
and indifferent situation of road, railroad
tracks and pipe bridge.
145
project owner:
Kommunalverband Ruhrgebiet
Kronprinzenstraße 35
45128 Essen
Design:
Schlaich Bergermann und Partner
with von Gerkan, Marg and Partners
Implementation planning:
Schlaich Bergermann und Partner
Hohenzollernstraße 1
70178 Stuttgart
Execution: MSD Maschinen- und Stahlbau
Dresden
Construction period: 2002-2003
The 30 m high masts act as landmarks
and clearly mark the location of the bridge
from a distance.
The suspension structure above the
bridge conveys safety and guides
pedestrians and cyclists across the bridge.
Together with the suspension cables
arranged on the supporting ribs, whose
inclination constantly changes, the user is
given the experience of a three-
dimensional supporting structure.
The S-curve ideally combines design
intent, routing and the structural
advantages of a curved bridge.
Construction
The curved shape of the bridge is ideal for
use. The ring beam only needs to be
supported on one side, so it can be used as a
146 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
Suspension cable bridge instead of the
usual two suspension cables only one. Due
to its circular ring shape, it converts the
tilting moment from the one-sided
suspension into a pair of forces, tension at
the top in the slab and compression at the
bottom in the tube, and is thus
constructed as a pure steel cross-section
with a thin layer of Aubeton as a walkway
covering.
Following the alternating curved shape
of the superstructure, two masts are
arranged, each inclined towards the center
of the circle and each supporting one half
of the bridge.
The suspension cables are anchored to
the abutments, which are supported on
piles up to 30 m long due to the difficult
ground conditions.
Since the two masts were arranged in
such a way that the suspension cables
connect tangentially to the mast head,
they are positioned at the center of gravity.
Floor plan
Cross section
of the respective half of the bridge and
with their spherical base points below the
bridge, there is no need for guy ropes.
Assembly
The superstructure - consisting of the
steel trough of the sidewalk slab, the
pressure pipe and the stiffening truss - was
prefabricated in the workshop in sections
of up to 25 m in length, assembled in its
final position above the tracks on auxiliary
supports and welded. The superstructure
was lifted out of the auxiliary supports and
the masts, which had previously been
secured by auxiliary bracing, were
stabilized by attaching the suspension and
suspension cables.
The concrete of the walkway slab was
then poured onto the already suspended
bridge and the railings were installed.
 1.6 Bridge design, competitions, bridge construction prizes
1.6.8.6 Wooden bridge over Freiberger Straße in
the Tharandt Forest Botanical Garden
UWE FISCHER
The aim of the construction project was to
connect the two parts of the Tha- randt
Forest Botanical Garden of the TU
Dresden with a footbridge crossing the S
194 state road.
The design is based on the result of a
student competition at the TU Dresden,
Faculty of Architecture.
As part of the design planning, the
planning office Bonk & Herrmann carried
out a fundamental revision of the design
concept and the structural design of the
building.
The bridge has a length of 117 m and a
usable leaf width of 2.50 m and adapts to
the local situation and the tree population
of the forest botanical garden with
changing curvatures in the ground plan
and a gradient against the rise of the
Zeisiggrund.
The load-bearing structure was 22 cm
thick, factory prefabricated glulam panels.
147
project owner:
SIB - Saxon real estate and construction
management, NL Dresden II
Design concept, architecture:
Kathrin Gädeke, Andre Dreßler
Supervision (TU Dresden):
Prof. Schulten, Prof. Haller, Prof. Roloff
Preliminary planning:
Schulze + Partner, Architects
Design and project manager:
Planning office Bonk & Herrmann, Dresden
Planning office for structural engineering
Execution:
Schmees & Lühn
Holz- und Stahlingenieurbau GmbH
Construction period: 2003-2004
glulam elements with upright slats were
used. An extreme curvature of these
glulam elements (axis radius 16.25 m) was
required to realize the floor plan solution.
The individual elements were linked by
steel parts partially embedded in the timber
to form a continuous beam across all 16
bays.
The columns each consist of three Ø 14
cm steel tubes and a welded triangular
head frame with a box-shaped cross-
section. The column lengths of 1.2 m to
10.8 m result from the adaptation to the
course of the terrain. To limit the lateral
deformation of the superstructure,
bracing was provided after every four
elements. The cylindrical column
foundations made of reinforced concrete
each rest on three small bored grouted
piles arranged in space and adapted to the
extreme slope of the terrain in places.
148 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building

The railing supports the overall
impression of the filigree construction of a
wooden band running along the entire
length of the bridge thanks to the very
transparent railing infill made of a
stainless steel mesh.
The combination of wood and steel
and its elegant construction, which
harmonizes with the natural surroundings
of the forest botanical garden, make the
bridge a successful engineering structure.
 1.6 Bridge design, competitions, bridge construction prizes
1.6.8.7 The Humboldthafen Bridge in Berlin
HANS SCHOBER and
JÖRG SCHLAICH
Picture: Oltmann Reuter, Berlin-
Charlottenburg
After the fall of the Berlin Wall, the new
main station was built on the Spreebogen
in the heart of Berlin, a central crossing
station at the intersection of the
underground north-south line and the
above-ground east-west line.
The elevated six-track, 1000 m long
east-west route crosses the
Humboldthafenbe- cken directly east of
the main station with two single-track and
two double-track bridges (Fig. 1.6-19).
The 180 m long Humboldthafen Bridge
- a section of the entire bridge train -
widens from approx. 33 m in the east to
approx. 66 m in the west. A 105 m long
section of the 340 m long glass platform
roof rests on the two outer single-track
bridges.
Planning was essentially completed in
1997. The station was inaugurated in
2006.
149
project owner:
Deutsche Bahn AG
Design:
Schlaich Bergermann and Partner, Stuttgart
Implementation planning:
Leonhardt, Andrä and Partner, Stuttgart
Execution:
ARGE Brücke Humboldthafen
Porr Technobau Berlin GmbH,
Subcontractor: DSD Dillinger Stahlbau GmbH:
Steel construction
Thyssen Guss AG, Mülheim/Ruhr:
Stahlguss Mannesmann Handel GmbH:
steel pipes
Construction period: 1997-1999
The design
The aim of our design, developed in
collaboration with M. von Gerkan, was to
create a uniformly designed supporting
structure for the entire 1000 m long
bridge with the lowest possible
construction height and as far as possible
a clear view.
The low height of only 10 m above
ground level makes it necessary to select
narrow column spacings of 20-25 m,
which allow a construction height of only
approx. 1.70 m for the continuous
superstructure.
Slim tubular steel supports with a
diameter of just 660 mm are firmly
connected to the superstructure and,
thanks to their malleability, enable a largely
bearing-free construction.
Robust slab and slab-beam cross-
sections made of loosely reinforced
concrete and, in the area of the Humboldt
harbor bridge, prestressed concrete form
the superstructure.
150 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
The two webs of the double-track
superstructure and the tubular steel
supports that carry them follow the
centerline of the widening centerlines of
track. The two outer single-track bridges
supporting the platform roof are designed
as solid slab strips, which are supported
symmetrically under the centerline of
track by double supports with 4 m
transverse spacing.
All cantilevers and the surfaces between
the webs are rounded in the shape of a
basket arch on these "bridges you can
touch", which, together with the curvature
of the floor plan, required sophisticated
switching technology, but resulted in a
very beautifully designed bridge soffit and
a very high level of safety.
-view.
The consistently uniform design was
also realized over the harbour basin with
spans of up to 60 m by additionally
supporting the slab or slab-beam cross-
sections with tubular steel arches with
narrow supports, so that the slender
superstructure height of 1.70 m could also
be maintained here.
In the original design, the tubular steel
arches were set at an angle and led to a
point at the transom abutment, giving the
structure a pronounced third dimension.
To save costs, these were then positioned
vertically together with the uprights
during the execution planning and
straightened in sections in the base crack.
To optimize the arch stitch and reduce
the normal pressure forces in the
arch, the steel pipe arch plunges into the
concrete superstructure, naturally without
continuing the steel pipe in the concrete.
An appropriately shaped arch head
ensures that the force is transferred into
the concrete superstructure.
In the adjacent side spans, struts
shorten the free span of the side span, but
also the arch shear to be supported by the
abutment.
In order to keep the arch as slender as
possible, it was designed as a tied arch,
which essentially only experiences normal
forces and is braced by the superstructure.
To minimize the bending stress, the
spatial geometry of the bend was found
using a form-finding calculation on the
inverted suspension model and the
bending stiffness was reduced by using
thick-walled steel pipes with wall
thicknesses of 100 mm. In this way, the
pipe cross-section remained over-
compressed under all load cases and could
theoretically be pushed over contact. For
safety reasons, however, at least 40%
welding was provided.
The innovation
Bearingless bridges
In contrast to conventional bridges, the
superstructure displacement was not
made possible by displacement bearings
on solid concrete piers, but by means of
slender, elastic
 1.6 Bridge design, competitions, bridge construction prizes 151

1.70

3.20 2 .00 2.00 2.20 4.20 4.50 4.20 4.20 5.60 4.20 2.20 2.00 2.00 3 .20

4.20 4.20 var. 4.20 var. 4.20 var. 4.20 5.60 va . 2.00 2.20
1.70

Curved tube ø660

Transom + upright ø508
Diagonals ø267

Tubular steel supports
thicknesses up to 60 mm.
Pipe nodes made of cast steel
Steel castings were used for tubular nodes
for the first time in modern large-scale
bridge construction.
Cast steel produces homogeneous,
robust nodes with a simplified geometry
and optimized internal force flow, which
have a much more favourable fatigue
behaviour and a much longer service life
with reduced maintenance requirements
than welded nodes. The reasons for this
are as follows:
• You can move the weld away from the
knot to areas that are less stressed.
with good accessibility.
• Cast steel allows flowing shapes, no
matter how complicated the node
geometries.
with wall • The node geometry and wall thicknesses
can be optimally adapted to the internal
force flow.
• Cast steel defects have larger notch radii
than welding defects and behave more
favorably with regard to fatigue.
• Cast knots look good and trustworthy.
because they are naturally shaped.
A very important design idea was
therefore to use cast steel nodes made of
cold-tough cast steel with good
weldability for all pipe nodes. The
following node types were provided:
• Arched node with connection spigot
for upright and crossbeam (3.2 t).
• Arched head (2.8 t).
• Bowman (24 t).
• Crosses of diagonal braces on the bow
fighter.
152 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
Superstructure:
limited prestressed slab or slab girder,
concrete strength class B55 all other
bridges: loosely reinforced slabs/slab
girders, concrete strength class B45 Spans
of the Humboldthafen bridge: approx.
21/26/32/60/28/21 m (total length 190 m)
Superstructure height: 1.70 m
Supports:
Seamless steel pipes Ø 660, 60 mm wall
thickness or Ø 508 mm, 50 mm wall
thickness, steel S 355 J2H
Bow:
thick-walled seamless steel pipes, ø660 mm,
100 mm wall thickness with contact joint
to the bend nodes, steel S 355 J2H
Bow stand:
Seamless steel tubes Ø 508 mm, 60 mm
wall thickness, fully welded with arched
joints
Diagonal bracing at the abutment:
Tubes Ø 267 mm, 45 mm wall thickness
Cast steel parts (cast steel GS 20 Mn 5
V): Bow knot, bow head, bow fighter (24
t),
Knot Diagonal bracing on the abutment
Literature:
[Schlaich/Schober, 1999-1 and -2] and
[Seifried et al., 1999]
 1.6 Bridge design, competitions, bridge construction prizes
1.6.8.8 Saale bridge Jena-Göschwitz
THOMAS KLEB
In accordance with the Federal
Government's decision to widen the A 4
motorway from Eisenach to Dresden to
six lanes, the existing Saale bridge in Jena-
Göschwitz was upgraded to accommodate
the Dresden/Eisenach directional
carriageway with four lanes. Parallel to the
existing structure, an additional bridge
with a clearance of 5 m to the south is
required to accommodate the Eisenach -
Dresden carriageway.
After more than two years of
construction on
The old Saale bridge, which was opened to
traffic on August 18, 1939, spans the
rather flat, wide Saale valley with 17 stone
arches that rise in proportion to the height
of the valley. The largest arch has a clear
opening width of 31.43 m and a clear
height of approx. 19.75 m. The visible
arches are made of shell limestone, while
the spar vaults inside are made of limestone
masonry. The total length of the bridge is
794.03 m, the usable width
153
project owner:
Free State of Thuringia
Design and project manager:
Dipl.-Ing. Thomas Kleb,
Dipl.-Ing. Torsten Weise,
Engineering office Kleb GmbH, Erfurt
Implementation planning:
Dr.-Ing. Horst Kinkel
Kinkel and Partner, Neu-Isenburg
Examination:
Dr.-Ing. Hans-Peter Andrä, Stuttgart
Execution:
Gerdum and Breuer
Bauunternehmen GmbH, Kassel
Construction period: 2004-2006
19,70 m. The two arches over the Saale,
which were destroyed during the Second
World War, were rebuilt with great
attention to detail after the war. In addition
to a colony of kestrels, the building has
been home to the largest jackdaw colony
in Thuringia since the 1940s. Today, the
pairs breed in the nesting boxes from the
1970s that were screwed on behind the
light slits in the pillars. Once the new
Saale Bridge is completed, the old structure
will be repaired and converted into a one-
way carriageway. The arch bridge is an
exceptional structure in technical and
architectural terms and is therefore a listed
building.
The two-span, prestressed concrete
slab beam of the new Saale bridge was
pushed across the Saale valley from west to
east using the incremental launching
method, which protected the environment
and had hardly any impact on the jackdaw
colony in the old bridge. The spans are
constantly changing
154 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
and have a maximum length of 28.85 m.
The total length between the end supports
is 723.66 m. To ensure that the
substructure slabs were not too massive,
large superstructure cantilevers were
chosen, which required transverse pre-
tensioning. The superstructure has cross
girders so that the torsional stress could
be limited by the deck slab and the end
cross girders. A width of 2.90 m was
selected for the torsionally rigid main
girders. The degree of prestressing is
relatively high due to the construction
conditions.
The superstructure is mounted on
deformation bearings. The movement
resting axis is located approximately in
the middle of the bridge. The expansion
paths of the multi-fold watertight
transition structures are 524 mm each.
The main design elements of the new
Saale Bridge are the 1.5 m thick reinforced
concrete pillar slabs, which are designed to
resemble the visible arch ring of the old
bridge. They are separated at the head by
The design of the new bridge (visualization):
The new bridge after completion:
The bridge is connected to each other by
two tension bands between the
superstructure beams. Each pier slab has a
different curvature radius to match the old
Saale bridge. The curved discs meet at the
pier base and are supported by a visible
concrete base clad in shell limestone. The
maximum pier height is 20 m. With this
pier shape, it was possible to reduce the
spans and design a very slender
superstructure that conceals as little of the
old bridge as possible.
Both abutment front edges correspond
to the arch shape of the old Saale bridge
with a construction as an in-situ concrete
box abutment on shallow foundations
with accessibility through a maintenance
walkway. The large valley piers were
founded with large bored piles d = 1.50 m
in the underlying sandstone. The small
piers on the western plateau, on the other
hand, were to have shallow foundations in
the overlying bedrock.
 1.6 Bridge design, competitions, bridge construction prizes
1.6.8.9 Lautrupsbach viaduct
WIGAND GRAWE
The Lautrupsbach valley bridge spans a
landscape close to the city with a small
river valley, the Lautrupsbach, over a
length of approx. 250 m. For the city of
Flensburg, this terrain incision in the
foothills is of great importance for the
exchange of air in the urban area. The
bridge structure spans a four-lane road
with a width of approx. 19 m. To protect
local residents from the noise emitted by
vehicles, 4 m high noise barriers had to be
taken into account.
To implement the requirements, a
realization plan was drawn up by the
project owner.
155
project owner:
City of Flensburg
Design:
Trebes engineering team, Rendsburg
Architects AX5, Kiel
Execution:
Fritz Spieker construction companies, Oldenburg
Construction period: 2004-2006
design competition. This design, which
won 1st prize, was implemented without
any significant changes.
The design is a concrete structure with
7 spans with support widths of up to 39
meters. The superstructure is designed as
a longitudinally and transversely
prestressed, continuous slab, which has a
has a "wing-like" cross-section. The shape
of the superstructure and the supports
reflect the central idea of the flow.
They are designed asymmetrically in
accordance with the laws of fluid
mechanics.
156 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
and thus support the natural flow of air in
the valley. The pillars are rotated at
different angles to the gradient, creating
new spatial impressions from different
perspectives.
Due to the prestressed concrete
construction method chosen, the
superstructure could be designed to be
particularly slender, with the slab
extending to a thickness of 30 cm at the
edges. The design of the cap takes up the
curvature of the noise barrier and
connects it harmoniously with the
superstructure.
Drainage takes place in a recess in the
superstructure and supports, which is
covered by stainless steel cladding. This
allows the elegant
The shape of the continuous curvature can
also be retained in the soffit. The lighting
solution is based on reflected light; the
lamps are designed in such a way that they
are an integral part of the noise barrier.
The streamlined design of the
superstructure, the curved noise barrier and
the aerodynamically shaped piers that are
turned into the wind reveal the guiding
principle of the design, which is adapted to
the local climatic conditions.
Despite the difficult environment
(residential area and nature conservation
aspects), the overall appearance has led to
a high level of acceptance among residents
and local recreationists in the
Lautrupsbach Valley.
 1.6 Bridge design, competitions, bridge construction prizes
1.6.8.10 Three-country bridge
Weil am Rhein (D) - Huningue (F)
WOLFGANG STROBL
In southwest Germany, a pedestrian bridge
with a record span of 230 m was opened in
March 2006 between Weil am Rhein (D)
and Huningue (F).
The basic design idea of spanning the
Rhine in an arch is a clear gesture that
symbolizes a strong connection between
the two countries of Germany and France.
The arch shape is based on the following
considerations:
157
project owner:
City of Weil am Rhein in cooperation with
Com- munauté de Communes des Trois
Frontières
Competition, planning for building permit
application (HOAI phase 4):
Planning community WeilamRhein GbR
Design:
Dietmar Feichtinger, Paris
Feichtinger Architectes, Paris,
Vienna Wolfgang Strobl, Berlin
Leonhard, Andrä and Partner, Berlin
Execution:
Max Bögl GmbH
Construction period: 2005-2006
• A large span with the smallest possible
bow gives the form great tension and
elegance. The flat arch is additionally
minimized by lowering it to the level of
the water surface. The technical
challenge is visible and becomes a
reflection of our times
• The lightness of the construction finds
their continuation in the bank area.
Classical bridge piers would obstruct the
view. They were built in a
158 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building

The two sections are dissolved by the

continuing construction and visually
form the prelude to the floor.
In order to keep the traditional line of
sight to the tower of the Église du Christ-
Roi in Huningue free, the bridge moves to
the side by a blink of an eye and
consistently leans towards the
asymmetrical cross-sectional shape with a
strong and a weak side. The visual
relationship is complemented by a
constructive one.
In the collaboration within the
planning consortium, the design idea,
which is consistent down to the last detail,
came first. Symbols, urban planning
themes, but also the deliberate reduction
of the building became central ideas and
tasks. Materials were
 1.6 Bridge design, competitions, bridge construction prizes
was an important topic, as were "high-tech
materials" if they were required to achieve
the design objective. However, the choice
of materials was never the design idea, nor
was the conception of a record span,
which simply resulted from the consistent
translation of the design. The result is an
extremely slender building - the lightness
of the construction can be experienced
through a consistent translation of the
design down to the last detail:
• The bridge with one main span and
two foreland bridges takes the form of
a tiedarch bridge with spatial trusses in
the support area. The northern arch, a
double girder made of hexagonal
profiles, is vertical, while the southern
arch, a round tube, leans at an
inclination of 16 degrees.
159
• The orthotropic bridge deck, which also
acts as a tension band, widens from the
center to the edges and merges into
filigree ramps and stairs in the form of a
folding structure.
The following points were decisive for
the implementation of the design:
• Reduction of wind loads to a minimum:
Consideration according to E-DIN
1055/4 instead of DIN FB 101
• Stability verification under half-sided
Live load: verification taking into
account large deformations and the
cant from the workshop mold
• Minor support from the water and
Shipping offices from ship impact due to
the large span
• Assembly: The entire main bridge
was pre-assembled on the French side.
This was followed by the transverse
160 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
two pontoons with the help of heavy-
duty vehicles and floating the entire
bridge over a length of approx. 1 km.
The actual precision work took place
under constant observation of the wind
speed - the turning in and lowering of
the bridge on auxiliary presses. During
the lowering process, the bolt
connections of the end bracings were
fixed. The bearings were only cast
underneath after final measurement
and checking of the press forces.
• Wind-induced vibrations: the required
the necessary safety for aerodynamic
Stability was proven numerically.
• Pedestrian excitement: The main problem
As with other soft, low-frequency
pedestrian structures, the horizontal
pedestrian self-excitation of the bridge
deck under high traffic volumes proved
to be a problem. Proof of sufficient
safety of the bridge without additional
vibration damping measures was
ultimately provided by a large-scale test
with up to 1000 participants and
extensive measurements.
 1.6 Bridge design, competitions, bridge construction prizes
1.6.8.11 Mariensteg Wernstein-Neuburg,
border bridge Austria-Germany
ERHARD KARGEL
The close relationship between the
Bavarian town of Neuburg am Inn and
the Upper Austrian town of Wernstein,
which has existed since around 1050,
could not even be broken by Napoleon's
border demarcation in 1803. The
connection that has grown over the
centuries is facilitated and strengthened
by the pedestrian and cycle bridge. It
halves the distance of 16 km between the
nearest bridges in Passau and Schärding.
The magnificent, protected landscape, such
as the Neuburg castle crowning the steep
bank and the historically significant
Marian column in Wernstein, demanded
the greatest restraint and sensitivity in the
design.
This goal was achieved with a structure
that was as filigree and miniature as
possible. Of all the feasible solutions, a
suspension bridge with a span of 144 m
proved to be the most suitable. The design
of the suspension cables followed the
topography: they rise from a low-lying
anchorage point at a respectful distance
from the Ma- riensäule in the direction of
Neuburg to the top of a single, needle-
shaped pylon. Starting from the top of the
pylon, the
161
project owner:
Municipality of Wernstein am Inn,
Municipality of Neu- burg am Inn
Design, structural engineering and construction:
Dipl. Ing. Erhard Kargel, Linz
Execution:
GLS Bau und Montage
G.m.b.H., RW-Montage
G.m.b.H.
Construction period: 2005-2006
The supporting and suspension cables
were spread and anchored in low
abutment plates on the Wernstein side or
in foundations on the Neuburg Inn slope.
A continuous stretch beam was dispensed
with; instead, the walkway rests on slender
single-span beams between the hangers.
Two additional cables, which run
alongside the longitudinal girders and are
connected to them by cantilevered cross
girders, serve to increase stiffness. Because
these "wind cables" follow the roadway
crest in elevation and are also designed in
circular curves in plan, their curvature
planes are inclined in space.
The cables are therefore able to absorb
vertical and horizontal forces. By pre-
tensioning the wind ropes - and not by
increasing the cross-sections of the girders
- the stiffness of the system was increased,
the vertical and horizontal deformations
reduced and the vibrations limited. The
bridge was opened without vibration
absorbers. Although not absolutely
necessary, three relatively light absorbers
were later installed as planned. The
concept of the cable stay
162 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
The use of a single-span girder chain
made production easy. After pulling in the
cables and suspending the cross beams,
the entire walkway construction,
including the railings, could be lifted into
place and bolted in three and a half days.
No on-site welding was required.
The Wernstein- Neuburg pedestrian and
cycle bridge is a minimalistically designed
engineering structure with minimal use of
resources. There is nothing about it that
needs to be added, but
There is absolutely nothing left that could
be taken away. The impression of
lightness is further enhanced by a
perforated metal profile grating as a
walkway. The building blends in well with
nature without hiding. Its asymmetry is a
logical, comprehensible consequence of
the surrounding conditions. The
Mariensteg has had a lasting effect on the
region, beyond its borders. Historical
relationships have been reunited and a
cultural and landscape area has been
enhanced.
 1.6 Bridge design, competitions, bridge construction prizes
1.6.8.12 Pedestrian bridge over the Gessental
valley near Ronneburg, Thuringia
RICHARD J. DIETRICH
One of the main attractions of the 2007
Gera-Ronneburg Federal Garden Show
was an unusual bridge, which is now an
important link in the "Thuringian Chain of
Towns" long-distance cycle path.
The structure was nominated for the
German Bridge Construction Prize 2008,
as well as receiving prestigious timber
construction awards and the Renault
Future Trafic Award 2007.
With a superstructure length of 225.5
m, this bridge is one of the longest
wooden bridges in the world and one of
the most innovative. Extremely light and
elegant, the wooden span construction
swings 25 m high over the Gessental valley
in the so-called New Ronneburg
Landscape, which was created from the
barren desert of a former uranium mine
as part of the BUGA.
The bridge is unique in its kind, because
never before has a block-glued glulam
beam been used for such a tensioning band
construction. The tension band, which is
subjected to tensile stress
163
project owner:
BUGA Gera und Ronneburg 2007
GmbH Design and implementation
planning: Dipl.-Ing. Richard J. Dietrich,
Office for Engineering Architecture, Munich
Structural engineers and dynamics:
Köppl Engineers, Rosenheim
Execution:
Schaffizel Holzindustrie GmbH + Co KG,
Schwäbisch Hall
Year of construction: 2006
like a tensioned cable over 230 m from
abutment to abutment, spanning three
spans of 55 m and 52.5 m with a
construction height of only 50 cm. As the
bridge's loads are mainly carried by tensile
forces, the extremely slender cross-section
is possible. The tensile forces in the order
of 8000 kN are absorbed at the abutments
and transferred into the rocky ground by
means of 14 permanent earth anchors
each. On the other hand, the span is
supported and gently curved by tree-like
strutted pier supports made of steel tubes.
The "trunks" of these pier supports, which
are arranged in an A-shape in the
transverse direction of the bridge, absorb
the lateral forces, primarily from wind. In
the longitudinal direction of the bridge,
on the other hand, the pier trestles are
designed to be relatively flexible so that
the tensile forces in the strip are
transferred through to the abutments.
The sag of the tensioning strap in the
panels is optimized, because the smaller
the
164 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
The greater the sag, the greater the tensile
forces. In the middle field, the pitch is 2.20
m. On the other hand, in order to prevent
the slope of the walkway from becoming
too steep, additional glulam beams are
doubled on top of the tensioning strip,
which increase in height towards the
middle of the span and thus reduce the
slope to a maximum of 6%, which is
suitable for disabled people. At the same
time, this doubling, which is covered at
the top with a plywood panel, has the
effect of stiffening the tensioning band
against vertical vibrations in the freely
tensioned bays.
This combines structural and
functional advantages, as does the varying
width of the bridge in plan. This is 2.90 m
in the middle of the span and up to 3.90 m
above the supports. This results in wider
standing areas for the users at the high
points and at the same time a higher
stiffness of the span against torsion, i.e.
against lateral twisting and vibrations. On
the other hand, wood has a decisive
advantage over other materials in terms of
the vibration behavior of such a
tensioning band due to its internal self-
damping, which suppresses rhythmic
vibrations and thus prevents rocking. In
this way, contrary to all expectations, the
extremely slender construction manages
without mechanical vibration dampers.
Tens of thousands of visitors to the
garden show have walked on the bridge
and proven its suitability for use.
The up and down floating and waisted
bridge path at lofty heights proved to be a
special experience.
The supporting structure of the bridge
is basically very effective as a tensile
structure. A bending beam made of glued
laminated timber with the same span
width and subjected to tension and
compression would have to be about six
times as strong, i.e. approx. 3 m instead of
50 cm high. The extremely favorable
weight/strength ratio of wood compared
to steel or reinforced concrete is also
advantageous in terms of design. This is
decisive for span-bridging constructions
and has an impact on costs. Due to the low
dead load and the optimized sag of the
wooden span, significantly lower tensile
forces have to be anchored at the
abutments compared to similar structures
made of steel and concrete. This is also a
significant cost factor. On the other hand,
as a renewable building material, wood is
also advantageous from an ecological
point of view. This is another reason why
the use of wood was in line with the
intentions of the BUGA and the
agricultural context. The design of the
supporting struts is formally reminiscent
of the trees in the landscape. In this way,
technical and aesthetic requirements are
creatively combined, resulting in a
characteristic shape that blends in with
the context.
The manufacture and assembly of the
bridge were also well planned during the
planning phase.
 1.6 Bridge design, competitions, bridge construction prizes
well thought out. The tensioning strip was
prefabricated at the factory in sections of
25 m to 30 m in length, including the steel
coupling elements, the weather protection
cladding attached to the sides and the
railing posts. These sections were then
transported to the construction site and
assembled piece by piece, starting from
one abutment and moving over the pier
supports until the opposite abutment was
reached. This only required individual
auxiliary support yokes at the coupling
points.
The steel coupling elements fastened to
the tensioning strip block with slotted
plates and rod dowels were pre-assembled
exactly in position during a trial assembly
at the factory. This made it possible to
ensure that all the connections were in
place at the construction site.
165
the bridge deck fit exactly. Once the
tensioning strip had been installed, the
bridge equipment was fitted, i.e. the sheet
metal cover of the tensioning strip, the
pavement and the railing fillings.
To give the bridge a high level of
durability, the entire timber structure is
clad against the weather, with sheet metal
cladding under the decking at the top and
weatherproof plywood cladding on the
flanks. The high pillar supports made of
steel pipes are protected against corrosion
by a coating in accordance with ZTV-Ing.
All in all, the minimalist and
consistently designed bridge is extremely
effective and economical. The
construction costs amounted to around
€1.7 million gross.
166 1 Bridge building on the path from antiquity to modern bridge building
2 Engineering tasks in bridge construction
MANFRED KEUSER, PETER RUSE AND FRANCESCO AIGNER
2.0 Preliminary remark
In bridge construction, the civil engineer is
both a generalist and a specialist planner.
While in building construction the civil
engineer is usually a specialist engineer for
the supporting structure or an expert for
subsoil or building physics, in bridge
construction he is responsible for the
overall design. This does not exclude the
possibility that architects may also be
involved in the planning of a bridge,
especially in sensitive urban areas. Despite
the diversity of tasks and the associated
challenges, however, it should not be
overlooked that the engineering art of
bridge construction in the industrialized
countries of the western world has
developed into an engineer's everyday
business dictated by rules and regulations
for the vast majority of projects. This is
mainly due to the rapid development of
passenger and freight traffic after the
Second World War. The increasing
density of settlements, the bundling of
traffic routes for the purpose of
minimizing land consumption and the
increasingly dense network of necessary
infrastructures exert constraints that often
stand in the way of large-scale planning.
The general cost pressure, which always
leads to standardized solutions that
exploit repetition effects, also restricts the
scope for action. However, despite such
restrictions, the civil engineer of the 21st
century should always remember that his
designs must not only meet the extensive
current re
The new buildings not only meet the
requirements and regulations with regard
to wall-free functionality, low
maintenance requirements and robust
durability, but also fulfill the increasingly
conscious need for a humane design of
living space in an appropriate manner.
In the industrialized countries, the
transport networks are largely in place,
with the main routes in particular being
relatively old and the bridge structures
having reached or already exceeded their
intended service life, while population
density and motorization have settled at a
stable level. At the same time, an
increasingly restrictive approach to open
landscape areas has become necessary. The
first conclusion to be drawn from this is
that route maintenance will become
increasingly important in the future and
will require ever greater financial
resources than new construction. On the
other hand, changes in political
conditions (e.g. the creation of a greater
European economic area through the
consistent integration of the former
Eastern Bloc states or the former
Yugoslavia) may result in shifts in transit
traffic flows and new main connections
may also become necessary.
The construction of new bridges is
necessary in the following cases:
1. When entire new road or rail routes are
created, e.g. in connection with
political changes. One example of this
is the connection of the
166
Transportation systems of the old and
new federal states after German
reunification.
2. When closing gaps within existing
traffic route systems.
3. For the widening of existing motorway
sections, if the existing bridges cannot
be widened to a sufficient extent.
4. When upgrading existing mountain
roads to make them avalanche-proof,
the often very old mountain roads must
be relocated in some areas and the
roads protected by avalanche galleries
or routed in tunnels. This also requires
the construction of bridges.
5. Replacing dilapidated bridges and
bridges with insufficient load-bearing
capacity or unsatisfactory serviceability
with new structures is often technically
simpler and also more cost-effective
than upgrading them. In this context,
however, it should be noted that some
old bridges are listed monuments and -
in today's opinion - should not be
demolished or left to decay without
further ado.
The stock of bridges for public
transportation routes (public road network,
public rail network) in Germany
comprises around 80,000 structures, in
Austria around 20,000 and in Switzerland
around
16,000. On the one hand, these bridges
require appropriate inspection and
maintenance and must be replaced by new
structures on a case-by-case basis, while
on the other hand the existing structures
must be extended and supplemented. The
tasks associated with the maintenance of
the transport infrastructure are discussed
in a separate section at the end of this
chapter.
The presentation of the engineering
tasks in bridge construction is exemplary
from the perspective of the overall
responsible
2 Engineering tasks in bridge
construction
The fees are calculated on the basis of the
current German procedure. The tasks
involving the planning and supervision of
bridge construction are based on the
structure and system of the Fee Structure
for Architects and Engineers [HOAI,
1996]. In bridge construction, civil
engineers work in construction
administrations, construction companies
and engineering offices, whereby the
distribution of tasks is structured quite
differently in other countries. Further
aspects of the diverse tasks of civil
engineers in bridge construction can be
found in [Leon- hardt, 1974] and [Straub,
1964].
2.1 General design
2.1.1 Preliminary planning
As a rule, the politically formulated
requirements situation is translated into
an initial planning concept by specialist
planners for road and rail networks,
taking into account all the requirements
of land use planning and urban land-use
planning. This also roughly takes into
account which obstacles can no longer be
overcome by earth structures, but only by
a bridge structure. The bridge planner
must already be involved in the planning
at this early planning phase so that the
final design of the gradient in plan and
elevation is coordinated with the technical
requirements of the bridge. Their
appropriate consideration is of eminent
importance, because once a planning
decision has become legally binding, the
necessary structural changes can only be
made with a great deal of procedural time.
In addition, at this early planning stage,
the essential
2.1 General draft
~ 80,0
"A" 34,0
± 0,0
150,0 M
15,0 20,0 20,0
Figure 2.1-1a Argentobel bridge, arch folding system Bung
Figure 2.1-1b Argentobel bridge
Boundary conditions for the costs
associated with the construction of a
bridge are defined. The specifications of
the route planner are to be checked in
particular in the following points and the
technically, ecologically and economically
optimized overall solution for the traffic
route to be planned is to be found
together with them.
Foundation options
As pillar and abutment locations,
particularly in sensitive nature
conservation or drinking water catchment
areas, are often specified individually in
the planning approval notice
167
66,5°
"B"
20,0 20,0 15,0
legally binding, a high level of detail used
in planning is already required for the
preliminary planning phase in such cases.
It is therefore advisable to enlarge the site
plan scale of 1 : 1000, which is usually
used for planning approvals, accordingly.
Under certain circumstances, a final
specification for the structural system (e.g.
arch bridge, cable-stayed bridge or similar)
is already made in the preliminary design.
This is explained below using an example.
Figures 2.1-1a and 2.1-1b show the
Argentobel Bridge, which was built in
1984.
168
spans one of the Allgäu's natural
monuments. Landscape and tree
population of the
"Eistobels" below the bridge did not allow
any interference with the terrain and
trees. For this reason, an arch bridge with
an elevated roadway to be built without
falsework was mandatory. The structural
system and boundary conditions for the
construction method were therefore
already specified during the planning
approval stage. A gradient design that met
these requirements was a prerequisite for
the realization of this structure. This
difficult construction task provided the
impetus for the development and use of a
new type of construction method.
As part of the preliminary planning, all
issues that have an impact on the route
and the ability to obtain approval must be
clarified. Two problems are shown below
as examples.
Particularly in the case of very long
bridges, it is advisable to consider the
possible fabrication methods as early as
the preliminary planning stage, as some
fabrication methods are only possible
under certain gradient conditions. For
example
z. For example, the incremental launching
method for the production of beam
bridges uses constant alignment elements
such as straight lines and circles.
Sliding intersections of the axes of
intersecting traffic routes and the
resulting inclined support axes can lead to
uplifting bearing forces for the structure of
the transferred traffic route. Bearing bodies
for absorbing tensile forces are usually
high-maintenance special designs and
generally require approval in individual
cases. However, mitigating the bearing
problem by rotating the support axes
accordingly can lead to visual obstructions
for users of the underpassed traffic route.
Even in such a case, consideration and
appropriate
2 Engineering tasks in bridge
construction
final specifications are already required in
the preliminary planning phase.
The main result of the preliminary
planning phase is the binding position
and thus also the length of the structure
with coordinated gradient control, its
classification with regard to traffic loads
and, in special cases, the determination of
the structural system and construction
method. Of course, accompanying
preliminary structural calculations must
be included in the determination process.
An approximate determination of the
building ground loads and a load plan
based on this is required for the
preparation of the soil expertise. The
design specifications for construction
materials, types of construction and
manufacturing methods as well as the
space required for the construction site
facilities and construction roads are also
determined during the preliminary
planning phase, so that the involvement of
the structural engineer is essential.
2.1.2 Design development in an open or
invited realization competition
The principles and guidelines for
competitions [GRW, 2004] in the fields of
spatial planning, urban design and
construction, which have been in force in
the Federal Republic of Germany since
1977, were amended in 1995 not only
because of the need to adapt to European
law, but also to take better account of the
special requirements of engineering
competitions. For this reason, the object
planning for traffic facilities and
engineering structures, which also includes
bridges, was included in the object catalog
of competitions. The basis for the
implementation competition is a firmly
defined program with specific
performance requirements as part of the
planning approval process. The building
authorities in Germany have
2.2 Design planning
Figure 2.1-2 Neckar bridge near Mannheim in the course of the A5 motorway
1st prize Peter & Lochner (engineers) with Frank-Jakob-Bluth (architects) Model
photo of the successful competition design
Since then, the city has made use of open
or invited realization competitions for a
number of construction projects.
Competitions have proven to be a
particularly suitable instrument for finding
the optimal design and the most suitable
planner when the construction site for the
new bridge is located in particularly
sensitive areas in terms of architecture,
urban development or agriculture. The
constructive cooperation between civil
engineer, architect and landscape planner
in such competitions is the basis for the
fact that such designs have often led to
particularly successful plans. Figure 2.1-2
shows the result of such a competition in
photorealistic visualization. Modern CAD
programs, in conjunction with
visualization software, make it possible to
create a realistic image that can also give
non-experts an accurate impression of a
bridge structure and its integration into its
future environment.
169
The photorealistic visualization offers an
excellent supplement to the design plan
and to conventional models on a scale of 1
: 100.
2.2 Design planning
2.2.1 Regulations
Based on the results of the preliminary
planning or a competition, the feasible
construction plan is created in the design
planning phase. The basis for the design is
the legally binding planning decision for
the construction measure submitted by
the project owner. It shows the
requirements shown in diagram 2.1-1, so
that the size and type of use of the bridge
are clearly defined. The plans to be drawn
up, including an explanatory report and
cost calculation, must correspond to the
current state of the art, which is reflected
in the regulations and provisions issued
by standards committees and building
authorities.
170 2 Engineering tasks in bridge
construction
Demand

Connection Most economical location and

destinations length of the structure

Demand duration and traffic – stationary building

frequency – movable structure
– Auxiliary building

Road user Cross-section design for -

foot and/or
Cycle path bridge
– Wildlife crossing/wild change
– road bridge
– Railroad bridge
– Cable bridge
– Ship's bridge
– Mixed use

Environment Load assumptions

Topography Structural system Spans

Geology Type of foundation
Hydrology Pillar/abutment heights
Seismology Bearing type Structural
Crossing traffic routes design Impact protection
Crossing pipelines Local Pollution control Corrosion
buildings control
Local landscape Local
climate/air quality

Technology Materials
Construction
methods

Diagram 2.2-1 Basic principles and dependencies for the design of a bridge
2.2 Design planning
If the state of the art is exceeded,
approval must be obtained at an early
stage in individual cases. The document
Zusätzliche Technische Vertragsbe-
dingungen und Richtlinien für Ingenieur-
bauwerke [ZTV-ING, 2003], issued by the
Federal Ministry of Transport, Building
and Housing and published by
Verkehrsblatt Verlag in Dortmund, is an
important set of regulations for road bridge
planners in Germany. Although it is
primarily aimed at the preparation of
design documents for civil engineering
structures, without knowledge of the
specifications contained therein, which
also affect the construction of bridges, it is
inconceivable that design planning can be
implemented in a structure. Any civil
engineer who wants to specialize in the
design of bridges can only fully perform
this demanding task if he has first gone
through the school of execution planning.
The ZTV-ING also compiles all the
standards and other technical regulations
required for the construction of civil
engineering structures with reference to
their sources of supply. The document is
constantly updated in accordance with the
current state of the art through general
circulars on road construction. Subject
areas 05.2 (Bridge and Civil Engineering)
and 16.2 (Construction Contract Law and
Procurement) are of particular importance
for bridge planners. The technical
guidelines and standards for bridges and
other engineering structures
[Richtzeichnungen] are also published by
the same publisher. The structural
elements contained therein are clearly
labeled, represent standard designs and can
be cited in the design. Alternative
solutions must meet the same
requirements for stability, durability and
maintainability.
2003 saw a radical change in the area of
regulations.
171
With the DIN technical reports
100 Concrete
101 Impacts
102 Solid bridges
103 Steel bridges
104 Composite bridges
the European set of standards for bridge
construction was introduced in Germany.
For road and railroad bridges, for
example, the concept of partial safety
factors is now the uniform basis for
calculations.
Form and content of the three most
essential components of a bridge design,
namely:
• Building plan
• Explanatory report
• Cost calculation
are regulated by the guidelines for the
preparation of structural designs [RAB-
BRÜ, 1995] also mentioned in [ZTV-ING,
2003].
The ZTV-ING also refers to the
Deutsche Bahn AG guidelines for railroad
bridge construction [Rili 804, 2003]. The
guidelines can be obtained from the
Logistics Center of Deutsche Bahn AG. In
the course of planning new railway lines
(NBS), a framework planning work has
been created. It is structured according to
construction types and covers all common
cross-sections and construction methods
for railroad bridge construction. The most
important regulations, which are part of the
design engineer's tools of trade, are
summarized once again in Table 2.2-1.
2.2.2 Boundary conditions
Diagram 2.1-1 lists the boundary
conditions imposed by the existing
environment. Although the institutions
affected by the planning in the frame
172
Table 2.2-1 Essential regulations for the design planner
Regulation
Additional technical contract terms for civil
engineering structures (ZTV-ING)
Technical guidelines and standards for
bridges and other engineering structures
Guidelines for the preparation of building designs (RAB
BRÜ)
Publications of Deutsche Bahn AG
DIN technical report 100
DIN Technical Report 101
DIN Technical Report 102
DIN Technical Report 103
DIN Technical Report 104
Although the planning authorities have
already been consulted during the
planning approval process, the
considerably greater level of detail used in
planning means that many authorities
must be involved in the planning process
once again in order to obtain the
following up-to-date documents:
• binding site plans
• Traffic survey to determine any
necessary traffic diversions during the
construction period
• Subsoil expertise
• Hydrogeological reports
• As-built plans of existing installations
and cable routes in the building
field
• Environmental impact mitigation plan
• Architectural consulting planning.
Table 2.2-2 lists the most important
public institutions.
In addition, the specialist planners and
experts engaged by the project owner
must be involved in the planning process
and coordinated. They are listed in Table
2.2-3.
It is advisable to create a draft diary
from the outset in which all discussions,
agreements and fixed dates are recorded.
2 Engineering tasks in bridge
construction
Publisher
Federal Ministry of Transport,
Building and Housing
Federal Ministry of Transport,
Building and Housing
Federal Ministry of Transport,
Building and Housing
Deutsche Bahn AG
Federal Ministry of Transport,
Building and Housing
Table 2.2-2 Offices, authorities, associations
Offices, authorities and associations for
Surveying, public order, geology,
hydrogeology, water management, traffic
systems, supply, waste disposal, landscape
conservation, environmental protection,
forestry, monument protection, building
construction, civil engineering, road
construction, municipal administration
Table 2.2-3 Specialist planners and experts
Specialist planner or expert for
Subsoil, landscape planning, noise
protection, driving dynamics, signal and
traffic control technology, electrical
engineering, telecommunications,
architectural consulting, fine arts
The minutes of all meetings and their
dates must be carefully recorded so that
the planning process can be fully
documented for the project owner. The
minutes of all meetings are to be included
in the design diary as an appendix.
2.2 Design planning
Figure 2.2-1 New Nibelungen Bridge Worms - photorealistic visualization of the design planning.
Design: BUNG - Beratende Ingenieure with Verheyen Ingenieure
With the rapid development of CAD
and graphics software in recent years,
photorealistic visualization has become an
important planning tool in the design
phase. In almost all major bridge
construction projects, the technical
possibilities are used both for the final
form-finding and for the presentation of
the projects to the public. Figure 2.2-1
shows the visualization of the new Worms
Rhine Bridge, completed in 2008, together
with the Nibelun Bridge, which was built
in 1950/53 as the first prestressed concrete
bridge over the Rhine in cantilever
construction.
2.2.3 Construction operations and site
equipment
Initial considerations must deal with the
space required for construction
operations and site facilities so that the
required size of the construction site and
its development can be determined and
the requirements from the planning
approval procedure can be implemented.
Table 2.2-4 contains the most important
aspects for the space requirements.
173
Table 2.2-4 Space requirements for
construction operations and site facilities
Space requirement for
Construction offices, storage areas, action
areas of bored pile equipment, excavation
pits, action areas of lifting gear, dewatering,
wastewater treatment facilities, production
facilities for special construction methods
2.2.4 Design elements, tools and static
pre-calculation
The design elements of bridge
construction are presented in detail in the
following chapters of this book. Their
diversity must be available to the design
planner in order to be able to present an
optimal and complete design. The design
elements are listed in advance in Table 2.2-
5.
Specialist catalogs are an indispensable
aid for the design planner in order to
correctly consider space requirements and
installation for built-in parts and
equipment from the outset. Table 2.2-6
contains references to the most necessary
specialist catalogs. To maintain
independent design neutrality, the design
modalities must be defined in such a way
that
174
Table 2.2-5 Design elements
Substructures: Foundations, abutments, piers
Main structures of the superstructures:
Plate bridges, beam bridges, rigid frame
bridges, arch bridges, tied-arch bridges, cable-
stayed bridges, suspension bridges, tension
band bridges
Production: falsework, launching gantry,
cantilever, incremental launching method,
prefabricated parts, segmental construction
method, mixed construction method
Building materials: reinforced concrete,
prestressed concrete, steel, wood, mixed
construction methods (e.g. rolled beams
in concrete)
Storage and bridge equipment: road
surface, seals, bearings, roadway
crossings, guidance systems, railings,
drainage, lighting, supply lines, noise
protection systems
Table 2.2-6 Specialist catalogs
Specialist catalogs for
Pile systems, sheet pile walls, excavation
shoring, waterstops, dewatering systems,
anchor parts, bearing elements, roadway
expansion joints, lifting presses, lifting gear,
prestressing systems, lighting systems,
inspection vehicles, noise barriers, track
fastenings
The selection process must ensure that
individual products or certain
manufacturers are not favored.
It goes without saying that the entire
design phase must be intensively
underpinned by structural engineering, as
the project owner requires a feasible
construction plan as a design result, which
can be used as the basis for a binding
invitation to tender for the construction
project. The structural engineer must
provide a verifiable preliminary structural
calculation and dimensioning. It is
involved in the
2 Engineering tasks in bridge
construction
It is responsible for the design of the load-
bearing cross-sections and junctions and
must statically check the arrangement of
joints and recesses. It must determine the
statically and structurally required material
on which the cost calculation is based.
The following section provides
information on some design elements
from the perspective of the design
engineer. Once again, the design engineer
must provide his client with a
construction design plan that can be
implemented in reality without restrictions
and thus already represents a fundamental
part of the execution planning.
2.2.5 Notes on the building foundation
As a rule, a foundation type
corresponding to the local subsoil
conditions is already recommended in the
subsoil report. Its feasibility must be
implemented and described in the design.
The same applies to the excavation pits
required to create the foundation. Table
2.2-7 lists some keywords that must be
taken into account in the design.
2.2.6 Notes on the substructures
Regardless of the type of construction of
the abutments and piers of a bridge, in
Table 2.2-7 Notes on building foundations and
securing excavations
Open excavation pit, permissible slope
inclinations, excavation pit protection (sheet
pile walls, bored pile walls, shotcrete, icing,
etc.), scour protection, water retention (open
or closed), groundwater aggressiveness, soil
improvement, soil replacement, subgrade for
pile foundations, backfilling
2.2 Design planning
Figure 2.2-2 Bridge inspection scaffolding for a railroad bridge according to
[Prommersberger/Rojek, 1987].
In most cases, the accessibility of the
structure for inspection, maintenance and
repair purposes is realized via these load
trasnfering structural members. The
maintenance requirements have an
influence on the clear distances and
heights of adjacent structural elements to
ensure proper accessibility, on the space
required to accommodate lifting gear and
lifting presses for the repair or
replacement of bearing bodies, on the
accessibility of drainage and other supply
and disposal systems, on sufficient
lighting and ventilation and on the
lockability of the components to be
accessed. Figure 2.2-2 shows the
175
Possible use of work scaffolding for
inspection, maintenance and repair
purposes for a railroad bridge.
Corresponding supports and openings
must be taken into account as part of the
design.
2.2.7 Notes on positioning
and mobility
The design should always ensure that the
structure is supported as free of
constraints as possible. Considerations
regarding the arrangement of the
176
However, when determining the fixed
point of the beam, it is not only the
movement possibilities that must be taken
into account, but also the absorption of
the static and dynamic horizontal forces,
taking into account the subsoil and
substructure stiffnesses. In the case of
high horizontal forces, it may be necessary
to transfer these through separate
horizontal bearings. This problem is
particularly relevant for bridges for high-
speed rail lines. Publication D804 contains
various system options for the perfect
transfer of high longitudinal forces in
seamless welded rails.
A critical point is the transition of the
roadway from the earth structure to the
structure. A suitable, suitably sealed
structure of the earth structure in the
abutment area is one of the design
elements of the structure; its planning is
part of the structural design.
2.2.8 Notes on bridge drainage and sealing
A well-functioning roadway drainage
system that quickly and reliably drains the
surface water that accumulates in the area
of the structure is one of the essential
components of the equipment for the safe
use of a bridge. The number and
arrangement of bridge inlets and pipe
diameters are based on a hydraulic
calculation. All drainage facilities must be
arranged in a way that ensures
maintainability. Although it is
problematic for the aesthetics of the
structure to install pipework visibly on the
structure, in this case safety takes
precedence over beauty if the pipes cannot
be accommodated within an easily
accessible load-bearing cross-section.
2 Engineering tasks in bridge
construction
Sealing coats, joint seals and structural
coverings must be considered in
accordance with the state of the art with
reference to the corresponding technical
guidelines and standards in the design.
Inspection shafts and connection of the
bridge drainage to the roadway drainage
or to the receiving watercourse must also
be taken into account. Figure 2.2-3 shows
the cross-section of an overpass structure
with attached drainage.
2.2.9 Notes on construction and manufacturing
processes
Dimensional stability (construction
tolerances), permissible deformations,
surface quality and coloring of the
individual structures of a bridge are
usually defined in regulations, or they are
specified by the project owner and, if
necessary, his architectural consultant.
The design must ensure that the selected
dimensions not only meet the
requirements of the planned use, but also
correspond to the construction and
manufacturing processes intended for use.
Despite all the constraints imposed by
regulations and local boundary
conditions, design planning in particular
shows that bridge construction is one of
the most demanding disciplines in civil
engineering. The strong dominance of the
supporting structure characterizes the
image of bridge structures and requires
the planning engineer to have a high
degree of competence in order to be able
to design an optimal structure in terms of
technology, design and economy. Figures
2.2-4 and 2.2-5 show two outstanding
examples of modern bridge construction.
2.2 Design planning 177

Figure 2.2-3 Bridge drainage, suspension according to BMV-Riz. Was 13

Figure 2.2-4 Ting Kau Bridge, Hong Kong. Design: Schlaich, Bergermann and Partners

Figure 2.2-5 Viaduct Zahme Gera in the course of the BAB A 71. Design: Fritsch Ingenieure
178
2.3 planning for building permit
application (HOAI phase 4)
Bridges that are integrated into the public
road and waterway transport network are
built by the state, an administrative district
or a municipality. There are no higher-
level approval authorities. The design plan
is therefore the officially approved basis for
every new bridge construction. The
situation is different for private clients.
Deutsche Bahn AG has also been a private
project owner since 1994. For this reason,
the German Federal Railway Authority
(EBA) was established at the same time as
the approval authority for Deutsche Bahn
AG's construction projects.
As part of the planning for building
permit application (HOAI phase 4), the
verifiable structural analysis for the entire
bridge structure is prepared. In Germany,
this highly responsible engineering task is
no longer usually carried out by the
structural engineer accompanying the
design. For reasons of liability and
warranty, the public sector client usually
links these engineering services to the
execution planning and assigns them to
the construction company via the
invitation to tender. As a result of
restructuring in the construction industry,
only a few large construction companies
still have their own high-performance
technical office, so that the construction
company often outsources the approval
and execution planning to an independent
engineering office. In this case, it can
happen that the structural engineer
accompanying the design is reintegrated
into the process and can continue his
work, albeit now under a different client.
As a further argument in favor of this
usually planned alternation of the engineers
between design and execution, the public
procurement contractors like to cite the
resulting stimulus from the construction
industry for design variants.
2 Engineering tasks in bridge
construction
The project owner can also offer alternate
bids, which can be submitted by the
construction companies during the
tendering process and which are expected
to provide a technically and economically
optimized solution compared to the
tendered design. In the section
2.4 This issue is addressed again in the
following section.
2.4 Invitation to tender
2.4.1 Tender with quantity takeoff
In contrast to the procedure stipulated in
[HOAI, 1986], in bridge construction the
tender for the construction project, which
includes a quantity takeoff, is not
prepared on the basis of the preceding
approval and implementation planning.
In this case, the design planning is used as
the basis for the invitation to tender. This
explains how high the demands on the
design planning are with regard to its
completeness and feasibility. The
determination and breakdown by
individual items cannot therefore be
carried out on the basis of execution plans
in which all components are fully
dimensioned and calculated. This
procedure places high demands on the
structural pre-calculation of the bridge
structure. For example, the foundation
dimensions must be calculated in advance
in order to be able to accurately specify the
material quantities for the foundation
excavation. The same applies to all other
components of the substructure and
superstructure, for the load-bearing forces
and movement possibilities of the bridge
bearings and roadway crossings, as well as
for all supply and disposal facilities. What
cannot be calculated and determined in
detail during the design work due to the
effort involved, for example the
reinforcement proportion for reinforced
concrete and prestressed concrete
components,
2.4 Invitation to tender
must therefore be appreciated. This
requires a great deal of experience and this
is where the planning engineer will run
into difficulties at the latest if he does not
have comprehensive expertise in the field
of execution planning. Obviously
incorrect investigations or non-realizable
constructions can lead to the cancellation
of the tender or, if they are only
discovered after the contract has been
awarded, to new price negotiations
between the project owner and the
construction company.
The invitation to tender for a bridge
construction project with quantity takeoff
is divided into the following sections:
A: Letter from the project owner with
application conditions
B: Tender documents
The tender documents include:
01: Prepared offer letter from the bidder
02: Special contract terms with complete
table of contents of the entire tender,
including all planning documents
03: Service description with verbal
construction description and requested
quality management, including
associated annexes
04: List of services
05: Planning documents
06: Building ground and foundation
reports 07: Official support
The manual for the awarding and execution
of construction work in road and bridge
construction [HVA-StB, 2001], published
by the Federal Ministry of Transport,
Building and Housing, serves as a guideline
for drawing up the invitation to tender. It
contains samples and forms for the correct
and complete preparation of tenders. An
equally important document for drawing
up a tender is the
179
German Construction Contract Procedures
[VOB, 2000], which contains the
following three parts:
Part A: General provisions for the award of
construction contracts DIN 1960
Part B: General contractual provisions for
the execution of construction work
DIN 1961
Part C: General Technical Conditions of
Contract for Construction Work.
The scope of a tender for a medium-sized
bridge structure comprises around 150
pages of text and forms. This does not
include the planning annexes, the
foundation report and the "official
support". The scope of such a document
requires not only excellent technical
knowledge but also a solid understanding
of the legal basis of construction contracts.
The cause of the negotiations or processes
between the project owner and the
contractor regarding the correct invoicing
of a public procurement contract, which
often last several years, can often be found
in inadequate tendering.
The invitation to tender for a bridge
construction project is published. The
main publication organs are:
• Official Journal of the EU
• Federal Tender Gazette
Smaller construction projects at municipal
level are also published in the relevant
daily newspapers. In addition to the
building, the source of supply for the
tender documents, the dates for
submission and award (tender validity
period) and a contact point for queries are
named in the publication. Publication,
dispatch and the tender documents are
now largely carried out on data carriers or
via the Internet.
180
2.4.2 Boundary conditions for special designs
Bridge structures for which a realization
competition is held (see section 2.1.3) are
generally executed according to the design
that won the competition, so that special
designs are excluded from the outset.
Monument preservation concerns or
constraints imposed by existing
topographies, buildings or soil conditions
can also lead to the exclusion of special
designs. However, if circumstances
permit, public contracting entities are
certainly interested in special proposals or
alternatives to the tendered design.
However, specific boundary conditions
must be formulated in the invitation to
tender in order to fulfill the intended
purpose of the building and ensure
comparability with the tendered design.
Failure to do so can lead to the tender and
award being contested. The boundary
conditions must be formulated in the
construction description. In any case, the
bidder must offer the tendered services in
full and draw up comparable
specifications for the special design
submitted by him. Special designs may
include, in particular, the foundation, the
construction method, but also the building
materials and the overall construction. In
the case of contracts awarded on the basis
of a special design, the quantity risk is
transferred to the construction company,
while the foundation risk remains with the
project owner. In addition, alternative
proposals for individual positions are also
possible, in which the construction of the
bridge is not significantly changed.
2 Engineering tasks in bridge
construction
2.4.3 Functional tendering
The main difference between a functional
invitation to tender and the procedure
already described in 2.4.1 and 2.4.2 is that
the functional invitation to tender is not
accompanied by a bill of quantities. All
other components listed in the previous
chapters are also part of a functional
invitation to tender, whereby the definition
of the boundary conditions and the
construction description must be so clear
that the project owner's idea can be
derived from the tender documents
without any room for interpretation. It is
then up to the bidders to prepare a draft
and a bill of quantities in order to be able
to accurately calculate the construction. It
is not possible to speculate on inaccurate
estimates in the bill of quantities in a
functional tender, as the construction
project is not invoiced according to items,
but as a lump sum at the fixed price
offered. The extent to which it is
economically justifiable that extensive
planning services have to be provided by
all bidders at the same time in a functional
tendering process is, of course, an open
question.
The example of the Geratal bridge in
Ichtershausen, see Fig. 2.4-1, shows the
possibilities offered by a functional tender
for qualified application. The construction
was optimized as part of a special design,
particularly in the area of the foundation.
With the use of prestressed concrete
launching gantry, an economical
construction method was chosen in this
case.
2.4.4 Commitment to clarity
Every invitation to tender must be drafted
in such a way that the will of the project
owner is clearly and unambiguously
expressed. Insofar as the
2.5 Quotation processing
Figure 2.4-1 Geratal bridge Ichtershausen in the course of the NBS Erfurt - Nuremberg,
construction with launching gantry made of prestressed concrete and steel beak
If the specification leaves room for
interpretation for individual components,
the bidder is permitted to make an
assumption. As explained in Chapter 2.8.
(Supplements), such assumptions always
give rise to supplements, which can lead
to considerable increases in the value of
the construction project.
2.5 Quotation processing
In the course of tender processing, the
construction companies interested in a
bridge construction project put out to
tender become active. The first step is to
work through the tender documents under
great time pressure and, after analyzing
them, to determine a concept for the
preparation of the tender. As there is
usually only a period of 6 - 8 weeks
available for this, the decision on the
preparation of special designs, the
formation of joint ventures and the
contractual commitment of
subcontractors must be made at this early
stage.
181
fall. Coordinations are often made in
advance of an expected tender. The main
components of tender processing are listed
in Table 2.5.1. The prerequisite for a
qualified offer that can be implemented in
the event of an order is a coherent concept
for the construction process, the
construction procedure and the
deployment of personnel and equipment.
Special designs can also be developed as
part of this conceptualization, in which the
special possibilities and requirements of the
project are taken into account.
Table 2.5-1 Key components of quotation
processing
Construction methods, construction
technology, construction site equipment,
personnel concept, use of equipment, review
of quantity estimates, calculation of
individual items, obtaining subcontractor
bids, planning of construction time and
construction processes, preparation of the
bid - bill of quantities, preparation of special
designs and alternate bids, financing
182
experience (e.g. device equipment, patents,
licenses, etc.) of individual companies.
As a result of the bid processing, the
bid specifications are prepared shortly
before the bid submission and, in the case
of special designs and alternate bids,
supplemented with the necessary technical
documents. The final determination of the
bid price is then also made taking into
account overriding corporate interests.
The legally binding signatory of the tender
by one or more authorized representatives
of the bidding construction company or
bidding consortium is a prerequisite for
the evaluation of the tender.
2.6 Submission
All tenders must be submitted in a sealed
envelope to the place specified by the
project owner by the submission date
stated in the publication. In the presence of
the bidders or their representatives, the
bids are opened and read out by the client.
However, this first price comparison does
not yet indicate who will be awarded the
contract. Especially not if alternative bids
and special proposals were permitted. As
submissions are public, the order in which
the bidders are read out may be published
in the relevant printed matter as the
submission schedule.
2.7 Awarding
In the period between submission and
award, which may never be longer than
the tender validity period, all tenders are
examined, recalculated and evaluated.
2 Engineering tasks in bridge
construction
It is checked whether there are no
violations of the procurement regulations,
whether the bidder has sufficient
experience in bridge construction, whether
the special designs adhere to the boundary
conditions set out in the invitation to
tender and whether the unit prices quoted
are realistic. All items are recalculated,
both for the draft invitation to tender and
for any special designs and alternate bids.
A price comparison list is prepared from
the recalculations, which is based 100
percent on the most favorable bidder. This
price comparison list is prepared not only
for the total bid amount, but also for the
bid amounts of any partial lots tendered
and for the prices of the individual items.
This results in sufficient transparency
according to which the bids can be
evaluated.
can be taken.
Finally, all offers are evaluated
according to the previous tests and
recalculations.
Before the contract is awarded, the most
interesting bidders for the client, usually
no more than 3 or 4, are invited to a
meeting in which they have the
opportunity to explain the technical
aspects of the bid and clarify any
uncertainties. Once the client has clarified
which bidder has offered the best and most
cost-effective solution for the tendered
project on the basis of the evaluations and
the results of the negotiations, a
construction contract is drawn up and
concluded on the basis of the tender. The
award of the contract is in turn announced
in the corresponding public publications.
2.9 Testing
2.8 Implementation planning
In the rarest of cases, namely when a
bridge is built by way of a realization
competition, the project owner
commissions the entire structural
engineering in his own name before the
construction work is awarded, because the
design, equipment and construction of the
bridge are clearly defined. As a rule,
however, the structural engineer is
commissioned together with the
construction work. As already explained in
sections 2.2 (design planning) and 2.4
(invitation to tender), the date for the start
of execution planning is therefore usually
after the date of the award of contract.
The structural engineer commissioned by
the construction company must now
prepare the structural calculations and the
implementation planning under the
pressure of a short lead time. The share of
the execution planning to be provided by
the object planning
Table 2.8-1 Components of the
implementation planning
Verifiable static calculation of
substructures and superstructures and all
construction aids, including all
construction stages, deformation
calculations with associated measurement
logs, calculation of bearing bodies and
transitions, stress and strain and bearing
path calculations including associated logs
Stakeout plans
Formwork, reinforcement and tensioning
plans for reinforced concrete and
prestressed concrete structures, workshop
drawings for timber and steel structures,
construction plans for construction aids,
setting plans for bridge supports and
transitions, railing plans, drawings of all
equipment parts, stone setting plans for
cladding, positive parts and material lists,
installation and laying instructions.
183
The design is usually already provided
with the plans that are included with the
tender (see section 2.4.1). Since the
following chapters 5 to 10 provide detailed
information on all construction parts,
execution methods and construction
methods of a bridge, including their
calculation in all material variants, only
the essential components of the execution
planning are dealt with here. They are
summarized in Table 2.8-1.
2.9 Examination
The involvement of an independent test
engineer ensures a high degree of safety.
This means that the two-person rule also
applies to structural design in bridge
construction, as in building and industrial
construction.
However, as the road construction
administration has its own building
authority, bridge construction projects are
not subject to public building law. The
building permit authority is the respective
road construction administration, in railroad
construction the German Federal Railway
Authority. In contrast to the inspection
engineer, who assumes sovereign tasks
within the framework of public building
law as an entrusted contractor, the
inspection engineer and the safety expert
appointed by the EBA work within the
framework of a contract under private
law. In principle, the inspection can also
be carried out by employees of the
licensing authority itself.
The scope of the inspection includes
the verifications in the ultimate limit state
and the execution drawings for the final
state and the construction states. In
addition, the inspection engineer can also
be assigned the inspection of
serviceability, geometry (staking out),
compliance with the building contract and
economic efficiency.
184
The basis for the inspection is the
structural design on which the
construction contract is based. In addition
to monitoring compliance with the state
of the art defined in regulations and
codes, the inspection engineer's work
includes in particular recognizing the
essential stress conditions of the load-
bearing behavior and the interaction
between the subsoil and the structure.
2.10 Construction, construction
supervision, invoicing
2.10.1 Construction
In Germany, the construction of bridges is
a cooperation between the construction
company and the public project owner,
provided that the bridge is part of the
public road, highway, waterway or rail
network. In this case, the construction
company is represented by its
construction supervisor, while the public
project owner is represented by the local
construction supervision and site
management. The structural engineer
must also be involved in the construction
process on site on a case-by-case basis.
This is essential if unusual construction
methods are used that are not yet state of
the art, or if complicated assembly
conditions are to be carried out in which
the currently measured deformations of
the components play a significant role for
the further assembly procedure. The
inspection engineer appointed by the
project owner must also be present on the
construction site if necessary, especially if
he has been assigned certain inspection
functions by the project owner, e.g.
acceptance of the reinforcement for
reinforced concrete and prestressed
concrete structures. The various bridge
construction methods are discussed in
Chapter 9, which is why only the
organizational aspects are discussed here.
2 Engineering tasks in bridge
construction
Table 2.10-1 Construction site management
tasks
Organization of construction site equipment
and logistics, preparation of a construction
schedule, presentation of the current
construction progress compared to the
target curve, ordering of material
requirements, determination and
deployment of the respective personnel
requirements, scheduling and control of
subcontractor services, arranging the
necessary in-house and third-party
monitoring of building materials, arranging
control measurements during construction,
including their logging and evaluation,
ongoing cost and quality control, initiating
decision-making processes in the event of
unforeseen construction problems, checking
compliance with professional association
requirements with regard to construction
site safety, keeping construction files
(planning documents, delivery notes,
minutes, meeting notes, etc.), convening
meetings and meetings with the
construction team.etc.), convening
extraordinary construction meetings,
reporting delays or delays in all deliveries
required for construction, recording
changes to the construction work compared
to the plans
The construction manager is responsible for the
construction work and its realization. All
execution issues converge in the person of
the construction manager, who, in
accordance with the VOB, is to be
appointed by the commissioned
contractor as the responsible contact
person. The most important of his various
tasks are summarized in Table 2.10-1,
while Figure 2.10-1 shows parts of the
construction schedule for a railway bridge
on the Mann- heim - Stuttgart main line.
As the representative of the
construction company building the bridge,
the responsible site manager has a very
broad range of tasks. As an engineer, he
must take or arrange for all measures
necessary for the technically flawless and
safe construction of the structure. At the
same time, he is also responsible for the
 2.10 Construction, construction supervisor, 185
invoicing
economic realization of the project.
186
Fig. 2.10-1 Example of a construction sequence: Railway bridge in the course of the NBS
Mannheim - Stutt- gart [Penner, 1987].
management of the construction task. As
the representative of the commissioned
construction company or consortium, he
has to represent the business interests of
both the subcontractors and the project
owner. In view of the high proportion of
services that are usually provided by
subcontractors today, these areas of
responsibility, with their often
contradictory objectives, place the highest
demands on engineers working in
construction management.
2.10.2 Local construction supervisor
For the local construction supervision of
bridge structures, the project owner often
requires
2 Engineering tasks in bridge
construction
a specialist office. Sometimes it is also
carried out by the project owner himself,
provided he has his own staff available. The
tasks of local construction supervision are
shown in Table 2.10-2. In the case of larger
bridge structures, this area of responsibility
requires an almost constant presence of
local construction supervision on the
construction site.
2.10.3 Site management
In bridge construction, local construction
supervision is overseen by the construction
supervisor. This site management is usually
carried out by the project owner's
specialists, but can also be delegated by the
project owner to a subcontractor.
 2.10 Construction, construction supervisor,
invoicing
Table 2.10-2 Performance profile of local
construction supervisors
(1) Monitoring the execution of the
project for compliance with the
documents approved for execution, the
construction contract and the
generally recognized rules of
technology and the relevant
regulations,
(2) Stake out main axes for the object from
vertical control points close to the
object and establish vertical control
points in the object area, unless the
services have to be provided with special
instrumental and surveying procedural
requirements, mark construction sites
locally,
(3) Keeping a construction diary,
(4) Joint measurement with the
contractors,
(5) Participation in the acceptance of
services and deliveries,
(6) Auditor,
(7) Participation in official approvals,
(8) Participate in monitoring the
functionality of the object,
(9) Monitoring the elimination of defects
determined to have been performed
during the acceptance of the services,
(10) Monitoring the execution of load-
bearing structures for compliance with
the stability certificate.
engineering office. The performance of
the site management is described in the
§§ The services are listed in Sections 55
(object planning) and 64 (structural
planning) of the HOAI and are shown in
Table 2.10-3 as a concentrated excerpt for
the purpose of comparison with the services
of local construction supervision.
According to §64 of the HOAI, the
structural engineer is only involved in site
management in special cases, namely if he
has been commissioned with the
engineering control of the construction
work or the construction aids in a special
case. The engineering supervision of the
manufacture, processing and installation of
the
187
Table 2.10-3 Scope of services of the
construction management
Supervision of local construction
supervision, coordination of those involved
in construction site supervision, checking for
compliance and approval of third-party
plans
Drawing up and monitoring a schedule
Putting the executing companies in default
Acceptance of services and deliveries with
the preparation of a record of the result of the
acceptance
Application for and participation in official
approvals
Handover of the property including the
associated construction files
Compiling maintenance instructions
Monitoring the functional test
Listing the limitation periods for warranty
claims
Determination of costs
Cost control by checking the contractor's
statement of work against the contract prices
and the updated cost calculation
Curing of concrete may be required in
special cases as part of a concrete
technology consultation.
Local construction supervisors and site
managers also have a number of
regulations at their disposal for fulfilling
their responsibilities, the most important
of which are summarized in Table 2.10-4.
[HVA-StB, 2001] provides in paragraph
2.1, among other things, concrete
procedural instructions with regard to the
relationship of construction supervision
to the contractor, subcontractors and
construction site neighbors, it regulates the
construction site signage, the handling of
building material and component
inspections, the preparation of daily
construction reports by the contractor, the
preparation of the ordinal number control
list as a basis
188
Table 2.10-4 Regulations for construction supervision and site management
Rules and regulations
[HVA-StB, 2001] Manual for the awarding
and execution of construction work in road
and bridge construction (HVA-StB Part 3)
[Leaflet, 2001] for the construction supervision
of civil engineering structures (M-BÜ-K)
[Rili 804, 2003] Contracting Regulations for
Construction Services
for the funding requirements to be
determined and finally the keeping of the
construction diary. Sections 2.2 and 2.3
[HVA-StB 2001] regulate the billing of the
construction project and also contain
sample sheets, e.g. for on-site
measurement. Paragraph 2.4 contains the
handling of supplements. The other
paragraphs relate to the delay and
interruption of execution, the provision of
security, the handling of invoices and
payments, including payments to third
parties, acceptance and warranty. The
[Merk- blatt, 1996] is primarily relevant
for monitoring compliance of the
construction work with the generally
recognized rules of technology. It lists all
relevant regulations and contains
checklists according to which the
individual components of a bridge can be
checked, from the foundation to
corrosion and surface protection, with
reference to the applicable regulations. A
sound knowledge of [Rili 804, 2003] is
essential for monitoring the construction
work with regard to compliance with the
construction contract. It goes without
saying that the construction supervisor
must also know, observe and be able to
refer to the regulations cited in the draft
approval and execution planning at any
time.
2 Engineering tasks in bridge
construction
Publisher
Federal Ministry of Transport, Building
and Housing
Federal Ministry of Transport, Building
and Housing
DIN German Institute for Standardization
2.10.4 Construction supervision for
functionally tendered bridge structures
With the exception of the tasks relating to
the determination of installed quantities by
comparing plans or on-site measurement,
all the tasks, rules and responsibilities
already mentioned also apply to the
construction supervisor of functionally
tendered bridge structures. As the
invoicing of a bridge structure tendered in
this way is carried out on a lump-sum
basis, a payment plan must be maintained
which releases advance payments to the
contractor on the basis of the respective
construction progress reports.
2.10.5 Billing
According to [Rili 804, 2004] Part B § 14
No. 1, the contractor is obliged to invoice
his services in a verifiable manner and to
provide evidence of the type and scope of
the partial services on the basis of the
ordinal numbers (OZ) of the service
specifications by submitting calculations,
drawings and other documents. Invoicing
is carried out either according to target
data or actual data. For invoicing
according to target data, the execution
plans approved by the project owner,
including parts lists, serve as the basis for
invoicing, provided that there is no
deviation from these target documents.
 2.10 Construction, construction supervisor,
invoicing
has been built. When invoicing according
to actual data, measurements, weighing or
delivery notes, consignment notes and
time sheets are required as supporting
documents. Any agreed wage and material
price escalation clauses, as may be agreed
for construction projects whose
construction period extends over several
years, must be taken into account when
invoicing.
The HVA-StB already cited contains
information on billing with IT systems,
with particular reference to the "Collection
of regulations for electronic construction
billing" (REB collection).
Contracts awarded on the basis of a
special design or a functional tender are
not invoiced on the basis of quantity
quotations, but according to lump-sum
price agreements with payment plans.
2.10.6 Supplements
No matter how correctly and completely a
bridge construction project is tendered, it
will never be possible to completely avoid
supplements. Supplements are
amendments or additions to the
construction contract. They must be
agreed in writing and can have the
following causes:
• Exceeding or falling short of the
estimate of an item by more than 10%.
• Change in performance
• Additional service.
The regulations required for this are listed
in §2 of the VOB.
If an item in the bill of quantities is
under- or overestimated, the project
owner or construction company may
demand a change to the unit price.
A change to the service may arise if the
client requests a decision on the
189
design changes. Such design changes may
arise if other local conditions are
encountered during the construction
process that were not foreseeable when
the design was drawn up, or if it turns out
that a component envisaged in the design
cannot be realized with the structural
means provided for this purpose. Such
design changes can occur in the
foundation area in particular if, for
example, the foundation bases on site are
deeper than anticipated or other
dewatering measures become necessary
due to weather-related circumstances. In
inner-city areas, changes to the
foundations can always occur because
supply or disposal lines are encountered in
the construction area that are not included
in the existing plans of the pension
providers or are in a different position.
Additional services are required if
components have to be erected that are
not included in the design. Thus
z. For example, additional retaining walls
may be required to support the terrain on
site due to insufficient terrain.
As supplementary negotiations always
entail a not inconsiderable potential for
conflict and a cost risk, every design
engineer should always endeavor to
produce a complete, technically and
contractually sound design with the help
of suitable quality assurance methods.
2.11 acceptance
procedure (HOAI phase 9)
As a rule, a limitation period for the
warranty is agreed in the construction
contract for bridge structures. It begins
with the acceptance of the structure.
Before this period expires, the object must
be
2.12 Engineering tasks for existing bridges
The contractor must be inspected to
determine any defects and thus warranty
claims against the contractor. If defects are
identified, their rectification must be
monitored. Depending on the complete
contract performance by the contractor,
the engineer must also cooperate in the
release of the securities agreed in the
construction contract.
The engineer's final task is to
systematically compile the drawings and
the calculation results. The essential data
of the structure are recorded in a structure
book. A photographic documentation of
the bridge structure with its views and
soffits, its abutments and piers as well as
all significant special features is also
produced and archived.
2.12 Engineering tasks in
existing bridges
The constantly increasing volume of traffic
and the large number of old bridges
ensure that civil engineers are faced with a
wide range of tasks in the maintenance
and expansion of existing bridges. Many
tasks are similar to those of new
construction, which is why only the
special features of planning and building
in existing structures are referred to
below. Figures 2.12-1 and 2.12-2 show the
age structures of existing road and rail
bridges in Germany.
2.12.1 Monitoring, evaluating
and assessing bridges
With the takeover into the portfolio of a
construction authority (federal, state,
district, municipality), the responsibility
for
189
the preservation of the structure. The
basis for the inspection of bridges with
regard to their load-bearing capacity,
serviceability and durability is DIN 1076,
which stipulates main inspections every 6
years and simple inspections every 3 years
after a main inspection. Additional tests
are required in the event of special
incidents, such as a vehicle hitting a
support. The results of the inspections are
documented in the structure file and the
defects/damage to the structure are
marked so that any problems that occur
can be monitored in the future. This
creates the basis for taking measures to
assess and remediate cases of damage.
In the meantime, the trend is towards
the development of management systems
that allow a structured use of resources in
the maintenance of structures [Zilch, et
al., 2000]. The procurement of reliable
data as a basis for decision-making may
require the use of modern monitoring
instruments. The content of the activities
in this area is generally less in the static-
constructive area than in bridge
equipment. Demanding static-
constructive project requirements
specifications are the assessment of
detected damage,
z. e.g. fatigue cracks in steel structures,
corrosion damage to steel components or
exposed reinforcement, prestressing
cables and their anchorages. In many
cases, the demolition of a bridge can be
delayed by several years through
appropriate repairs, restrictions on use,
mathematical assessment of the actual
condition using real operational load
trains instead of standardized load models
and permanent monitoring. In this
context, the mathematical determination
of the "remaining service life" of fatigue-
damaged steel structures should also be
mentioned
190
Fig. 2.12-1 Stock of road bridges in Germany according to [Friebel/Krieger, 2002].
ness. Based on many years of experience,
the demand for easy controllability,
interchangeability or the possibility of
repairing damaged parts is rated very
highly today and has a strong influence on
technical developments in bridge
construction. One example of this is the
use of external prestressing as a standard
construction method for concrete box
girders.
2 Engineering tasks in bridge
construction
2.12.2 Repair and upgrading of bridges
If the condition of a bridge requires repair
and upgrading measures, these must at
least be planned and carried out taking
into account special requirements, e.g.
carrying out the work while traffic is still
moving. An important aspect here is
ensuring the suitability of the building
materials used and their compatibility
with the existing structure.
2.12 Engineering tasks for existing bridges
Fig. 2.12-2 Stock of railroad bridges in Germany according to [König et al., 1986].
Repair work can be associated with
temporary or permanent changes in the
static system or in the play of forces. One
example of this is the renewal of the road
surface. If the work is carried out while
traffic is still moving, the one-sided traffic
load and the one-sided absence of the
road surface and possibly the edge beams
create large torsional moments that can be
decisive for the supporting structure and
the bearings.
Structures calculated according to
modern standards are designed for such
situations, whereas older structures were
often only designed for their final
condition and, where deemed necessary,
the construction stages.
2.12.3 Reinforcement of bridge structures
The need to reinforce existing bridge
structures is given in the following cases:
1. If the load-bearing capacity is
insufficient, e.g. if the track is to be
raised to a higher load level or adapted
to a new standard situation. Before
191
Particularly in the case of very old
railroad bridges, it should be noted that
these sometimes also meet today's
vertical loads (operating load trains),
but hardly have a defined load-bearing
capacity for horizontal loads
(centrifugal forces, wind forces, but
especially starting and braking forces).
2. In case of unsatisfactory serviceability
(deformations, vibration behavior, noise
development). Unacceptably large
deformations mainly affect beam
bridges made of reinforced and
prestressed concrete and often result
from shrinkage and creep of the concrete
and abutment movements. Unacceptable
vibrations can be caused by changes in
the conditions of use. Strong noise
development is often due to the fact
that no importance was attached to
noise protection and noise avoidance
when the bridge was built. The latter
two points mainly affect steel bridges.
When reinforcing bridges, a distinction
must be made as to whether the measures
affect the bridge structure, the
substructures or all parts.
192
2.12.4 Replacement or widening o f
structural components or entire
structures
In many cases, when a bridge is repaired
or widened, the stability, serviceability
and durability of the substructures can be
restored at an economically justifiable cost
through renovation. In the case of
superstructures, on the other hand, a new
construction can often be technically and
economically more sensible. As a rule,
traffic can be maintained or only short
closures are possible.
Particularly in the case of railroad
bridges, it is often necessary to minimize
disruption to existing traffic. The standard
methods are to replace the superstructure
by lifting out the old and lifting in the new
structures, by arranging scaffolding on
both sides and moving the old and new
structures sideways, by using provisional
bridges or by pressing in to protect the
subsoil from icing. Due to the often
difficult accessibility or due to changed
site conditions compared to the time of
construction, the arrangement of
scaffolding is sometimes impossible and
the supporting structures often have to be
replaced on site.
Figure 2.12-3 Siebenlehn viaduct. Transverse displacement of the new superstructure for a
directional roadway
2 Engineering tasks in bridge
construction
Due to the variety of possible boundary
conditions, sensible measures must be
taken on a case-by-case basis; as a rule,
they pose real challenges to the
engineering mind. In addition to structural
and design problems, there are always
operational problems to be solved.
The expansion of traffic routes and
subsequent installation of noise protection
devices require the road surface to be
widened. Where this is possible, the
structural changes will be limited to
widening the superstructure. As with the
replacement of supporting structures, it is
often necessary to minimize the impact on
existing traffic. Due to the simple
possibility of oxyfuel cutting and welding
or bolted connections with GV or fitting
bolts, the comparatively low component
weights and the immediately available full
component stiffness, the corresponding
inputs for steel bridges are much easier to
carry out than for concrete bridges. In the
latter case, the possibility of bondless pre-
tensioning with external tendons and the
use of GRP reinforcement opens up new
solutions.
If a widening of the superstructure is
not possible due to structural or geo-
2.12 Engineering tasks for existing bridges
Fig. 2.12-4 Widening a railroad bridge with an additional superstructure
metric reasons, either two new
superstructures on the substructures to be
widened or a completely new bridge
structure next to the existing bridge may
be required. Both of these not only place
high demands on the planning of the
supporting structures but also, in
particular, on the design of the overall
structure.
2.12.5 Demolition of bridge structures
For environmental protection reasons
alone, the demolition process must
generally be carried out carefully. Due to
the considerably lower weights and
193
Due to the simple possibility of separating
components and handling them with
lifting gear, demolition in steel and timber
construction is usually much easier than
in concrete construction; the process
almost corresponds to a planned
"dismantling". In the case of in-situ
concrete structures, it will usually be
necessary to cut or blast structural
elements, whereas in the case of
prefabricated structures, the type of
systematic demolition may depend on the
type and size of the prefabricated elements
and the joint formation. As with
production, demolition usually involves
changing static systems, which may also
require bracing and/or auxiliary
scaffolding.
3 Draft
CHRISTIAN MENN and JOHANN KOLLEGGER
The design is the basis of the construction
project. The aim of the design is to
develop a technically flawless, feasible
concept that optimally corresponds to the
location, the surroundings, the
significance and the size of the bridge in
terms of costs and aesthetics. With the
presentation of the conceptual idea, the
design must reach a project planning stage
that ensures that the construction project
can be developed without significant
changes and that a relatively reliable
estimate of the construction costs is
already possible.
In the case of engineering bridges, the
design starts with a suitable load-bearing
system, which is then refined in terms of
functionality and boundary conditions,
taking into account structural,
constructional, economic and design
aspects. The final shape of the bridge is
the result of this development work. At
best, the expressiveness of the form can be
enhanced somewhat with carefully
restrained ornamentation in the details.
In the case of architectural bridges, the
design is essentially based on the form. The
form is then modified as far as necessary,
particularly with regard to feasibility and
construction costs, resulting in the
optimum load-bearing system that
corresponds to the formal basis. As a rule,
this type of design process has economic
disadvantages.
In most cases, the most suitable load-
bearing system can already be determined
with general preliminary studies. Under
certain circumstances, however
Two or more drafts should also be
prepared for a proper comparison.
3.1 Design principles
The conceptual design determines the
load-bearing system, the spans, the
foundations, the building materials, the
cross-sectional design and, to a large
extent, the construction process and
construction time. The basis of the design
work consists on the one hand of the
structure-specific, traffic-related function
and the site-specific boundary conditions
and on the other hand of the general,
functional and cultural requirements.
The building-specific, technical traffic
function and the site-specific boundary
conditions form the basis for the entire
spectrum of suitable load-bearing systems.
The cultural requirements already limit
this spectrum considerably. In
preliminary studies, some important
cross-sectional dimensions are
determined on the basis of the functional
requirements and the feasibility and
suitability of a conceptual idea is checked.
At this level of development, it is usually
possible to determine the optimum
concept, which is then refined in an
interdependent process on an economic-
design basis; i.e. each refinement of form
must be carefully checked in terms of
functional suitability and economic
impact.
196
The construction-specific, traffic
engineering specifications are
• Traffic type,
• Route alignment and
• Utilization cross-section.
The location-specific boundary
conditions essentially consist of
• Topography, geology and hydrology,
• Seismology,
• soil chemistry and local climatology,
• scientific studies. The standardized traffic
binding clearance limits,
• load should only be reviewed and, if
construction time and local
construction technology, as well as
from environmental aspects such as
• Landscape, adjacent buildings,
and temporal environment,
• In the overall planning, the effects of the
Exposure of the bridge location and
• roadway geometry in the bridge section
cultural significance of the bridge,
• Noise emissions and impact of the
structure on vegetation and
• check the roadway geometry with regard
Water.
The general functional stakes include
• Load safety,
• Serviceability and
• Durability.
The cultural requirements consist of an
optimal balance of
• Economic efficiency and
• Aesthetics of the building.
3.2 Building-specific,
traffic-related specifications
In principle, the type of traffic, route
alignment and utilization cross-section are
the basis and results of the higher-level
traffic infrastructure planning and, in this
sense, specifications for the bridge design.
Nevertheless, these specifications should
always be reviewed with regard to their
impact on the structure.
3 Draft
Bridges that are planned and built
according to the current state of
knowledge should have a service life of 80
to 100 years without major reconstruction
and strengthening work. This means that
the future development of the traffic
structure and the traffic load play an
important role with regard to the type of
traffic. This development was taken into
account in the standards when
determining the traffic load on the basis of
necessary, increased for very large bridges
on fixed urban axes for which a service life
of significantly more than 100 years is
already expected at the planning stage.
are often given too little consideration and
therefore the bridge engineer should
to the bridge design and, if necessary,
submit corrections for discussion. Even
small changes to the roadway geometry
can have a major impact on the conceptual
design.
The utilization cross-section in the
bridge area rarely corresponds to that
outside the bridge. When determining the
dimensions, traffic safety in the event of
breakdowns and accidents on the bridge,
the requirements for inspection,
maintenance and resurfacing and the
future development of traffic must be
taken into account. If the increase in
traffic is expected to be rapid compared to
the service life of the bridge, it makes
sense to have reserves in the service width:
if the increase is slower, it may be more
appropriate to provide for measures to
widen the cross-section and ensure the
future load-bearing capacity required in
the main load-bearing direction from the
outset.
3.4 Functional requirements
3.3 Location-specific boundary
conditions
The site-specific boundary conditions are
decisive for the development of suitable
design variants. The existing boundary
conditions should therefore not be
accepted uncritically, but should be
carefully reviewed from the perspective of
the bridge builder: The location of a dirt
road is certainly not decisive in the choice
of pier locations, and structural information
in geological reports may and should be
questioned by the bridge builder. In
connection with the usual boundary
conditions, however, the bridge builder
must also consider future changes in the
bridge's surroundings and rare hazards
from natural disasters, which must be
assessed in relation to the probable service
life of the bridge. The assessment of the
exposure and significance of the bridge in
the cultural environment is partly
subjective. As with all bridge construction
activities, future developments must also
be taken into account.
Even with numerous, specific
boundary conditions, any number of design
variants are possible in principle.
However, it does not make sense to
examine a wide range of variants. In terms
of cost-effectiveness and aesthetics, many
fundamentally possible variants, so-called
zero variants, can be ruled out from the
outset. This makes it all the more
important to study innovative solutions
that have never been implemented before.
Suitable design variants should be
developed on the basis of constructive
considerations from the boundary
conditions; and not be forced into the
boundary conditions based on a more or
less arbitrary, architectural-sculptural or
architectural-metaphorical idea. With a
small number of constructive measures, it
is often possible to achieve many
197
fulfill boundary conditions; the right thing
is usually easy.
3.4 Functional requirements
3.4.1 Load safety
The structural safety refers in detail to the
static structural safety, the fatigue safety,
the dynamic structural safety (in the case
of traffic or wind-induced vibrations) and
the earthquake safety. The actions relevant
for the structural safety are essentially
loads and forces as well as forced
displacements of the supporting structure.
The load-bearing safety is standardized;
i.e. in accordance with the applicable
standard, a standardized load-bearing
reserve must be guaranteed for
standardized actions against the loss of
equilibrium or against the loss of stability
of the structure or individual parts
thereof. If dangerous actions cannot be
conceptually eliminated, the required
load-bearing safety for the most
unfavourable decisive actions is normally
ensured in the design on the basis of
standardized building material parameters
by analytically determined resistances in
the structure.
The standardized structural safety is
binding and usually legally relevant; it
therefore has the highest priority among
the general functional requirements.
In the ultimate limit state, i.e.
immediately before the loss of stability,
structural damage in the form of cracks and
deformations is not relevant. When
verifying the load-bearing safety, internal
force deflections or plastic deformations
may therefore be taken into account
within the scope of the existing
deformation ductility. The prestressing
steel is usually used in the plastic joints.
198
The tensile member is stretched beyond
the pre-strain due to prestressing up to the
yield strength and is therefore considered
in the resistance model as a tensile
member with the effective tensile force
present. In the case of ductile systems, the
pre-strains due to restraints are usually also
exceeded in the limit state of stability.
Therefore, constraints in the first-order
stress range do not have to be taken into
account when verifying structural safety.
3.4.2 Suitability for use
Serviceability means, on the one hand, the
suitability of the structure in terms of use
and with regard to the performance of
inspections and maintenance and, on the
other hand, the long-term behavior of the
structure in terms of appearance and the
behavior of the structure in the event of
accidents that occur during use. To ensure
serviceability, design and construction
measures are required, as well as
measurement and material technology
measures. Serviceability can only be
standardized to a certain extent. The
relevant measures should therefore be
listed in a serviceability verification report
for all serviceability requirements.
With regard to use, the following
requirements and measures must be
observed in particular:
• Protection of vehicles against impact with
bridge elements,
• Adequate user safety
against falls from a height through
appropriate training of railings and
guardrails,
• Protection of users against strong winds
gusts (e.g. with flow deflectors) and
against falling ice from supporting
elements above the roadway (warning
3 Draft
systems or, in extreme cases, heating
systems or safety nets),
• Physiologically acceptable vibration
behavior of the supporting structure,
• High driving comfort; including
effective roadway drainage and
(usually) operational measures to
prevent ice formation on the roadway.
The protective measures against impact
and falling should take into account the
potential hazards (route alignment or
curves in the bridge area, risk of icing,
bridges over railroad facilities).
For all bridges and especially for
pedestrian bridges, at least the first mode
of vibration of the vertical, horizontal and
torsional vibration should be determined,
and if the corresponding vibration
frequency is in the range of the excitation
frequency, additional special investigations
are necessary. In the case of pedestrian
bridges, vertical vibrations are excited by
one or a few people; with heavy pedestrian
traffic, the vibration excitation is only
significant if the people walk in step. In
the case of horizontal vibrations
(transverse to the bridge), numerous
pedestrians take over the bridge frequency
in a "sailor's gait" and thus cause a very
strong vibration excitation.
Bridges ice up much earlier than the
adjoining road sections. Automatic de-
icing systems can be provided for the
differential icing (bridge - road), especially
in foggy areas. However, reliable control of
these systems is difficult and de-icing
systems with salt spray water are
problematic in terms of the structure, not
to mention the fact that these systems are
prone to failure.
The following equipment in particular
is required for inspection and
maintenance of the structure:
3.4 Functional requirements
• Inspection facility for the bearings and
provisions for replacing the bearings,
• Access to all cavities in the load-bearing
factory; exception: fully welded steel
boxes,
• Access to all lines in particular
to the drainage pipes,
• Access to the abutment niches and the
joint constructions.
Modern bridges require periodic
inspections to ensure that they function
properly and maintain their substance. To
ensure that these inspections can be carried
out at all, components that are susceptible
to maintenance, such as bearings, joints
and pipes, must be easily visible. Exposed,
easily visible components also make it
easier to repair or replace these
components.
The following aspects must be
considered with regard to the appearance
of the building
• Avoidance of impermissible structural
deformations,
• Avoidance of structural damage
mainly due to uncontrolled water
runoff.
Impermissible structural deformations are
defined as cracks with an average crack
width of more than 0.3 mm on the one
hand and deviations from the nominal
level on the other.
With correct and careful dimensioning,
there is no risk of impermissible cracks
due to load and force effects. As a rule, it
is sufficient to determine the internal
forces from dead load and pre-tension in
the construction state and in the cast-in
state on the elastic system, to superimpose
the elastic internal forces from live load
on the internal forces of the cast-in state
and to limit the stresses in the reinforcing
steel to a crack width of 0.2 mm
accordingly. In the case of restraints, the
stress ratio from dead load and pre-
tension is taken into account.
199
The deformation capacity, which must be
greater than the effective forced
deformation, is determined geometrically
on the basis of the permissible crack
width.
Deviations from the target level can
have various causes. The most common
are structural deformations due to loads,
forces and pre-tension, temperature
changes and settlements or structural
inaccuracies. These deformations can
impair operation and driving comfort or
be visually disruptive. On road bridges,
operation and ride comfort are practically
only impaired by deformations from
permanent loads and settlements at the
bridge-road junction and at girder joints
in the field. Settlements in the supports
and beam deformations are generally only
visually disruptive. Deformations in
railroad bridges are much more sensitive.
In the case of high-speed railroads,
deformations under traffic load are very
limited; the supporting structure must have
a relatively high minimum stiffness.
In many cases, beam deformations due
to fatigue loads can be reduced to the same
extent as the unavoidable structural
inaccuracies without significant additional
costs by designing the pre-tensioning
accordingly. In the case of cantilever
beams in particular, however, largely true-
to-form pre-tensioning would cause
considerable additional costs. In these and
similar cases, the expected girder
deformations are compensated by
cantilevers. In the case of large expected
deformations, not only careful calculations
taking into account the stress propagation
in the bridge cross-section but also
extensive investigations into the
deformation behavior of the building
materials are essential.
Uncontrolled water run-off, especially
waste water, not only impairs the
appearance of the building; it also
200
is usually also aggressive and causes
corrosion. The bridge design should be
examined very carefully throughout with
regard to contact and (vehicle or wind) spray
water. It should be noted that, on the one
hand, small drainage pipes often become
silted up and sintered and, on the other
hand, that initially sealed construction
elements or openings can become
permeable to water. Drip noses should
therefore be provided for all footing
constructions, pipe penetrations or
openings in the road deck, and pipes for
the pavement drainage must have
projections and must not drain into a box
girder.
In principle, every concrete surface
should be carefully checked to see whether
it is exposed to rain, snow, spray or
contact water, whether the water contains
chloride and whether large fluctuations in
moisture occur. This check is an
important basis for planning the
appropriate measures: increasing the
concrete covering, possibly
hydrophobization in the case of chloride-
free water; absolutely effective concrete
protection in the case of chloride-
containing water.
With regard to the behavior of the
structure in the event of traffic accidents,
the following measures in particular are
required:
• Adequate fire safety corresponding to
the size of the building,
• Appropriate redundancy for sensitive
exposed load-bearing elements.
Vehicle fires and fuel leaks are a hazard
that must be taken into account. Fire
extinguishers should be installed at
relatively small intervals, especially on
bridges with main reinforcement at the
top. Drainage pipes may only be installed
in the girder box if they have a high fire
resistance. A fire in a longitudinal pipe
can hardly be smothered, as
3 Draft
air is supplied to the inlet shafts and cross
pipes, and equipping the inlet shafts with
siphons is only possible with heating wires
due to ice formation. The best place for
longitudinal drainage pipes is behind the
bracket head or at the base of the girder
webs.
Sensitive load-bearing elements must
have adequate redundancy. In the case of
cable-stayed bridges, a vehicle fire on the
bridge must not lead to the collapse of the
structure and it should be possible to
replace a cable with minimal traffic
restrictions. The units of the prestressing
cables should also be selected in such a
way that in the event of a major
construction fault (e.g. corrosion due to
poor injection of a cable sheath) the load-
bearing safety of the overall system is
reduced by a maximum of around 20%.
With regard to resurfacing, the bridge
width for non-directionally separated
carriageways should be determined in
such a way that the work can be carried
out without major difficulties and without
compromising quality. In the case of
directionally separated carriageways, twin
bridges allow unhindered work during
resurfacing; on the other hand, however,
these bridges usually have considerable
aesthetic disadvantages. In the case of
modern bridges that are essentially
planned and constructed professionally, it
is no longer necessary to reinforce or
replace the reinforcement in large areas of
the deck due to severe corrosion damage.
The project owner is generally obliged
to commission qualified specialists, and
with the current level of knowledge,
qualified specialists are easily able to plan
and construct a bridge professionally.
3.4 Functional requirements
3.4.3 Durability
In bridge construction, durability means
that the load-bearing safety and
serviceability of the structure at the time
of commissioning are almost completely
maintained throughout the intended
service life of the structure, subject to
periodic inspection and maintenance.
The service life of the supporting
structure should be around 80 to 100 years.
During this time, the structure should be
renewed at intervals of 20 to
30 years, no more than local repair work
should be necessary. The load-bearing
safety must never drop by more than 10%
locally and, with regard to serviceability,
the final values of the structural
deformations should not exceed the
corresponding calculated values by more
than approx. 30%.
The service life of the pavement sealing
and the protective coatings should be 40
to 50 years for local repairs based on a
condition inspection carried out
approximately every five years. Local
repairs to the pavement must be carried
out as soon as possible when damage
occurs, and extensive resurfacing is
required every 20 to 25 years. After 40 to
50 years, repair work on the drainage
system, parapets, guardrails and mechanic
components (bearings, joint
constructions, etc.) must also be expected,
whereby obvious damage should also be
repaired immediately.
The durability of the supporting
structure is endangered above all by
climatic effects (such as temperature
changes, internal temperature differences,
frost, rain, snow, etc.), chlorides (salt
water) and sulfates as well as by the
growth of mosses and lichens on the
concrete surfaces. As part of the design
process, the necessary measures must be
taken, particularly in terms of materials
and construction.
201
The prerequisites for a high level of
durability must be created. In order to
guarantee the desired durability, great
care is also required during construction,
as well as scheduled inspection and
maintenance.
Durability can therefore not be
deterministically standardized. Although
the standards contain material, structural
and design specifications that are
absolutely necessary to ensure durability,
they are by no means sufficient. The
following measures must already be taken
into account at the design stage.
• Technical material measures:
– A concrete quality that is suitable
with regard to the effects and has
been checked in terms of
components and composition (in
particular with regard to frost and, if
necessary, freeze-thaw salt
resistance),
– Weather-resistant steels in steel
construction only for load-bearing
elements that are protected against
rain and permanent moisture; drip
edges (in view of condensation and
snow) to protect concrete parts
below,
– Adaptation of surface protection
systems for steel structures to
atmospheric conditions,
– Consideration of contact corrosion
with different metals,
– Surface protective coatings or the use
of reinforcements with high
corrosion resistance for particularly
aggressive effects.
• Constructive measures:
– Avoidance of salt water on concrete
surfaces (proper drainage, no
seepage of water at footings and pipe
openings in the road surface),
– I f contact with salt water cannot be
avoided, apply surface protection on
202
of the concrete surface or concrete
cover of more than 75 mm,
– Sufficient concrete cover against
carbonation; 30 mm for water-
protected surfaces and 40 mm for
non-water-protected surfaces,
– No inaccessible cavities and no lost
wooden formwork so that all
concrete surfaces (especially after
concreting) can be controlled,
– Seal hollow steel profiles airtight,
– Avoid dirt pockets or edges on which
water remains or accumulates,
– Seal the contact edges of screwed
end plates or tab joints with aging
stability,
– Favorable conditions for concrete
processing; space for complete
encasement of the reinforcing steel,
planned concreting and vibration
gaps and avoidance of wide-flanged
structural steel elements that have to
be concreted under,
– Measures for good feasibility and
control of welds in steel and
composite bridges (avoidance of
"overhead" welds),
– All external steel components such
as posts and supports are fixed in
the concrete with rust-free screws
(never set in concrete),
– As few dilatation joints as possible
with heavy, well-anchored and
properly drained joint constructions,
– Concrete decking only on
prestressed concrete bridges that are
practically free of cracks,
– Avoidance of continuous separating
cracks in the roadway slab that
cannot be permanently sealed with
the waterproofing,
– Robust waterproofing covering
system bonded to the structural
concrete for composite bridges, as
underneath
3 Draft
water-bearing separation cracks are
practically unavoidable under
permanent load. (Danger to the steel
structure).
For all hazard patterns, i.e. for all actions
and weak points that can impair
durability, the corresponding design,
material and execution measures should
be listed in a durability certificate.
3.5 Cultural requirements
The true art of bridge construction is that
the conceptual design strikes a balance
between economy and aesthetics that is
appropriate to the location and
significance of the bridge, while fully
guaranteeing the functional requirements.
The permissible economic deviations
from the most economical solution are
limited. Large deviations are almost
always an indication of an unsuitable
concept. Economic efficiency is therefore
an important guiding parameter in the
development of the conceptual design. Le
Corbusier sees economic dimensions in
structural engineering as an important
basis for artistic truth: "L'Ingénieur inspiré
par la loi d'économie et conduit par le
calcul, nous met en accord avec les lois de
l'univers". In this sense, economic
efficiency is clearly part of the building
culture in bridge construction.
3.5.1 Costs
The service life of a bridge that has been
properly designed and constructed in
accordance with the current state of
knowledge based on the required
verifications for structural safety,
durability and serviceability and that is
monitored and maintained in accordance
with a well-founded maintenance plan
while remaining in use.
3.5 Cultural requirements
is well over 100 years. However, the useful
life of the original structure varies greatly,
as it is limited either by a conversion due
to significant changes in traffic
requirements or by withdrawal from
service. A basic service life of around 100
years is therefore assumed when assessing
the costs. During this period, the bridge
costs are made up of:
• Land acquisition and construction
costs,
• operating, inspection and maintenance
costs and
• Demolition costs.
Demolition costs are highly dependent on
the building material, location and
demolition method. The demolition of an
overpass, where no consideration has to be
given to the space under the bridge, only
amounts to a few percent of the new
construction costs. The demolition of a
high, wide-span concrete bridge, on the
other hand, can be very expensive,
especially if the space under the bridge must
not be impaired.
The following average annual expenses
can be expected for operating, inspection,
maintenance and repair costs:
• Operation and ongoing inspection
0.10% (performed annually; in % of the
respective new value of the bridge; e.g.
cleaning of roadway and drainage etc.,
deformation control, inspection of
areas with spray and contact water),
• Condition monitoring and local repairs
stakes 0,05%
(carried out approx. every 10 years, i.e.
10 × 0.05 = 0.5% of the new value at the
time of repair; e.g. repairs to surfacing,
crash barriers, drainage, etc.).
Inspection of bearings and joints, crack
prevention, visible corrosion spots),
203
• Comprehensive condition survey
and repair0. 45%
(carried out approx. every 45 years; i.e.
45 × 0.45 = 20% of the new value at the
time of repair; e.g. complete renewal of
waterproofing and surfacing, partial
replacement of bearings, joints and
drainage elements) and surface repairs.
Total 0,60%
The operating, inspection, maintenance
and repair costs listed apply to beam
bridges that were designed and
constructed correctly according to the
current state of knowledge. In the case of
arch and cantilever bridges, structural
inspection is more extensive and more
difficult and the total maintenance costs
are around 50% higher. Cantilever bridges
have an approximately 30% greater risk
with regard to maintenance and repair in
terms of excessive deformation and cable
corrosion in the event of inadequate or
defective sealing.
Without taking inflation into account,
the maintenance costs of a bridge with a
perfect design and execution and a service
life of 100 years are around 60 to 90% of
the new construction costs, and they are
considerably higher if the necessary
attention was not paid to durability in the
planning and execution.
The construction costs of a bridge are
primarily dependent on the structural
concept. The construction costs cannot be
reduced with calculations that go beyond
the careful verification of the fulfillment
of the functional requirements, i.e.
calculations have little or nothing to do
with cost savings in principle.
204 3 Draft

The construction costs can be broken • Formwork, falsework/assembly and

down into the following main items: concrete + steel (related to
• Construction site facilities, superstructure or total construction
• Substructure, costs)
foundations: Superstructure Total
Pillars and abutments, construction costs
• Superstructure: costs
Shuttering/ 37% 20%
falsework etc.
Falsework, formwork, assembly, Concrete + steel. 63% 34,5%
concrete, • Concrete and steel (in relation to
Reinforcing steel, prestressing superstructure and total construction
steel, mild steel, costs)
• Expansion: Superstructure Total
Bearings, joints, drainage, routing, etc. construction costs
Roadway sealing and surfacing, costs
• Project basics, project, construction Concrete, 18% 10%
management, project review. Steel. 45% 24,5%
The evaluation of the construction costs The summary shows the following cost
of around 20 medium-sized bridges shows structure:
that the costs of the individual items do not • Construction site facilities, 8,0%
vary greatly; the mean values of the cost • Substructure:
structure show the following picture Foundations, 18%
(construction costs without project etc.): Piers and abutments, 5.5%
• Construction site facilities, shell 23.5%
construction, finishing: • Superstructure:
Construction site equipment, 8% Formwork, falsework/assembly, 20%
Concrete, 10%
Steel, 24,5%
54,5%
Shell 78% • Expansion. 14,0%
construction,
Expansion.
• Substructure, 14% Foundations.
Total 76%
construction costs 18%100,0%
superstructure (in
relation to shell or total construction
costs):
Shell construction Total
construction costs costs
Substructure, 30% 23%
Superstructure 70% 55%
(For a bridge with spans of 50 m and
pier heights of up to 80 m in difficult
foundation shafts up to 70 m deep, the
substructure costs did not reach more
than 50% of the superstructure costs).
• Foundations and pillars (related to
substructure or total construction costs)
Substructure Total
construction costs
costs
Pillar, 24% 5,5%
 3.5 Cultural requirements 205
(without project etc.)

In the case of steel-concrete

composite bridges, the substructure
costs are somewhat lower thanks to the
lower dead load of the bridge (on
average around 20%), but the
superstructure costs are generally
somewhat higher (on average around
50%).
Estimating the construction costs
of a standard girder bridge is
important when developing the
design; they are usually close to the
minimum costs, and the costs of the
concept envisaged for aesthetic
reasons must not deviate too far from
this comparative value.
The construction costs of a standard
bridge can be estimated very roughly
on the basis of the usual costs per m2
of bridge area;
206
However, you can also - somewhat more
precisely - determine the mass
expenditure for concrete, reinforcing steel
and prestressing steel for an average span
of lm for the superstructure and polish the
total construction costs from the
corresponding costs (approx. 45% of the
total construction costs) with the
percentages listed above (and adjusted to
the bridge height and foundation
conditions).
The average span results from:
∑ l2
i revenue in the same period.
lm =
6∑
li
and the average girder thickness hm or the
concrete volume per m2 of bridge area
amounts to lm /h = 16 to 22 for standard
slendernesses:
0.45 -
hm ≈ 0.35 +
03 hm and lm in [m]
lm
100
The amount of reinforcing steel required
is in kg/m3 of concrete (no transverse
prestressing):
ms ≈ 90 + 0.35 - lm
and the amount of prestressing steel in
kg/m3 concrete
mp ≈ 0.4 - lm
The economic viability of a bridge is
determined differently depending on
whether it is financed as a public
infrastructure structure with taxpayers'
money or as an investment property with
a bridge toll from operation.
Normally, in the case of financing from
taxpayers' money, all costs incurred during
a reference service life of 100 years, for
example, are decisive for the assessment of
economic viability. These so-called useful
life costs, taking into account the specific
local difficulties (building ground, bridge
height, etc.), are compared with the
average local costs of a stand-alone project.
3 Draft
dard bridge provides an approach for
assessing economic efficiency.
The profitability of a bridge financed as
a rate of return object from customs
revenue, on the other hand, results from
the comparison of expenses and income
over a certain period of time. In this case,
the expenses consist of construction
interest, capital interest, amortization,
operating, monitoring and maintenance
costs and possibly demolition costs. The
income essentially consists of the planned
customs
3.5.2 Aesthetics
In philosophy, aesthetics is associated with
various qualities.
with proportions ordered according to
measure and number, with disinterested
pleasure, with expediency in the
organic nature, with enhancement, quality
of life, art, etc. Constructive engineering is
based on the static balance of acting and
opposing forces, a timeless, universal
phenomenon that determines balanced
harmonious structures from the structure
of atoms to the orbits of celestial bodies.
In a figurative sense, in relation to the
human psyche, balance also means
equilibrium of the state of mind, a feeling
of well-being. An aesthetic that refers to
the physiologically determined balance of
forces linked to the minimization of effort
thus reflects practically all the qualities
described in philosophy, such as
(mathematical) form relationships
(Heraclitus, Polyklet and others),
purposefulness in organic nature (Kant),
quality of life (Santayana), etc. And the
artistic visualization of the balance of
forces optimally networked with the
environment, the economic dimensions of
the effort and the state of the art therefore
always exerts a great influence.
 3.5 Cultural requirements
has a very special fascination for people. It
is an objectified, terministic basis of the
technically constructive building culture
and thus differs fundamentally from the
subjectively arbitrary, architecturally
artistic building culture.
The aesthetic quality of a bridge
depends, on the one hand, on how the
bridge fits into its surroundings and, on
the other, on the design of the bridge
itself. It can basically lie in the appearance
of the load-bearing system, in the design
of the structural components and details
and in the ornamentation.
Bridge and surroundings
When integrating the bridge into its
surroundings, spatial and temporal
components must be taken into account.
The spatial components relate to
• the scale of the bridge in relation to the
landscape and topography, and
• the scale and character
of the bridge in relation to the built
environment.
The time components relate to
• the history and tradition of local bridge
building technology and
• the current building culture and the
state
of (local) construction technology.
The load-bearing system and its spans play
an important role in the spatial
components. They must provide a logical
response to the landscape and built
environment by visualizing economic,
structural and environmental advantages;
i.e. the load-bearing system should
correspond to the topography and
geotechnical structure of the subsoil, the
spans should be compatible with the
landscape under the bridge deck and with
the built environment of the bridge.
207
The system supports should be located at
topographically characteristic and, if
possible, easily accessible locations; e.g. on
the shoulders of slopes, in flat zones, on the
land side of shorelines, etc.
Bridges are or often become
landmarks, with the building materials
and the load-bearing system taking on
symbolic significance. In such cases, it is
usually expected that replacements, but
also new buildings, will take up the local
bridge-building history and tradition.
However, this reference must be made in a
modern form, as bridges should at least
reflect the latest state of construction
technology in the existing technological
environment.
Design of the bridge itself
Bridges are technical structures. Their
functionality requires system forms that are
based on clear scientific principles. The
architectural and artistic freedom of design
is therefore very limited and, in
accordance with the clear scientific and
technical principles, some important
design criteria can be defined which must
be taken into account with regard to the
aesthetic quality of the bridges.
• Visualization of technical efficiency
through
– Transparency and slimness.
• Visualization of uniformity and order
in the supporting structure through
– Holistic appearance of the load-
bearing system,
– Clear structure of the system,
– Coherent, uniform typology of
system elements.
• Artistic design: Refinement
the raw static form by
– Visualization of the flow of force,
– Clean detailing,
208
– Light and shadow effects using
cross-section profiling,
– Structural ornamentation and
– Architectural ornamentation.
Visualization of technical efficiency: The
technical beam slenderness is defined as
the ratio of beam span to beam height. In
the architectural sense, however, the ratio
of the visible girder length to the visible
girder height plays a much more important
role. The visible girder length naturally
varies from viewer location to viewer
location. It is therefore important that
particularly heavily frequented viewer
locations are included in the assessment of
slenderness. The visual support height is
also much more important than the
effective, static support height. The design
of the girder cross-section is decisive for
the visual girder height. With a strong,
visible bridge edge and a strongly receding
girder lying in the shade, the visual girder
height can be significantly reduced. If
heavily frequented viewer locations are
lower than the roadway, attention must
also be paid to the lower girder width (e.g.
lower box width). Under certain
circumstances, it can appear as part of the
girder height.
For arches in particular, but also for
cable bridges, the system height also
visualizes an architectural slenderness
effect in addition to the cross-sectional
height of the girder and the arch.The
appearance of flat arch bridges with a large
ratio of arch span to arch pier height, for
example, is significantly more stressful
than that of steep arches. However, the
construction costs usually increase rapidly
with increasing slenderness for flat arches
and especially for flat cable bridges, just as
they do for slender girders. The
slenderness-related additional costs in the
3 Draft
Comparison with the analog system with
optimized system height should therefore
always be considered.
The transparency of a bridge is
essentially determined by the spans and
the design of the substructure, in
particular the piers. The construction
costs also generally increase progressively
as the span widths increase. Particularly in
the case of wide bridges, the design of the
piers has a significant impact on
transparency. As a rule, girders with a
single cross-section for the entire width
and therefore a single central pier are
architecturally much more advantageous
for wide bridges than twin bridges with
double piers. Twin bridges do have
technical advantages for extensive
maintenance work on the deck. However,
in the case of new bridges designed, built
and maintained according to the current
state of bridge construction technology,
extensive damage to the deck slab no
longer needs to be expected. The marginal
structural advantages of repair work
therefore do not normally outweigh the
considerable architectural disadvantages
of reduced transparency on twin bridges.
Visualization of uniformity and
order
Uniformity in the appearance of the load-
bearing system visualizes above all a
holistic, efficient system load-bearing
effect, and conversely, a holistic load-
bearing effect already provides an
important basis for a uniform appearance.
Systems with a holistic load-bearing effect
are in fact usually much more economical
than load-bearing systems consisting of
individual, independent parts. For example,
chains of simple beams are somewhat
simpler to assemble than continuous
beams; however, they are more economical
in terms of
 3.5 Cultural requirements
They are significantly less rigid at the
same girder height and require more
construction material, wider support cross
girders and many more bearings and
joints, which are relatively delicate weak
points in terms of durability, making them
difficult to maintain and susceptible to
maintenance. Numerous joints also
significantly reduce driving comfort.
In the case of arch bridges, the overall
load-bearing effect, e.g. the stiffening of
the arch with the girder, creates a
balanced, uniform appearan ce,
especially if the arch, columns and girders
also have the same cross-sectional shapes.
In contrast, strong arches with a light
superstructure that is independent of the
arch and has a different form, which
contributes practically nothing to the
system rigidity, are usually not convincing
from an architectural point of view. In
these cases, the girder height in the
approach viaducts is a l s o greater than in
the arch area, which further increases the
formal heterogeneity of the bridge.
Particularly with cable-stayed bridges, the
coherent design of the pylons with the
piers below often poses considerable
difficulties. In any case, the impression
that the cable-stayed superstructure is
arbitrarily and incoherently placed on a
substructure of conventional piers should
be avoided. The visual uniformity of the
system
stems is thus severely impaired. An
important feature in the appearance
The key to a clean design is the clear,
orderly arrangement of the design
elements. In this sense, it is advantageous
to reduce the number of system elements
to a minimum and to visualize a
geometric ordering principle. In any case,
the impression of an arbitrary structure
that could be reduced or changed must
not be created. The observer must get the
impression that
209
nothing needs to be added to the design
and nothing can be left out. The
arrangement of the cables in inclined cable
bridges is particularly challenging in terms
of clear structuring. Cable overlaps in
numerous directions can be extremely
disruptive and confusing. With a fan-
shaped cable arrangement and relatively
small distances, double cables, for
example, cause many unsightly overlaps
because the assignment of the double
cables can no longer be recognized in the
angled view. In such cases and with more
than three overlapping cable levels, it is
therefore usually advantageous in terms of
aesthetic quality to choose the more
expensive harp-shaped cable arrangement.
Most architecturally convincing
bridges are characterized, among other
things, by a uniform cross-sectional
typology of the load-bearing elements.
The basic shape of the load-bearing
elements can be one-dimensional bar-
shaped or two-dimensional flat, and the
characteristics of the cross-sectional shape
can vary greatly,
z. For example, the cross-section can be
flat, compact, slab-beam shaped, etc.
However, a uniform cross-section
typology for all load-bearing elements is
usually somewhat more expensive than a
differentiated, cost-optimized cross-
section design for the individual load-
bearing elements.
Artistic design
In most cases, it is possible to refine the raw
static form without great expense:
The most effective way of visualizing
the flow of force in the load-bearing
elements is to vary the cross-section
dimensions according to the course of the
load in the sense of passive design or to
control the load in the sense of active
design by varying the course of the cross-
section dimensions.
210 3.6 Aim of the design work
An extremely important part of the
design is the careful detailing, which
ranges from the fitting of the end
abutments to the shaping of the bridge
edge and the design of the lighting
fixtures. In principle, the detail design
should be simple, clear and functional;
there should be no embellishment of the
structure with unnecessary details such as
z. Baroque pillar capitals, for example,
should be avoided.
Profiling can be used to interrupt or
structure relatively large, dominant
concrete surfaces with light and shadow
effects. The profiling can consist of one or
a few strong notches or a weak, full-surface
profiling. In the case of concentrated
notches, the depth of the notch must be in
proportion to the dimensions of the
profiled component so that the shadow
area can be recognized even in diffuse
light and the scale of the shadow width to
the overall width is maintained. Relatively
weak profiles covering the entire surface
are comparable to a reinforcement of the
formwork pattern; they can emphasize the
load-bearing direction of a load-bearing
element or convey differences in weight
on large concrete surfaces.
Structural ornamentation refers to load-
bearing systems with an unnecessarily
extensive spatial design or with a
deliberately complicated flow of forces;
system parts that visualize a fictitious
stress state or load-bearing elements with
a cross-sectional course that is not related
to the stress. All of these systems, system
components and load-bearing elements can
be architecturally pleasing and
invigorating; however, they always lack
structural efficiency and are therefore
often considerably more expensive than
structurally optimized and formally
reduced systems and load-bearing
elements.
Architectural ornamentation on or
with non-load-bearing elements,
ornaments
3 Draft 209
The ornamentation on the abutments or
outside the bridge and the lighting of the
bridge itself are clearly outside the
technical and artistic realm and therefore
cannot be qualified by rational design
criteria. This type of ornamentation is
very delicate on modern bridges; it should
be used with restraint and only in
collaboration with an architect or artist.
Measurable design criteria are
extremely useful in design work, and it is
worthwhile carefully checking a design in
relation to these design criteria. Finally,
however, the design of a sophisticated
bridge should always be reviewed as a
whole; in terms of the integration of the
bridge into the landscape with some
computer-generated photo montages
from the most frequented viewpoints and
from the perspective of the bridge user,
and in terms of the design of the bridge
itself with a relatively large physical model,
which is always significantly more
meaningful than two-dimensional images.
3.6 Aim of the design work
The largely standardized, functional
requirements regarding load-bearing
safety, serviceability and durability must
always be fulfilled in accordance with the
recognized rules of building science. This
is possible with any number of solutions
and requires almost only "craftsmanship".
The real art of construction lies in
developing solutions that exhibit the
highest degree of non-standardizable
economic and aesthetic quality. This
requires not only entrepreneurial
experience in construction technology
and cost calculation on the one hand and
an architectural sense of form on the
other, but above all innovative
imagination and creativity.
210
Path
Design goal manual
according to
standard
Load safety Suitability for
use
Durability Costs
Aesthetics
It is not possible to find absolutely ideal
solutions that simultaneously offer
maximum economic efficiency and
aesthetic quality. The aim of the design
work, the true art of construction, is
therefore to come as close as possible to
the ideal solution and to weigh up
economic efficiency and aesthetics against
each other from a subjective point of view
with regard to the exposure of the bridge
site, the significance of the bridge in its
surroundings and the size of the bridge.
The additional costs for increased
aesthetic quality must be kept within a
relatively narrow range, as a solution that
has been perfectly developed from the
site-specific boundary conditions already
has a considerable aesthetic quality. In the
case of large bridges, the additional costs
should not exceed 3 to 5% even with the
most demanding site exposure, and no
more than 15% for medium-sized bridges.
If these limits are exceeded, the
conceptual design is obviously unsuitable
and should be abandoned. For small
bridges such as pedestrian footbridges, the
additional costs compared to the most
economical solution may be 100% or
more, and for bridges that are primarily of
sculptural significance or serve as
landmarks for an exhibition, cost limits
do not make sense.
3 Draft
creative
artistic
Figure 3-1 Design objectives
3.7 Considerations when
conceptual design
The development of a conceptual design,
which should come as close as possible to
the ideal solution (minimum costs with
optimum appearance), must be based on
technical principles, as the costs can only
be kept low with constructive and
structural measures. It is also much easier
to formally refine and optimize a
functional, constructively flawless
concept, which is usually visually
convincing in itself, than to try to
harmonize an arbitrary, usually
uneconomical, architectural idea with the
technical constraints and reduce the costs
in further processing. In most cases,
"architectural" solutions do not succeed in
reducing costs without conceptual
changes.
In other words, you stick with the
architecturally arbitrary, uneconomical
solution or you start with a new concept.
The Salginatobel Bridge by R. Maillart
is a typical and excellent example of a
bridge developed on a purely technical-
constructive basis that comes very close to
the ideal solution in terms of cost and
appearance:
When designing the route alignment of
the road, great importance was obviously
attached to a geographically suitable
location for the breweries.
3.7 Considerations in the conceptual design
Figure 3-2 Salginatobel bridge by Robert Mail
lart
cke was laid. An arch bridge was the most
suitable solution for crossing the 80 m
deep gorge, both economically and
aesthetically. The abutments of the 90 m
wide arch are only 13 m below the
roadway, but are very favorable in terms
of topography and construction: on the
right side of the valley, the arch abutment
is located on a prominent shoulder of
land; on the left side of the valley, it is
relatively easy to reach from above in the
steep rock face due to the shallow depth
below the roadway. The very flat arch,
with an arrow ratio of 1 : 7, was designed
as a three-hinged arch and has an open
plate girder cross-section at the top. This
cross-section can be adapted very well to
the stress curve: The side walls are largest
in the quarter of the span, at the maximum
of the bending moments, and are
connected to the deck girder here. The
plate girder cross-section is also
structurally
211
This was very advantageous because the
falsework only had to be dimensioned for
the thin arched slab; the weight of the side
walls as well as that of the columns and
the deck girder could then be taken over
together with the falsework by the
components already supporting them.
The flat arch over the deep ravine
visualizes high technical efficiency, and
the arch shape clearly shows the force
progression. The arch and access section
form a monolithic unit in terms of the
secondary spans, the cross-sectional shape
and the cross-sectional dimensions.
Maillart's rough concept for the
Salginatoel Bridge was without doubt one
of the most economical solutions
imaginable, and in refining the form he
limited himself to three structural
elements, which were
artistically and not in terms of costs.
the most important sense. However, the
corresponding additional costs were very
modest; they certainly amounted to less
than 1% of the total bridge costs:
Instead of a simple iron railing,
Maillart chose a continuous concrete
parapet. On the one hand, this parapet
forms a unit with the flat arch ribs and, on
the other hand, connects the approach
and arch area into a single unit. The
concrete parapet also has the advantage of
increasing physical and psychological
safety on the narrow, often snow-covered
roadway of the high bridge. In terms of
the supports, wall-like slabs or
disintegrated supports would have been
somewhat cheaper than the I-section
supports chosen by Maillart. But here, too,
Maillart preferred the slightly more
expensive, same cross-sectional form as
for the arch and roadway girders in the
interests of a uniform cross-sectional
typology. The third construction element,
refined in terms of design, are the arched
transoms. To visualize the spatial plasticity
of the structure and the transverse
stability of the narrow bridge, Maillart used
212
Fig. 3-3 Salginatobel bridge, oblique view
Figure 3-4 System mutations
1) Three-span beam with constant overall
height
2) Cove support with variations
regarding the cove course
3) Three-span girder on supports with V-
head and tension strap
Strong reduction in column moments
from dead load: "no" restraints in the
columns
4) Three-span girder on V-supports with
tension strap
5) VStielFrame
Constraints with beam shortening
6) Classic V-stem bridge without
abutment
7) Blasting structure; horizontal thrust on
subsoil
8) Cove frame with vertical supports;
horizontal shear insignificant
9) Continuous beams with constant overall
height mounted on the supports as
required
10) Classic three-span carrier
11) Cove carrier
12) Curved cantilever with sliding joint at the
apex no horizontal shear
3 Draft
Maillart extended the base of the fighter's
supports and the width of the bow plate
for the bow fighters.
The design work usually begins with the
choice of the general load-bearing system,
which in principle can have the character of
a beam, arch or cable bridge and is not tied
to a specific building material.
Beam bridges are generally cheaper but
also less expressive than arch or cable
bridges and they are suitable for almost all
technical boundary conditions. Curved
route alignments, laterally adjoining
ramps and complicated topographical or
geotechnical conditions do not cause any
fundamental difficulties. However, for
spans over approx. 200 m, beam bridges
increasingly make a somewhat massive,
cumbersome impression, and the cost of
the bridge can be very high.
13) Arched supporting structure;
horizontal shear from dead load
balanced with or without horizontal
shear with live load
14) Classic arch bridge
with variations regarding arch system, arch
shape, arch structure, stiffness ratio between
arch and beam
15) Arch bridge with roadway partially
underneath
16) Curves with bottom track on cantilever
systems
17) Classic arch with bottom track with
variations in terms of suspension system,
stiffness ratio between arch and beam
18) Understressed beam with variations in
understress stiffness and support
19) Self-anchored suspension bridge
20) Classic suspension bridge
21) Cable-stayed bridge
with variations in the pylon design and
cable arrangement
22) Fish belly beam; trough cross-section
23) Classic three-span carrier
 3.7 Considerations in the conceptual design
1) 10) 19)

2) 11) 20)

3) Supports movable in the beam 12) "Displacement joint" in the apex; 21)
or immovably clamped "arch" on poor subsoil

4) 13) System with or without 22)

horizontal shear from live load

5) Systems with or without 14) Sliding or non-sliding arch 23)

Horizontal thrust system

6) 15)

7) System movable or 16)

Arch supported on cantilevers as a
immovable "simple beam".
Systems without horizontal thrust on
foundation soil
8)

9) 18)

10)

Figure 3-4 System mutations

213
214
increase more rapidly with increasing
span width than with other load-bearing
systems.
Arch bridges with an overhead
roadway are particularly useful when only
a single span is required to bridge a deep
cut or a shipping opening, while small
spans are sufficient for the approach
viaducts to the arch area. If the roadway is
at a suitable height, rows of arches are well
suited for crossing wide waterways. For
arches with an overhead roadway, it must
be carefully clarified from the outset how
the horizontal thrust of the arch can be
absorbed, whether the arch apex can be
partially or completely blocked in the
horizontal direction and how the arch can
be constructed most economically. Arches
with a roadway at the bottom are well
suited if the construction height under the
roadway is limited. As the horizontal thrust
of the arch can be absorbed by the
roadway, they can be used as a
"closed" systems can often be installed
cost-effectively by means of shifting
maneuvers.
Thanks to skillful construction
technology, arch bridges can still be quite
economical even with spans of 300 to 400
m.
However, as the ratio of arch span to
curve radius of the roadway increases,
arched structures become less and less
suitable, if at all. There is no point in
forcing arch bridges into tight bends at
great expense; cambered girders designed
as frames are much better suited for this
purpose in terms of construction and
design.
Cable bridges open up spans that can no
longer be reached with beams and arched
structures. For medium and small spans,
cable bridges are generally more expensive
than beams and arch bridges. However,
they are often more expressive and,
particularly in the case of pedestrian
bridges, their lightness and
3 Draft
The elegance of a cable-stayed bridge can
justify significantly higher costs, especially
as the cables, well-designed pylons and
carefully controlled structural dynamics
can give pedestrians a very special bridge
experience. Curvatures in the alignment
have a complicating effect on both cable
bridges and arch bridges. Topography and
geology, on the other hand, have hardly
any influence on the suitability of these
structures.
There are countless transitional forms
between the standard systems for beams,
arches and cable bridges. Figure 34 shows
some mutations derived from a three-span
girder. Of course, the span ratios, the
slenderness of the structure and the cross-
sectional shape can be varied for all
systems.
Apart from serial bridges such as
overpasses and underpasses, the technical
boundary conditions as well as the site
exposure are different for all bridges. This
differentiation of the site-specific design
basis can be taken into account in the
conceptual design in just the same
differentiated way.
In addition to system differentiation,
the choice of building material, which is
closely linked to the design of the system,
and the type of prestressing technology
also play an important role in structural
optimization.
In principle, the most suitable building
material can be used for each component;
however, corresponding cost savings and
any architectural disadvantages in terms
of visual uniformity must be weighed
against each other.
The prestressing technique should also
be used not only in standard forms but
across the entire range; i.e. from the
addition of slack reinforcement
z. e.g. in case of space problems up to full
pre-tension, any mixture of internal and
external pre-tension, any mixture of pre-
tension with or without bond and any
mixture of
3.7 Considerations in the conceptual design
Prestressing bed pre-tensioning and pre-
tensioning of the hardened concrete.
The construction process must be
included in the design process. The
manufacturing technique has a major
impact on construction costs; however, it
may also be important for the structural
form. The basic principles of rational
production technology are that completed
components are integrated into the
subsequent construction process as
quickly as possible and that the same work
processes are repeated in cycles with the
corresponding learning effect.
For low bridges, construction on
scaffolding is usually the most
economical. For high bridges, the
construction must be independent of the
ground. This is possible with all standard
systems. Shifting techniques such as
forward shifting, lateral shifting or
turning in entire bridge segments are also
often of interest.
The choice of the general structural
form is based on technical and
architectural considerations: During the
evaluation, the first priority must be the
technical
215
The suitability of the load-bearing system
must be guaranteed; only secondarily can
costs and aesthetic quality be weighed
against each other, taking into account the
site exposure. System optimization is
carried out with measures that a r e
suitable for meeting the technical
boundary conditions with the least
possible effort. Because clever measures
can often fulfill several technical
requirements efficiently and in a formally
convincing way, this often results in
extraordinarily original and visually
fascinating structural forms, especially for
bridges with numerous, complicated
boundary conditions.
The actual refinement of the form and
the design of the details only begins in the
final phase of the design, and especially in
this phase, a careful balance must always
be struck between advantageous artistic
design and additional construction costs
with regard to the location. With this
approach, the costs always remain under
control.
216
3.8 Selected bridges
3.8.1 Sunniberg Bridge, Switzerland
CHRISTIAN MENN
The Sunniberg Bridge is in an exposed
location. Approximately 1 km below the
world-famous vacation resort of Klosters,
the 525 m long, curved bridge crosses the
largely untouched valley at a height of 60
meters. Therefore, an emblematic, modern
structure was desired, which was not
allowed to appear to be a valley slab and
should therefore have a high degree of
transparency with the slimmest possible
girder. A conventional cantilever bridge,
which would have been the most
economical option here, could not meet
these formal requirements. A concept for
a curved cable-stayed bridge was therefore
drawn up, which had additional costs of
approx. 15 %, but which could be justified
in view of the special bridge location.
The five-span load-bearing system with
four pylons has three main spans of 128 to
140 meters. The size of the spans
corresponds to the bridge height and the
scale of the landscape, resulting in topo
3 Draft
project owner:
Cantonal Building Authority, Graubünden with
architectural advice from A. Deplazes,
Dipl.Arch.ETH, Chur
Concept, design:
C. Menn, Prof. em. ETH, Chur
Project:
Bänziger + Köppel + Brändli +Partner, Chur
Execution:
Vetsch, Klosters, Preiswerk +Cie
AG, bridge construction, Siebnen
Construction time:
1996-1998
The bridge is located in a graphically and
structurally favorable pier location and
does not require extraordinary measures to
cope with the bridge curvature of 500 m
radius. In order to achieve the slimmest
possible girder, the bending moments from
the traffic load had to be transferred
directly into the piers; they were decisive
for the cross-sectional dimensions at the
pier head. For architectural reasons,
pylons on high piers should be as low as
possible; however, the corresponding
additional expense for the stay cables is
largely compensated for in the present
support system due to the strong pylon
bending in the longitudinal and transverse
direction with short pylons. The minimum
pylon height results from the permissible
girder deflections, which can be
significantly reduced by fixing the curved
bridge longitudinally and eliminating the
dilatation joints at the abutments. The
downwardly tapered pier shape visualizes
the bending stress on the one hand and on
the other hand conveys
3.8 Selected bridges
the impression that the pylons grow
naturally out of the forest. The transverse
spread of the pylons prevents the cables
from encroaching on the clearance limits of
the road. The slab thickness of the girder is
designed for the transverse bearing
direction, but is sufficient with a small
reinforcement.
217
The same cross-sectional typology is also
used for the maximum span to absorb the
high longitudinal compressive forces. Piers,
columns and beams have the same cross-
section typology with a flat slab beam
cross-section, thus emphasizing the
uniformity and integrity of the monolithic
load-bearing system.
218
3.8.2 Pedestrian bridge Kelheim, Germany
JÖRG SCHLAICH
project owner:
RheinMainDonau AG, Munich Danube
Development Office Regensburg
Two considerations were decisive for this
design:
– to respond to the technology-oriented
shipping route of the Main-Danube
Canal with a technically clean solution
that is as light as possible
– Ramps should be arranged in a straight
line along the canal banks to save
space.
A suspended walkway slab was an obvious
choice because it requires a minimum
construction height and therefore does not
unnecessarily extend the ramps. A
suspension bridge was chosen because it is
naturally more attractive than a cable-
stayed bridge.
The realization of a harmonious
pedestrian and force flow together with
the shipping profile to be kept clear led to
the superstructure girder, which is
continuously curved in the ground and
elevation and is suspended on one side
from a cable support structure. The
hangers (ds = 30 mm) attached to the
inside of the arch are clamped to a fully
locked suspension cable (ds = 90 mm).
This is connected via two inclined
3 Draft
Design, structural engineers and
construction: Schlaich Bergermann und
Partner Beratende Ingenieure im Bauwesen
Stuttgart
Design advice:
Prof. K. Ackermann and Partner, Munich
Execution:
Joint venture for the Kelheim through
road, Bilfinger + Berger Bau AG,
Munich Stanglmeier / Luitpold
Aukofer,
Hoch und Tiebau GmbH, Regensburg
Friedrich Maurer Söhne, Munich
Pfeifer rope and lifting technology, Memmingen
Construction time:
1985-1988
steel tube masts (d = 660 mm) and
anchored in the abutments. This special
suspension in conjunction with the
geometric and static specifications for
ramps and arches (length, cross-section,
bearing conditions, choice of internal and
external prestressing) result in an almost
torsion moment-free load trasnfer of the
permanent loads, as is known from the
vertically loaded circular ring girder
continuously supported at the inner edge.
In addition to the static load cases,
extensive dynamic investigations are also
required for light, long-span pedestrian
bridges. It was found that no vibrations
caused by pedestrians or wind are to be
expected for the Kelheim pedestrian
bridge.
Function, form, load transfer behavior
and choice of materials form a unit in this
bridge.
3.8 Selected bridges 219
220
3.8.3 Osormort Viaduct, Spain
JAVIER MANTEROLA ARMISÉN
The Osormort viaduct lies on the Sant
Juliá - Osormort stretch of the Eix
Transversal in Barcelona. It is 504 m long,
has the plan radius of 1550 m and its
maximum height over the ground
amounts to 30 m. The carriageway has the
total width of 12 m between the railings'
inside edges.
After having studied various solutions
we chose a continuous viaduct 504 m long
made of eleven, 40 m long spans and two
end spans of a 32 m length. There are differ
ent types of concrete decks built in situ
that fit this range of spans and
construction sys tem. After a series of
considerations the de cision was made to
use a continuous deck, cablestayed in the
lower part, given its ad equacy
considering the strength and eco nomic
reasons as well as for its visual effect. This
type of lower cablestaying is new in
continuous decks made of prestressed con
crete. The lower cablestaying creates an
intermediate support in the deck by
means of a triangular metallic cell. This
support is elastic and its flexibility
depends on the relative stiffnesses between
the deck and the stay system. The more
flexible the deck, the more efficient the
system. This intermediate
3 Draft
Property:
GISA. Gestió d'Infraestructures, S.A.
Empresa Pública de la Generalitat de
Catalunya
JordiJoan Rosell i Silvas
Design:
CARLOS FERNÁNDEZ CASADO, S.L.
Javier Manterola Armisén, Leonardo Fernández
Troyano, Amando López Padilla, Antonio
Martínez Cutillas
Construction:
AGROMAN - Modesto Fraile
Construction period:
1994
situation between an exterior prestressing
and a cablestayed system gives this deck
type great advantages and possibilities for
a wide range of mediumlength spans due
to following reasons:
• Unlike in the cablestayed bridge, the
upper carriageway is not used to arrange
the towers in which cables are lodged.
The fact that the bridge hangs in its lower
part eliminates the need to widen the
deck. The support is self-balanced and
compresses the deck at the same time.
• As compared with the technique of exte
rior prestressing, this system is much
more effective due to a greater stay
cable inclination.
• Although it takes advantage of the mor
phology of the stay cable in a cable
stayed bridge, it does not have its incon
veniences since oscillation amplitudes of
their stresses are much smaller and there
fore their dimensions are not
conditioned by fatigue criteria.
• Due to the fact of the bending moments
in the deck can be greatly reduced, the
slenderness values that can be achieved
are important. This makes possible the
3.8 Selected bridges 221

504
32 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 32

240

32

110 44 110
264

240

30

123

construction of viaducts of different construction is carried out in the same

shape configurations.
• The stay cables can be replaced without
having to cut the traffic. To this
purpose an additional tube was placed,
both in the central deviator and in the
pier. The
way as in a continuous deck. It can be
done span by span by means of a scaf
folding truss where the stay cable is load
ed at the same time and in a similar
way as the rest of the prestressing
cables.
222
3.8.4 Sacramento river trail pedestrian bridge, USA
JIRI STRASKY
The Sacramento river trail and connecting
bridge form part of the City of Redding's
park system. This area of the park lies to
the northwest of the city on both sides of
the river extending 4 km upstream to
Keswick Dam. The new bridge located at
this junc ture provides a link between the
previously separated trails lying just above
the rocky areas on each side of the river.
Because of the dam's presence, the
riverbanks directly downstream have
extensive rock outcrop ping which
dramatically add to the beauty of the
basin. To preserve this natural terrain and
to mitigate adverse hydraulic condi tions,
it was important to avoid founding any
piers in the river basin.
The bridge is formed by a stressedrib
bon of prestressed concrete over a span of
127.41 m and fixed at both end
abutments. The deck width between
railings is 3.04 m while the total width of
the structure is
3.96 m. During the service of the bridge
the sag at mid span varies from 3.35 m
(time 0 with maximum temperature and
full live load) to 2.71 m (time infinity with
mini mum temperature). Since the bridge
is used by bicyclists the height of the
railing is set by code at 1.37 m. Apart
from a dis
3 Draft
Owner:
City of Redding, CaliforniaFred Mathis, Project
Engineer
Concept, Design:
Charles Redfield, Consulting Engineer Mill
Valley, California
Dr. Jiri Strasky, Design Consultant Brno, The
Czech Republic/Mill Valley, California
Contractor:
Shasta Constructors Inc., Redding, California
Construction period:
1990
tance of 4.20 m at each end abutment,
where the deck is haunched to 91 cm, the
deck has a constant depth of only 38 cm.
This arrangement corresponds to the
static behavior of the prestressed concrete
band. By keeping the abutments at the
same ele vation and a minimal drape in
the center, the slope at the ends is held to
an acceptable 9 %. Considerable
prestressing material in the superstructure
(236 strands of 13 mm dia.), and large
rock anchors composed of 16 × 27 dia. 13
mm strands embedded deeply into the
hillside at both ends, are required to form
this shallow drape. Bridge vibration
studies were carefully considered in the
design for a wide range of pace
frequencies, including jogging and the
remote possibility of vandals attempt ing
to physically excite the bridge. Because the
bridge is an extremely shallow band with a
long span over a channelized valley, an
aeroelastic study was deemed necessary to
check the stability under dynamic wind
loads.
Construction of the superstructure con
sisted of lifting the previously cast
segments onto the bearing cables and
sliding them into their final position. This
was accom
3.8 Selected bridges
plished in two working days. Placement of
additional cables directly over the bearing
cables within two troughs, casting them in
place and further stressing provided the
required stiffness for the bridge. Due to
the unusual type of structure and its first
use in the United States, it was considered
prudent to load test the bridge and verify
the struc tural behavior with the design
assumptions.
223
A successful test was conducted on the
completed bridge with 24 vehicles spaced
over the whole length of the structure. In
conclusion, a light bridge of a stressedrib
bon design with a single span and no
joints presented an elegant solution, with a
simple erection and no necessary
construction within the river basin.
224
3.8.5 Puente de la Barqueta, Spain
JUAN JOSÉ ARENAS DE PABLO
The Barqueta Bridge was built as an
entrance to the exhibition grounds of the
Expo '92 world exhibition in Seville and
has become the actual symbol of this
exhibition as well as a landmark of Seville.
The conditions of the competition, from
which the completed project emerged,
specified a maximum girder height of 3 m
in the middle of the field and a minimum
span of 165 m (no river piers). In
addition, a short construction time was to
be aimed for and the poor subsoil did not
allow any horizontal bearing reactions.
The steel bridge is the result of the efforts
to fulfill these requirements with an
elegant and carefully designed structure in
keeping with its function.
The bridge's load-bearing system
essentially consists of an arch located
above the roadway in the bridge's center
plane, which is supported at a distance of
30 m from the bearing axis by two
triangular portal frames that take over the
arch inclination. The carriageway girder
serves as a tension band for the arch and,
due to its great slenderness, takes over the
3 Draft
project owner:
Sociedad Estatal para la Exposición Universal
de Sevilla
Seville, Spain
Concept, design and project: Prof.
Dr. Ing. Juan J. Arenas de Pablo
Prof. Dr. Ing. Marcos J. Pantaleón
Santander, Spain
Execution:
AUXINI, S.A. and ENSIDESA, S.A.
Spain
Construction time:
1988-1989
of the arch can carry practically all of the
non-symmetrical payloads. The span over
the Guadalquivir is 168 m, with the crown
of the arch 27.75 m above the roadway.
The entire bridge stands on four vertical
bearings, which are 30 m apart in the
transverse direction. The arrangement of
the portal frames prevents the roadway
from being laid at the ends of the bridge by
the arched transoms; on the other hand,
this creates real entrance gates to the
exhibition. In addition, the buckling
stability of the arch in the transverse
direction is significantly increased. The
arch and portal frame have 300 mm deep
longitudinal notches on all four sides,
which emphasize the central axis of these
elements and increase the visual
slenderness, but at the same time also
serve to stiffen the profiled sheets. The
roadway girder has a height of 2.40 m and
a width of 16 m, with the possibility of
widening to 21 m in the future. Its cross-
section consists of a trapezoidal steel box
with an orthotropic roadway, spaced at
4.25 m arranged cross frame and
3.8 Selected bridges
a centric spatial truss, which serves to
transfer the hanger forces. The hangers
are located in the center plane of the
bridge, support the deck girder at 8.50 m
intervals and are connected to the arch at
6.75 m intervals. Their longitudinal
inclination is therefore variable, which
emphasizes the center of the bridge and at
the same time optimizes the support of the
deck girder in the area of the portal
frames. The Kno
225
The points at which the arch and portal
frame converge play a central role within
the supporting structure. The flow of
forces is ensured by connecting plates
between the respective analogous side
surfaces of the arch and the struts of the
portal frame. The load-bearing effect can
be seen from the outside, resulting in an
expressive, uniform appearance.
226
3.8.6 Falkenstein Bridge, Austria
Franz AIGNER
Around 1965, work began on converting
the single-track Tauern Railway (Salzburg-
Villach), built between 1901 and 1909, into
a modern high-capacity line for double-
track operation and higher running speeds.
Due to the topography (wide valley with
numerous transverse valleys), the intended
elongated line layout made it necessary to
create wide valley crossings. Instead of the
originally planned steel bridges, concrete
arch bridges were ultimately built, not least
for economic reasons. The Falkenstein
Bridge described here, a bridge with two
arches (spans: 150 and 120 m), is one of the
structures from a "bridge family" consisting
of six arch bridges. For all of these bridges,
emphasis was placed on creating
structures that harmonize as well as
possible with the landscape and do not
impose themselves on the viewer. This
was a requirement that was perfectly met
by the arch. Concrete arch bridges of this
type are such robust systems that they are
fully capable of meeting today's
serviceability requirements.
Due to its special shape, the double
moat could only be bridged by two arches.
A special
3 Draft
project owner:
Austrian Federal Railways (ÖBB), Vienna General
Directorate
Planning and project:
Dipl.Ing. Franz Aigner, Graz
Execution:
Beyer & Co, Graz
Construction time:
1971-1974
The geometric coordination of the two
arches posed a design problem. The
roadway support structure has a constant
longitudinal gradient of 27.619‰. The
arrow ratio f/L for both arches is 1/3.26.
The connecting line of the four arch
transoms is straight, but does not run
parallel to the roadway support structure.
The two ratios hApex /L and hApex /hCombatant
are the same for both arches, as are the
heights of the two arches and the distances
between the supports above the arches.
Thanks to these simple geometric
analogies, the two arches are perceived as
an inseparable unit, which is reinforced by
the old Falkenstein Castle.
As far as possible, all structural
elements were connected monolithically.
The crowns of the arches act as fixed points
of the overall system, with roadway
transitions arranged at the ends of the
bridge and above the separating pillar. The
arches have two cellular box cross-
sections. They are clamped to the
transoms. These have a flat foundation.
The roadway support structure runs
seamlessly between the roadway
transitions. In the arch areas, a four-span
transverse slab beam was installed.
3.8 Selected bridges
In the foreland areas, this had to be
supplemented to a three-cell box cross-
section due to the significantly larger
spans. The supporting structure and
arches are not fused together. Two-cell
box cross-sections were chosen for the
slender supports. All columns are rigidly
connected to the supporting structure and
the arches or foundation bodies. The
foundations of the foreshore supports had
to be based on wells.
227
The arches were scaffolded with self-
supporting falsework from the Cruciani
system. Due to the step-by-step
construction of the arch cross-section and
the consistent utilization of the bonding
effect between the falsework and the
already hardened concrete parts, the
falsework could be dimensioned very
economically. The construction time for
the bridge was approx. 20 months.
228
3.8.7 Le Pont de Brotonne, France
JACQUES MATHIVAT
Le Pont de Brotonne is located on the
Seine, 35 km from Rouen, in Caudebec in
Caux. Built in 1977, it was the first
concrete bridge with multiple divided
spans and for several years it was the
world's first bridge of this type with a
central span of 320 meters. It does not
contain any piles in the river and has a
gabarit under a 50-meter-high table to
facilitate the navigation of ships at high
speed between Le Havre and Rouen.
The tunnel is continuous over its entire
length with the exception of a joint de
dilatation disposed in a cantilever between
the main tunnel and the access road on the
left. The lengths of the main tunnel are
respectively 143.5 m - 320 m - 143.5 m
and the current lengths of the access
viaducts are equal to 58.5 m.
The tray, with a constant height of 3.8
m, is made of a monocellular concrete
pre-contracted tubular pipe, with two
inclined ends, supported by an internal
triangulation that allows the concentrated
efforts of the lifting system to be
recovered. Its length is equal to 19.2 m. It
is elastically attached to the main piles by
means of an intermédiaire d'appareils
d'appui en néoprène and simply rests on
the other piles and culées.
3 Draft
Maître d'Ouvrage:
Direction Départementale de l'Equipement de
Seine Maritime
Conception et Exécution:
Entreprise Campenon
Bernard
Achevé en:
1977
The axial suspension of the structure is
realized by means of 21 semi-bent hubs,
anchored at the two extremities in the
table at the point of the internal
triangulation, and deployed at the base of
the two pylons by means of fixed-point
support plates. At the traverse of the
pylons a double gainage is provided to
allow the replacement of the hoods if
necessary. The anchors of the lifting lugs
in the tray are spaced at 6 m.
The hoods are made up of pre-
contracted cables containing 39 to 60
torons protected inside by metal tubes
injected into the cement body. Hydraulic
amortizers are installed at the front edge
of the lifting gear's attachment to the tray
to prevent vibration.
Les pylônes verticaux, en béton armé,
sont encastrés dans le tablier qu'ils sur
plombent de 70 m.
The main piles, also made of reinforced
concrete, are based on columns with a
diameter of 12.5 m and a depth of 35 m in
the limestone.
The tray was constructed by successive
encasements using 3-meter-long concrete
voussoirs placed inside mobile equipment,
with the dimensions included being
prefabricated.
3.8 Selected bridges 229
230
3.8.8 Danube Canal Bridge in Vienna, Austria
ALFRED PAUSER
On the outskirts of Vienna, the two-lane
directional roadway of the airport
highway leading towards the city crosses
the Danube Canal at an angle of 45°. Strict
boundary conditions forced the design of
a parallel chord supporting structure with
a slenderness of l/h = 42. The provision of
symmetrical, single-strand bracing was
therefore an obvious choice.
The supporting structure is prestressed
in the longitudinal direction - and also in
the transverse direction in the area of the
pylon and bracing cross girders. The
tensioning consists of locked cables with a
diameter of 72 mm, which form a strand
in groups of 8, which is guided over a cast
steel cable saddle at the pylon head.
Restrictions due to the need to maintain
navigation led to the idea of constructing
the two halves of the bridge along the
banks and turning them into place. The
bank strip, which was only available in a
width of around 5 m, was used to
construct a central in-situ concrete box.
The laterally cantilevered and back-
suspended prefabricated slabs also served
to support and stabilize the bridge.
3 Draft
project owner:
Federal Ministry of Buildings and
Technology/City of Vienna, Municipal
Department 29
Design and detailed planning:
Ingenieurbüro A. Pauser, Vienna
Execution:
Consortium A. Porr AG - Auteried & Co,
Vienna
Construction time:
1973-1975
Longitudinal displacement of internal
formwork to supplement the roadway
slab.
After applying partial pre-tensioning in
the girder, installing the cables and
partially pre-tensioning them, the first step
was to screw in the right-bank half of the
supporting structure. The processes
described were then repeated on the
opposite bank of the canal. The structural
measures for the twisting had to take into
account the extremely limited load
transfer area. It was obvious to make use
of the principle of the well-known sand
pot. The assembly slewing bearing with a
diameter of 1.6 m (elastomer/PTFE
washer in the sliding pairing with a
polished steel plate on a sand-mounted
concrete ram) not only had to bear a load
of 40 MN when the quartz sand was loaded
with 2 kN/ cm2 , but also had to enable the
lowering (by partial suction of the sand)
onto a subsequently pushed, closely
spaced pair of bearings. With an initial
force of only 150 kN, screwing in one half
of the supporting structure took barely 3
hours. The use of a bearing that was very
advantageous for the given
3.8 Selected bridges 231

2,80 + 0,24

23 m
55 m 119 m 55 m

5
5,4 ,90
4 5 AL
5,4 AN
Temporary pivot bearing AUK

End piece
N
DO

15,80
shunting track

laterally exhibited precast pl.

In-situ concrete cell on
Provisional

1m scaffolding
11

1,10 15,30 1,10 2,15

Rotary axis

18,00

5,00
Transverse preload
13,30
1,55
0,24

2,80 Neoprene
5,26

PTFE plate
2,26

4,90 Steel plate

Suspension Concrete
stamp
beam
Quartz sand

4,20 2,20

This was a modification of the The final step is the connection, threading
incremental launching method according of the continuity cables and the final
to Leonhardt/Baur. After both halves of tensioning work.
the supporting structure were in their
final position, the footing was
232
3.8.9 Mangfall Bridge, Germany
HERBERT KUPFER
The highway bridge over the Mangfall
valley on the Munich - Salzburg route was
first built in 1934-36 as a three-span steel
solid-wall girder, destroyed in 1945 when
the western (Munich) pier was blown up,
rebuilt in 1946-49 as a temporary steel
bridge (SKR steel truss construction) and
rebuilt in 1957-59, as described below, as a
prestressed concrete truss bridge with a
free cantilever according to the design by
Ulrich Finsterwalder using the old piers
and abutments. The temporary bridge was
moved sideways onto auxiliary piers for
this purpose.
The choice of a truss construction
made it possible to accommodate a foot
and cycle path on the lower deck of the
parallelepiped girder with magnificent
views of the beautiful, 60 m deep Mang fall
valley.
The filling bars of the parallel chord
truss are crossed diagonals and verticals
with a constant thickness in the view, so
that the three-span truss of L = 90 + 108 +
90 = 288 m length and 6 m height appears
as a completely uniform, aesthetically very
appealing band. The uniformity of this
band
3 Draft
project owner:
Autobahndirektion Südbayern
Design:
U. Finsterwalder,
DYWIDAG Munich,
Architectural consulting G. Lohmer
Execution:
Dyckerhoff & Widmann, NDL Munich
Construction time:
1957-1959
also reinforces the impression of the
slenderness of the construction.
Finsterwalder's architectural advisor was
Gerd Lohmer.
The floor slab is interrupted by
elliptical openings in the middle areas of
the three bays.
The forces of the filler bars increase
towards the supports in line with the
shear force curve. In order to adapt the
cross-sections of the filler bars to the bar
forces and thus avoid unnecessary
dimensions and dead weights, the widths
of the filler bars - measured in the
transverse direction of the bridge - also
increase towards the supports. However,
the visible surfaces of the two truss girders
are flat.
The bridge was built using the Dywidag
tensioning method with tensioning rods
from
26 mm diameter made of SigmaStahl
80/105 pre-stressed.
In the case of the free cantilever, the 6 m
long cantilever sections were concreted
and prestressed in two parts, with the first
part (lower chord, lower half of the rising
diagonal and entire falling diagonal)
already participating in the transfer of the
fresh concrete load of the second part
(upper half of the rising diagonal, vertical,
upper chord with roadway slab).
3.8 Selected bridges
The bridge was cantilevered - from the
Munich abutment - in one direction to the
Salzburg abutment, where it was necessary
to temporarily install intermediate
supports, which were removed again once
construction was complete. 4 pairs of
intermediate supports were required in
the first span, 3 pairs of intermediate
supports in the second half of the middle
span and 2 pairs of intermediate supports
in the second half of the end span.
The widening of the federal highway
between Munich and the Inntal triangle
233
to 6 lanes plus hard shoulder also required
the Mangfall Bridge to be widened. For
this purpose, a second superstructure was
built next to the existing one from 1977 to
1979 and, after the traffic was rerouted, the
truss bridge was rebuilt from 1980 to
1981. On this occasion, the condition of
the structure was also examined in detail
and found to be almost free of defects. In
addition, the bridge was adapted to a new
layout of the lanes with increased loads
without reinforcement measures.
234
3.8.10 The Normandy Bridge, France
MICHEL VIRLOGEUX
Owner:
Chambre of Commerce et d'Industrie du Havre
Project Manager:
Bertrand DEROUBAIX
(Direction Départementale de l'Equipement de
Seine Maritime)
When the construction of the Normandie
Bridge was considered for the first time as
early as 1973-1979, this took place within
the scope of a local project as an
alternative route to Paris - since the le
Havre region and harbor could not be
totally dependent on the Tancarville
Bridge - and as a new link with western
France. But before being built it was
integrated as a key element of the A 29
motorway which links Calais and the
Channel Tunnel to the French western
coast, down to Nantes, Bordeaux and
Spain.
The bridge crosses the river Seine estu-
ary a few kilometers upstream from le
Havre. A first project (1976-1979) consist-
ed of three different structures, a central
cable-stayed bridge with an access viaduct
on each side; with a main span (510 m),
the bridge had several supports in the
river in- cluding the north pylon and end-
pier of the cable-stayed bridge. After
several bridges had collapsed due to a ship
collision a deci-
3 Draft
Concept, Design:
Michel VIRLOGEUX (SETRA at the time),
Bonnelles
Architect:
Charles LAVIGNE (Vanves)
Project:
SETRA + SOFRESID (Jean-Claude FOUCRIAT)
+ SOGELERG +QUADRIC + INGEROP + CSTB
Contractors:
Campenon Bernard, Bouygues, SOGEA, GTM,
Dumez, Spie Batignolles, Quillery
Construction period:
1989-1995
sion was made to cross the estuary
without any pier in the river.
The final design was developed from
1986-1988 and though the longest cable-
stayed span at the time was only 465
meters (Alex Frazer Bridge, Canada), it
was de- cided to prefer a cable-stayed
bridge to a suspension bridge for
economical reasons but also to avoid large
anchorage blocks in the flat landscape of
the estuary. The main span of 856 m was a
large step forward in the design of cable-
stayed bridges and held the world record
from January 20, 1995 to May 1, 1999
when the Tatara Bridge was opened.
The Normandie Bridge is designed as a
unique, continuous structure with a
length of 2142 m without any intermediate
expan- sion joint. The design has been
mainly ori- ented to resist wind forces and
for aerodynamic stability: the deck is a
stream-lined box-girder directly inspired
by English sus- pension bridges; it is
supported by two
3.8 Selected bridges
Elévations Pylons
PONT DE NORMANDIE
COUPE LONGITUDINALE
planes of cable-stays which concentrate in
the pylon heads; the pylons have the shape
of an inverted Y, the most efficient design
to resist transverse wind forces; and the
deck is rigidly connected to pylons to
limit verti- cal and transverse deflections
induced by wind.
The bridge is a composite structure
with concrete access spans on multiple
supports
235
COUPE TRANSVERSALE
TRAVEE PRINCIPALE
VIADUCS D'ACCES
and with an orthotropic box-girder in the
central part of the main span for
economi- cal reasons but also to take
advantage of the concrete weight to
distribute back-staying action between all
rear cables.
The global concept as well as shapes
and details aim at elegance and
slenderness through a structural design.
236
3.8.11 Rhine Bridge Bendorf, Germany
HERBERT SCHAMBECK
project owner:
Federal Republic of Germany, represented by
Road Administration Rhineland-Palatinate
Road Construction Office Vallendar
The Rhine is crossed in Bendorf near
Koblenz by an approx. 1000 m long and
approx. 31 m wide highway bridge. The
main focal point of the structure is the 528
m long eastern section of the bridge, in
which the 208 m wide central opening over
the main river is bridged by a deck bridge
with a greatly varying girder height.
Together with the approx. 500 m long
simple parallel girder seamlessly connected
to the west, this creates a prototype of a
spacious, sophisticatedly designed
crossing of a river bed.
In a tender for this construction project
in 1961, the design of a prestressed
concrete bridge built with a free
cantilevered front section prevailed over
the administrative design of a steel bridge.
The decisive factors for the award were
the significantly lower bid price, the
reference to around 50 structures that had
been built worldwide using the same
construction system since 1950 and, of
course, the attraction of building such a
large structure.
3 Draft
Concept:
Ulrich Finsterwalder
Design:
consortium
Dyckerhoff & Widmann KG
(superstructure) Grün & Bilfinger AG
(substructure)
Architectural consulting:
Gerd Lohmer, Cologne
Execution: Consortium
Dyckerhoff & Widmann KG,
Grün & Bilfinger AG
Construction time:
1962-1965
as a "one-piece" construction - i.e. piers,
abutments and the entire superstructure
made of the building material concrete. In
addition, the administration had the
courage to push the technical and design
limits of this construction method with
this span and thus make a contribution to
the further development of the still young
prestressed concrete. The impact of this
concrete deck bridge, the widest span of
its time, was enormous: since then,
hundreds of bridges have been built
worldwide (especially in Japan) with spans
of up to around 250 m using this system
developed in Germany.
The main features of the Bendorf Rhine
bridge:
• A box with a highly variable
construction height (4.4 m in the
middle of the span, 10.5 m above the
main piers, 3.3 m at the ends of the
bridge and at the adjoining western
parallel girder), monolithically
connected to the slender (only 2.8 m
3.8 Selected bridges
thick) slabs of the main pillars. The
approx. 31 m wide roadway cross-
section is formed by two single-cell
boxes, each 7.2 m wide, with a
continuous longitudinal joint, 14.82 m
center-to-center distance and
corresponding lateral cantilever slabs.
• The 208 m wide main opening is
adjoined by a
The adjacent spans on both sides are
relatively short at 71 m. They ensure
that the center span is almost rigidly
clamped in the main pier axes and
therefore the deflections of the
structure under traffic loads remain
correspondingly small.
• Arrangement of a longitudinally
displaceable
joint in the middle of the stream. This
joint enables a minimum girder height
in the middle of the span and thus
contributes to the elegance of the
bridge. It simplifies calculation, design
and construction, because the static
requirements are similar in the
construction state (with free cantilever)
and in the final state. Added to this is
the clear guidance of the tendons in a
cantilever beam: almost all tendons lie
in the roadway slab and can be
installed quickly and easily; the stakes
remain free of tendons and can be
concreted without obstructions. This is
the same effect that is achieved by
externally cast
237
tendons can be achieved. - Experience
has shown that the advantages
described can be associated with
disadvantages: The deflections of the
cantilever tips in the middle of the span
can lead to undesirable deviations from
the planned track gradient and the
ongoing maintenance of an overpass
structure in the open field is more
complex than over a pier.
• In the entire area of the main opening
and the two neighboring spans, the
shear force in the webs and thus also
the thickness of the longitudinal webs
is kept constant over the entire span
length by defining the course of the
lower edge of the beam accordingly.
Construction in free cantilever in site-cast
concrete from the 2.8 m thick pier sections
symmetrically to both sides without
auxiliary supports. In the west - above the
river - after reaching the post-pier,
continuation of the free cantilever
construction in the 44 m wide secondary
spans without auxiliary supports with
auxiliary bracing and auxiliary pylons. For
the two 44 m bays in the east, conventional
bay-by-bay construction on scaffolding
was more economical.
238
3.8.12 Cable-stayed bridge Dubrovnik, Croatia
HERBERT SCHAMBECK
project owner:
Croatian Roads (National Road Authority)
The following specifications were decisive
for the bridge design:
• Navigation requires a clearance height of
50 m and a main span of 304 m,
followed by 90 m to the Dubrovnik
abutment and 87 m to the Split
abutment.
• A radius above the bank split makes it
impossible to erect a pylon there.
• The bridge is very narrow (usable width
above the river = 12.1 m) and is located
in a zone with high seismic activity
(0.38 g) and high wind speeds (Bora).
Z. Savor drew up a design based on these
criteria back in 1989: The 304 m main
opening is spanned by a steel box girder,
which is suspended with stay cables from
the 163 m high A-shaped pylon on the
Dubrovnik bank. Prestressed concrete
connects to both sides of the main opening:
On the Dubrovnik side, the 90 m long
back-anchoring field and on the
3 Draft
Design:
Dr.-Ing. E.h. Herbert Schambeck, Germany
Dipl.-Ing. Karl Sporschill, Innsbruck,
Austria
Implementation planning:
Structural Depart. of Civil Eng. Faculty
Zagreb, Dipl.-Ing. Zlatko Savov, Dipl.-Ing.
Veljko Lrpic
Execution:
Consortium WALTER - BAU AG, Germany
and Konstruktor, Split, Croatia with
Construzioni Cimolai Armando Spa, Italy (steel
construction) and DYWIDAG, Germany
(stranded ropes and prestressing steel)
Construction time:
1999-2001
Side Split two spans that are separated
from the main bridge and therefore do not
contribute to its load-bearing effect.
In 1996, after the war in Croatia,
WALTER BAU - AG applied for the
construction work and commissioned the
engineers H. Schambeck and K. Sporschill
to review the existing design and consider
special proposals. This resulted in the
proposal described below, which ultimately
led to the contract being awarded. The
design complies with all basic parameters
and uses an idea that was already applied
in 1968 for the Main Bridge Hoechst near
Frankfurt built by DYWIDAG: A 60 m
long cantilever projects from the Split pier
into the main opening, which is anchored
back in the 87 m long edge span and
receives a longitudinally displaceable
support at the cantilever tip for the
adjoining 244 m section. This creates two
different bridge sections:
In the stay cable area, the cantilever is
reduced to approx. 80 % and the cantilever
force to approx.
3.8 Selected bridges
moments in the pylon axis to approx. 64
%. The pylon height is only 142 m instead
of 163 m and a steel composite structure
can be used for the entire length of the
stiffening girder. This leads to an overall
higher stiffness and a concrete deck slab
that runs the entire length of the bridge.
The cross-section chosen is a 2.2 m high
slab girder with 2 longitudinal steel girders
lying on the outside in the axis of the stay
cables, which are connected by cross
girders and to which the longitudinally
tensioned deck slab is connected in a
shear-resistant manner.
239
Wind tunnel tests at RWTH Aachen
University led to a truss bracing being
installed at the level of the lower edge of
the beam to increase the torsional rigidity.
The second bridge section consisting of
the 60 m cantilever and the 87 m edge
span lies in a transition curve with Rmin =
212 m and widens by approx. 4 m in the
edge span. A suitable construction for this
is a single-cell box girder made of
prestressed concrete with a highly variable
girder height (3.2 to 8.2 m), rigidly
clamped in the pier split. Design and
construction method
240 3 Draft

The construction of the cantilevered front

structure corresponds to the globally
proven system of free cantilever
construction in in-situ concrete.
The link in the joining of these two,
individually optimally designed bridge
sections to form a functional and visually
satisfying overall structure is the joint area
with the articulation. The planners were
aware of the difficulty of the task right
from the start: geometric design of the
transition from the 2.2 m high steel plate
girder with its external girders to the 3.2 m
high, narrow prestressed concrete box -
accommodation of the bearings and the
transition structure, including the
possibility of inspection and replacement.
Accordingly, the details of this area were
carefully worked out with the aim of
achieving the same safety standard for the
joint area as for the overall construction.
4 Cross-section design
4.1 Cross-section design
depending on system and
function
FRANCESCO AIGNER
and THOMAS PETRASCHEK
4.1.1 General information
In this section, only cross-sections of the
roadway structures are considered.
Support cables, hangers, pylon, arch and
pier cross-sections are not taken into
account.
Generally speaking, three different
types of cross-section can be specified,
depending on the building material: The
slab, the slab beam and the box cross-
section. The individual elements interact to
form overall cross-sections through shear-
resistant coupling along the connecting
edges. Concentrated loads are distributed
by plate action or, in the case of
continuous plate systems, also by vault
action. In the case of resolved cross-
sections such as the plate beam or box
cross-section, these elements
simultaneously act as compression or
tension plates of the overall cross-section.
By consistently exploiting the advantages
of the basic shapes, appropriate
combinations and special cross-sections
can be developed for special cases.
Cross-sections of the roadway
structures of modern bridges generally
fulfill several tasks: They form the spatial
closure, contain the actual traffic
The "load-bearing structure" is a part of
the main load-bearing structure or the
main load-bearing structure itself and is
usually formed by a slab of constant or
variable thickness (roadway for road
bridges, footpath and cycle path for
pedestrian and cycle bridges, boundary of
the ballast trough or supporting element
for a fixed roadway for railroad bridges).
The multiple significance of the
"supporting structure" is particularly
pronounced in the case of bridges for
special applications, e.g. pipe bridges.
Here, the supporting structure
simultaneously forms the traffic route, the
space closure and the main supporting
structure. The cross-section of the
supporting structure can therefore only be
considered in conjunction with the
superordinate supporting structure. When
selecting and determining the cross-
section, the spans, the slenderness h/l of
the structure, the width of the structure,
the curvature ratios in the floor plan, the
size of the live load and the assembly
system play a decisive role.
As the selected cross-section not only
has a significant influence on the costs of
the superstructure, but also on the overall
appearance of a bridge, design
considerations must be taken into account
in addition to technical, operational and
economic aspects when selecting the
cross-section. By exploiting chiaroscuro
and light-shadow effects, through targeted
coloring of steel bridges or surface design
for concrete surfaces, as well as through
appropriate design of the capes, the
supporting structures can be visually
loosened and stretched.
242 4 Cross-section design

As part of the project planning, the stable cross-sections. Special requirements

cross-section that best fulfills the
boundary conditions (in terms of design,
costs, load-bearing effect, durability,
possibly flexibility), both objectively and
subjectively, must be selected from the
range of possible cross-sections. The
choice of cross-section type and geometry
is bound to certain specifications. The
cross-section geometry is partly
predetermined by the use, e.g. clearance
profiles for railroad bridges or standard
cross-sections for road bridges. The live
loads of railroad bridges are usually many
times greater than those of road bridges.
Due to the small deformations to be
complied with (deflections, end tangent
twists), railroad bridges in particular have
stiff supporting structures. In contrast, the
stiffness requirements of road bridges and
- above all - pedestrian bridges are lower.
For the latter, the vibration behavior must
be taken into account due to the possibility
of designing soft structures with low mass.
Stiffening girders of long-span cable-
stayed or suspension bridges require -
already on sight of the construction
conditions - aerodynamic
regarding the temperature curve in the
roadway slab can also have an influence on
the building material and the cross-
sectional design. If, for example, the load-
bearing slab of a road bridge is to heat up
as evenly as possible when exposed to
sunlight for reasons of traffic safety, a
concrete slab is preferred to a steel slab
and wide cantilevered brackets are
avoided. The placement of utility
connections or bridge drainage can also
be important for the cross-section design
(see chapter 10.5).
Some planning parameters are given
from the outset, others are freely
selectable, see Table 4.1-1.
Operation, maintenance and
preservation are important for the cross-
section design. Particularly in the case of
bridge structures on the high-level road
and rail network, it is necessary to ensure
that traffic can be maintained at all times,
even during major maintenance work, if
necessary with restrictions on the available
lanes and speed limits. In this respect,
non-continuous load-bearing

Table 4.1-1 Specified planning parameters for the cross-section design

Default Examples Changes possible
Utilization Road, rail, pedestrian, cane no

Construction height, height - within limits

progression
Clearance limits, minimum distances - no
Guidance systems Guard rails etc. no
Noise protection Noise barriers on a case-by-case basis
Material Steel, concrete, composite, mostly yes
wood
Construction process - Yes
Elevation of the usable area FBOK, SOK no
Design of the caps Color, detailing within limits
4.1 Cross-section design depending on system and function
structures are more favorable than
continuous ones. However, they have a
number of structural and operational
disadvantages and are essentially limited
to structures made of precast prestressed
concrete elements. If at least one structure
must always be fully available for wider
bridges such as highways or multi-track
railroad lines, a separation into two
individual bridges with a continuous
longitudinal joint in between is
indispensable despite its disadvantages. In
this case, all traffic can be routed over one
of the two bridges if necessary.
The character of the bridge
construction is thus determined by the
choice of a certain type of supporting
structure in terms of building material and
design. The designer must be aware that
bridges can shape the landscape to the
highest degree, i.e. that he irrevocably
changes the environment with his bridge,
which is why his structure should be fitted
into the terrain with the greatest care. A
cross-section can appear inappropriate,
for example by leaving the viewer with an
impression that it is too high or too
massive. It may also be inappropriate for
the function to be fulfilled or its location.
There are plenty of possibilities for this.
However, this can also have undesirable
effects, especially when it concerns such
important and sensitive areas as traffic
safety. For example, a driver must not be
distracted from the traffic by a particularly
interesting (bridge) construction. The
designer therefore has a special
responsibility that requires a great deal of
specialist knowledge and empathy. Please
refer to Chapter 3 and [Leonhardt, 1982]
for information on design issues. The
following are some simple examples of
good bridge design.
243
design. For bridges with a smaller span, the
visible area of the superstructure's
construction band, which is defined by the
choice of a specific cross-section, should
be set in an optimal ratio to the visible
areas of the abutment. This avoids the
impression that the superstructure grows
out of the terrain or the embankment
without a special connecting structure (in
the case of continuous structures,
however, the influence of the abutment
recedes from the overall structure and the
linear impression of the superstructure
predominates). In order to mitigate the
massive effect of a structure, surface
minimization is particularly suitable by
selecting suitable, compact cross-sections.
Finally, the choice of cross-section can
also clarify the internal flow of force of the
structure for the observer.
Bridges for urban road and railroad
construction in densely populated urban
areas are the focus of public attention.
Their design has a noticeable impact on
the architecture of the urban landscape. In
some cases, the soffit of the supporting
structure is a not insignificant design
feature. From a visual point of view, the
cross-sectional height is particularly
important. The visual impression of noise
protection devices must be taken into
account here, as well as the substructures
that depend on the cross-sectional shape.
These structures often require a
supporting structure with a particularly
low cross-section. A see-through
("transparent") cross-section contributes
noticeably to the optical slenderness of the
supporting structure. Finally, an engineer
or bridge architect with design experience
can combine function and design into a
single unit and design a bridge in such a
way that it sets positive accents - without
imposing itself - even in sensitive inner-
city areas.
244
A characteristic of the structural
efficiency of the cross-section is obtained
with the dead load and a comparison of
the live load proportion of the total load.
Here, the load-bearing capacity can be
influenced within limits by the degree of
cross-section resolution. Bending,
torsional stiffness, deformation and long-
term behavior are determined by the
choice of building material and cross-
section geometry. If the height is not
restricted, the construction height will
generally not be too short, e.g. to obtain a
stiffer structure for concrete bridges with
less reinforcement.
Every building material has typical
optimal cross-sectional shapes and not
every building material and cross-section
is suitable for every span. For small span
widths, but especially for irregular ground
plan shapes or for the most flexible
possible use of the traffic area, simple
cross-sections, e.g. solid plates or, in
exceptional cases, heavy steel plates, are
more economical than complicated,
lightweight cross-sections that are costly
to manufacture. In large bridge
construction today, the manufacturing
process possible for the respective cross-
section determines the costs and thus the
economic efficiency to a considerable
extent. In any case, the choice of cross-
section and the operational production
must always be seen in context, as not all
are suitable for industrial production, and
labor costs are still higher than material
costs.
Even if all the specifications listed are
adhered to, there is still enough scope for
individual design options, which is why
every carefully designed bridge is an
individual structure.
4 Cross-section design
4.1.2 General explanations of the
main cross-section types
4.1.2.1 Plate
A slab is a thin-walled load-bearing
structure with a flat central surface and a
transverse load. In practice, slabs with
brackets or slabs with a curved lower
surface are also included. Due to the thin
walls, it can be assumed that the cross-
sections remain flat. If the slabs are
sufficiently thin, the shear distortion can
be neglected. The deflections are assumed
to be very small compared to the
thickness.
The boundary to the beam is defined as
b/l ≥ 1 / 5. Below this value, there is no
longer a slab effect and it is then referred
to as a beam. Its load trasnfer is uniaxial.
Application
The panel cross-section is used for:
• Bridges with low to medium span
("slab bridges": bridge deck ≡ roadway)
• Culverts, underpasses ( wide
buildings)
• Arch bridges: Roadway structures and
smaller arches
• Track support structures and stems for small
rigid frame bridges
• Tensioning strap bridges
• As a space-enclosing and statically
effective element for resolved cross-
sections (slab beams, box cross-
sections, special cross-sections)
Properties
Favorable properties of plate carriers:
• Can be easily adapted to any basic
crack shapes, e.g. widenings,
constrictions, skewed slabs, etc.
4.1 Cross-section design depending on system and function
• Allow the largest slendernesses li /h (li :
distance of the moment zero points for
permanent actions)
• Allow any width b
• Considerable load-bearing reserves due
to membrane effect of continuous panel
systems
• Biaxial load trasnfer with concen-
trated loads (wheel loads)
• Equal behavior towards positive and
negative moments
Unfavorable properties of plate carriers:
• Limited spans
• In very slender structures, long-term
deflections due to permanent actions
can become a problem, especially at the
free edges (dead load, edge beams)
4.1.2.2 Plate beam
The slab beam consists of a number n of
"webs" (n ≥ 1), depending on the type of
construction, and a slab connected to
these in a shear-resistant manner. The
webs are used to transfer shear forces and
to achieve a sufficient static height d. The
plate has a space-enclosing function, acts
as a chord plate for the main load-bearing
effect and distributes the shear load
(wheel loads, distributed surface loads) to
the main load-bearing system (load
trasnfer by bending moments and shear
forces) through the plate effect. The
transverse load-bearing effect, which is
always present due to the bending
stiffness of the slab, can be effectively
increased by transverse plates or transverse
frames in the bay area (in l/2 or l/3, more
transverse plates do not bring any
significant improvement). As a result, all
main beams are forced to transfer the load
trasnfer together by a beam grid effect
(Fig. 4.1.2-1).
For practical construction reasons, one
tries to manage with as few cross beams as
possible. They are always attached to the
end
245
Figure 4.1.2-1 Transverse load-bearing effect
of a concrete plate girder
The beams are arranged at the abutments,
but often not always at the inner supports.
Plate girder bridges are characterized by
their comparatively low torsional stiffness
and their unfavourable load-bearing effect
against negative bending moments. Larger
changes in the carriageway width, which
cannot be achieved by simply widening
the slab consoles, are structurally complex
(distortion or arrangement of additional
webs).
Properties
Favorable properties of plate girder structures:
• The belt plate has several functions
• Low torsional rigidity: the
only small (forced) torsional moments
built up → well suited for oblique
angled positioning, protects the
bearings
• When designed as a through bridge, very
high
low construction heights are possible in
principle, but this type of construction
should only be used in compelling
exceptional cases
• Significantly larger spans are
than with panels
246
Unfavorable properties of slab-beam
structures:
• No full cooperation of the belt plate
for bending with shear force
("contributing widths")
• Internally statically indeterminate (Tor-
stiffness of the webs, participation of the
plate, unclear conditions due to the
different drop in bending and torsional
stiffness in the ultimate load state)
• Low torsional rigidity: "softer"
as a plate or box (service loads), low
lateral distribution, larger deflections
due to twisting
• For more curved load-bearing
structures less
suitable for
4.1.2.3 The box cross-section
The box cross-section is suitable for
medium to large spans, as can occur with
girder bridges and rigid frame bridges. A
box cross-section is also used for larger
compression and bending compression
members, such as high piers, columns and
supporting structures of rigid frame
bridges, arches and possibly also roadway
supporting structures of arch bridges. The
advantage of good material utilization is
offset by the disadvantage of costly
production. An important design
requirement is compliance with a
minimum clear height (accessibility). As a
rule, hli ≥ 80 cm is required.
Please refer to [Schlaich/Scheef, 1982]
for information on the application, design
and calculation of box girder bridges.
Properties
Favorable properties of box girders:
• Weight saving compared to load-
bearing structures with full cross-
section
• Large St. Venant's torsional stiffness
enables the absorption of large (load)
torsional moments, which means that
4 Cross-section design
Strongly curved or angled supporting
structures are also possible
• For the inclusion of positive and negative
moments equally suitable
• Comparatively low bending stresses
due to large core widths
• Installations are possible and protected
(exposed tendons; pipelines, but gas
pipes must not be laid inside the box
due to the risk of explosion)
• Also suitable for very large spans.
net
Unfavorable properties of box girders:
• No full contribution of the slab in shear
force bending ("contributing width")
• High torsional rigidity: it can be
large (forced) torsional moments are
built up (bearing body)
4.1.3 Cross-sections for road bridges
The most important planning criteria are
the standard cross-sections for bridge
constructions laid down in the regulations,
e.g. RVS, RAS, etc. Depending on the type
of road, the lane width ranges from 3.50 m
(highway) to 2.75 m. Of greatest
importance for the design of the traffic
area are the edge areas (emergency lane,
transition to the edge beams, arrangement
of the guidance systems, railings and noise
barriers). Figure 4.1.3-1 shows a typical
standard cross-section of the RVS.
It should be noted that there is a
difference between the upper and lower
cross-section. If the cross-section is routed
over artificial structures, it widens by 1.0
m overall. Both on the left and right, the
0.75 m wide verge of the bridge is
designed as a 1.25 m wide edge beam.
This applies to all cross-sections of the
RVS that are routed over such a structure.
4.1 Cross-section design depending on system and function 247

Figure 4.1.3-1 Standard cross-section of a high-capacity road [RVS 3.93 Urban roads, 1975].

4.1.4 Cross-sections for railroad bridges
The most important planning criteria are
the standard cross-sections for bridge
structures specified in the regulations
(guidelines of the railroad authorities, e.g.
DB guidelines).
Figure 4.1.4-1 shows such a standard
cross-section of the HLAG for high-
performance roads in Austria. The values a
and b in the table represent values for the
required increase in half width in bends
with a radius of 3000 m ≥ R ≥ 300 m.

Fig. 4.1.4-1 Standard clearance with

space for the passage of the current
collectors
248
Figure 4.1.4-2 Double-track heavy plate bridge with curved track geometry
Figure 4.1.4-3 Clearance regulations for distances in the roadway area [HLAG, 1998].
The track spacing is important for
multi-track lines. For new lines, these are
generally 4.70 m, possibly also 5.00 m. For
existing lines, the track spacing may be
smaller in accordance with the current
condition. Please note that additional
ballast is required in the cross-section of
the curve, see Figure 4.1.4-2.
Furthermore, as with the cross-sections
for road bridges, special attention must be
paid to the edge areas. Figure 4.1.4-3
shows examples from the ÖBB standard
planning.
4.1.5 Cross-sections for pedestrian
and cycle bridges
There is virtually no set of rules here that
contains regulations on the design of the
cross
4 Cross-section design
section. In most cases, economic
efficiency is not the main planning
criterion. Design aspects, aspects that
directly affect people, such as protection
from unfavorable weather conditions,
heatable walkways, etc., and often high
demands on the architecture play a major
role here. Due to the low masses and the
low payloads and the resulting low forces,
the design problems are often relatively
minor. This means that practically any
building material and any combination of
these can be used to form a cross-section.
The resulting variety is enormous.
However, it should be noted that vibration
problems can occur due to the low mass.
However, these usually do not result from
the effect of wind, but from the user
himself.
4.2 Cross-section design depending on the material used
Fig. 4.1.6-1 Cantilever pipe bridge [Prölss
Stahltechnik].
It should be noted at the design stage that
the natural frequency of the bridge does
not correspond to the step frequency of a
pedestrian, which is approx. 2 Hz when
walking and approx. 4 Hz when running.
4.1.6 Special cross-sections
The cross-sectional design of pipe
fractures naturally depends on the specific
requirements in terms of size, properties
of the substance to be conveyed (gaseous,
liquid or granular; density) and the flow
velocity. Particular attention must be paid
to the aerodynamic stability of wide-span
supporting structures with a cylindrical
cross-section. Figure 4.1.6-1 and Figure
4.1.6-2 show examples of pipe bridges.
249
Figure 4.1.6-2 Barbara Bridge
4.2 Cross-section design
depending on the material used
4.2.1 Concrete bridges
FRANCESCO AIGNER
and THOMAS PETRASCHEK
4.2.1.1 General information
The basic types used in concrete
construction (slab, plate girder, box) are
described below with regard to
applicability, design characteristics,
possible variations and production. For
further information and calculations,
please refer to sections 5.1, 5.2.1 and
8.5 pointed out.
Table 4.2 -1 shows the slenderness l/h
that can be achieved for concrete bridges,
taking into account the load-bearing
capacity and serviceability, depending on
the type of construction and use. The
values given are taken from [Leonhardt,
1979], [Schlaich/Scheef, 1982],
[Hegger, 1998], [Holst, 1998] and [Pauser,
2002]. The lower slenderness limits apply to
the smaller spans, the upper limits to the
larger spans.
250 4 Cross-section design

Table 4.2.1-1 Achievable slenderness li /h depending on design and use

Cross-section type without longitudinal prestressing with longitudinal pre-tensioning
Street Rail employee Street Rail employee
Plate1
15-22 (20-25) 11-16 18-30 (26-36) 13-22
Plate beam1 8-12 12 10-18 15
Plate beam2 10-14 12-24
Plate beam3 15-20
Box1
17 21 12-14
Box2
18 25
Box3
Field 35-50 30
Box3
Support 17-22 20

li= Distance of the moment zero

pointssingle-span beam ... 1.0
*end span) .0.8 * l
Continuous beam (inner span).. .
0,7 * l
Plate1 Solid panel with constant thickness
Slab beam1 Manufactured in site-cast concrete (2 webs) - without web reinforcement for negative
moments Slab beam2 Manufactured in site-cast concrete (2 webs) - with web reinforcement for negative
moments Slab beam3 Manufactured in prefabricated construction
Box1 Single-span beam, constant beam height - bottom edge of
straight box2 Continuous beam, constant beam height - bottom edge
straight Box3 Variable beam height - bottom edge haunched

For road bridges made of slabs, ratio hsupport/hFeld should be slightly

correspondingly greater slendernesses are
possible for lower traffic loads compared
to the slendernesses given in Table 4.2.1-
1. In the case of slabs for railroad bridges,
the permissible deformations due to traffic
loads also depend on the travel speed,
which influences the slenderness.
According to [Schlaich/Scheef, 1982], a
constant construction height makes sense
for box cross-sections up to a span of 90
m, but from 150 m a variable construction
height adapted to the internal forces is
necessary.
For design reasons, [Schlaich/Scheef,
1982] recommends that bridges located
high above the valley should not be
connected
smaller than statically optimal.
4.2.1.2 Plate
General information
The solid slab is common in concrete
construction. Slabs with cavities are often
not permitted and are hardly used any
more. For design reasons and also because
of the dead load, however, the
arrangement of brackets is common,
especially for orthogonal slabs (Fig. 4.2.1-
1).
Despite the more elaborate formwork
and reinforcement, the formwork shown
in the upper partial image
4.2 Cross-section design depending on the material used
Figure 4.2.1-1 Types of consoles
The design shown here should be
preferred, as it usually looks better, makes
the supporting structure appear slimmer
and, moreover, the exact execution of the
normally visible edge "A" is practically
impossible.
Favorable properties of concrete slab
support structures:
• Smallest proportion of formwork per
m³ of concrete, simple formwork (no
cavities to be formed for solid slabs,
continuous lower formwork for slabs
with a flat underside)
• Shortest "scope" and therefore minima
le reinforcement surface; with
orthogonal slabs, simple reinforcement
guidance is usually possible
• Favorable shear transfer: Panels without
Continuous shear reinforcement is
possible and common, a shear
minimum reinforcement (as with
beams) is not required
Unfavorable properties of concrete slab
support structures:
• Largest mass (cost of the slab itself; load
effect on scaffolding, formwork,
substructures). The dead load can be
reduced by using brackets, also by
forming the slab as a ribbed slab (lost
formwork for site-cast concrete,
formwork for precast concrete).
251
parts), which makes production more
complex. Hollow slabs are often not
approved and are hardly common
anymore
• Considerable quantities of material are in
statically less effective areas
• Due to the small core width, the pre-
tension is less effective than with
resolved cross-sections (plate girders,
box cross-section)
Limit values for the thickness h
of plate load-bearing structures
The thickness of panels is limited downwards
by:
• The load-bearing capacity of the
concrete compression zone (no
compression reinforcement for slabs)
• The desire to have no or only a few
to have to arrange a shear reinforcement
• Design specifications (minimum spacing
of the cladding tubes from the surface of
prestressed concrete slabs)
• The necessary stiffness
Typical slab thicknesses are in the range of
30 to 70 cm or more (about 100 cm,
exceptionally even more, e.g. Elbe bridge
Torgau: 179 cm at the bending stiffness
transition between prestressed concrete
and composite supporting structure).
Load-bearing effect
Orthogonal and quasi-orthogonal panels:
According to [Leonhardt, 1979], skewed
slabs with φ ≥ 70° can be treated
mathematically as straight slabs. According
to more recent standards, φ is further
limited, e.g. to 75°. The cutting force
concentration in the areas of the obtuse
corners must be taken into account in the
design.
If the transverse strain (μ = 0) is
neglected, straight slabs (φ = 90°) bear
loads evenly distributed over the width by
uniaxial bending, i.e. there is no bending in
the transverse direction. The
252 4 Cross-section design

Bending surface is cylindrical and the

following applies a
m1 ≡ mx and m2 ≡ 0.
As a result of the transverse strain (μ =
1/6 or μ = 0.2), transverse bending b
moments my also arise in addition to the
bending moments mx . These moments
are constraining moments in the
transverse direction that do not have to be c
used for the design, but require a
minimum transverse reinforcement to
limit the crack widths. There are also d
principal moment components that run
transverse to the free slab edges, which
Figure 4.2.1-2 Design options for in-situ
must be taken into account when
concrete structures - solid slabs
designing the reinforcement.
Loads that are unevenly distributed
across the width, e.g. concentrated loads
(wheel loads), are transferred by biaxial
bending (plate effect: mx , my → m1 , m2 ).
Plates with φ < 75°, which are considered
inclined plates, carry all loads by biaxial
bending. Even with equal loads, there are Figure 4.2.1-3 Design options for in-situ
principal moment components that run concrete structures - ribbed slabs
transverse to the free plate edges.
Larger shear forces arise in the area of • Ribbed slabs for lightly loaded slab
smaller, highly loaded bearing bodies at bridges with predominantly positive
the ends of bridges or at intermediate bending moments; represent the
supports of continuous systems. They formal transition to the multi-web slab
may necessitate the arrangement of locally girder, but here a slab load-bearing
limited shear reinforcement. effect is created by more closely spaced
With continuous slab systems or with cross girders (Figure 4.2.1-3)
non-displaceable support of the slab
edges, a vault effect is created that In the case of ribbed slabs, the lower
considerably increases the load-bearing weight compared to solid slabs and the
capacity. additional effort required for formwork
and reinforcement installation (bracing of
Constructions the "webs") should be noted.
In-situ concrete constructions: Precast constructions and mixed
systems (precast elements + site-cast
• Solid slabs with flat underside (Figure concrete):
4.2.1-2a)
• Solid slabs with prefabricated T-panels
• Solid slabs with brackets (Figure 4.2.1-
and in-situ concrete pouring (Fig.
2b,
4.2.1-4)
Figure 4.2.1-2c)
• Solid slabs with curved underside To activate the transverse load-bearing
(Figure 4.2.1-2d) effect, transverse prestressing is necessary
(at the supports and, for example, at the
third points or in the middle of the panel).
4.2 Cross-section design depending on the material used
Figure 4.2.1-4 Example of a solid slab with
prefabricated T-pieces and cast-in-place
concrete spout
Reinforcement routing
Reinforcement of non-prestressed
orthogonal slabs:
Non-prestressed slabs can be used for
smaller bridges, whereby in addition to
the load-bearing capacity, the
serviceability must also be verified
(deflections, crack width limitation). In
order to prevent the long-term deflections
at the free slab edges from increasing
excessively as a result of permanent
actions (e.g. edge beams), the longitudinal
reinforcement at the edges should be
selected in abundance. In the edge areas,
the arrangement of stirrups is common,
creating "hidden edge beams". The main
moment components running transverse
to the free slab edges require appropriate
framing, e.g. using hairpins (Fig. 4.2.1-5).
For slabs with brackets, bars of the
upper reinforcement can be bent to
improve the load-bearing capacity for
shear forces.
With regard to bonding and cracking
behavior, the thicker reinforcing steels
within a reinforcement network are the
best choice.
Figure 4.2.1-6 Position of main reinforcement - distribution reinforcement in the reinforcement
layout
253
Figure 4.2.1-5 Reinforcement design at free
slab edges
(main reinforcement) in the inner layer,
the thinner reinforcing steel (distribution
reinforcement) in the outer layer (Figure
4.2.1-5 to Figure 4.2.1-7).
Reinforcement of prestressed orthogonal
slabs:
The prestressed longitudinal
reinforcement is laid between the lower
and upper reinforcement mesh. For
optimum shear transfer, it is pulled up to
approx. h / 3 (i.e. not very far) above the
bottom edge of the slab at the slab ends. At
rail pads of continuous slabs, the prestressed
longitudinal reinforcement is routed as
high as possible and the deflection should
be as short as possible. In the case of slabs
with beveled soffits or with brackets,
longitudinal tendons are only arranged in
the full height h area.
Transverse prestressing is favorable
with regard to constraining moments due
to transverse expansion, transverse stresses
due to temperature and constraints in the
support area. For panels with constant
thickness
254 4 Cross-section design

nal slab. Special attention must be paid to

the largest bending moments and
principal moment directions resulting
from the load trasnfer as well as local
support force concentrations in the
structural design. For the calculation and
structural design, please refer to the
literature [Leon- hardt, 1979] and [Czerny
et al., 1984].

4.2.1.2 Plate beam

General information
The footbridges on a concrete slab girder
bridge offer the advantages described in
section
4.1.2.2 already mentioned, it is also
possible to accommodate the tendons. As
shown in Fig. 4.2.1-8, concrete bridges can
also be designed as
"through bridges". This means that the
Figure 4.2.1-7 Composite law for ribbed steels
advantage of an extremely low
for various related concrete coverings with the
composite law for medium ratios [Noakowski,
construction height can also be exploited
1985] with concrete as a building material.
There are constructions both in in-situ
concrete and with prefabricated parts,
straight tendons are arranged whereby the two types can differ
approximately halfway up, considerably from each other.
correspondingly higher for slabs with
beveled soffits and in two layers for slabs Properties
with brackets. Favorable properties of concrete plate girder
structures:
Reinforcement of non-prestressed
oblique-angled slabs: • Weight savings compared to the slab
The reinforcement layout of skew- (building material consumption,
angled slabs differs significantly from that scaffolding, formwork, substructures)
of a double-sided orthogonal slab. • Less formwork than hollow cross
cuts

Figure 4.2.1-8
Example of a through bridge
4.2 Cross-section design depending on the material used
Figure 4.2.1-9 Possible reinforcement measures for plate beams
• Statically and structurally ideal for
prestressing
Unfavorable properties of concrete slab
and beam structures:
• More formwork per m³ of concrete
than for slab structures
• Longer "circumference" and therefore
larger
"Reinforcement area" than with plate
load-bearing structures (more
reinforcement meshes)
• Unfavorable load-bearing behavior
compared to
negative moments (high zero line,
small area for the addition of a
compression zone). For continuous
beams, local reinforcement measures
such as web widening, local flanges or
an addition to a box cross-section are
possible (Fig. 4.2.1-9). Discontinuities in
the system line must be taken into
account. This problem does not apply to
single-span beam chains, as they are
often used in precast construction.
• Thin belt pulleys not pre-tensioned
of panel beam constructions are
255
constantly exposed to high compressive
forces (creep deformation)
Constructions
In-situ concrete constructions:
The number of stays depends on the
width and span, among other things.
Between 1 and 3 webs are possible. Figure
4.2.1-10 shows the most favorable number
of main girders depending on the width
and height.
For road and railroad bridges, a cross-
section with two webs is most often chosen.
If possible, the web height should be
chosen generously. In any case,
continuous girders that are expected to
have larger support settlements should be
designed to be rather slender. Web spacing:
5-7 m, or significantly more for wide
structures. With regard to crack behavior,
thin webs are more favorable than thick
ones. The main girder webs are arranged
in such a way that they remain largely free
of torsional moments as a result of
constant actions ("balanced cross-section").
The thickness of the slab depends on its
256
span and the degree of clamping in the
webs (St. Venant's twist stiffness). In
order to adapt the plate to the internal
forces, it is reinforced towards the webs
(Fig. 4.2.1-11), although the production is
more complicated than with a flat base.
Cross beams are provided at the ends of
the supporting structure and, in the case of
curved main beams, also at the
intermediate supports. This serves to
better absorb torsional moments and wind
forces. In order to secure the webs against
twisting, transverse shears are also
provided in the third points of the
individual bays - particularly in the case of
curved main beams - if the design permits.
If the cross members are monolithically
connected to the load-bearing slab,
clamping moments are created in the slab.
4 Cross-section design
Figure 4.2.1-10 Diagram
for selecting the most
favorable number of main
beams
in the longitudinal direction. This can be
avoided by separating these elements.
Alternatively, it is possible to dispense
with cross members, combine the deck
slab and the webs to form half-frames and
thus produce elastic half-frames. For more
detailed explanations on the torsional
stiffness of the webs, see e.g. [Leonhardt,
1979], [Menn, 1990], [Wicke] and on the
shear-resistant connection of the slab to
the webs, see [Bachmann, 1978].
Precast constructions or mixed systems
(precast elements + site-cast concrete):
The size of the prefabricated parts and
therefore the number of webs depends,
among other things, on the transportation
options and the performance of the
assembly equipment. Modern
prefabricated slab girder bridges differ
characteristically from
Figure 4.2.1-11 Revealed or
curved bottom view
4.2 Cross-section design depending on the material used
Site-cast concrete designs due to the larger
number of main girders and the
correspondingly smaller main girder
spacing (web spacing: 2-3.5 m). This
makes it even more inconvenient to
construct any crossbeams that may be
required to be subsequently cast in
concrete than with site-cast concrete
designs. Intermediate cross beams are not
common. Due to the bending stiffness of
the slab with comparatively close main
girders, a much better transverse
distribution of the loads is achieved than
with in-situ concrete cross-sections with
their sometimes widely spanned roadway
slabs.
The following construction methods
are mentioned:
• Prefabricated T-panels are laid with 20
cm to 30 cm spacing. The gaps in the
slab are filled with site-cast concrete.
Finally, the slab is transversely
prestressed with straight tendons (Fig.
4.2.1-12). The precast elements can be
prestressed in the prestressing bed or
subsequently.
• Prefabricated T-parts are produced
with corresponding
the spacing. The intermediate spaces
257
Figure 4.2.1-12 Possible installation
of prefabricated T-pieces
The gaps in the slab are filled with site-
cast concrete. Finally, the slab is
transversely prestressed with straight
tendons (Fig. 4.2.1-13).
• Prefabricated T-parts become "man to
man"
laid. The upper surface is filled with in-
situ concrete with a layer thickness of
approx. 20 cm (Fig. 4.2.1-14). The in-
situ concrete layer is shear-bonded to
the precast elements using loops on the
precast elements. Shrinkage of the
subsequently applied in-situ concrete
layer poses a particular problem.
4.2.1.3 Box cross-section
Properties
Favorable properties of concrete box girders:
• Well suited for pre-tensioning, this is
more effective than with the plate
• Ideal for automated manufacturing
method (cantilever, incremental
launching, etc.)
Figure 4.2.1-13 Possible
installation of prefabricated T-
pieces
258 4 Cross-section design

Figure 4.2.1-14 Possible installation

of prefabricated T-pieces

Figure 4.2.1-15 Favorable cross-section dimensions for a box cross-section

Unfavorable properties of box girders: An example of a small hollow cross-

section is shown in Figure 4.2.1-16. This is
• Largest proportion of formwork per m³
the cross-section of prestressed concrete
of concrete
track girders for the Transrapid Maglev
• Longest "circumference" and therefore
high-speed railroad in Germany. These as
largest
"Reinforcement area" (largest number
of reinforcement meshes)
Table 4.2.1-2 Favorable cross-section dimensions
for a box cross-section
Construction
According to [Schlaich/Scheef, 1982] and Size Examples
[Wicke], the following points of reference h1 ≥20 cm
are given for determining favorable cross-
h3 ≥20 cm
section dimensions: Figure 4.2.1-15, Table
4.2.1-2. For larger cross-sections, the track h4 ≥30 cm
slab must be at least 25 cm thick (h3 ≥ 25 (or 20 cm + ∅envelope)
cm). The introduction of heavier h5 ≥15cm
individual vehicles may make thicker slabs lVoute/lPlate
necessary (no pressure reinforcement for ≤0.2 (or also = 0.5)
slabs). 15 cm at the end of the bracket (h1 h1 : h2 1 :2 ... 1 : 3
= 15 cm) is sufficient if carefully executed
h3 : l3 1 : 30 (due to risk of buckling)
and the slab is not transversely
prestressed.
4.2 Cross-section design depending on the material used 259

Figure 4.2.1-16 Form-faithful pre-tensioning - prestressed concrete girder TVE [Hilliges, 1997].

Figure 4.2.1-17 Cross-section of the Reichsbrücke with different functional levels [Pauser, 1987].

The prefabricated elements designed as Reichsbrücke in Vienna. The special

single-span beams were mainly designed feature is the two-level solution with the
with span widths of 25 m and 31 m. The subway in the two boxes and the road on
special feature of these girders is their the deck. The construction was carried out
true-to-form pre-tensioning. This is as a cantilever structure for each half of the
achieved by means of curved tendons in the bridge in one cross-section including a
girder webs. Plastic deflections during the pedestrian console. The trend is moving
service life are avoided and the required more and more towards a single-cell box
long-term stability is ensured. cross-section, even with large span widths.
Figure 4.2.1-17 shows an example of a The design is c a r r i e d o u t with
multifunctionally used cross-section, transverse prestressing of the deck slab.
which is that of the new Figure 4.2.1-18 shows cross-sections of the
Skye Bridge. This is a rigid frame bridge
with vertical piers
260 4 Cross-section design

Above the support

102 tendons
19 × 0.62″

46 cm
Average
compressive
stress from pre-
tension
σ b,vo = 46
σ = - 11.1 MPa
b,vo
- 8.2 MPa

32 tendons
19 × 0.62″
in the center of the field

Figure 4.2.1-18 Cross-sections and arrangement of the pre-tension [Baumann, 1996].

and large spans (125 + 250 + 125 = 500
m). During the planning phase, high
design requirements were placed on the
supporting structure due to its unique
location in the countryside. The shaping
of the side surfaces (webs, transition to
the base plate) and the surface structuring
of the webs (vertical ribs) made it possible
to make effective use of light and shadow
effects. Particular attention was also p a i d
to the design of the edge beams. The
creation
The appearance of the already very
slender frame construction was further
enhanced by these design elements.
For very wide bridges with separate
carriageways (highways, expressways), but
also for double-track railroad bridges, two
independent supporting structures are
often required. This results in a system
with much lower transverse stiffness, but
has advantages in the event of renovation
measures. An example of this

Figure 4.2.1-19 Standard cross-section of the Schnaittach viaduct [Riedmann, 1998].

4.2 Cross-section design depending on the material used
is the Schnaittach viaduct on the A9
Berlin - Nuremberg Maintenance Depot
motorway, see Figure 4.2.1-19. Two-cell
and multi-cell boxes only make sense for
very wide structures in relation to the
structure height (structure
width/structure height > 6 : 1). More than
3 or 4 webs do not improve the transverse
distribution in practice and are therefore
unusual.
If possible, the design height should
not be too short; if necessary, continuous
beams for which larger support subsidence
is expected should be designed to be rather
slender. The webs must be able to absorb
the compressive forces due to shear force
and torsion in the inclined compression
struts. A "balanced cross-section" as in the
case of the plate girder is not important for
the box, which means that the form-
finding is less restricted. As with the plate
girder, the deck slab is reinforced towards
the webs (haunched or curved soffit) in
order to adapt the slab to the internal
forces, although production is more
complicated than with a flat soffit. The
calculation of the supporting structure as a
torsionally rigid beam is based on a true
cross-section. Cross bulkheads are
inconvenient to manufacture. However,
they must always be arranged at the ends
of the supporting structure ("end
transverse plates"), and transverse
bulkheads will generally also have to be
provided at the intermediate supports
(absorption of large torsional moments).
Transverse bulkheads in the field are
required for large spans (according to
[Wicke] possibly from 60 m, in any case
from 100 m). If transverse bulkheads
cannot be arranged (drivable box), local
transverse frames must be formed. In this
case, additional stresses result from the
transverse section deformation.
261
4.2.2 Steel bridges
FRANCESCO AIGNER
and THOMAS PETRASCHEK
4.2.2.1 Orthotropic plate
Based on the cross-section contour
specified by the requirements and the
thickness of the road surface, the deck
plate of steel bridges follows the cross-
section. All steps that occur in the area of
the transition from the carriageway to the
footpath, cycle path or central reservation,
all cross slopes, etc., are followed by the
steel plate. A stepless cross-section design
would considerably simplify the bridge
deck of steel bridges, but the
implementation usually fails for reasons of
traffic safety.
In order to transfer vertical loads from
dead load, but above all from traffic, the
deck plate must be stiffened with a
thickness t ≥ 12 mm for road bridges and t
≥ 14 mm for railroad bridges with a ballast
bed. Stiffeners are provided by
longitudinal and transverse girders, which
are connected (welded) to the deck plate
and to each other in a shear-resistant
manner. A roadway slab, consisting of a
shear-resistant connected cover plate and
longitudinal and transverse girders, is
called an orthogonally anisotropic, or
orthotropic, roadway slab because of the
anisotropy in the bending and shear
stiffnesses in two mutually orthogonal
directions. The system is shown in Figure
4.2.2-1 and
z. For example, the Brunsbüttel high
bridge, see Figure 4.2.2-2. In the case of
railroad bridges with roadbeds and
pedestrian bridges, the longitudinal
stiffeners may be omitted and only closely
spaced transverse girders can be arranged
(Fig. 4.2.2-3).
The basic principle of the design is that
the longitudinal girders extend over the
entire length of the bridge.
262 4 Cross-section design

Fig. 4.2.2-1 Main girder with orthotropic plate [Kindmann/Krawinkel et al., 1999].

Figure 4.2.2-2 Orthotropic plate consisting of 5 strips during installation

The cross beams are usually combed onto
the longitudinal beams in ⊥������ with
correspondingly cut-out webs (preferably
not threaded) (Figure 4.2.2-4).
Open profiles such as flat steels, beaded
flat steels or halved ���������������
(Figures 4.2.2-5, 4.2.2-6) or closed profiles
such as win- kels and triangular and
trapezoidal stiffeners (Figures 4.2.2-7,
4.2.2-8) are used as longitudinal members.
As closed profiles only require half the
number of welds to support the cover
plate compared to open profiles, closed
profiles, usually trapezoidal profiles, are
predominantly used as longitudinal beams
today for economic reasons. In addition,
closed profiles have two to three orders of
magnitude greater St. Venant's torsional
stiffness and smaller outer coating areas
than open profiles.
4.2 Cross-section design depending on the material used 263

Figure 4.2.2-3 Railway bridge with transversely oriented orthotropic slab [DS 804]

Figure 4.2.2-4 Connection between side member

and cross member [Kindmann/Krawinkel et al.,
1999].
264 4 Cross-section design

Figure 4.2.2-5 Flat steel stiffenerFigure 4.2.2-6 Bead flat steel

stiffener (older version)

open profiles. The higher torsional stiffness

leads to better lateral distribution of the
concentrated wheel loads and thus
reduces the local deformation of the cover
plate, which increases the service life of
the pavement.
For road bridges, the supports of the
deck plate by the longitudinal girders must
be at a distance a, e ≤ 25 t; for railroad
bridges with a roadbed, a, e ≤ 40 t (Figure
4.2.2-9).
The spacing of the cross girders Figure 4.2.2-7 Trapezoidal stiffener for road bridge
depends on the height of the longitudinal
girders. For open profiles, the distance
between the cross girders is usually 2.5 to
4.0 m for road bridges, 2.0 to 3.0 m for
railroad bridges, 3.5 to 5.0 m for closed
4.2.2.2 Plate beam
profiles for road bridges and 3.0 to 4.5 m
for railroad bridges. Steel plate girder cross-sections consist of
The lightweight steel track is supported the orthotropic deck slab and at least two
by the main girders and at the same time main girder webs and main girder chords,
forms their top chord. The main which are all connected to each other in
supporting beam can be designed as an shear. In steel construction, only two
open cross-section - slab beam cross- main girders are ever designed for
section - or as a fitter cross-section - box economic reasons if the construction
cross-section. Both options are discussed height is sufficient (Fig. 4.2.2-10).
in more detail in the following sections Only if the construction height is low, so
4.2.2.2 and 4.2.2.3. that the cross beams already cover it.
4.2 Cross-section design depending on the material used 265

Figure 4.2.2-8 Trapezoidal stiffener for railroad bridge [Kindmann et al., 1999].

Figure 4.2.2-9 Distances a, e as a function of t

[Kindmann et al., 1999].
Figure 4.2.2-11 Multi-web slab beam - girder grid
[Weitz, 1975].

Plate girder cross-sections can also be

Figure 4.2.2-10 Two-span slab beam
several main beams are executed. This
results in a multi-webbed slab girder cross-
section. A girder grid is created from the
interaction of main and cross beams (Fig.
4.2.2-11).
formed with truss main girders. For deck
bridges, the orthotropic deck slab forms
the top chord of the trusses. Through
bridges where the main girders overhang
the roadway are no longer built with full-
wall main girders for road bridges, and for
railroad bridges only if the upper edge of
the main girders is lower than the lower
edge of the wagon window. Through
bridges with truss main girders
266
Fig. 4.2.2-12 Truss railroad bridge, roadway below [DS 804]
The main girders are designed for both
road and railroad bridges, as the trusses
only slightly impair the view to the side.
The roadway then either lies between the
chords or itself forms the bottom chords
of the main truss girders (Fig. 4.2.2-12).
4.2.2.3 Box cross-section
The simplest case is the box cross-section
made of steel with two webs, whereby
these are arranged vertically or inclined.
4 Cross-section design
(Figures 4.2.2-13, 4.2.2-14).
As the base plate should not be too thin
(t ≥ 10 mm) for structural reasons and
because of the tight cut-outs then
required, and as the required area of the
base plate is always smaller than that of
the cover plate with local plate loading, the
webs of the main beams must usually be
arranged at closer intervals for box cross-
sections than for open cross-sections. An
inclined position of the webs meets these
requirements and the
 4.2 Cross-section design depending on the material used
Figure 4.2.2-13 Box with vertical bars [Weitz,
1975].
Figure 4.2.2-15 Box cross-sections with diagonal braces [Weitz, 1975].
The width of the pillars is opposed. For this
reason, box cross-sections often result in
cantilevered roadway sections that can lead
to longitudinal cracks in the roadway
pavement due to the transverse bending. For
this reason, it may b e advisable to support
these cantilevers w i t h d i a g o n a l
braces (Figure 4.2.2-15). Inclined braces can
be arranged at each cross beam or only at
the cross plates. In the latter case, load-
distributing longitudinal beams must
support the cantilevers in between. In the
case of wide bridges, especially central girder
bridges, box cross-sections with one or two
central webs, i.e. multi-cell box cross-
sections, can also be designed.
(Figure 4.2.2-16).
Bridges with a highway width are often
designed with two single-cell box cross-
sections (Fig. 4.2.2-17). This has the
advantage that the half bridge also remains
a load-bearing structure. Cross-sections
for through bridges can also be
constructed from two full-wall box cross-
sections with a roadway in between.
Figure 4.2.2-16 Three-cell box cross-section
for a center-girder cable-stayed bridge [Weitz,
1975].
267
Figure 4.2.2-14 Box with inclined webs [Weitz,
1975].
the. In the case of navigable waterways
with radar navigation, parallel,
unstructured inner bridge surfaces viewed
from below can lead to multiple
reflections of the radar beam and indicate
what appears to be a second bridge
structure further away on the radar
screen. For this reason, such webs should
be inclined by at least 10° towards each
other or other measures (e.g. nets) should
be arranged to prevent multiple
reflections.
With web and base plates, it must be
ensured that they can buckle under
compressive and/or shear loads. For this
reason, these sheets are usually reinforced
with longitudinal or transverse stiffeners,
so that orthotropic disks (stress in the
plane of the supporting structure) are
created. In order to meet the structural
engineer's requirement to maintain the
cross-sectional shape (true cross-section),
the cross members of the orthotropic deck
slab and the transverse stiffeners of the
web and floor plates are connected to form
transverse frames with bending stiffness.
At all points where concentrated loads are
introduced into the cross-section, the cross
Fig. 4.2.2-17 Double box with inclined inner
bars [Weitz, 1975]
268
Figure 4.2.2-18 Plate girder cross-section with truss cross-bracing - Karlsruhe - Durlach highway
bridge
are guided (e.g. supports, rope and cable
entries, arch entries) and usually in the
1/3 or 1/4 points of a span, either
transverse sheaves or transverse bracings
are arranged to maintain the cross-
sectional shape and distribute
concentrated loads to the cross-section.
(Figure 4.2.2-18).
4.2.2.4 Fabrication of the steel
bridge on the construction site
For production, the bridge cross-section
must be divided into sections whose
dimensions and weights allow
transportation from the workshop to the
construction site and assembly there with
the lifting gear used. These sections are
generally oriented longitudinally and only
in exceptional cases are they oriented
transversely at supports or force
introductions. Their dimensions are based
on the sheet sizes available on the market.
Typically, the width is 2.0 to 3.8 m and the
length is an integer multiple of the cross
beam spacing, usually 12 to 25 m. Care
must be taken to ensure that the web, top
chord and bottom chord of main beams
up to a maximum height of 3.5 m form a
single unit.
4 Cross-section design
which determines the height of the cross-
sectional shape during assembly and has
the corresponding bending stiffness
(Figures 4.2.2-19, 4.2.2-20).
For high beams, the cross-section is
divided by a longitudinal joint into an
upper part - web with top plate - and a
lower part - web with bottom chord or
bottom plate - and both parts are joined
together to form the main beam at a pre-
assembly site near the construction site.
All gradations of the cross-section can also
be used to divide the cross-section into
sections. The widths of the sections are
selected so that the longitudinal joints are
located between the stiffeners, in
particular between the trapezoidal
profiles. Today, longitudinal joints are
practically exclusively butt-welded. For the
cover sheet, steep flank seams on steel
plates or on ceramic bath protection have
proven to be economical, which can be
produced with submerged arc welding
machines. Longitudinal joints in web and
base plates are formed with V-seams, X-
seams or steep-flank seams with bath
protection. The cross beams that are also
to be joined at the longitudinal joints
4.2 Cross-section design depending on the material used 269

Figure 4.2.2-19 Division of a bridge cross-section into sections - Oberkasseler Brücke, Düssel-
dorf [Weitz, 1975]

Figure 4.2.2-20 Sections of the Oberkassel Bridge, Düsseldorf, during assembly

270 4 Cross-section design

Figure 4.2.2-21 Assembly joints of the cover plate, transverse (left), longitudinal (right)
[Kindmann/Krawinkel et al., 1999].

and transverse stiffeners are either
connected with GV strap joints or butt-
welded with V and/or X seams (Figure
4.2.2-21).
In order to be able to pull the
transverse seams in the sheets, they must
be accessible from both sides. Cut-outs
(windows) are therefore left in the
longitudinal stiffeners.
free on both sides of the transverse joint.
After welding the transverse seams in the
sheets, the side member window pieces
manufactured to natural dimensions are
butt-welded in during assembly (Figures
4.2.2-22 to 4.2.2-24).
A key design element for the bridge
cross-section is the edge beam.

Figure 4.2.2-22 Installation joint of a trapezoidal sheet metal stiffener [Kindmann/Krawinkel et al.,
1999].

Figure 4.2.2-23 Transverse joint with windows in the trapezoidal profiles - Danube bridge U6, Vienna
4.2 Cross-section design depending on the material used
Figure 4.2.2-24 Welding in the window sections - Danube bridge U6, Vienna
tion. For visual reasons, this should be
sufficiently rigid and also have a stiffened
lower edge, as the harmonious shape of
the supporting structure can be read from
this, "waves" are particularly visible in
grazing light and detract from the visual
impression. A light-coloured outer
coating of the edge beam makes each
bridge appear slimmer and emphasizes
the longitudinal extension (Figure 4.2.2-
25, see p. 210).
4.2.3 Composite bridges
ULRIKE KUHLMANN
and ANNETTE DETZEL
4.2.3.1 General criteria
Today, composite bridges are
predominantly constructed as full-wall
beam bridges. Compared to prestressed
concrete bridges, they have the advantage
of lower construction height and lower
construction weight, while at the same
time being quick to assemble without
obstructing traffic. Compared to pure steel
construction, composite construction
offers decisive cost advantages because it
reduces the
'expensive' orthotropic steel track through
the
271
replaced by a cheaper concrete roadway.
The orthotropic steel roadway is
'expensive' due to the high cost of welding
work. In high-wage countries such as
Germany, Austria or Switzerland, the
share of labor costs outweighs the share of
total material and labor costs. In terms of
economic efficiency, the cross-section
design will therefore aim to minimize the
proportion of labour costs and, in
particular, the proportion of welding work.
Even if cost reduction and economic
efficiency are still the main criteria for
building design today, there are other
equally important ones, such as
• Reduction in construction time
• Durability and ease of maintenance
• Aesthetic design.
The latter criterion in particular requires a
rethink on the part of the engineers, who are
also responsible for the choice of an
aesthetic, well-proportioned form and the
integration of the bridge into the landscape,
especially in bridge construction. As the
examples will show, these criteria do not
only influence the design of the bridge.
272 4 Cross-section design

Figure 4.2.2-25 Edge formation of a railroad bridge [DS 804]

4.2 Cross-section design depending on the material used
bridge system but also very significantly
the decision for a certain cross-sectional
shape.
A basic distinction can be made
between open slab beam cross-sections
and closed box cross-sections.
4.2.3.2 Slab beam or box cross-section
The example of the Melk railroad bridges
[Pommer, 1995], [Glatzl/Pommer, 1995] is
a very typical two-span plate girder for
composite bridges, see Fig. 4.2.3-1. The
simple, economical cross-sectional shape
with few longitudinal and transverse
projections reduces the amount of welding
work and thus the production costs.
Another special feature of the Melk
railroad bridges is the steel grade selected.
For example, the steel structure of the
composite bridges, which weighs around
1540 tons, was largely made of thermally
mechanically rolled DIMC-355B grade
steel. Material thicknesses of up to 90 mm
were used, with the thickest chords
consisting of two 1400 × 90 mm
laminates. Thermomechanically rolled
steels can also be welded in thicker sheets
due to their low carbon content and good
notched impact strength with significantly
lower preheating power than
conventional steels. Larger plate
thicknesses lead to a lower number of
individual plates. This avoids notches that
cause fatigue, such as the lamella ends and
the connecting seams, so that in addition
to the cost savings, the durability of the
construction is also improved.
The plate girder cross-section of the
Melk railroad bridges is therefore an
example of some modern principles of
economical cross-section design:
• the design of clear, simple cross-
sectional shapes with only a few
connecting seams
273
• the formation of only a few rather thick
components and
• the division into large assembly units
The two main beams, here the two
main beams, so that the number of
assembly joints and the time-
consuming assembly welding work are
minimized.
Figure 4.2.3-2 shows the Böckinger Bridge
in Heilbronn [Engländer et al., 1997] as an
example of one of the many road bridges
with a two-span slab girder. Here it was
even possible to win the competition with
a steel composite construction as a special
design compared to the prestressed
concrete solution planned as a
replacement for the old prestressed
concrete bridge.
The main criterion was the ease of
assembly of the composite construction
due to the cross-section. As the ship's
navigation profile had to be kept clear
during the construction period, the
prestressed concrete box girder would
have had to bridge the almost 100 m wide
river field in cantilever construction. The
two main steel girders could be assembled
with a heavy truck-mounted crane in large
prefabricated steel sections of 20 to 30 m
until finally about 40 m long cantilevers
reached into the river field from both
sides, so that the two main girder end
pieces of about 20 m could also be
suspended and welded in between. The
formwork construction for the composite
slab was then supported on this
completed steel construction. The steel
girders thus acted as formwork girders, so
to speak.
The example of the Böckinger Bridge in
Heilbronn is also interesting because in
the area of the one approx. 40 m long side
span of the composite deck bridge, which
runs through three spans, a box girder was
formed instead of the two-span slab
girder. In this area, a strong curvature of R
= 110 m generates such high downward
forces that they are not compatible with the
light transverse forces.
274
Figure 4.2.3-1 Melk bridge
Figure 4.2.3-2 Böckingen Bridge, assembly of the steel girders
The open cross-section of the slab beam
can no longer be accommodated.
The decision in favor of a box cross-
section is therefore made in many cases
because of the need for high torsional
rigidity.
Today, closed box systems are no
longer only used for curved bridges.
Project owners also see advantages for later
maintenance due to the smooth outer
surfaces. In addition to low
4 Cross-section design
In addition to the lower painting costs -
the inner surfaces of the boxes usually
only receive two top coats and not three -
pigeon protection also plays a role.
Open plate girder cross-sections
[Kuhlmann, 1995] sometimes lead to
considerable problems due to the wide
overhanging lower chords on which
pigeons and other birds settle and nest. If
you look at old bridges and railroad
stations, especially in urban areas, you can
4.2 Cross-section design depending on the material used
It is easy to imagine that this is not just a
matter of contamination problems, but
that corrosion protection is also affected in
the long term. For this reason, gratings or
protective nets are now provided for open
cross-sections at considerable expense. In
other areas, welded plates are inserted
between the web and the bottom chord. As
these diagonal plates become load-bearing
cross-section parts through welding, the
same high requirements apply to them in
terms of weld seam formation and control
and structural detailing. Particularly at the
intersections of cross beams and main
beams, complicated intersections arise in
terms of production technology due to the
bottom chord inclined plates of the two
load-bearing members. Gratings or nets
are simpler and less costly solutions.
Advantages in maintenance and
aesthetic criteria lead to a large number of
new composite bridges, especially in the
course of the expansion of the new
transportation network.
Figure 4.2.3-3 Vockerode composite bridge; overview
275
The new German federal states have opted
for a single-cell box cross-section in steel
composite construction. The webs are
inclined with a constant bottom chord
width, so that a uniform bridge soffit is
created. These inclined webs, set back
under the cantilevered slab, reinforce the
impression of a particularly slender
structure. Examples are the Elbe bridge
Tor- gau, the viaducts Siebenlehn and
Wil- kau-Haßlau or the Elbe bridge
Vocke- rode, see Figures 4.2.3-3 and 4.2.3-
4, [Gra- bein et al., 1995], [Seifried/Stetter,
1996], [Saul et al., 1999] and further
examples in [BMV, 1997].
These bridges are usually haunched in
the longitudinal direction and have a so-
called double composite cross-section in the
area of the high support cross-section. A
more recent example of this is the Inn
bridge in Neuötting [Langen et al., 2000],
see Fig. 4.2.3-5, with a concrete composite
bottom chord over a length of 40 to 50 m
to the right and left of the river piers with
a variable thickness of 40 cm at the
beginning of the bridge.
276
Figure 4.2.3-4 Composite bridge Vockerode, standard cross-sections
Figure 4.2.3-5 Neuötting Inn Bridge: Double composite at the support cross-section
Concrete chord up to 1.20 m above the
pillar axis.
As the concrete chord has a positive
influence on the stability behavior of the
steel bottom chord plate and the web
plates in the negative moment range
above the column, significantly lower
thicknesses can be selected for the steel
plates. Coupling of the concrete bottom
chord plate to the steel structure is
achieved by means of dowel pins,
primarily in two areas
• in the transition area between the pure
steel bottom chord and the composite
bottom chord for transferring
compressive forces across the entire
width of the bottom chord
• in the remaining bottom chord
composite area
especially in the bottom chord close to
the web up to the first longitudinal
stiffener and by horizontal dowels on
the webs themselves.
4 Cross-section design
Scientific studies concern on the one hand
the dowel force distribution in the bottom
chord slab [Ibach, 2001], and on the other
hand the specification of the reduced
dowel load-bearing capacity when the
dowels are arranged horizontally directly
under the concrete surface [Breuninger,
2000] and [Kürschner, 2003]. Rules for
taking into account the reduced anchor
load-bearing capacity for anchors
arranged horizontally or better close to the
edge, which can generate splitting tensile
forces, can now be found in Annex A of
DIN 18800-5:2007-3. The new DIN
Technical Report 104, 2009 edition, also
refers to this rule. Further explanations on
the background to the treatment of
horizontal or close-to-edge anchors can be
found in [Kürschner/ Kuhlmann, 2005]
and [Kuhlmann/Raichle, 2008]. Additional
considerations
4.2 Cross-section design depending on the material used
Figure 4.2.3-6 Cross-section of the Diepmannsbachtal bridge
The tests with regard to creep and
shrinkage of the concrete and the mutual
influence of the concrete parts in the
cross-section are necessary if the cross-
section of the roadway is prestressed in the
longitudinal direction of the bridge, e.g. in
the case of the oldest double composite
bridge, the Inn Bridge Wasserburg
[Bilfinger et al., 1988] or the Moselle
Bridge Bernkastel-Kues [Kuhlmann,
1996].
Since the design of the steel bottom
chord plate is determined by the
construction stage, i.e. the concreting of
the concrete bottom chord, which may
then have to be carried out in several
layers to limit the stress, the question
arises as to whether the steel bottom chord
plate is not a very expensive "formwork
plate" that could be dispensed with
altogether.
Production and assembly are very
important criteria for determining the
appropriate cross-section, and so ease of
access and assembly are still the main
advantages of open cross-sections made
up of individual main beams compared to
single or multi-cell box beams, which
generally cannot be transported as a
closed unit. A combination of both cross-
sectional shapes utilizes the advantages of
both. Figure 4.2.3-6 shows the
277
Image of the cross-section of the
Diepmannsbach Valley Bridge, which
crosses the A1 federal highway near
Remscheid-Lennep with a curvature of R
= 1000 m over the charming
Diepmannsbach Valley. This bridge was
built next to the existing old bridge in
order to widen the roadway from four to
six lanes. The aim was to design the new
bridge in such a way that the view of the
old listed structure was not disturbed. A
very light bridge was therefore chosen,
with spans to match the spans of the old
masonry arches of 25 m in a double 50 m
grid.
The cross-section consists of two small,
approx. 2 m wide steel boxes connected by
a continuous plate. This cross-section
combines the advantages of the torsional
rigidity and smooth visible surfaces of
closed cross-sections with the ease of
assembly of the typical plate beams. This
solution also allows the composite slab to
be optimally supported by the box webs,
so that the concrete slab can also be
loosely reinforced in the cross-section.
The relationship between slab construction
and cross-section design is discussed
below.
278
4.2.3.3 Influence of the roadway slab
on the cross-section design
The concrete roadway slab has a dual
function in composite construction:
• In the transverse direction, it acts as a
plate that transfers the loads to the
longitudinal beams.
• In the longitudinal direction, it forms
the upper
of the composite cross-section and acts
as a disk.
Both functions lead to tensile stresses in
the concrete: in the transverse direction,
the slab receives tension from the
continuous effect over the longitudinal
beams; in the longitudinal direction, the
top chord cracks in the area of negative
moments at the supports. In the past,
these tensile stresses were overstressed in
both directions by prestressing with
tendons. However, experience in recent
years with damage to prestressed concrete
bridges has recently led to a reluctance to
use post-tensioning with subsequent
bonding, which also affects the design of
composite slabs. In order to avoid pre-
tensioning in the transverse direction, the
spans, especially of the cantilevers, must
be reduced accordingly or very massive
cross-sections must be selected, which,
however, quickly become uneconomical
and aesthetically unappealing.
The pre-tensioning of the concrete slab
not only has disadvantages in terms of
maintenance and durability of the
structure, but also has a decisive influence
on the costs of the composite slab. A
simple cost comparison for the unit prices
of different slab types in Table 4.2.3-1
shows that the higher proportion of slack
reinforcement required is more than
compensated for by the savings in
prestressing tendons.
The simple conclusion that a large
number of main support webs is
advantageous for large slab widths, as this
reduces the span of the slab, is not
correct.
4 Cross-section design
does not automatically mean that this
system is more economical. With large
spans, the height of the main girder webs is
determined by the required stiffness and
not by the required shear force capacity.
This usually leads to webs that are far from
being utilized by the shear force. With a
large number of main girder webs, the
height of the webs is only slightly reduced,
while the transverse load-bearing capacity
of the bridge increases disproportionately.
The overall material utilization is worse and
the construction is therefore less
economical. With small spans, the ratios
between moment and shear force bearing
capacity are generally more favorable, so
that with several webs the utilization and
thus the economic efficiency of the
construction increases. This also results in
a corresponding saving in the area of the
transverse pre-tensioning of the slab.
Another way to reduce the span,
especially of cantilevers, when the number
of main beams is low is to use inclined
struts that support the cantilever against
the bottom chord of the main beams, as
shown in Figure 4.2.3-7. The horizontal
components on the upper and lower chord
must be short-circuited. In the case of the
viaduct over the Wilde Gera [Wölfel, R.,
1999 and Denzer et al., 2000], this is done
via a tension strap in the concrete upper
chord and the transverse frame's transom
in the lower chord.
The roadway slab is supported in the
transverse direction by the two inclined
webs of the steel box girder and by
external composite girders. These
longitudinal beams in turn rest on
transverse frames every 6 m. The
transverse frames are formed by the
internal and external diagonals, the
transverse stiffeners of the box cross-
section and a tension strip located in the
roadway slab (see Fig. 4.2.3-7). The main
purpose of the tension band is to take up
the load from the outer diagonals.
4.2 Cross-section design depending on the material used 279

Table 4.2.3-1 Cost comparison of concrete composite slabs (as of 1995)

Costs for concrete composite panels €
single-span beam Concrete 0,35 m2 × 300,- = 105,-
Reinforcement 0,050 t × 650,- = 32,50
1,00 m2 ×
Shuttering 75,- = 75,-
212,50 €/m2
Single-span beam with Concrete 0,35 m2 × 300,- = 105,-
transverse pre-
Reinforcement 0,035 t × 650,- = 22,75
tensioning
Transverse tendons 0,010 t × 3500,- = 35,-
1,00 m2 ×
Shuttering 75,- = 75,-
237,75 €/m2
Continuous beam Concrete 0,35 m2 × 300,- = 105,-
Reinforcement 0,09 t × 650,- = 58,50
1,00 m2 ×
Shuttering 75,- = 75,-
238,50 €/m2
Continuous beam with Concrete 0,35 m2 × 300,- = 105,-
transverse prestressing
Reinforcement 0,070 t × 650,- = 45,50
Transverse tendons 0,010 t × 3500,- = 35,-
1,00 m2 ×
Shuttering 75,- = 75,-
260,50 €/m2
Continuous beam with Concrete 0,35 m2 × 300,- = 105,-
longitudinal prestressing
Reinforcement 0,050 t × 650,- = 32,50
Longitudinal tendons 0,015 t × 3000,- = 25,-
1,00 m2 ×
Shuttering 75,- = 75,-
237,50 €/m2
Continuous girder with Concrete 0,35 m2 × 300,- = 105,-
longitudinal prestressing
Reinforcement 0,035 t × 650,- = 22,75
and transverse
prestressing Longitudinal tendons 0,015 t × 3000,- = 45,-
Transverse tendons 0,010 t × 3500,- = 35,-
Shuttering 1,00 m2 × 75,- = 75,-
282,75 €/m2
280
resulting tensile forces in the transverse
direction. Depending on the design,
however, it also receives more or less high
stresses from the local load on the
roadway.
The example of a composite bridge in
the Landschaftsverband Westfalen-Lippe
region shows that the decision for or
against pre-tensioning does not only
depend on the costs of the deck slab:
Bridge BW19 was to span the Datteln-
Hamm Canal as a single-span beam with a
span of approx. 53 m. The administrative
design envisaged a two-span composite
bridge. Due to the span ratios of the slab,
8 m main girder spacing and 3.15 m
cantilever length, it was planned to build
the composite slab in
Figure 4.2.3-7 Viaduct over the Wilde Gera, cross-section with transverse frame and tension band
4 Cross-section design
tendons in the transverse direction.
Inspired by a circular from the Federal
Ministry of Transport on the introduction
of the amended composite girder
directive, the companies Dörnen
Stahlbauwerke, Dortmund, and
Echterhoff, Westerkappeln, developed a
special proposal with an exclusively slack-
weighted deck slab. As can be seen from the
cross-section (Fig. 4.2.3-8), however, this
design requires a third longitudinal steel
girder as additional slab support in return
for dispensing with pre-tensioning.
The saving in prestressing steel is
therefore purchased through additional
structural steel weight. The extent to which
the overall construction is more
economical depends on the speci
4.2 Cross-section design depending on the material used
Figure 4.2.3-8 Cross-section BW19
boundary conditions. In this example, the
special proposal was commissioned, but
for legal and political reasons the section
of the B474n, to which the bridge
structure belongs, was never completed.
4.2.4 Wooden bridges
THOMAS JAHN
4.2.4.1 Notes on wood as a material in
bridge construction
After a great past, wood as a material has
practically lost much of its importance in
bridge construction today. Bridges are still
built from wood, but not primarily because
of the outstanding material properties, but
rather for reasons of tradition and the
appealing appearance. Wood is used in
bridge construction for reasons of
conservation or beautiful landscapes, but
not because the aim is to build a
particularly efficient, economical load-
bearing structure. Wood is an ecological
building material. The place where it is
produced is the forest. Beautifying and
improving forests
281
the environment. However, in addition to the
efficient afforestation of forests, forest
dieback and the large-scale deforestation
of rainforests call the balance into
question.
The processing of wood, from
extraction to the end product, is the most
energy-efficient of all building materials. In
addition, the material efficiency and
specific performance of wood in terms of
construction has not yet been matched by
any conventional or new building
material. Timber components are
naturally rod-shaped and can absorb
relatively high tensile or compressive
forces in the direction of the grain.
For bridge construction, the ratio of the
dead load of the material to its strength is
of crucial importance. In absolute terms,
wood fulfills this requirement
extraordinarily well. For example, a beam
made of softwood with a length of 3 m,
which is to bear a central compressive
load of 20 tons, weighs 60 kg, one made of
solid steel 130 kg and one made of
reinforced concrete 300 kg. If the load is
applied in tension, these differences
become even clearer. The breaking length
of a suspended wooden bar with any
constant cross-section is mathematically 7
km. With normal mild steel
282 4 Cross-section design

the length is 3 km and reinforced concrete 4.2.4.2.1 Solid wall beam bridges
is completely excluded from this
Several beams lie next to each other on the
comparison, as the concrete, which is
supporting structures (abutments, supports
unsuitable for tension, places additional
or yoke beams) and carry the roadway
stress on the steel reinforcement.
structure.
[Dietrich, 1998]. In terms of the
If beams are placed on top of each
weight/strength ratio, timber therefore far
other, their moments of inertia and
outperforms the other materials
moments of resistance add up. Under load,
mentioned. It is to be expected that people
a mutual displacement occurs in the
will once again become more aware of the
contact area. If this displacement is
outstanding properties of this natural
completely impeded, a rigid bond is
building material and that wood still has a
present. Elastic bonding, which is dealt
future in bridge construction.
with in detail in the standard [DIN
1052/1/2, 1988], lies between the limiting
4.2.4.2 Construction forms of the superstructures cases of free displacement and rigid
bonding.
This section only provides a very brief
Wooden dowels, vertical nail plates,
insight into the different forms of
horizontal nail press-in plates or press-in
construction for overbridges, which
dowels are used to connect the two beams
generally depend on the width to be
in the joint.
bridged. For more detailed information
on construction forms, please refer to the
4.2.2.2.2 Blasting structures
relevant literature (e.g. [ Melan, 1922],
[ Laskus, 1955], Braced structures consist of straight or
[Mucha, 1995]). curved continuous or single-span beams
The design of the superstructure (long beams) and the inclined inner
determines the cross-sectional shape of supports (see Fig. 4.2.4-1). Depending on
the bridge (see section 4.2.4.3). the number of unsupported points
The following construction forms are between the end
used in timber bridge construction.

a b
Fig. 4.2.4-1 a Single symmetrical triangular blasting structure, b Triple blasting structure

a b
Fig. 4.2.4-2 a Single suspension system (triangular suspension system), b Double suspension system
(trapezoidal suspension system)
4.2 Cross-section design depending on the material used
support, these are referred to as single,
double or multiple blasting structures.
The blasting effect is caused by the inclined
supports, which generate horizontal
forces. Lateral stabilization for absorbing
wind loads is achieved by bracing in the
plane of the bracing beam or by the
Road pane.
4.2.4.2.3 Suspended units
In a suspension system, the beam is
suspended from a bar or a bar system, see
Fig. 4.2.4-2. As with the bracing system, a
distinction is made between single, double
or multiple suspension systems depending
on the number of suspension points. In
contrast to blasting structures, suspension
structures do not generate any horizontal
support forces under vertical loading.
Lateral stabilization can be achieved in
various ways. In the case of bridges open
at the top (through bridges) and bridges
without top chord bracing, the wind load
is transferred to the bottom chord bracing
by transverse frames. If there is a top
chord bracing, it transfers its forces into
portals on the supports or also through
transverse frames into the bottom chord
bracing. The function of the bracings can
also be realized by roof bracings.
a b
Fig. 4.2.4-3 a Single pendant bracing, b Double manual bracing
a b
Fig. 4.2.4-4 a One-piece mullion truss with four bays, b Truss with crossed struts
283
panes (e.g. for covered bridges) or panes in
the roadway level.
4.2.4.2.4 Suspended sprinkler systems
Suspended bracing systems, see Fig. 4.2.4-
3, are a combination of the suspension and
bracing systems. Horizontal support forces
arise as a result of vertical loads.
4.2.4.2.5 Truss bridges
Truss members are primarily stressed by
normal forces. This is achieved by
connecting the members to each other in
a hinged manner, see Fig. 4.2.4-4, and
loads are primarily transferred to the
hinges. Although the chords of the trusses
usually run through with bending stiffness
(see Fig. 4.2.4-5), no significant secondary
stresses due to bending stress occur in the
usual truss shapes.
4.2.4.2.6 Arch bridges
With the correct choice of arch shape
(inverted chain line), arches are load-
bearing structures that are predominantly
subjected to normal forces. In bridge
construction
284
Figure 4.2.4-5 Truss bridge over the Orke in Vöhl-Ederbringhausen [Gerold, 2001]
A distinction is made between solid-wall
arches and skeleton arches. Skeleton
arches, which can take the form of timber-
frame, stud-frame and truss arches,
consist of straight bars. Solid-wall arches
usually consist of wooden boards glued
together in the horizontal joint, see Figure
4.2.4-6.
4.2.4.2.7 Suspension bridge-span bridges
In the simplest form of suspension
bridges, the planks of the walkway are laid
and fastened directly onto the suspension
cables. The cables are anchored to the
ground in a tension-proof manner.
Figure 4.2.4-6 Bridge over the Machfeld Canal in Vienna [Mucha, 1995].
4 Cross-section design
Probably the best known and most
impressive suspension bridge is the span
bridge over the Main-Danube Canal near
Essing, see Figure 4.2.4-7.
4.2.4.3 Cross-section design for bridges
The cross-section design of timber bridges
depends to a decisive extent on the
structural form of the superstructure and
thus on the structural system selected for
load trasnfer. The most important cross-
sectional shapes in timber bridge
construction are presented below.
4.2 Cross-section design depending on the material used 285

Figure 4.2.4-7 The footbridge over the Main-Danube Canal near Essing [Mucha, 1995].

4.2.4.3.1 Road plates beams, yokes, pillars) are used. Angled

panel constructions are also easy to form.
Economical solutions for roadway slabs
The slab is anisotropic due to the different
can be achieved by using wooden boards
strength properties in the fiber directions
or wood composite structures. Wooden
and transversely. In practice, girder grids
roadway panels are created by combining
or orthotropic material formulations are
several wooden elements (board slats).
used to determine internal forces on such
The individual lamellas are mechanically
slabs.
connected to each other by nailing,
In the following, the slab systems are
screwing, doweling, prestressing (QS
explained in more detail, the advantages
construction method) and/or gluing in
of which lie both in a good load
order to achieve the panel effect on the
distribution capacity and in a flat and
vertical or horizontal wooden surfaces
dimensionally stable slab surface, which
(depending on the installation direction),
makes it possible to apply a bituminous
see Fig. 4.2.4-8.
road surface with corresponding road
In bridge construction, double-sided
sealing.
single-span slabs, but also slabs over
several supports (cross girders) are used.

a b
Figure 4.2.4-8 Principle of the plate effect, a No connection between the beams, only the loaded
beam has to bear the load (e.g. wheel load). b Beams are connected to each other in a vertical
direction without displacement and thus form a double-sided supported plate, all beams participate
in the load trasnfer due to the cross-connection.
286
4.2.4.3.1.1 Track panel with wooden slats
joined together vertically
Nailed panel systems
Wooden planks with a thickness d = 18 to
24 mm, a height h = 80 mm and a length l
= 1.0 to 6.0 m are used for nailed panel
systems. Any joints required are offset and
butt-jointed or finger-jointed. The
individual wooden slats are usually nailed
in two rows and in a staggered
arrangement. The nailing of stacked
boards and planks creates the so-called
board stack panel. The bridge
superstructure can be made up of several
stacked boards.
Screwed panel systems
In addition to nailing the stacked lamellas
to form panel-shaped elements, there is
also the option of bolting. The load
distribution capacity of bolted planks lies
between nailed and glued systems (with or
without transverse pre-tensioning) due to
the higher transverse bending stiffness.
The screws used should be made of high-
strength and corrosion-resistant material.
Figure 4.2.4-9 Forest road bridge over the Tiefen Bach in Ilsenburg (D) [Gerold, 2001].
4 Cross-section design
Glued panel systems
Glued laminated timber elements (glulam
elements) are created by gluing the
wooden lamellas together at the contact
surfaces. These can be oriented both
longitudinally and transversely to the
bridge axis with regard to the grain
direction. When using glulam elements,
particular attention must be paid to the
wood moisture content in the various
processing stages. The load-bearing
structure must be designed in such a way
that deformations due to shrinkage and
swelling are possible without hindrance.
Transversely prestressed panel
systems (QS panels)
QS slabs consist of boards or planks that
are arranged vertically next to each other
and then pressed together in the
transverse direction using tendons, see
Fig. 4.2.4-9. The friction bond alone
prevents the slats from shifting to the other
side under concentrated loads, e.g. from
wheel loads. The forces are also absorbed
in the transverse direction (plate effect).
The high stiffness of the panel in the
direction of the panel plane ensures
horizontal stiffening. To introduce the pre-
tension forces, in the simplest case edge
4.2 Cross-section design depending on the material used 287

beams made of hardwood are used. As in Chipboard plywood panels:

prestressed concrete construction, special
force application systems have the task of
transferring the high concentrated
compressive stresses under the anchor
plate into the cross-section without large
localized indentations. The prestressing
forces are usually applied using nuts that
are tightened against the anchor plates. If
the pre-tension decreases too much as a
result of creep and shrinkage, it can be
retightened at any time.
4.2.4.3.1.2 Track panel with wooden slats joined
together horizontally
Panels can also be constructed by joining
boards, planks or veneers in the
horizontal contact area. The panel systems
consist of several individual layers that are
glued together in the frame. However,
fasteners, which were introduced for
vertical bonding, can also be used.
Plywood panel systems Plywood panels
are made from different wood products.
What they all have in common is the
angular or orthogonal alignment of the
wood fiber directions in the lamellas glued
together. A distinction is made between
consist of chips glued on all sides with
specific dimensions. The grain direction is
usually unidirectional. When using long
chipboard, a proportion of the wood
chipboard is oriented in the transverse
direction.
Veneer plywood panels:
consist of crosswise arranged and glued
veneers.
Cross laminated timber panels:
consist of several layers of boards glued
together crosswise, orthogonally and/or
diagonally.
4.2.4.3.2 Bridge cross-sections for beam girders
The cross-section of the superstructure
structures must be stabilized in such a way
that wind loads can be absorbed and the
main girders are secured against tilting.
Due to their high twist resistance, box
girders are superior to open girders in
terms of tilting. Bracing, transverse
frames, transverse bulkheads and track
washers can be used for lateral
stabilization.
Deck bridges
The simplest cross-sectional form of a
deck bridge consists of two main girders,
see Figure 4.2.4-10 a. Glulam beams are
usually used. With

a b
Figure 4.2.4-10 Deck bridges. a The deck slab rests on the main girders and indirectly supported
longitudinal girders; lateral stabilization is provided by bracing in the plane of the transverse
girders. b The deck slab rests on the main girders; lateral stabilization is provided by transverse
bulkheads or the deck slab.
288
Figure 4.2.4-11 Crestawald bridge near Sufers
(CH) [Gerold, 2001]
By using plate-shaped components for the
roadway structure, it is possible to
dispense with longitudinal or cross beams.
This allows the overall height of the
structure to be reduced.
For bridge widths over 3.5 m and for
higher loads, e.g. from road traffic
ab
Fig. 4.2.4-12 Through bridges. a The deck slab rests on cross girders that are attached to the main
girders. Lateral stabilization is provided by bracing in the cross girder plane. b The deck slab is
supported by beams that are dowelled or glued to the main girders. Lateral stabilization is
provided by transverse frames. c The deck lies on longitudinal beams indirectly supported by the
transoms.
4 Cross-section design
the arrangement of several beams is
necessary, see Figure 4.2.4-10 b. This also
reduces the span in the transverse
direction. A beam grid effect is achieved
by the arrangement of cross beams, see
Fig. 4.2.4-11.
Through bridges
Through bridges are open at the top. The
main girders are arranged outside the
roadway. The advantages of this type of
construction are the lower overall height
compared to deck bridges. The horizontal
stiffener is achieved by bracing arranged
directly below the carriageway level or by
transverse frames.
Closed bridges
Closed bridges are usually covered, which
provides very good protection of the wood
against moisture. Lateral stiffeners can be
provided by upper and/or lower bracing or
by transverse frames (Figure 4.2.4-13).
4.2.4.3.3 Composite systems
A sensible combination of steel or
concrete with timber in bridge
construction allows the positive properties
of the materials to be combined and
utilized.
Steel-timber composite bridges
In this type of bridge, the roadway
consists of vertically arranged wooden
planks, which face in the transverse
direction of the bridge.
c
4.2 Cross-section design depending on the material used 289

a b
Figure 4.2.4-13 Closed bridges. a Stabilization by lower bracing at the level of the transverse
beams and upper bracing on the eaves purlins. b Lateral stabilization is provided by transverse
frames and bracing at the level of the transverse beams. An additional arrangement of bracing at
roof level is possible.

are clamped together. The shear force is
transmitted via shear stud dowels welded
to the beam flanges. They are concreted
into recesses in the compression-stressed
timber cross-section using grout [Bulleit,
1984].
Concrete-timber composite bridges
With this type, the shear forces between
the timber and concrete cross-sections are
transferred via
The load is transferred via shear strips,
which are fastened using wooden screws,
or via shear dowels embedded in the
timber cross-section. Please refer to
[Schwaner et al., 1999] and [IABSE, 2001]
for the status of the development of
concrete-timber composite construction
in Germany. Calculation options for
composite timber constructions, in
particular with regard to long-term
behavior, can be found in [Schänzlin,
2003].
5 Main supporting structures of the superstructures
5.1 Concrete slab bridges
GERHARD MEHLHORN
Beam and slab bridges are the most
frequently used structural forms in
modern concrete bridge construction.
Figure 5.1-1 shows a selection of
structural systems commonly used for slab
and beam bridges.
With the use of reinforced concrete,
since around the turn of the century from
the
From the 19th to the 20th century, it was
possible to use not only the arch form but
also the slab and the beam, also known as
the bending beam, as
Figure 5.1-1 Examples of common structural systems for slabs and beam bridges
The use of reinforced concrete structures in
concrete bridge construction. Parallel to
the development of modern reinforced
concrete arches, the use of reinforced
concrete load-bearing members subjected
to bending stresses became established.
Initially, smaller spans were designed as
reinforced concrete slabs and medium
spans as reinforced concrete slab girder
bridges (Fig. 5.1-2). From the end of the
third decade of the 20th century and
especially after the Second World War,
concrete bridges were also designed as
prestressed bridges, which made larger
spans possible for the flexurally stressed
load-bearing elements, especially the slabs
and beams, but also the frames.
292
Figure 5.1-2 Structural design of concrete beam bridges, as was common until around 1950
[Gehler, 1931].
Figure 5.1-3 Typical cross-sectional shapes of concrete bridges according to [Beyer/Thul, 1967].
The typical cross-sectional shapes of
concrete bridges are shown in Figure 5.1-
3. In the case of slab bridges, there were
two variants in concrete bridge
construction: solid slab
(A) and hollow slab (B). Today, only the
solid slab is still common. Despite their
lower dead load, hollow slabs are rarely
used in bridge construction due to the
manufacturing problems involved
(anchoring the hollow bodies against
uplift during concreting, complicated,
labor-intensive reinforcement) and the
durability requirements. In many cases
they are not even
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
are no longer permitted. Reference is
made to damage found on older bridges
[BMV, 1982 and 1994]. The arrangement
of laterally cantilevered slabs is common,
mainly for design reasons and because of
the weight; this gives the concrete slab a
slimmer appearance. The element can be
reinforced by a continuously curved,
haunched lower surface of the slab (Figure
5.1.4).
According to [DIN FB 102, 2003], the
minimum slab thickness for roadway slabs
is 20 cm. In the author's opinion, this
minimum thickness should only be applied
to
5.1 Concrete slab bridges
Fig. 5.1-4 Nahe Bridge in Kirn. Prestressed plate girder bridge built by DYWIDAG in 1960 with
three spans (spans: 18 m - 25 m - 18 m)
The thickness of the roadway slabs should
be selected for the ends of the tapered
cantilevers at the sides. For structural
reasons, it is recommended that the
roadway slabs are at least 25 cm thick,
preferably at least 30 cm (note: 4 cm
minimum concrete cover in accordance
with [DIN-FB 102, 2003]-II,
4.1.3.3 (114) P). When using high-
performance concrete, ultra-high
performance concrete (UHPC concrete)
or parts prefabricated in the precast plant,
this recommended minimum thickness
can be slightly reduced. When
determining the slab thickness, care
should be taken to ensure that no shear
reinforcement is required in the slab.
The usual slab thicknesses for concrete
slab bridges are in the range of 60 cm to
100 cm, but they can also be somewhat
greater, especially above the inner
supports in the case of slabs running
through several spans with variable
construction height (haunches on the
inner supports or continuously curved,
haunched undersurface of the
superstructure - the continuously curved,
haunched undersurface is to be preferred
for aesthetic reasons).
Due to its low construction height, the
concrete slab is suitable for single-span
bridges with spans of up to around 20 m,
for slabs that run continuously over
several spans with a constant construction
height up to around 30 m span widths of
the inner spans and for slabs that run
continuously over several spans
293
with variable construction height up to
approx. 35 m span widths of the inner
bays. The spans of the edge bays of the
continuous panels should be around 80%
of those of the inner bays. The usual
slenderness of the panels l/h for single-
span panels and the mechanic slenderness
li /h for continuous panels are between 12
and 15 for non-prestressed panels and
between 15 and 25 for prestressed panels.
Where l is the panel support width, li is
the distance between the moment zero
points under constantly acting actions in
the case of multi-span continuous panels
and h is the panel thickness (with variable
construction height in the inner panels in
the center of the panel and in the edge
panel at the point where the greatest panel
moment occurs).
The bending moments from constantly
acting actions are several times higher than
the moments under which cracks occur if
the panels are not pre-stressed. The panels
should therefore always be prestressed in
the longitudinal direction! The
prestressing of the slab should be
dimensioned in such a way that no
longitudinal tensile stresses occur in the
concrete under permanent loads. The
deflection forces from the prestressing of
the slab should act directly against the
constantly acting effects and correspond to
approx. 75% to 100% of this load.
Plates are particularly suitable for
inclined bridges and bridges with irregular
294
Figure 5.1-5 Skew-angled bridge and bridge
with irregular ground plan
suitable for parallelogram-shaped ground
plans (Figure 5.1.5). For sufficiently wide,
oblique-angled plates with a should always be arranged as close as
parallelogram-shaped base crack, the main
load-bearing direction deviates only
slightly from the normal direction of the
connection of the bearing lines under a
constant, evenly distributed load.
Therefore, in the central area, the load-
bearing behavior of plates with parallel
directions of the bearing lines that are
wide in comparison to their span is like
that of the corresponding infinite plate
strip with a span that is equal to the
smallest distance between the parallel
bearing lines. However, separate
investigations are always required for the
free plate edges and especially for the plate
corners. The greatest plate stress and the
greatest support stress occur in the obtuse
corners of the skew-angled plate. It is
essential to check the slab for the risk of
punching. Oblique-angled plates with φ ≥
75° can be treated approximately like
rectangular plates. However, the cutting
force concentrations in the areas of the
obtuse corners must be taken into account
in the design.
Joints and bearings can often be
avoided on slab bridges. However,
bearings must be arranged on at least one
abutment wall in the case of continuous
slabs. In the case of single-span bridges,
the slab can be connected to the abutment
walls to form a frame. In the case of
prestressed slabs, the frame corner
moments resulting from permanent
actions and sensibly selected pre-
tensioning, see above, are very small for
the serviceability limit state, which is why
the abutment wall should be thinner than
the slab thickness of the superstructure.
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
The required thickness of the abutment
wall can be determined by the load from
the earth pressure.
If bearings are arranged, they are
designed as point bearings that can be
tilted on all sides. The distances between
these bearings are usually around three to
five times the panel thickness. Bearings
possible to the corners of the panel. It is
advisable to place the fixed point in the
bridge axis. The other bearings of the
support line should be freely movable on
all sides. The use of lightweight concrete
in bridge construction began about 50
years ago [Heufers, 1967]. The Selterstor
Bridge in Giessen [Alsen/ Schäfer, 1970]
was o n e of the first prestressed slab
bridges made of lightweight concrete. It
consists of a square, almost trapezoidal, 75
cm thick slab with three octagonal
openings and circumferential cantilevers,
which is supported point-like on point tilt
bearings on six columns. The round
supports are mounted on large bored piles.
∅ 120 cm with base widening. The three
octagonal openings were arranged for
good exposure of the traffic area below.
The bridge slab is used by pedestrians to
cross the city ring road with the exits from
the city to the motorway feeder roads and
also provides direct access to the Karstadt
department store and the Techniker
Krankenkasse health insurance company
on its first upper floors.
The prestressed bridge slab (Fig. 5.1-6)
was made of joint-dense lightweight
concrete LB 300 (corresponds
approximately to LC 25/28) and LB 450
(between LC 35/38 and LC 40/44) in the
area above the internal columns. The
calculation of the internal forces of the slab
was carried out on a girder grid. The
system on which the calculation was based
is shown in Fig. 5.1-7 [Alsen/Schäfer,
1970]. The two longitudinal beams over
5.1 Concrete slab bridges 295

Fig. 5.1-6 Selterstorbrücke in Giessen, view from above, taken from the parking deck of the Karstadt
department store from the 4th floor in April 2005

two spans of about 28 m and 13 m, the Dywidag tendons ∅ 32 mm made of St

four cross beams of about 13 m, 13 m, 19
m and 24 m. The spans were relatively
large in relation to the slab thickness of 75
cm. The mechanical slenderness results in
li /h ≈ 0.85 - 28//0.75 ≈ 32. It is therefore a
very slender slab. It should also be noted
that the lightweight concrete only has a
modulus of elasticity of 17000 N/mm2.
The pre-tensioning of the slab was carried
out with
80/105 (� St 834/1030). Figure 5.1-8
shows the tendon guidance in
longitudinal and transverse direction. The
tendons consist of parts that follow the
moment curve as well as parts with small
radii of curvature (approx. 5 m) permitted
above the supports by plastic pre-bending.
The large negative curvatures of the
prestressing members in the area of the
supports improve

Figure 5.1-7 The calculation of the Selterstor Bridge is based on the girder grid system [Alsen/
Schäfer, 1970].
296
Fig. 5.1-8 Tendon guidance for the Selterstor Bridge [Alsen/Schäfer, 1970].
as a result of the concentrated deflection
forces, the stresses in the load application
areas of the bearing forces.
As already mentioned, the
construction of the Selterstor Bridge was
one of the first designs in Germany to be
made of prestressed lightweight concrete,
which was also supported on individual
columns. Due to the bearing on individual
columns with the additional stresses in the
area where the column loads are
transferred to the slab, the stresses on the
slab were determined in addition to the
previously explained calculation in a
model static investigation at the Institute
for Solid Construction at the Technical
University of Darmstadt [Beck/Mehlhorn,
1970]. The Plexiglas model (Figure 5.1-9)
was geometrically similar to the main
model on a scale of 1:50. The dimensions
of the model plate and the
Figure 5.1-9 Plexiglas model for the model static investigation of the Selterstor Bridge [Beck/Mehl-
horn, 1970].
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
The arrangement of the measuring points,
consisting of distortion measuring strips
in rosette form for measuring the
distortions in three directions, can be seen
in Fig. 5.1-10.
The transverse strain coefficients of
concrete (ν = 0.2) and Plexiglas (ν = 0.37)
differ. However, the differences do not
have a decisive effect on the
determination of the stresses on the panel.
Using conversion equations valid for ν-
free boundary conditions (but not
applicable for the investigated plate due to
the free plate edges for the Selterstor
bridge), it was estimated that the error is
less than 10%. In all cases, it is imperative
that the design is consistently based on an
equilibrium state, even if it slightly violates
the compatibility condition.
5.1 Concrete slab bridges 297

Figure 5.1-10 Measuring points for the model static investigation of the Selterstor Bridge
[Beck/Mehl- horn, 1970].

last. This was naturally taken into account
in the design and construction of the
Selterstor bridge. Suspended weights were
used to load the model. The load was
transferred to the model via small
individual beams and rings with load
area loads were equivalent. It was also
possible to investigate partial area loads by
grouping them together. Figures 5.1-11
and 5.1-12 show the results of the moment
curves for the dead load case g1 = 12.75
kN/m2 (�1.25 Mp/ m2) determined in the

hooks glued under the model plate and
steel wires threaded through fine holes in
the model plate. The total of 377 load
application points were distributed on the
model plate in such a way that they
corresponded to the evenly distributed
load.
girder grid calculation and in the model
test. It can be seen that the curves
generally agree well. However, the design
values from the two determinations are
partially under

Figure 5.1-11 Moment curve of the Selterstor bridge determined with the girder grid calculation
[Beck/Mehlhorn, 1970].
298
Figure 5.1-12 Moment curve of the Selterstor Bridge determined in the model test [Beck/Mehl-
horn, 1970].
The model static support forces were also
determined by means of distortion
measurements on the columns of the
model, especially at the points where
moment jumps occur in the beam grid
calculation (nodal points of the
longitudinal and transverse beams) and at
the moment peaks above the supports,
which are not present in the slab in this
magnitude. The support forces were also
determined statically by means of
distortion measurements on the supports
of the model. This allowed the accuracy of
the determined internal forces and support
forces to be finally confirmed by
equilibrium tests. Torsional moments
were calculated in the girder grid
calculation with the plate strips as girders.
The torsional moments occurring in the
slab mean that the coordinate axes,
although sensibly but arbitrarily selected,
do not correspond to the directions of the
principal moments for the respective
point of the slab under consideration.
Because the torsional moments can only
be determined from the torsional
moments of the girder grid in exceptional
cases, it is generally hardly possible to
determine the directions of the main
moment vectors of the plate with sufficient
reliability using a girder grid calculation.
The model static analysis and the girder
grillage calculation together made it
possible to design the slab economically,
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
without neglecting the safety that had to
be taken into account due to the pre-
stressed lightweight concrete construction
with the support on individual columns.
The construction of the Selterstor Bridge
broke new ground at the time.
Later, as part of a research project
funded by the German Research
Foundation (DFG) in the priority program
for surface load-bearing structures, the
model plate was investigated
mathematically using the finite element
method [Schäfer et al., 1975]. The
transverse strain coefficient of the model
material of ν = 0.37 determined in the
model test was also used as the basis for
the calculation in order to enable a
unambiguous comparison of the results of
the model test and the FEM calculation.
The triangular plate element with 33
degrees of freedom used for the
calculation is shown in Fig. 5.1-13. The
eight degrees of freedom ux , uy , uz , u z,x ,
u z,y , u z,xx , u z,xy , u z,yy and the three
degrees of freedom ux , uy and uz,n are
applied at each of the corner nodes 1 to 3
(see Fig. 5.1-13) and at the side centers,
nodes 4 to 6. u are the displacements, the
index before the comma stands for the
direction of the displacement, the indices
after the comma indicate the derivatives of
the displacement
5.1 Concrete slab bridges 299

Slab element in plan; definition of the

local coordinate system and the node
degrees of freedom.
= nodal points with the deformation variables ux
, uy , uz , u z,x , uz,y , u z,xx , u z,xy , u z,yy .
= nodal points with the deformation variables ux
, uy , uz , u z,n .

Figure 5.1-13 Triangular plate element used in the FEM calculation

∂2 w
∂2 u
(e.g.: u ). In the cke Buchlohe transfers an economic
�
z
=
pictures
z, xy
9∂x δy ∂9x via the BAB 96 Munich-Lindau.
∂y
The element mesh selected for the The structural engineering for the bridge of
calculation is shown in Figures 5.1-14 and bridge class 30/30 according to DIN 1072
5.1-15, and the results calculated with this (12.1985) was carried out by Zilch+Müller
division are compared with the test results. Ingenieure, Munich, and the construction
The agreement of the results is very good was carried out by Hermann Assner
despite the symmetry assumed in the GmbH & Co. The superstructure, an 80
calculation to simplify the calculation cm thick prestressed concrete slab with a
close to the x-axis and the selected coarse constant slab thickness over two spans of
element division. 21.5 m, and the central pier of the slab
In recent years, slab bridges have also bridge were made of high-performance
been built using high-performance concrete of strength class B 85 (≈ C 70/85).
concrete. The first of these slab bridges are The bridge is relatively slender with a
the two bridges Buchlohe [Zilch et al., mechanic slenderness of li /h ≈ 0.75 -
2002] and Sasbach [Bernhardt et al., 1999] 21.5/80 ≈ 20. The superstructure of the
built in 1998. The bridge constructed as a Sasbach bridge, which was built at the
pilot project in Bavaria same time in 1998, also as a pilot project
in Baden-Württemberg, consists of a
prestressed concrete structure.

Figure 5.1-14 Element mesh selected for the FEM calculation

300
Figure 5.1-15 Comparison of the results obtained in the model test and in the FEM calculation
The bridge consists of a 16 m span slab
resting on box abutments. The structural
design for the bridge was carried out by
König und Heunisch, Beratende
Ingenieure, Frankfurt/Main, and the
construction work was carried out by
Bilfinger+Berger Bauaktiengesellschaft,
Freiburg branch. The bridge was designed
for bridge class 30/30 in accordance with
DIN 1072 (12.1985). The single-span slab
of the superstructure, made of high-
performance concrete of strength class B 85
(≈ C 70/85) with a roof profile (transverse
slope of the roof profile of 3% on both
sides), is 55 cm thick in the bridge axis and
53 cm thick on average and has a span of
16 m. With a slenderness of l/h =
16/0.53.5 ≈ 30, it is an exceptionally
slender bridge. The large slenderness
required a relatively high amount of
concrete and prestressing steel (amount of
reinforcing steel: 130 kg/m3, amount of
prestressing steel for the longitudinal
tendons: 63.6 kg/m3 and 22.2 kg/m2 in
relation to the bridge area). The possibility
of the low construction height resulted in a
reduction in the height of the
embankments required in the extension of
the bridge on both sides with ramps of
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
6% longitudinal slope, which led to cost
savings. For this reason, and of course
above all because it made sense for the
pilot project to achieve the highest
possible concrete stresses, it made sense to
choose the high slenderness. However, the
primary aim of using high-performance
concrete should not be to build extremely
slender structures. From the author's
point of view, the use of high-
performance concrete should be primarily
for reasons of greater durability and
economic efficiency (production and
maintenance costs), i.e. the sustainability
of construction.
The five-span concrete slab bridge over
the Zwickauer Mulde near Glauchau
[König et al., 2002] and the three-span
prestressed concrete slab bridge
Freihamer Allee [Zilch et al., 2002] are
also among the first bridges in Germany
to be constructed from high-performance
concrete B 85; as larger bridges, they are
the first two bridge superstructures ever
built in Germany from high-performance
concrete. The plate girders running across
five spans
5.1 Concrete slab bridges
Figure 5.1-16 Five-span concrete slab bridge over the Zwickauer Mulde near Glauchau
The bridge deck of the bridge over the
Zwickauer Mulde near Glauchau (Fig.
5.1-16) has a constant slab thickness of
1.05 m. The spans are 31 m - 39 m - 37 m
- 35 m - 29 m. Their mechanic slenderness
is about 24, the greatest optical
slenderness about 37, making the bridge
very slender.
It is also common to manufacture slabs
from prefabricated parts with in-situ
concrete infill, which eliminates the need for
formwork and scaffolding for the slab. Please
refer to section 4.2.1 and in particular to Fig.
4.2.1-4.
Considerations on prestressed slab
bridges and tendon guidance should be
made, which are also typical for the
prestressed continuous girders discussed
in Section 5.2.1. Fig. 5.1-17 shows the
bridge over the Nahe in Kirn (Fig. 5.1-4)
designed by DYWIDAG in 1960, which
was dimensioned for bridge class 30
according to DIN 1072 (03.1952), with the
corresponding tendon guidance in
longitudinal section. With a center span
of 25 m, it has a construction height of
Figure 5.1-17 Longitudinal section with tendon guidance of the Nahe bridge Kirn
301
of 60 cm in the middle of the slab and 1.10
m above the inner supports. It is designed
with the mechanical slenderness li /h ≈ 0.6
- 25/0.6
= 25 a bridge made of normal concrete
that can be described as very slender.
With regard to slenderness, however, it
should be noted that the bridge is almost
twice as thick above the inner supports as
in the middle of the span, which puts the
question of slenderness into perspective.
The bridge is designed and constructed
very economically because the dead load
in the span (large lever arm for the load) is
low and above the support (small lever
arm for the load) is higher. The tendon
design is typical of the time, when the
tendons were arranged according to the
stresses from external loads and
constraining moments from pre-
tensioning were avoided wherever
possible.
In today's designs, the tendons in such
bridges are guided in such a way that the
constraining moments from pre-
tensioning are deliberately forced by
suitable tendon guidance. This ensures
that the
302
tendons pass through the entire length
with the same number and no end
anchorages are required in the span,
which would lead to transverse force
jumps. The desired constraining moments
are achieved by the eccentric arrangement
of the tendon anchorages at the end
supports and the displacement of the
turning points of the tendon guidance
towards the inner supports. However, the
radii of curvature of the tendons become
smaller due to the aforementioned shifting
of the turning points (make sure that the
permissible radii of curvature of the
tendons are not undercut!) Constraint
moments from pre-tensioning are built up
by the sensible tendon guidance (positive
constraint moments that increase the
positive moments from pre-tensioning
above the column compared to the
statically determined proportion and
reduce the absolute values of the negative
moments from pre-tensioning in the
span) so that an overall more uniform
stress results from the superposition of the
external actions and the pre-tensioning in
the spans and above the column. In
addition, this tendon guidance in the area
of the central supports ensures that the
concrete stresses resulting from the
deflection of the tendons are directed
directly to the support, which results in a
favorable stress state in this area, where
the concrete is particularly highly stressed
by the obliquely directed main
compressive stresses. Section 8.5.2.3 deals
with how to specifically influence the
constraining moments using base load
cases on static systems clamped on one
side.
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
5.2 Beam bridges
5.2.1 Concrete beam bridges
GERHARD MEHLHORN
Apart from the large arch bridges, non-
prestressed, reinforced concrete bridges
can hardly compete with steel bridges
when spans of over 60 m have to be
bridged. This is why non-prestressed
concrete girder bridges a r e mainly
only available with small spans. The Seine
bridge near Villeneuve (Fig. 5.2.1-1), with
a span of 78 m, is probably the longest
non-prestressed reinforced concrete beam
bridge.
Although the favorable surface bearing
effect of the slab for the transverse
distribution of concentrated loads was
generally available due to the monolithic
construction of the reinforced concrete
bridges, the slab was not used for the
transverse distribution of the load in the
early days of the development of
reinforced concrete construction. For this
purpose, cross girders were arranged to
which the transverse distribution was
assigned alone. This construction
principle (Fig. 5.2.1-2) was retained until
after 1945. Today, concrete beam bridges
are generally prestressed in the
longitudinal direction. For this reason,
non-prestressed concrete beam bridges
are not discussed further here.
However, reference should also be
made to an older steel concrete beam
bridge and the Möller girder construction
system, although the system cannot
actually be classified as a reinforced
concrete construction method today due
to the steel tension chord consisting of
riveted rolled steel. Some of the design
principles of prestressed concrete, which
dominates modern concrete bridge
construction today, have already been
anticipated. This is the reinforced
concrete bridge over the Rio Peixe (Figure
5.2.1-3), which was built in Brazil in
1930/31 and is 68 m long.
5.2 Beam bridges 303

Fig. 5.2.1-1 Longitudinal and cross-section of the Seine bridge near Villeneuve [Wittfoht, 1972].

span, which is the first known concrete

bridge built using the cantilever method
[NN, 1931]. The cantilever construction
was carried out in sections of 1.5 m in
length. The longitudinal reinforcement
made of reinforcing steel ∅ 45 mm was
extended by socket joints.
The Möller beams (Fig. 5.2.1-4), also
known as fish belly beams, consist of slab
beams with an upper concrete Figure 5.2.1-2 Structural designs of reinforced
concrete beam bridges, as they were common
compression chord. The concrete webs
until around 1950 [Gehler, 1931].
are parabolic at the bottom. Möller used
flat steel for the tension chord, which is
anchored to the support by means of
welded brackets. To improve the bonding
effect of the flat steel with the concrete,
steel angles are welded on, also in the field.
The Elbe flood bridge near
Heyrothsberge, built according to this
principle at the beginning of the third Fig. 5.2.1-3 Bridge over the Rio Peixe (Brazil)
decade of the last century, was one of the built of reinforced concrete in 1930/31 [NN,
longest concrete beam bridges with 29 1931].
openings, each with a span of 14.5 m and
seven Möller girders lying next to each
other with a bridge width of 9.7 m
[Gehler, 1931]. It was largely replaced in
the 1960s. This design principle of the
Möller girder corresponds in principle to
that of the under-tensioned girder, which
was used in the first bridge built from
prestressed concrete, but there the tension Figure 5.2.1-4 Möller beam [Deinhard, 1964]
band is not continuously curved, but
deflected at concentrated points and In the course of time, the use of cross
above all: prestressed. girders and narrow longitudinal girder
Figure 5.1-5, see Section 5.1, shows the spacing led to ever greater girder spacing,
development of the cross-sectional shapes whereby cross girders were increasingly
of concrete beam bridges commonly used dispensed with, with the exception of the
today for continuous beams and slabs. end supports, and the transverse
The girder has developed from the slab distribution was assigned exclusively to
beam with transverse the slab for economical construction. The
development was similar for the hollow
cross-sections, from which
304
The mushroom bridge was then finally
developed as a variant.
As already mentioned, modern
concrete bridge construction is
characterized by the pre-tensioning of
concrete. Mainly due to the low
elongation capacity and the low tensile
strength of concrete in relation to its
compressive strength, it is not possible to
use very high-strength steels in concrete
construction without pre-tensioning, as this
would lead to large crack widths that
would jeopardize the durability of the
structure. For this reason, the pre-
tensioning of load-bearing structures
proved to be fruitful for the further
development of concrete construction. It
was only with the development of
prestressed concrete construction that
bending girders, usually designed as
continuous girders, were used in concrete
bridge construction, even for large spans.
The basic idea of pre-tensioning dates
back to the end of the 19th century. As
early as 1888, Doehring was granted a
patent for the production of laths
interwoven with wire, according to which
the wires should be tensioned by screws.
In 1905, Lund described in the journal
Beton und Eisen (Concrete and Iron) a
ceiling construction made of prefabricated
hollow concrete blocks with prestressed
reinforcement, writing: "If cracking in the
concrete is to be prevented, the iron of the
tie rods must be stressed to the permissible
tension before the equipment is fitted, and
this can be done very easily in the present
construction made of individual pre-set
concrete blocks by pressing the blocks
together by tightening the tie rods before
stripping the formwork. These ideas were
intended for use in building construction,
but did not initially catch on there either
and had no significance for bridge
construction.
The development of prestressed
concrete is closely linked to the inputs and
publications of the French engineer
Freyssinet, who was
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
had also been working on the idea of
prestressing since the beginning of the
20th century. Prestressed concrete could
only be used with the development of
high-strength steels. It was also important
to realize that concrete creeps under
permanent compressive stresses, which
Freyssinet recognized during the
construction of the three concrete arch
bridges over the Allier (Le Veudre,
Boutiron and Chatel de Neuvre) built in
1907/12, of which only the bridge at
Boutiron (Fig. 1.4-46) still exists today. He
asked himself whether permanent
prestressing could be generated in the
concrete despite the long-lasting, time-
dependent increase in deformation. As a
result of his experiments, he came to the
conclusion that the use of high-strength
steels was necessary for prestressed
concrete. One of his patents states:
"A prerequisite for the invention is
therefore the use of a material with the
specified high-quality properties for the
reinforcement and the use of an equally
high-quality concrete mass. For only in this
case is the task of the invention, namely the
creation of a reinforced concrete body that
can safely withstand high loads, at all. For
the reinforcing bars, bars with an elasticity
limit of at least 40 kg/mm2 ( �400 N/mm2),
which must be up to 160 kg/mm2 ( �1600
N/mm2
) and more, depending on the size of
the pre-tension to be applied, are therefore
considered. Furthermore, the prestressed
concrete reinforcements must be distributed
in the concrete in such a way that they
create a pressure distribution in the
concrete that counteracts the tensile forces
resulting from the dead load and the live
load. The following can be considered as
means of achieving a suitable high-quality
concrete mass: careful selection of grain
size, vibration, pressing and strapping. The
aim of the invention is to ensure that the
pre-tension given to the reinforcing bars
5.2 Beam bridges
Fig. 5.2.1-5 Finsterwalder's design for the Dreirosenbrücke in Basel from 1930, image after
[Finsterwalder, 1967]
is not completely canceled out by the forces
acting against it and the reinforced concrete
body remains permanently subject to
effective compressive forces which
completely cancel out or at least
substantially compensate for the tensile
stresses arising in the body due to dead
load and working load. As a result, the
reinforced concrete bodies produced by the
method according to the invention have the
properties of homogeneous bodies."
Looking back today, we can say that
this approach of using high-strength
concretes and steels, as outlined in his
patent specification of 1929, has been fully
vindicated. Today, prestressing steels with
strengths between 1000 and 2000 N/mm2
are used in prestressed concrete
construction. On the other hand,
Freyssinet's other idea of applying such
high prestressing forces that no tensile
stresses occur in the concrete in the long
term even after the full live loads have
been applied has proved to be
inappropriate. Instead, in line with the
considerations of Abeles, Finsterwalders
and Rüsch, prestressed concrete is used
today to the extent that the concrete is not
fully overstressed in the long term.
Concrete tensile stresses are either limited
to such an extent that they are below the
concrete tensile strength or cracks are
deliberately allowed to form in the
concrete. In this case, non-pre-stressed
reinforcing steel is required in addition to
the pre-stressed prestressing steel (this
must always be provided!) to absorb the
internal forces. The reinforcement
distributed across the tensile zone has a
particularly advantageous effect.
305
This has a positive effect on the limitation
of crack widths and thus leads to a
favorable behavior of the structure under
dead and live loads.
During the construction of the
aforementioned bridges over the Allier,
Freysinet connected the two abutments on
an arch as a test specimen with a span of
50 m with a pre-stressed tension chord
made of pre-stressed cold-drawn wires ∅
8 mm with tensions close to the yield
point. The prestressed wires were
anchored with wedges arranged in an
anchor plate. This first application of pre-
tensioning in concrete bridge
construction on a test specimen is the first
milestone in the later development of
prestressed concrete bridge construction
[Grote/Marrey, 2000].
The first known design for a prestressed
concrete bridge dates back to 1930, when
Finsterwalder proposed a prestressed
concrete bridge for the construction of the
Dreirosenbrücke in Basel [Finsterwalder,
1965]. However, this design (Fig. 5.2.1-5)
was not realized. If you look at the
construction system, you can see that this
design already contains essential
characteristic elements of the cantilever
construction method developed after
1945. The cantilever design with the
articulated connection at the apex should
be noted. However, this bridge was to be
built on a falsework, not in cantilever
construction.
Dischinger's design for the
construction of the Saale bridge Alsleben
in 1927/28 (arch bridge with an attached
carriageway of the main shipping opening
with a span of 68 m as a
306 5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
Schneeberger Straße Station road Lößnitzer Straße
Niederschlemaer Weg to Lößnitz
to Aue
Carola plants IX Alberodaer Straße
Zwickauer Mulde
19,01 23,25 28,00 41,05 28,00 24,81 21,90 25,20 69,00 23,40
303,62
Compon Compon Component Compon
ent A ent B C ent D
4,75

1,90
1 : 40

4,75
1 : 40

18,75 31,50 18,75

25,20 69,00 23,40

+ 357,010 + 357,265 + 357,065

+ 356,379
20

10

36 ∅ 70 40 36 ∅
2 -18 ∅ 70 12 ∅ 70 12 ∅ 70
70
Opening
60 30 ∅ 70
30

35

+ 354,319 Boarding
54

Thermowell + 352,15 opening

s

with
24,50 7,91 7,91 9,375 9,375 9,375
Suspension
25,20 10,75 bracket
31.50
Fig. 5.2.1-6 Dischinger's construction of the bridge in Aue. First ever prestressed concrete bridge,
according to [Finsterwalder, 1967]

mm2)
two-hinged arch with prestressed tension outside the concrete cross-section
band) [Dischinger, 1949-2, Standfuß, 2000] between the webs of the slab beams,
and the first prestressed bridge ever built mainly due to the lack of a theory for
in 1935/37 [Schönberg/ Fichtner, 1939, calculating the loss of prestress due to creep
Dischinger, 1949-2, Finsterwalder, 1965], of the concrete - he did not publish this
the bridge in Aue (suspension-like, theory ready for application until 1939
tendons guided and deflected outside the [Dischinger, 1939] - so that it could be
cross-section) to arrange the prestressing restressed at any time in accordance with
reinforcement without bond in a the deformations occurring and the
suspension-like, polygonal manner associated loss of prestress. During the
outside the cross-section (Fig. 5.2.1-6), so Second World War, the bridge was not
that it c a n b e post-tensioned and maintained as planned and, as expected,
replaced at any time in accordance with visible deflections and significant tension
the plastic deformation of the concrete, losses of approx. 40% occurred. In
has r e c e n t l y developed into a addition, corrosion damage was found on
successful variant in concrete bridge the tendons and their stakes as a result of
construction. Dischinger, the designer of the lack of maintenance. The bridge was
the bridge in Aue, d e s i g n e d the repaired in 1962 [Lippold/Spaethe, 1965].
tendons from St52 In the meantime
∅ 70 mm (pre-tension only approx. 200
N/
5.2 Beam bridges
It was then replaced by a new structure
[Ivanyi/Blume, 1995].
Above all, the development of high-
strength prestressing steel, but also the
exploration of creep problems and the
theory to be developed for calculating the
loss of prestressing force due to concrete
creep were necessary prerequisites for the
breakthrough of prestressed concrete and
the resulting development of new forms of
construction in concrete bridge building,
which, although the beginnings go back to
the 1930s, have revolutionized bridge
building, especially since around 1950.
The principle of prestressed concrete
will be briefly discussed before the design
systems commonly used in concrete
bridge construction today are explained
further. For the mathematical treatment,
please refer to Section 8.5 and for a more
detailed treatment, please refer to
[Mehlhorn, 1998], for example. In the
case of cracked reinforced concrete
beams, a distinction is made between the
compression zone and the tension zone.
In the compression zone the compressive
stresses are absorbed by the concrete, in
the tension zone after cracking the tensile
forces are absorbed by the reinforcing
steel. I n non-prestressed concrete
structures reinforced for tension or
bending, cracks usually occur under dead
load, as the elongation capacity of the
concrete does not or hardly exceeds 0.1 ‰.
The tensile forces initially absorbed jointly
by the concrete and the reinforcement
before cracking must be absorbed in the
crack by the reinforcing steel alone. The
bond stresses occurring between the
concrete and the reinforcing steel mean
that the tensile forces absorbed by the
reinforcing steel alone in the crack are
gradually transferred to the concrete in the
non-cracked area between the cracks. At
the point where the tensile stresses reach
the magnitude of the concrete tensile
strength, the next crack occurs.
307
Crack. Suitable design measures (profiled
surface of the reinforcing steel) ensure a
good bond. The tensile stresses that
cannot be absorbed by the concrete in the
crack are built up again in the concrete via
shorter introduction lengths between the
cracks and thus result in shorter crack
spacings with a larger number of cracks
while the crack widths remain sufficiently
small. A higher steel stress can therefore
be utilized if the crack width remains the
same. However, if the crack spacing is too
small, the bond effect is considerably
reduced. For this reason, there are limits
to the use and utilization of high-strength
steels as reinforcement in non-prestressed
load-bearing structures in concrete
construction.
In the case of prestressed concrete
components in which the concrete
subjected to tensile stress from external
actions is prestressed so that it is not
subjected to tensile stress or only to a very
limited extent under service load, these
limits for the usability of high-strength
steels do not apply to the same extent due
to the prestressing of the steels. If the
tendons arranged in the concrete tension
zone are prestressed by pre-expansion (the
concrete tension zone is pre-compressed),
the compressive stresses resulting from
pre-tensioning in the pre-compressed
concrete tension zone must first be reduced
by the increasing stress from external
loads and the resulting tensile stresses
before the elongation capacity of the
concrete is reached and the concrete cracks
when the load increases further. The pre-
expansion of the tendons therefore makes it
possible to utilize higher steel strengths.
The play of forces on an externally statically
determined prestressed concrete beam -
tendons with anchor bodies and
associated compression and tension lines
in the concrete for the serviceability limit
state, in which the concrete is almost
uncracked in the tensile area - is s h o w n
in Figure 5.2.1-7. Decisive for
308
Figure 5.2.1-7 Principle representation of the play of forces on the externally statically determined
prestressed concrete beam
the bending load-bearing capacity of the
prestressed beam is that the tendons in
the area of the greatest stresses are
arranged as close as possible to the tensile
edge resulting from external loads.
With regard to shear stresses, the
tendon guidance (tension lines) shown in
Fig. 5.2.1-7 is favorable in order to
eliminate cracking in the shear crack area
for as long as possible in the serviceability
limit state. The main tensile stresses are
kept low by the shear force from
prestressing counteracting the shear force
from external loads. With regard to the
shear load-bearing capacity, however, it
would be more favorable to position the
tendons as low as possible in the support
area. This is because the load-bearing
behavior after cracking is different from
that before cracking. In principle, this
load-bearing behavior corresponds to that of
a truss. For this purpose, tendons that are
as deep as possible in the support area
with a larger internal lever arm are more
suitable than tendons that are pulled
upwards. The inclined concrete
compression struts are supported against
the tendons.
Suitable prestressing methods are
required to apply the pre-tension. The
term "prestressing method" refers to the
type and timing of pre-tensioning, the way
in which the prestressing steel is
anchored, the way in which the tendons
are coupled and the way in which the
bond is produced. A basic distinction is
made between prestressing methods with
tendons made of high-strength steel:
Pre-tension without bond:
Tendons are located outside (external
tendons) inside the box transverse
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
The tendons can be used as internal
longitudinal tendons without bond in the
web or for transverse pre-tensioning of
roadway slabs without bond within the
concrete cross-section of the concrete
section to be prestressed,
Pre-tensioning with immediate bond:
Tendons are embedded in the concrete after
pre-tensioning in such a way that the bonding
effect is created at the same time as the
concrete hardens (precast elements),
Pre-tensioning with subsequent bonding:
The concrete is initially prestressed
without bonding between tendons (laid in
ducts) and concrete, later the bonding
effect is created by pressing out the ducts
with grout.
Pre-tensioning as a mixed construction:
Both internal longitudinal tendons with
bond in the concrete cross-section and
external tendons inside the box cross-
section are used. According to [DIN-FB
102, 2003], 3.4 (1) P, the mixed
construction method has special
requirements for later possibilities of any
necessary reinforcement measures.
An essential feature of post-tensioning
tendons with subsequent bond and
internal tendons without bond is that the
tendons allow largely arbitrary
prestressing guidance. Only the curvature
radii to be adhered to limit the freely
selectable course of the tendon guidance.
It is also possible to have the tendons end
at any point within the structure. This
means that, for any desired
5.2 Beam bridges
The size, position and direction of the
required pretensioning forces and the time
at which they are applied must be adapted
to the requirements. However, the
tensioning points must be accessible
during the tensioning process. If tendons
end inside the structure, care must be
taken in the design of the reinforcement
to ensure that the shear force jumps from
the pre-tensioning (additional shear
reinforcement) and the required splitting
tensile reinforcement are taken into
account in the area of the internal
anchorages.
As already mentioned, Dischinger used
tendons outside the cross-section for the
first prestressed concrete bridges. This
external pre-tensioning is carried out
without bond, with the advantages of post-
tensioning and the interchangeability of
the prestressing steel. Four bridges with
unbonded pre-tensioning were also built
in France around 1950 [Metzler/Schmitz,
1998]. After that, this type of pre-
tensioning was not used for a long time.
Since the mid-seventies, the principle of
externally guided tendons has been taken
up again, initially in France and the USA.
In France, this further development of
externally guided tendons focused on
improving the quality of the bridges. The
tendon guide,
5,51
32,60 36,00 38,00 40,00
Longitudinal section in bridge axis
from
Cologne
bottom
view
Fig. 5.2.1-8 Unkelstein Bridge, longitudinal section, bottom and top view (DYWIDAG archive)
309
The low and more predictable friction
losses during pre-tensioning and the fact
that the tendons can be re-tensioned and
replaced at any time were important
criteria. In addition, the externally guided
tendons allow the dead load of the
superstructure to be reduced by reducing
the web thicknesses. Concrete placement
is also made easier.
The construction form of solid bridges
is particularly influenced by the design of
the building. Proven forms of
construction are also constantly being
improved. The example of the Unkelstein
Bridge, the Ludwigshafen elevated road
and the Elz Valley Bridge (Figures 5.2.1-8
to 5.2.1-11) will be used to illustrate the
development of mushroom bridges. It
should be noted that it is questionable
whether the mushroom bridge and also
the cantilever bridge discussed below can
be described as beam bridges in the strict
sense in all their forms. However, they are
discussed here because the development of
the construction forms is of particular
interest and the connection between
construction and execution is also clear.
The Unkelstein Bridge was built in
1956/57 parallel to the Rhine in the course
of the B 9 highway, based on a design
(participation in the design: architect Gerd
Lohmer) and the technical processing of
Dyckerhoff & Widmann in a joint
venture.
40,00 40,00 40,00 41,06 6,00
38,90
346,56
railro
ad
to Mainz
ral
Fede All B
9 Top view
310
379.30
20,90 37,50 37,50 37,50 37,50
Figure 5.2.1-10 Longitudinal section and bottom view of the Elz Valley Bridge, image after
[Schambeck/Foerst, 1973].
from Cologne to Mainz, the 358 m long
superstructure was built as a continuous
girder over nine spans as a two-cell box
with a construction height of 2 m. At the
abutments and above the piers, the box is
stiffened by transverse plates. The
superstructure is connected to this support
at one of the central inner supports in a
bending stiffness. At the two abutments,
the forces are transferred from the
superstructure to the abutments via three
self-aligning bearings each. At seven of the
eight inner supports, the superstructure is
supported on four multi-roller bearings
each on plate-like support heads
(forerunners of mushroom heads) on a
row of central supports. The rollers
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
Figure 5.2.1-9
Unkelstein Bridge
Joint
37,50 37,50 37,50 37,50 37,50 20,90
3000
The columns are set in a frame that is
closed on all sides and ensure the
longitudinal displacement of the
superstructure along the axis of the
structure as a result of temperature
changes and shortening due to creep and
shrinkage of the concrete, while transverse
displacement of the superstructure is
excluded. The supports are spaced 32.60
m to 41.06 m apart. The further
development of this type of construction
led to the monolithic connection of the
superstructure to the column, the
mushroom head. This development led to
the fixed connection of the superstructure
to the columns via the intermediate stages
 Exit to the pillar for

5.2 Beam bridges

mounting the support
Medium support frame
frame

Rear running gear Center sill

Formwork Lateral support frame during

Running rails
concreting
of section I (blank) Auxiliary scaffolding

Upper working platform

Pillar
Lower
working
platform

37 500 37 500

Center sill Center sill

16 000 Lateral side member
Stage retracted

1 240
Hydr. presses ±0
7 800

Under working platform

1 240

Platform extended 3 300 3 300 Shuttering in travel position

Fig. 5.2.1-11 Longitudinal view and cross-section of the Device for blowing off the shuttering
cantilevered scaffolding carriage of the Elz Valley Bridge, image

311
Formwork in concreting position Stage retracted
after [Schambeck/Foerst, 1973].
312
Ludwigshafen elevated road with diagonal
supporting ribs and the Vahrer Kreuz
elevated road in Bremen with mushroom
heads extending almost continuously into
the slab of the superstructure to the 380 m
long Elz viaduct near Kaisersesch in the
Eifel region shown as a system in Figure
5.2.1-10. The superstructure is a 30 m
wide prestressed concrete slab with
variable thickness, which is clamped in
central supports at 37.5 m intervals and
only has a transverse joint in the middle
span. The superstructure, the supports
and the abutments are monolithically
connected to each other, with mutual
displacements only possible in the
longitudinal direction at the transverse
joint. The columns, which are up to 100 m
high, have octagonal hollow cross-sections
whose cross-sections are constant over the
height and have external dimensions of 4.8
m ∙ 5.8 m. In the bays, the slab is between
50 cm and 65 cm thick, and its thickness
increases in a mushroom shape to 2.45 m
towards the supports. The superstructure
was built in sections using a launching
gantry (Fig. 5.2.1-11). From the main
longitudinal girder of the launching gantry
above the superstructure structure, the
Figure 5.2.1-12 Lahn Bridge Balduinstein, view and sections, image after [Finsterwalder, 1951].
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
The main longitudinal girder of the
launching girder is mounted on support
frames. The main longitudinal girder of
the launching gantry is supported on
trestles, which rest on the bridge section
already constructed in the previous
construction section and the next pier.
Once the respective construction section
has been completed, the launching gantry
is moved forward by one section length
without any additional auxiliary measures.
Many bridges have been built according to
the principle of the Elz Valley Bridge, in
particular various slope bridges during the
construction of the Brenner highway.
Another typical system for long-span
prestressed concrete bridges is the
cantilever girder, which is mainly used for
bridges built as cantilever structures. The
best-known bridges of this system are the
Lahn Bridge Balduinstein (Figures 1.4-51
and 2.1-12), built in 1950, which is the
first bridge of this type with a span of
approx. 62 m, the Nibelungen Bridge in
Worms (Figures 1.4-52, -53 and 5.2.1-13),
the Moel Bridge Koblenz, the Rhine
Bridge Ben-
5.2 Beam bridges 313

Figure 5.2.1-13 Longitudinal and cross-section of the Nibelungen Bridge in Worms over the Rhine,
image after [Finsterwalder/Knittel, 1953].

Figure 5.2.1-14 Longitudinal and cross-sections of the Bendorf Rhine bridge, image after
[Finsterwalder/ Schambeck, 1965].

dorf (Figures 1.4-54, 3.8-11 and 5.2.1-14),
the Hamana Bridge in Japan (Figure 1.4-
56) with a span of 240 m and finally the
Stolma Bridge (see Figure 9.1.3-14) near
Bergen in Norway [In- gebrigtsen, 1999],
which at 301 m span width is currently the
cantilever concrete bridge with the largest
span width. For cantilever construction,
with cantilever girders in the construction
stage, the box girder (bil
of 5.2.1-13 and -14) are particularly
suitable. The high negative moments from
the cantilever loading with the
horizontally directed tensile forces at the
upper edge of the cantilever beam are
absorbed by tendons, the vertical and
diagonal tensile forces in the webs by
reinforcing steel and/or prestressing steel
and the compressive forces directed
diagonally in the webs and parallel to the
lower edge by the concrete. The height of
the structure is reduced in accordance with
the moment distribution.
314
The required prestressed longitudinal
reinforcement in the tensile zone is
staggered in the longitudinal direction so
that the number of tendons required
decreases approximately evenly towards
the end of the cantilever. By building in
sections, the tendons ending in the
respective construction section can be
easily pre-tensioned. When using bars, as
were used exclusively by Dyckerhoff &
Widmann in the early days of cantilever
construction, the tendons required for the
subsequent construction sections can be
coupled with simple socket connections.
In modern designs, strand tendons are
preferably used, which are inserted into
ducts and prestressed in sections over the
respective section length. A further
essential design principle is that the
aforementioned variability of the cantilever
beam's construction height is selected in
such a way that an approximately
constant shear load on the webs is also
achieved and therefore the required shear
reinforcement is almost constant over the
beam length (Figures 5.2.1-15 and
-16). The base slab in the cross-section
above the column is generally selected to
be significantly thicker than in the span
area in order to achieve the larger
compression zone required there. For very
large spans, it is also advisable to reduce
the thickness of the deck slab in the
central area of the span, because the
number of tendons arranged in the slab
decreases continuously from the column
to the center of the span and therefore less
space is required to accommodate the
anchorage bodies of the tendons.
The Moselle bridge Thörnich (Figure
5.2.1-17), completed in 1963 with a center
span of 84.5 m, is one of the bridges built
according to this design principle. It was
not built completely as a cantilever
structure, but between the axes 1-3
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
Tendons
Compressive
forces
Fig. 5.2.1-15 Design principle for cantilever
front end with tendon guidance and
compression force lines
Figure 5.2.1-16 Design principle with
approximately constant shear stress on the
webs
and 5-7, it was built on falsework. First,
the western part of the bridge (the left part
seen in the direction of flow) between
axles 6 and 5 was built on scaffolding.
While the prefabrication carriage was
assembled at axle 5, the slab was
constructed between axles 6 and 7. While
the cantilever construction was then
carried out between axles 5 and 4, the
bridge section between axles 1 and 3 was
constructed on scaffolding. This was
followed by the conversion of the
cantilever carriage from axis 4 to axis 3 and
finally the bridge section between axes 3
and 4 was constructed in the cantilever
and the two cantilevers were connected
with the installation of the joint in axis 4,
thus completing the superstructure.
Figure 5.2.1-18 shows the basic
arrangement of the longitudinal
prestressing reinforcement in cross-
section. Some of the tendons were
prestressed and anchored in the respective
construction joints.
5.2 Beam bridges
Figure 5.2.1-17 Moselle bridge Thörnich, longitudinal and cross-sections, joint design for
transferring shear forces
Figure 5.2.1-18 Cross-section of the Moselle
bridge Thörnich with tendon distribution in the
transverse direction
Figure 5.2.1-19 Cantilevers coupled in a joint
in the undeformed (top) and deformed
(bottom) state
The tendons ending in the respective
construction joint and to be prestressed
were pulled to the webs. The other
tendons were guided into the next
construction sections.
315
The cantilever bridges just discussed,
which are erected in cantilever
construction, are often, in the early days
almost always, designed in such a way that
joints are arranged in the centers of the
spans, via which only transverse forces are
transmitted, but the transmission of
bending moments and longitudinal forces
is excluded [Fins- terwalder/Schambeck,
1965]. As a result of these central joints,
unsteady deflections occur in the area of
these joints arranged in the center of the
field. Even if articulated systems can be
more economical to manufacture than
continuous systems, the discontinuities of
the tangent inclinations (buckling) mean
that the aim should always be to dispense
with these central joints completely for
new bridges to be built, which is usually
possible through appropriate structural
design. In some cases, it will nevertheless
be expedient to arrange center joints if
corrections to the gradient of the bridge
can be made easily. Figure 5.2.1-19 above
shows a sketch of two cantilevers coupled
by a center hinge in the undeformed and
deformed state. If, in the course of time,
larger deflections occur than expected and
calculated in advance, which has indeed
occurred in many such systems,
316
the height of the gradient can be corrected
and brought to the desired dimension by
retrofitting tendons. In the case of existing
bridges, however, the installation of
suitable anchorage beams, which can also
be replaced by steel structures, is
necessary. In the case of newly
constructed bridges, appropriate
provisions can be made for the subsequent
installation of tendons. If unbonded
tendons are used for these tendons, any
necessary further corrections can easily be
made in several steps. The suggestion
already made in 1973 [Mehl- horn, 1973]
is more appropriate than the correction of
the gradient sometimes made by applying
additional leveling concrete and asphalt.
Section 9.1.3 deals in more detail with
bridges built by cantilever construction
and the associated problems and the usual
variants during construction, to which
reference is made.
A typical example of the economical
production of continuous girders is the
Würgau slope bridge (Fig. 5.2.1-20), which
is typical of bridges with spans of approx.
30 m to 45 m, where the cross-section is
designed as a two-span slab girder without
crossbeams. It is irrelevant here whether
the advanceable scaffolding girders are
supported by trestles or not.
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
Figure 5.2.1-20 Würgau slope bridge
are supported in between or whether these
setup carriers carry themselves freely.
Other examples are the Cologne bypass
highway, where movable falsework was
used (Fig. 5.2.1-21) and the Pleichach
bridge on the Fulda - Würzburg highway
(Fig. 5.2.1-22). The "rake-slider principle"
was used here for the first time. The
lateral scaffolding girders have the length
of one span, while the central girder
extends over two spans. To move the front
scaffolding, the side scaffolding girders are
suspended from a crane carriage, which
runs over the long, cantilevered central
girder stretched out on roller supports and
is then moved. At the rear, they are
supported by a transport structure
running on the completed new bay. In the
construction system used to build the
bridge on the Kettiger Hang (Fig. 5.2.1-
23), in addition to the actual scaffolding
girders, which are slightly longer than one
span, a leading prefabricated girder, which
extends over two spans, is required to
move the scaffolding.
In the construction of very long bridges
in cycles, which were built as continuous
girders on set-up girders in field-by-field
construction sections with construction
section boundaries arranged in the zero
points of the membrane, it is not possible
to use this construction method in
5.2 Beam bridges 317

b a
Shutterin
g

∅ 1,90 Armament
carrier
O.K.S.

b a
29,50 29,50 29,50
Armor in concreting position
2,00

Constructio Work step

n joint
max. 11.00

∅ 1,90
O.K.S.

Chassis
Ancestors of the armor

3,30 3,30
32,80 9,20 7,80 9,20
2,00

4% 4%

Scaffolding
carrier
Consoles chassis
Steel supports

Folding base
17,00 plates

Section a - aSection b - b
Figure 5.2.1-21 Highway elevated road of the Cologne bypass, image after [Beyer/Thul, 1967]

In the early years, it was sometimes not The low degree of reinforcement, which
taken into account that the construction appears to be required by calculation,
joint, in which the tendons were reacts very sensitively to additional stresses
prestressed and coupled in sections that are not directly determined. These
(sometimes even all tendons in the include, for example, shoring
construction joint were prestressed, deformations during production, uneven
extended with couplers and prestressed heating of the superstructure in statically
again at the next construction joint and indeterminate systems, structural
extended by further couplers), was not imperfections and constraint stresses from
always used due to the fact that the creep
tendons were connected to the
318 5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
Scaffolding girder in concreting position
Rear crane truck
Front crane truck

R RV

Ancestors of the scaffolding beams including

formwork

R RV
2,20

36,25 36,25 36,25 36,25

Ancestors of the scaffolding and stem

supports
Construction joint

R RV

1,90

Cross section
28,80
14,40 14,40
2,20

R = Scaffolding girder including formwork

7.90
RV = Scaffolding and facing girder
max. 29,00

5,00 5,00

14,50

Figure 5.2.1-22 Pleichachtal Bridge, image after [Beyer/Thul, 1967]

and shrinkage of the concrete. They have a
greater effect on serviceability than in the
other areas. These additional stresses
mentioned above can be determined
according to the usual technical bending
theory. It should be noted that a reduced
concrete tensile strength is to be expected
in the concreting joint.
Due to the already explained
manufacturing and prestressing sequence
at construction joints with tendon
couplings, often called coupling joints in
simplified terms, the entry of the
prestressing force as a concentrated force
results in deviations from the linearly
variable course of the normal span
according to the technical bending theory
for beams.
 81,40

1967]
Figure 5.2.1-23 Bridge on the Kettiger Hang, image after [Beyer/Thul,

5.2 Beam bridges

3% a
gradient

2,10
Roller blocks Stem carrier Setup girder with
Steel formwork Steel formwork
Armament carrier

39,20 39,20 39,20 39,20 39,20 39,20 9,00

Scaffolding girder in concreting position a
Section a - a
b
6,125 Stem support

Roller trestle
Winch platform
Driving Displacement traverse
direction

1,80 7 ,20 1,80

39,20 39,20 39,20 39,20 39,20 39,20
Progenitors of the scaffolding beams including formwork Section b - b
b
3% Front crane truck
gradient rear crane truck 6,125

2,10
Driving direction

39,20 39,20 39,20 39,20 39,20 39,20

Ancestors of the stem support

319
320 5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures

Figure 5.2.1-24 Model pulley to explain the

pre-tension on a supplemented pulley

tions. This problem is first explained in

principle using a centrally loaded, simple
model slab (Figure 5.2.1-24). From the
deformation and stress patterns of the
model slab shown in Figure 5.2.1-25, it
can be clearly seen that the normal
stresses are not constant over the height of
the slab in the area of the concreting joint
with the tendon coupling. Accordingly,
they would not be linearly variable over
the height of the slab if eccentric forces
were applied. Three conclusions can be
drawn from this:
1. In this area, the stress curve must be
Figure 5.2.1-25 Deformations and main
determined according to the theory of
stresses on the model disk.
elasticity, as is usual for all areas with a) Disc I with central pre-tension
entries of concentrated loads. The (deformation on the left, principal stresses on
technical bending theory (Navier) the right)
cannot be used to determine the stress b) Sheaves I+II connected, tendons coupled
state in this area. and prestressed at the end (right) (top
2. Not only reinforcement to absorb the deformations, bottom principal stresses)
splitting tensile forces from the entry of
the pre-tensioning forces in the first
construction section, which must be At the end of 1970, during routine
dimensioned for the full pre-tensioning inspections of two prestressed concrete
forces, must be arranged at the bridges a few years after they had been put
concreting joint with tendon couplings. into service, crack damage was detected at
Splitting tensile reinforcement must all of their coupling joints [Fehse, 1972,
also be provided on the supplemented Pfohl, 1973], reported by Mr. Pfohl to the
side of the concreting joint with tendon prestressing procedure expert committee
couplers, but this may be less (approx. of the Institute for Structural Engineering
50%). and the phenomenon was explained by
3. Not all tendons should be coupled in me. As part of an extension of the
the concreting joints. A significant approval of the LEOBA tensioning
proportion of the tendons should pass method, Mr. Baur was made aware of the
through unbonded! effect during consultations in the SVA
tensioning method, which resulted in the
article [Baur/ Göhler, 1972].
5.2 Beam bridges
Considered
coupling
29,85 joint
Figure 5.2.1-26 Static system of the investigated bridge
a)
275 325
26
35
42
113
Anchor plates
136
150
b) Idealized cross-section
32,7
113
200
143
Figure 5.2.1-27 Cross-section of the two-legged slab beam
a) Cross-section of the two-bar slab beam
b) The idealized cross-section on which the calculation is based
The impact of the effect is shown using
the example of a two-span slab girder
bridge [Mehlhorn/Hoshino, 1974]. Figure
5.2.1- 26 shows the structural system of
the plate girder (Figure 5.2.1-27a), which
was designed as a continuous, prestressed
girder on a launching gantry.
In the calculation with the idealized
transverse section shown in Fig. 5.2.1-27b,
only the disc stress states were considered,
the influence of the plate effect was not
taken into account. The admissibility of
this simplification was demonstrated by
Hoshino in his dissertation [Hoshino,
1974]. The coupling joint between the
third and fourth construction stage is
considered.
Figure 5.2.1-28 shows the investigated
load cases 1-4. Load case 1 is
321
13 × 25,5 = 331,5 21,15
15 × 25,5 = 382,5
325 275
Dimensions in cm
250
the pre-tensioning of the completed
construction section, load case 2 is the
pre-tensioning of the newly concreted
section after the tendon coupling,
whereby the restraint moment from pre-
tensioning must be taken into account.
Load cases 3 and 4 are the dead and live
loads with the load position that results in
the greatest bending moment for the
coupling joint. Figures 5.2.1-30 and 5.2.1-
31 show the calculation results for the
stress distribution, and Table 5.2.1-1
shows the normal stresses at the lower
edge of the web immediately to the left of
the joint due to pre-tension, as they result
from the technical bending theory and
according to the more precise calculation
according to state I (uncracked,
unrestrictedly elastic material). In
addition, the stresses from dead and live
loads are also indicated and, for the
indicated
322 5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
a) Load case 1: Pre-tension 470 kN/m

18.8 MN/m

b) Load case 2: Pre-tension and constraining Nc,p = -12.69 MN

moment Mc,p = -6.61 MNm Mzw = 4.83 MNm

470 kN/m

+
18.8 MN/m
Weakening of the cross-
section

c) Load case 3: Dead load and permanently acting loads

g = 100 kN/m
Mg = 2.25 MNm Qg = -410 kN

d) Load case 4: Traffic

loads Q=195 kN
1,50 1,50 2,80
2,85 Mq=1.53 MNm Qq = -80 kN
q=28 kN/m

4,35 4,30
tendon
Reinforcing
steel
Figure 5.2.1-28 Load cases investigated for the investigation of the coupling joint of the prestressed, two-
strand slab beam

Stresses from pre-tension are the
proportions from the pre-tension on the
statically determined main system and
from the constraining moment
determined with the FEM according to the
theory of elasticity. The stresses from dead
load, traversing load and restraint
moment are shown for
the two calculation assumptions are the
same, because the calculation according to
the technical bending theory applies. The
slight differences in the values given in
Table 5.2.1-1 are due to the fact that the
averaged gravity stresses of the stresses
calculated according to the FEM are not
identical.
5.2 Beam bridges
Figure 5.2.1-29 Longitudinal stresses σx from
prestressing at the coupling joint (linear elastic
calculation), course in the web
point stresses of two neighboring concrete
elements are specified. For the edge
stresses from the entry of the pre-tension,
there are considerable differences at the
coupling joint according to the two
theories. According to the more precise
Figure 5.2.1-30 Longitudinal stresses σx from pre-tension at the coupling joint (linear elastic
calculation), course in the roadway slab
323
calculation, the longitudinal compressive
stresses at the lower transverse section
edge in the coupling joint are 4.2 N/mm2
lower than those resulting from the
technical bending theory. This example
shows why cracks occurred at the coupling
joints in many bridges built at that time.
Figures 5.2.1-29 and 5.2.1-30 show that
the longitudinal stresses in the coupling
joint deviate significantly from the linear
curve, even with a linear-elastic
calculation. The deviations decrease the
further away the section under
consideration is from the coupling joint.
In the coupling joint, the longitudinal
stresses are greater than the tensile
strength of the concrete, which is why
cracking occurs at the lower edge. Figure
5.2.1-31 also shows the curves of the
calculated longitudinal stresses in the
uncracked state I and in the cracked state
II, in each case over the height of the web
and in the longitudinal direction for the
lower edge in the area of the coupling
joint. The tensile stresses in the concrete
decrease after crack formation and the
steel stresses in the crack increase.
324 5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
Table 5.2.1-1 Normal stresses in the concrete at the lower edge of the web immediately to the left of
the coupling joint in N/mm2
load case 1+2 3 4 1+2+3+4
Technical bending theory stat. determ. share -13,8
(linear stress distribution)
from constraint +12,1
moment
Total -1,7 -1,1 +3,1 +0,3
FEM theory of elasticity stat. determ. share -9,1
from constraint +11,6
moment
Total +2,5 -0,9 +2,9 +4,5
Differences between elasticity theory and +4,2 +0,2 -0,2 +4,2
engineering bending theory

More detailed results of studies on this tensile stresses in the concrete:

problem, including
the influence of the creep of the concrete
are included in [Dietrich, 1979 and
Mehlhorn et al., 1983], to which reference
is made.
During the hydration of the cement,
the strength and the modulus of elasticity
of the concrete increase as the concrete
hardens. Due to this development of the
strength and the modulus of elasticity of
the concrete and the heat process as a
result of the hydration of the cement with
subsequent cooling to the ambient
temperature, tensile stresses remain
parallel to the construction joint in the
concreted section and compressive
stresses remain in the previously
concreted section during production in
concreting sections in the final state.
Under the simplified assumption that the
heat development and the development of
the modulus of elasticity initially increase
linearly during the setting process and
that the modulus of elasticity remains
constant during the cooling process (Fig.
5.2.1- 32), the calculation on a model slab
results in the tensile stresses parallel to the
construction joint.
E-T
max σ = α - (5.2.1-1)
8
4
with
α Temperature expansion coefficient of the
concrete
E Modulus of elasticity of the hardened
clay
T largest temperature difference of the
concrete between the two construction
sections, which occurs at the time of
completion of the setting process in
the newly concreted construction
section
The maximum value for the temperature
difference T that occurs between the two
construction sections depends on the
thickness of the cross-sections, the
concrete composition, in particular the
cement used, and the ambient conditions
present during the setting of the concrete.
The setting temperature can reach a value
of up to approx. 70 °C. The values
determined according to equation (5.2.1-1)
can be taken as an upper estimate for the
stresses occurring. It should also be noted
that
5.2 Beam bridges 325

a) Course of the longitudinal stresses in the concrete σc over the height of the web at the point 2.5 cm to the left
of the coupling joint

b) Course of the longitudinal stresses in the concrete σc (x) at the lower edge of the web

c) Steel stress curve σs (x) of the reinforcement at the bottom of the web

Figure 5.2.1-31 Comparison of the curves of the longitudinal stresses σx calculated according to states
I and II from pre-tensioning at the coupling joint in the web
326 5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
T (t)

t
0 tO

E (t) Fig. 5.2.1-33 Principle of the indexing slide

E = const procedure

For this, total bridge lengths of at least 200

m. The spans of the bridges should be
between 30 m and 50 m. For large spans,
it is advisable to
t auxiliary pillars during the feed process. The
0 tO design developed by the engineering office
Leon-
Figure 5.2.1-32 Simplified assumptions for the hardt and Andrä, in particular Willi Baur,
heat development and the development of the combines the advantages of factory
modulus of elasticity production in a field factory with those of
in-situ concrete construction in an ideal
additional states of internal stress can way for the production of monolithic load-
occur in the cross-sections [Zeitler, 1983], bearing structures. The production plant
to which reference is made. offers protection from the weather, and
One of the most successful and working conditions are practically the
economical construction methods for same as in a factory. The repetitive work
continuous concrete beams is the processes reduce the time required. The
incremental launching method, which has production of bridges using incremental
long been used in steel construction launching is described in detail in section
[Göhler, 1999]. Here, sections are 9.1.4.
produced approximately two section The cable-stayed bridge system is
lengths behind the abutment in a fixed common in steel construction for larger
formwork (Fig. 5.2.1-33). spans. Figure 5.2.1-34 shows the most
The sections are between 6 m and 30 m important systems of this type commonly
long and are connected to each other used in steel construction. In principle, a
monolithically. A launching nose is distinction is made between single or
connected to the first section. The bridge multiple cable-stayed arrangements,
is then moved longitudinally in cycles to which can be designed as a tuft, harp, fan
its final position. In order to allow the or star. Figure 5.2.1-35 shows static
concrete to harden over the weekend, a equivalent systems for the preliminary
weekly cycle is generally chosen. The design of cable-stayed bridges, which
economical construction of bridges using show the static effect without further
this method requires that the bridge has a explanation. For the static calculation, the
certain minimum length, as Göhler calls it. system behavior must then be defined as
5.2 Beam bridges
Figure 5.2.1-34 Common systems for cable-stayed bridges, image after [Feige, 1966].
Figure 5.2.1-35 Static equivalent systems for the preliminary design of cable-stayed bridges
externally and internally statically
unstable frame structure according to the
technical bending theory for spatial beam
structures on the deformed system, taking
into account the pre-tension of the cables.
The realistic description of the bending
and torsional stiffnesses of the
superstructure beam and the pylon as well
as the elongation stiffnesses of the stay
cables is of particular importance for the
verification of the serviceability, the load-
bearing capacity and the vibration
behavior of the bridge.
In concrete bridge construction, the use
of the cable-stayed bridge system was
initiated with the construction of the
bridge over Lake Mara-Caibo in Venezuela.
Figure 5.2.1-36 shows a section of the
structural system of the main openings of
this bridge, which was built in 1959/62 to a
design by the Italian engineer Morandi.
The Maracaibo Bridge has a total of five
main openings with a span of 235 m each.
The entire bridge is approx.
327
8.7 km long. It was mainly constructed
from prefabricated parts made on the
riverbank. Based on a design also by
Morandi, the Polcevera highway bridge in
Genoa with a main span of 208 m was built
in 1963/66 using the same principle. The
Wadi Kuf Bridge in Libya (Fig. 5.2.1-37),
built in 1968/71 with a span of 282 m, was
also designed according to the same
construction principle. In the Polce Vera
highway bridge and the Wadi Kuf bridge,
the stay cables were designed as
prestressed concrete cables.
Figure 5.2.1-38 shows the system of the
current opening of the Waal bridge near
Tiel. This according to the system of the
Büschel
Figure 5.2.1-36 Maracaibo bridge system,
image after [Dimel, 1963].
328 5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures

Figure 5.2.1-37 System of the Wadi Kuf Bridge, image after [Morandi, 1974].

Figure 5.2.1-38 System of the Waal bridge near Tiel according to [Loenen, 1973]

The bridge, which was built at a ratio of The bridge was built as a harp-shaped
1:2 and 1:1, each has two inclined bracings cable-stayed bridge for rail and road traffic
from the pier head to the superstructure. with a dense arrangement of the stay
The center section consists of four cables (Figure 5.2.1-39). The design
prefabricated suspension girders with a T- solution was derived from the cantilever
section, each weighing 425 tons. The construction method with
prestressed concrete stay cables were
assembled from 5.15 m long precast
concrete parts with cambered tendon
channels in such a way that the cables do
not sag significantly after removal of the
assembly support.
During the construction of the second
bridge over the River Main at Farbwerke Figure 5.2.1-39 System of the 2nd Main bridge
Hoechst [Schambeck, 1973], which was of the Hoechst paint works, image after
completed at the turn of 1971/72, a [Schambeck, 1973].
concrete bridge for iron ore was built for
the first time.
5.2 Beam bridges 329

Regensburg B Passau

68,85 145,0
0 68,0 0 68,0
0
Figure 5.2.1-40 Section of the structural system of the Metten Danube bridge

approximately constant thrust curve,
i.e. with an approximately constant shear
reinforcement requirement in the web (see
Fig. 5.2.1- 17). The cantilevered cantilever
girder is designed as a concrete box girder.
The central span is 148 m, the adjacent
side spans on both sides span over 39 m
and 26 m. The construction height is 2.65
m. The edge spans with different support
widths act as restraint spans. The loads of
around 100 m of the superstructure of the
span with the large span width are
transferred via diagonal braces.
The cable is carried to the pylon in the
form of a harp, while around 48 m is
removed to the neighboring pier, which is
why a full-wall girder with a linearly
variable construction height is arranged
there.
For the construction of the Metten
Danube bridge designed as a cable-stayed
bridge [Schambeck/Kroppen, 1982], both
the anchoring and deflection of the cable-
stayed force with radii of 8 m at the two
base points in the box girder of the
superstructure stretch girder (B in Fig.
5.2.1-40) and its deflection with radii of

Sectional view for the calculation of

the deflection area of the tendons at
BX the pylon head using finite elements
BV

1,30

Tensioning 2,40 S. A.
b=
bundle 19 ∅ 6''
6 × 22,6 =1,356

strands, Pzul =
1,30 65
6 × 19

1,60 2589 KN
65
,5 =1,7

BX/D = 0.84 1,60

6×

b=
BY/D = 0.84 to 1.38
7
19,5

D: Envelope
=1,0

diameter
R=
5

Rm

6.1
8 m
=6,
R=

1:2
95
7.7

m
3m

Figure 5.2.1-41 Pylon head of the Metten Danube bridge

330 5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures

Mortar
Elements type "UTLQ1"

Steel
Elements type "UTLQ1"

Concrete
Elements type "IPQQ"

Figure 5.2.1-42 Element mesh for the FEM calculation of the stress state at the pylon head of the Danube
bridge Metten

6.18 m to 7.73 m (mean radius 6.95 m) at
the head of the pylon (A in Figure 5.2.1-
40). Figure 5.2.1-40 shows the section of
the static system of the Danube bridge
Metten in the area of the stay cable, which
is essential for the investigations.
can be seen. The stay cable is a prestressed
concrete cross-section with 56 Dywidag
type strand tensioning elements with 19 ∅
6˝ strands with a characteristic tensile
strength value of 1770 N/mm2. The total
stay cable force is 135 MN. It was
5.2 Beam bridges
Sequence of pre-tensioning (half
rein strap)
LEVEL 2
6 Spgl.
LEVEL 4
LEVEL 3
7 Spgl. 9 Spgl.
is stretched
already stretched and
injected
Figure 5.2.1-43 Alternative pre-tensioning and
compression sequences for the Metten Danube
Bridge
to clarify whether the locally concentrated
compressive and transverse tensile
stresses in the deflection areas can be
absorbed during the construction process
after pre-tensioning and before grouting
the tendons and how the pre-tensioning
sequence of the individual tendons and
the grouting process should be carried
out.
In the following, some results of the
FEM calculations for the assessment of the
deflections at the pylon head [Mehlhorn
et al., 1980], [Cornelius, 1980] are given.
For the prestressing sequence of the
individual tendons, the calculations showed
that the
331
Pre-tensioning all 56 tendons (8 tendons
next to each other and 7 on top of each
other) one after the other and only then
grouting the tendons would have led to
unacceptably high concrete compressive
stresses, which is why the originally
intended pre-tensioning and grouting
process for all tendons had to be ruled
out. An alternative sequence for pre-
tensioning and grouting the tendons of the
stay cable was therefore sought. Figure
5.2.1-41 shows the stay cable and the
pylon head. The section for which the
stresses were calculated using the FEM is
shown in Fig. 5.2.1-41. The element mesh
for the FEM calculation with the STRUDL
program [ICES STRUDL II] is shown in
F i g u r e 5 . 2 . -42. Isoparametric
elements with 8 nodes were used to model
the concrete. The steel and grout
components in the grouted duct were
modeled with compatible triangular
elements. The element type designation
given in Figure 5.2.1-42 is taken from the
STRUDL element library [ICES STRUDL
II]. In preliminary investigations, the
required discretization was determined.
tization was investigated. Compared to
mesh refinements, the selected mesh
resulted in only about 4% higher values
for the magnitudes of the voltage peaks,
which is sufficiently accurate and resulted
in reasonable calculation times adapted to
the problem.
The lowest stresses from the deflection
forces from pre-tensioning for the pylon
head are obtained if the individual layers 1
to 7 of the tendons are successively
prestressed starting with layer 1 and then
immediately grouted before the tendon
layer above is prestressed and also
immediately grouted. However, this
pretensioning and pressing sequence
results in a very low stress for the stresses
at the two base points of the stay cable, at
the insertion point and at the end of the stay
cable.
332 5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures

Figure 5.2.1-44 Concrete compressive stresses for the pre-tensioning and grouting sequence b after
completion of the four stages
5.2 Beam bridges 333

Figure 5.2.1-45 Concrete tensile stresses for the pre-tensioning and grouting sequence b after
completion of the four stages
334
oy
N/mm2 Print
-15
-7,5
10 20
0 i
10 20
7,5
ox
Train
Figure 5.2.1-46 Comparison of the pre-tensions for alternative prestressing and grouting sequences for
the Metten Danube Bridge
The most unfavorable stresses are caused
by the guide into the stretched beam with
deflection. This sequence was therefore
also out of the question. The pre-
tensioning and grouting sequence b in
four stages (starting with stage 1, followed
by stages 2 to 4 in succession) shown in
Fig. 5.2.1-43 proved to be optimal for all
critical areas, taking into account the
stresses in the two areas. The resulting
concrete compressive and tensile stresses
for this sequence b are shown for the final
state after stage 4 in Figures 5.2.1-44 and
5.2.1-45.
Figure 5.2.1-46 also shows the
maximum concrete compressive and
tensile stresses in four stages for different
pre-tensioning and grouting sequences.
Case a corresponds to a pre-tensioning
and grouting sequence in layers. As
already explained, this case is favorable
for the stresses at the pylon head, but at
the entries in the tension member
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
4 6
b
4 6
a
8 7
28
12 9
28
a
Leading sequence a Leading sequence b
b
is currently being preloaded
: previously pre-tensioned and grouted
: all tendons pre-tensioned before
grouting
unfavorable. Case b is the optimized pre-
tensioning and grouting sequence. In
addition, the largest concrete compression
and tension stresses that would occur if all
tendons had been prestressed first and
only then grouted are shown for
comparison. The concrete compressive
stresses occurring were used as the
decision criterion for the selection of the
prestressing and grouting sequence. In all
cases investigated, the highest concrete
tensile stresses were so high that they
exceeded the tensile strength of the
concrete. Reinforcement made of
reinforcing steel was arranged at the top
and bottom between the tendon layers in
the transverse direction to absorb the
tensile force reactants.
In the meantime, with the further
development of cable-stayed bridges in
massive construction, the fruitful
competition between steel and solid
bridges has also begun for spans between
250 m and 500 m.
5.2 Beam bridges
This has influenced important
developments in both construction
methods, as was already the case earlier
with beam bridges with spans of up to 250
m. Cable-stayed bridges are discussed in
detail in sections 5.5 and
9.1.6 received.
5.2.2 Steel beam bridges
GÜNTER RAMBERGER,
FRANCESCO AIGNER and
THOMAS PETRASCHEK
5.2.2.1 Solid wall bridges
Compared to other building materials
(reinforced concrete, timber), steel bridges
with full-wall girders allow spans and
slenderness heights that cannot be
achieved by other building materials, as
steel has the lowest ratio of dead load to
load-bearing capacity of all mass building
materials. Whether steel beam bridges are
competitive with reinforced concrete or
prestressed concrete beam bridges
depends on the span, slenderness and
assembly conditions. In general, it can be
said that road bridges with a span of about
120 m or more and railroad bridges with a
span of about 60 m or more are
competitive with unlimited construction
height, road bridges with a slenderness l/h
≥ 30 with limited construction height, and
railroad bridges with a slenderness l/h ≥ 30
with limited construction height.
Figure 5.2.2-1 Beam bridges with different
slendernesses [Leonhardt, 1982].
335
l/h ≥ 20 (Fig. 5.2.2-1), but especially in the
case of very limited space or installation
time, steel bridges can be competitive with
reinforced concrete bridges.
The simplest form of beam bridge is
the single-span beam. The top chord of
this girder, which in the case of deck
bridges is identical to the deck plate of the
roadway, always follows the specified
gradient; the girder itself is usually
designed parallel to the chord. The
adjustment to the internal forces is usually
not made by increasing the construction
height in the middle of the span. In the case
of bridges in crests, the bottom chord is
sometimes designed horizontally, thus
utilizing the greater construction height in
the middle of the span. The structure is
adapted to the internal forces by selecting
appropriate bottom chord, cover plate and
web thicknesses, and possibly also by
selecting plates with higher strengths in
the highly stressed areas. Only in rare cases
are the longitudinal beams of the roadway
slab reinforced in the middle of the span.
Nowadays, the plate staggering practically
always follows the spacing of the assembly
joints, as butt joints in spans are
considerably more expensive than the
additional material. If the fatigue
resistance of railroad bridges is decisive,
increasing the material strength does not
bring any advantage. The situation is
similar for large
Slenderness (-λ > 1.0), if the stability value is
proof is decisive for the load-bearing
capacity verification.
In the case of continuous girders, a
distinction must be made between the
classic three- or multi-span current bridge
with a large central opening and smaller,
usually half as large side openings and the
multi-span valley crossings with mostly
the same inner spans and somewhat
smaller (70 to 80 %) edge spans.
The classic current bridge usually has
haunched beams, whereby the height at the
haunch is around l/20 to l/30 and in
336
Figure 5.2.2-2 Beam bridge with different haunch heights
Figure 5.2.2-3 Multi-span beam bridges with different slendernesses
center of the bay and at the edges of the
side bays decreases to about l/70 to l/40.
Due to the very low construction height in
the center of the bay, this beam looks
extremely elegant (Fig. 5.2.2-2).
In the upper drawing file of Figure
5.2.2-2, design heights of hcolumn = l/20 and
hFeld = l/70 are used, in the lower drawing
file, design heights of hcolumn
= l/30 and hFeld = l/40.
For multi-span valley crossings, the
parallel chord solid wall girder with
design heights l/20 to l/35 is usually used
(Fig. 5.2.2-3), rarely the haunched girder at
the columns. Reducing the span in the edge
bays ensures approximately equal stresses
in each bay. If this is not possible, special
measures must be taken, e.g. under-
tensioning for large edge spans.
5.2.2.2 Trussed beams
A special form of beam bridge in steel
construction is the truss beam. The
decisive advantage of the truss beam over
the solid wall beam lies in the possibility of
arranging the main supporting structure
above the roadway without impairing the
user's view of the bridge.
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
The height of the girders can be
significantly reduced, as the "meshes" for
the view are large enough with slender
truss webs. This means that with a low
construction height between the upper
edge of the track and the lower edge of the
supporting structure, any desired
construction height of the girders can be
selected. If the upper chords are above the
clearance limits, upper bracing is
generally arranged.
Of the many possible truss systems, the
parallel chord strut truss is now
considered to be the most aesthetically
pleasing structure. The inclination of the
struts to the horizontal is between 45° and
60° (Fig. 5.2.2-4). The spans should be
divided into equal compartments. For
single-span beams, 8 to 12 spans, preferably
10, are used, for continuous beams in
large spans 10 to 16 spans, preferably 12
(Fig. 5.2.2-5). The side spans of the
continuous beams should have spans that
correspond to an integer multiple of the
span length of the main opening.
The top chords of truss girders are
usually designed as box cross-sections, or
hat cross-sections for smaller spans. Box
cross-sections are more rigid than hat
cross-sections, have less
5.2 Beam bridges 337

Figure 5.2.2-4 Truss beams with different inclinations of the struts

Figure 5.2.2-5 Truss girder bridge as continuous girder (l1 : l2 : l1 = 0.75 : 1 : 0.75)

Section A  A
Installation
window

System axis

Assembly
joint

Assembly
joint

Assembly
joint

Fig. 5.2.2-6 Top chord knot [DS 804]

The same number of continuous welds are
required. The gusset plates in the webs of
the top chords are completely welded in at
the factory. The assembly joint in the belt
is often welded at the
end of the gusset plate (Figure 5.2.2-6).
The bottom chord of the truss beam is
formed by the roadway slab. Bottom
chords can be formed with single-walled
or
338 5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures

Section A  A

Assembly Assembly joint

joint

Installation
window

Assembly
joint

System axis

Section B  B

Figure 5.2.2-7 Bottom chord knots [DB - technical guidelines and standards], [DS 804]
5.2 Beam bridges
Fig. 5.2.2-8 Connection of the diagonal [DS 804]
be designed as double-walled webs. The
single-walled design has the advantage of
easier accessibility for connecting the
cross members (Fig. 5.2.2-7).
In the case of compartments up to 5 m,
the cross beams are only arranged at the
truss nodes. For longer truss lengths,
additional cross beams are arranged at
integer partial points. However, this results
in intermediate bending in the truss lower
chords, which must be taken into account
in the verifications. Double-walled gusset
plates are also used to connect the
diagonals for single-walled bottom chords
(Fig. 5.2.2-8).
The diagonal braces are used as H-
profiles for smaller trusses, for larger
trusses to
339
At least the compression diagonals are
designed as box sections. The connections of
the diagonals to the top and bottom chords
are always bending stiffness, either butt-
welded or bolted as single or double-
section load joints GV. As both the welded
and the bolted connection is more difficult
to produce with box cross-sections than
with H-sections, the webs of the box
cross-sections are often bent at the
connection and brought together on a web
plate. This ensures that the advantages of
high buckling rigidity are retained in the
field, but the connection is made with an
open H-section, which is much easier due to
the accessibility (Fig. 5.2.2-9).
340
Figure 5.2.2-9 Bending the webs of a box
cross-section in the connection area
5.2.3 Beam bridges as composite bridges or
mixed constructions
ULRIKE KUHLMANN
and ANNETTE DETZEL
5.2.3.1 Solid wall bridges
General criteria
Solid wall bridges are a particularly
economical load trasnfer system. The clear
construction, which is not divided into
individual components, can be easily
Figure 5.2.3-1 Railroad overpass BW 228
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
manufacture and assemble. As the
construction costs today are determined to
a particularly important extent by labor
costs, this system of full-wall bending
beams is so popular. Although only the
edge fibers of the cross-section are fully
utilized due to the bending stress, the
poorer material utilization compared to
truss constructions, for example, is offset
by the advantage of the small number of
welds and the possibility of reducing labor
costs on the construction site in many
cases through the favorable assembly of
complete bridge sections or main girders.
However, due to the relatively high
material costs, solid wall bridges are not
suitable as pure bending beams for long
spans. In this case, the dead load is more
important than the live load for the loads
relevant to the design, so that the
structural system must also be selected
with regard to weight optimization. The
typical application range of a composite
bridge as a solid wall bridge is in the span
range between 30 m and 60 m for single-
span girders, while spans of over 100 m are
possible for continuous girders (possibly
haunched).
In addition to cost-effectiveness and
span width, the location and surroundings
also play a role in the decision for a
composite solid-wall bridge. On the one
hand, this concerns the required clearance
under the bridge, which may severely
restrict the construction heights. Figure
5.2.3-1 shows
5.2 Beam bridges
Figure 5.2.3-2 Elbe bridge Torgau
As an example, the railroad overpass BW
228 over the A4 highway in Cologne,
where steel railroad bridges with a
construction height of only about 1.2 m
were replaced by composite bridges. The
highway and rail location did not allow
for greater construction heights
[Kuhlmann, 1995].
Secondly, it concerns the integration of
the bridge into the landscape and
surroundings. As with the Elbe bridge in
Torgau, solid-wall bridges in composite
construction allow for very slender bridge
bodies that are more restrained in their
design than other more spectacular
structures. The design of the bridge was
decisively determined by not disturbing
the appearance of Hartenfels fitter in the
immediate vicinity of the bridge, see
Figure 5.2.3-2.
Training with cove
The Elbe bridge in Torgau is also an
example of a haunched solid wall girder
bridge. The solid wall girders are
particularly economical where there is a
balanced moment progression, such as
with continuous girders. The cross-
section in the support area can be adapted
to high moments using haunches and
correspondingly large spans can be
achieved. In addition to the Elbe Bridge in
Torgau, examples of this include the
Böckinger Bridge in Heilbronn [Engländer
et al., 1997], which spans the Neckarfeld
with a camber of 2.8 m in the field to 5 m at
the support, or the Viaduc de Schengen,
which spans the Moselle border river
between Germany and Germany.
341
country and Luxembourg with spans of 49
- 72.5 - 72.5 - 87.5 - 130 - 88.5 - 59 -
48 m [Emge/Girard, 2001].
On the Torgau Elbe bridge, the large
main opening of 106 m above the Elbe
and the flood area are spanned by a
composite girder with a single-cell box
cross-section and a high haunch on the
main pier. Due to the high stiffness in the
area of the 5.6 m high haunch, which is
further increased by a double composite
cross-section, i.e. concrete slabs in the
upper and lower chord, the internal forces
are specifically transferred to this pier. The
moments are reduced accordingly at the
opposite support cross-section, where the
very low construction height of just 2.6 m
allows as clear a view of the fitter as
possible.
However, the superstructure cannot be
inserted in a haunched longitudinal
section. The structure must then be lifted
in from the side or from below.
Accordingly, the Moselle bridge
Schengen, for example, was only pushed
over the first three spans with a constant
construction height, the remaining partially
haunched sections were then assembled by
crane and the current center section by
floating and strand lifting. The same
applies to the Tor- gau Elbe bridge, where
the 63 m long final section was also
floated in and lifted in by crane.
Another remarkable feature of the
Torgau Elbe bridge is how the prestressed
concrete foreland bridges are coupled to
the composite superstructure in a bending
stiffness. The prestressed concrete
342
The cross-section is guided into the
composite box over a length of 7.4 m. The
load is transferred by means of dowel
pins. The longitudinal tendons are also
guided into the cast composite cross-
section. This avoids a maintenance-
intensive roadway transition and the
formation of two separate bearing axes on
the separating pillar between the
prestressed concrete and steel composite
superstructure. Bearing structures also
require regular inspection and
maintenance and possibly premature
replacement, so that fewer bearings result
in advantages in terms of maintenance.
The maintenance of bearing constructions
is particularly costly if bearing forces can
occur.
Lifting bearing forces
With very different span ratios (Figure
5.2.3-3) or with skewed bridge ends,
tensile forces can arise at the supports of
the end spans of beam bridges that cannot
be overcome by the dead load of the
bridge alone. The raised tar bridge over
the
Figure 5.2.3-3 Tar elevated bridge Bremen, view and plan view
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
Weser in Bremen [Steffens et al., 1995]
shows an extreme example of different
spans (100.7 - 16 m), see Figure 5.2.3-3. At
the Schlachte abutment, for example,
lifting loads of a maximum of 7 MN lead
to a strong bracing structure with
articulated bolts.
In addition to their higher load due to
the weight of the slab, composite bridges
offer good opportunities to achieve
prestressing of the bearings through
lowering measures due to their high
stiffness and thus counteract lifting. In the
case of the railroad overpass BW 228 over
the A4 highway near Cologne, see Fig.
5.2.3-1, lowering measures on the pier
axes between 30 and 50 cm were used to
suppress uplifting forces on the abutments,
especially in the sharp corners, and to
generate an advantageous compressive
prestressing in the non-prestressed
composite slab.
As positive as the high longitudinal
stiffness is for the effectiveness of lowering
measures, this high stiffness is
disadvantageous for the influence of
constraints. This
5.2 Beam bridges
is particularly noticeable with narrow
bearing spacings in the transverse direction
of the bridge and press arrangement under
rigid composite cross girders. Structure
228 is an open plate girder cross-section
with seven main girders, which in plan act
as a skew-angled girder grid over three
spans (spans 16.5 - 27.4 - 23.4 m). The
main girders are only coupled to each
other in the bearing axes via composite
cross girders. Each main girder is
supported separately in these axes. There
are therefore seven individual bearings at
intervals of 2.2 m or 3 m. With such close
support and the high stiffness of the
composite cross beams, tiny bearing lifts of
a few millimeters lead to extreme internal
forces in the composite cross beam and
lift-off forces of the bearings. The usual
requirement of being able to replace each
bearing individually is therefore not
feasible with normal design approaches.
For this reason, only the replacement of
bearings with simultaneous lifting of an
entire bearing axle was required. With five
main beams per superstructure, each with
two presses, it is of course not so easy to
lift all the bearings of an axle at the same
time. For this reason, coupled presses
were used during the conversions in the
construction phase and the force values
on the bearings were checked.
Another solution for improving
positional stability is to ballast the ends of
the bridge. Ballast concrete can be used to
ballast the girder end at the abutments so
that the dead load is sufficient to
overcome the lifting force from traffic and
construction weight in the field. In the case
of the Moselle bridge Bernkastel- Kues
[Kuhlmann, 1996], the support width ratio
(36.4 - 74.4 - 36.4 m) of approximately 1 :
2 : 1 at the abutments leads to such a low
superimposed load from the weight of the
bridge that the bearings threaten to lift off
in the middle of the bridge under traffic
load. Instead of a lift-off protection by
343
anchors or similar, the bridge ends are
ballasted by solid concrete end cross
beams projecting behind the bearing.
However, the ballasting alone is not
sufficient to guarantee the theoretical
positional safety, so that an additional
lifting of the bridge ends by approx. 20 cm
was necessary. The construction process is
described in detail in section 9.4.1.
The examples show how the internal
forces and bearing forces can be
specifically controlled by assembly
measures, especially in the case of solid-
walled continuous beams in composite
construction.
5.2.3.2 Truss bridges
General aspects
The material used in supporting
structures is certainly best utilized when it
is subjected to a pure normal force load.
Consequently, trusses are particularly
efficient structures in terms of material
utilization. However, this efficiency only
exists if the mechanical assumptions of an
ideal truss such as
– Straight bars
– Almost frictionless articulated nodes
– external forces only in the nodes
are also realized. Typically, however, the
last two conditions are not fulfilled in real
truss structures. Bending moments can
arise in the truss nodes as welded steel
nodes, so that in particular for railroad
bridges it is required to examine the truss
as a bending stiffness frame system in
order to record these secondary stresses in
the fatigue strength verification, see e.g.
Guideline 804, Para. 4 [DB AG, 2003].
The violation of the ideal truss conditions
becomes even clearer on the upper chord,
which, as a "continuous beam" locally
supported in the truss nodes, is subjected
to bending stresses from the
344
roadway. In addition to this limited
normal force effect, there are several other
disadvantages that make truss solutions
less suitable for modern steel and
composite bridges. The fineness leads to
higher susceptibility to corrosion and
more difficult maintenance, and a larger
number of welders compared to solid-wall
constructions increases production costs.
Despite this, there have recently been
more truss bridges and, for some years
now, composite truss constructions.
For example, one of the first composite
truss bridges in Germany, the Nesenbach
viaduct as a railroad bridge in Stuttgart
[Grüter/Kobbner, 1985], was preferred to
a reinforced concrete structure because
the truss is more permeable to wind and
does not represent such a strong visual
and climatic barrier compared to the solid
wall bridge.
Due to their low weight, high stiffness
and small area exposed to wind, truss
solutions are always suitable when large
spans have to be bridged or small
deflections are required, e.g. for railroad
bridges.
In addition to the aspects of low weight
and high stiffness, appearance plays a
major role in a number of recent truss
bridges. The possibility of a very filigree
"visible" construction has led to the
decision in favor of a truss construction in
a number of cases where special emphasis
was placed on the design and integration
into the landscape. The positive visual
impression is also underlined in part by the
choice of cross-section of the truss
members as tubular cross-sections.
Another less functional, but not to be
underestimated argument in favor of a
truss solution is in the case of
replacements.
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
existing steel truss bridges, in addition to
the use of existing substructures through
consistently small loads, people also
become accustomed to a certain view that
characterizes their surroundings
[Grüter/Kobbner, 1985].
When it comes to replacing existing
steel truss bridges, the composite
construction method is similar to that
used for solid wall bridges in that it is
more economical than the pure steel
solution because the costly steel deck is
replaced by the reinforced concrete
composite slab. However, due to the effect
as a truss upper chord, there are some
special considerations for the design of
the composite slab.
Position of the upper belt
As the cross-section of the Nesenbach
viaduct, see Figure 5.2.3-4, shows, the
composite slab must be thickened to form
slab beams, at least in the area of the truss
girders, in order to ensure the transfer of
the normal top chord forces and the
bending of the continuous girders
described above in addition to the local
track effect. At the same time, the cross-
section (Fig. 5.2.3-4) shows the typical
immersion of the steel truss node in the
concrete roadway. This design offers
several advantages: the upper chord is
completely protected from corrosion by
the concrete encasement, the stabilization
of the steel upper chord and its plates is
provided by the concrete deck slab, and -
essentially - the centre of gravity of the
steel truss and the composite truss are
almost at the same height, so that there are
only minimal eccentricities between the
transfer of forces via the steel truss nodes
to the flexurally rigid composite girder of
the upper chord. The cantilever effect in
the transverse direction of the bridge also
creates contact pressures in the vertical
composite joints, which have a beneficial
influence on the composite effect, even if
this cannot yet b e taken into account in
the calculations.
5.2 Beam bridges
Figure 5.2.3-4 Nesenbach viaduct, cross-
section
However, in the case of horizontal dowels,
attention must be paid to the possibility of
reduced load-bearing capacity due to the
splitting effect on the vertical webs located
near the surface [Breu- ninger/Kuhlmann,
2001].
The second option of arranging the
steel top chord under the composite slab
was used, for example, for the Fulda
Valley Bridge Kragenhof [Keller et al.,
1988] or the Main Bridge Nantenbach
[Schwarz et al., 1995]. These solutions are
more likely to be used if the stresses on the
steel chord in the construction stage are
high and can no longer be overcome with
an "auxiliary steel chord" in the concrete.
In these cases, it is of course also possible
to dispense with thickening the composite
slab to form a steel-concrete slab beam as
in the Nesenbach viaduct (Fig. 5.2.3-4).
The example of the truss composite
bridge over the Teltow Canal in Berlin-
Tempelhof shows that even the latest truss
composite constructions again prefer the
internal steel top chord [Mo-
ser/Springer, 2000].
345
Single-span or continuous beams
In the case of the composite truss bridge
over the Teltow Canal in Berlin
Tempelhof, the large opening over the
Teltow Canal is spanned by a single-span
girder system, as is the case with many of
its kind. In the foreland area with
relatively small spans, a prestressed
concrete box girder is used as a
continuous girder. At the transition, the
support bench of the common pier is
adapted to the height of the prestressed
concrete bridge and the support points of
the higher truss composite bridge are
raised accordingly (Fig. 5.2.3-5).
The bottom chords of the truss consist
of welded box cross-sections. Composite
double-T profiles were used for the
diagonals and the top chords. The decisive
factor for the manufacturing costs of a
truss is the number of welds to be carried
out and the amount of weld metal to be
used. The number of nodes would result
in 208 diagonal plate connections and 200
chord plate connections for the two-part
main girders. By using the chord and
346
Figure 5.2.3-5 Tempelhof, longitudinal section of truss girder
gusset plates were manufactured in one
piece, the number of connections could be
reduced to 48. The required increase in
cross-section was achieved by using
additional lamellas that were not visible
from the outside. The joints were
designed in such a way that the seam
volume was kept to a minimum.
Single-span systems are not only
suitable for material changes in the
longitudinal direction of the bridge, but
they also correspond to a high degree to the
optimum utilization of the two composite
materials: tensile stress in the steel bottom
chords and compressive stress in the
concrete top chords. For this reason,
especially in the initial phase of this new
construction method, the design as a
continuous girder was dispensed with. In
the case of the Isar bridge at
Großhesselohe [Kobbner, 1985], the
coupling of the chain of four steel truss
superstructures, which was created for
insertion during construction, was even
separated again for the final state. In the
meantime, the positive experience with
composite truss bridges and the
development of crack width limitation of
the composite slabs has led to this principle
being abandoned, as shown in particular
by the example of the Nantenbach bridge
over the Main [Schwarz et al., 1995].
The bridge spans the Main with a large
central opening of 208 m and
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
two side openings of 83.2 m each.
Consequently, the longitudinal section is
haunched over the inner piers and the
cross-section is partially designed as a
double composite cross-section. The top
chord is designed as a composite girder
over its entire length. This also applies to
the bottom chords of the side openings
and parts of the central opening in the
area of the column moments. The large
proportion of concrete makes the
supporting structure very rigid and has a
positive effect on noise development. The
steel structure consists of welded
rectangular profiles. The diagonals are
connected to the upper and lower chord
plates with bending stiffness. This creates
frames in the transverse direction that
provide the necessary stability. Due to the
relatively small side spans, tensile forces
can arise at the end supports despite the
high dead load (see also Moselle bridge
Bernkastel-Kues, section 5.2.3.1). These
must be absorbed via a tension anchorage.
Figure 5.2.3-6 shows the design of the
train path.
Pipe trusses
In particularly exposed locations, where
the appearance of a bridge is considered
to be of outstanding importance, the
filigree design of the bridge is a major
factor.
5.2 Beam bridges
Figure 5.2.3-6 Main bridge Nantenbach, tension anchoring at the abutment
Tubular trusses are the preferred choice
for bridges. In recent years, the
integration of mostly spatial trusses made
of round hollow sections in composite
cross-sections and slender composite deck
slabs has resulted in a new, aesthetically
pleasing type of bridge. Two examples are
described below.
The Siele bridge near Olpe near Siegen
is a road bridge, but is mainly used as a
footpath and cycle path. In order to find a
visually appealing solution for this deep
valley incision, the client, the
Landschaftsverband Westfalen- Lippe,
commissioned an architect and an
engineer to work together on the design in
advance.
The bridge consists of a continuous
bottom chord steel tube, steel tube
diagonals and the concrete deck as the top
chord. The two auxiliary steel chords lie in
the concrete roadway cross-section and
form a triangle with the bottom chord and
the diagonals (Fig. 5.2.3-7). This means
that
347
The overall structure is a spatial truss. The
truss structure spans the rather steep
valley incision as a three-span girder with
support widths of 22 - 44 - 22 m. The
bridge has a very attractive appearance,
but it is a very expensive construction,
particularly due to the complex node
design of the spatial truss nodes, which
are completely different in the
longitudinal direction due to the
haunching, and their design with internal
gusset plates.
The second example of the decisive
influence of the design on the structural
concept concerns the Lully via-duct in the
Swiss canton of Frei- burg, designed by
the engineer Dr. Dauner, see [Dauner,
1998]. With spans of around 43 m and a
maximum ground clearance of 16 m, two
prestressed concrete boxes would
normally have been the standard
economic solution. Instead, this was
chosen in a limited design competition,
348
Figure 5.2.3-7 Bridge to the Siele, cross-section
A particularly filigree spatial pipe
construction was used to achieve
integration into the park-like landscape
with groups of trees and a wetland
biotope, see Figure 5.2.3-8.
The spatial composite truss structure
consists of two separate concrete roadway
panels, each of which is supported by a
Figure 5.2.3-8 The Lully viaduct
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
Tubular rotating chord supports. Cross
beams are also arranged above the bearing
points as spatial truss structures for
stabilization. With the exception of the
cross beam connections, the nodes are
welded nodes without gusset plates. The
upper chords of the truss girder are formed
by two steel tubes which, in the final state,
mainly serve to transfer shear forces from
the steel truss to the concrete chord. The
decisive factor is the function of the steel
profile during construction. The
continuous top chord eliminates the need
for complex auxiliary structures during
transportation and assembly. The steel
profile also serves as a support for the
formwork carriage when concreting the
track slab.
The design of the non-stiffened pipe
nodes is particularly important in the case
of high fatigue loads. Basically, two types
of construction can be distinguished
5.2 Beam bridges 349

Figure 5.2.3-9a,b Typical pipe joints. a Welding joint, b Casting joint

The cast node and the welded node, or 2007], [Denzer, 2006], [Schlaich/Schober,
welder node for short (Figure 5.2.3-9). 1999a], [Schlaich/Schober, 1999b].
Both designs should not be seen as Welded nodes have three main
competing construction methods, as their advantages over the cast node design.
use depends largely on the boundary Firstly, the direct welding of the truss
conditions of the application under members eliminates the need for cast
consideration [Friedrich/Quaas, 2008]. fittings, which represent a significant cost
With the cast node, all truss members factor due to their individual production.
are connected to each other indirectly via Secondly, the welded node has a
an individually manufactured cast part. comparatively
The cast node is characterized by a high
degree of design diversity, which is
particularly advantageous in geometrically
complex situations when a large number
of truss members come together at a node.
In contrast to the welder's node, the
welding work required is simpler, as all
connections are straight butt joints (Fig.
5.2.3-10). However, the larger number of
joints to be welded in the main supporting
member, which represent potential weak
points not only from a fatigue point of
view, must be viewed unfavorably. In
addition, the production of cast steel parts
is time-consuming and cost-intensive. See Figure 5.2.3-10 Korntal-Mün- chingen
further literature: [Herion, western bypass, cast steel pipe node (source:
Besigheim road construction office)
350
This is because a possible fatigue crack
does not start from the inside of the
structure, but from the outside. This
provides the possibility of early detection
during a bridge inspection and the option
of strengthening. Thirdly, the planning
and execution process is streamlined, as
the relatively long lead times for casting
node production are eliminated and
possible interruptions due to quality
defects in the casting nodes caused by the
new casting are ruled out. The
disadvantage of welded nodes is that the
welding work requires a high level of skill
on the part of the manufacturing
company, as the weld shape and welding
position change over the course of the
weld and the high fatigue stress on the
welds also requires a high level of
manufacturing quality. In contrast to the
cast node, where the welds can be placed
out of the structural interference area of
the truss node by shaping the casting in a
favorable way, the welds of the weld node
are located in the area of the highest
fatigue stress. The verification for this type
of construction must be carried out in
accordance with the structural stress
concept [EC 3 1-9]. Kuhlmann and Euler
[2008] provide prepared tables for this
purpose. See further literature:
[Casper/Karpa, 2008], [Kuhlmann et al.,
2002], [Dauner, 1998].
Figure 5.3.1-1 Double-hinged frame with vertical frame uprights to achieve minimum overall heights
according to [Stritzke, 2000], Figures 1.17 and 1.18
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
5.3 Rigid frame bridges
5.3.1 Concrete rigid frame bridges
JÜRGEN STRITZKE
Bending stiffness connections of single-
span or continuous superstructures with
their substructures lead to frame
structures in which the span moments are
smaller and the column moments larger
compared to single-span or continuous
beams. Therefore, smaller construction
heights can be achieved in the span areas
with frame bridges.
A frequently used static system is the
double-hinged frame with the
superstructure restrained in the abutment
walls (Fig. 5.3.1-1). The stiffer the frame
members are, the smaller the transom
moment in the span. With regard to the
moment progression, the frame ledger
preferably has a variable height. The
disadvantage of the frame is the generation
of a horizontal thrust, which must be
absorbed either by an appropriate
foundation or, if the building ground is
unsafe, by a tension strip.
Over the highway A 11 Berlin -
Szczecin, several overpass structures for
bridge class 30/30 have recently been built
as reinforced concrete two-hinged frames
(Figure 5.3.1-2) with a span of 35 m. The
height of the frame beam in the middle of
the frame of 1.04 m corresponds to 1/33.5
of the span.
The frame uprights can also be
arranged at an angle. This improves
5.3 Rigid frame 351
bridges

Figure 5.3.1-2 Overpass construction as a double-hinged frame over the A 11 highway

Figure 5.3.1-3 Overpass construction with inclined frame stems over the B 112n near
Frankfurt/Oder

The visibility conditions on the traffic
route to be underpassed change and a
longitudinal compressive force of the
same magnitude as the horizontal
component of the frame upright force is
introduced in the transom area. Figure
5.3.1-3 shows an overpass construction
over the B 112n in the west of the city of
Frankfurt/Oder, which was erected as a
prestressed frame with inclined frame
stems. The span of the frame is around 30
m with regard to the two 7.50 m wide
directional lanes of the B 112n underpass.
The frame beam is designed as a 1.00 m
thick solid slab and the frame corners are
reinforced by a 300 mm thick haunch.
The inclined-leg frame bridge (Fig.
5.3.1-4) represents a major challenge due
to its large hori
zonal thrust places high demands on the
subsoil. The change in length of the
superstructure due to the outflow of
hydration heat, pre-tensioning, shrinkage
and creep as well as temperature stresses
result in constrained internal forces in the
frame ledger and in the frame stems. The
size of the constrained internal forces
depends on the bedding ratio of the
foundation. Although a stiffer bedding
leads to un
Figure 5.3.1-4 Stay frame bridge
352
However, it has a favorable effect on the
degree of restraint of the beam in the
frame members and the transfer of dead
and live loads. Due to the opposing effects,
two limit states with an upper and lower
value of the bedding must always be
investigated during structural
engineering.
There are topographical situations,
such as
z. For example, when bridging a deep cut,
where the classic solution of a double-
hinged arch with an elevated roadway is
usually chosen. However, a more
appealing solution in terms of design is an
inclined-leg frame bridge (Fig. 5.3.1-4). In
comparison to the arch, the truss is the
more modern form and, if certain
proportions are observed and the height
and width ratios of the cut are
appropriate, it is completely equivalent in
terms of design.
The studs should be thin in the
transom area with regard to the
constraining stresses due to temperature
and should merge into the slightly curved
frame transom with increasing thickness.
It is important that the frame corners are
well rounded and that the frame transom
itself is as thin as possible in the middle.
This forces the support line to remain
close to the system line and at the same
time achieves an elegant shape.
Figure 5.3.1-5 "Gateway to Dresden" inclined-stem frame bridge, overpass construction over the A 4
autobahn
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
The solid solid slab, the single-web slab
beam with widely projecting deck slabs or
a multi-web slab beam are used as frame
beams, and prestressed concrete boxes are
also used for larger spans. The frame
uprights of slab beam ledgers should be as
wide as the slab beam webs in the
transverse direction. The connection of
the frame supports to the foundations can
be either hinged or clamped.
In the case of the inclined-leg frame
bridge "Tor nach Dresden"
[Denzer/Eilzer, 1997] for the overpass of a
district road over the six-lane highway A
4, the inclination of the legs to the
horizontal is 35 ° and the spread of the
frame legs is 53 m. This results in spans of
the superstructure of 22.80 m + 36.00 m +
22.80 m with a total length of 81.60 m
between the support axes. The cross-
section consists of a 5.50 m wide slab with
2.90 m long cantilevers. The total width
including the caps is 12.00 m. The
cantilever arm sections were selected in
such a way that it was possible to dispense
with transverse prestressing. The variable
construction heights of the superstructure
are 0.90 m to 1.60 m, those of the stems
0.70 m to 1.30 m. This structure (Fig.
5.3.1-5) over the highway in the deep cut
meets the design requirements of the
highway.
5.3 Rigid frame
bridges
The building best meets the demands
placed on it due to its exposed location in
relation to the state capital of Dresden and
emphasizes its character as a gateway to the
city.
"Gateway to Dresden" particularly stands
out.
The Luckenberg Bridge in Branden-
burg carries inner-city traffic over the
Havel. With the selected inclined-leg
frame bridge (Figure 5.3.1-6) made of
high-performance concrete B 85, the
existing road connections and the
gradient could be retained and a
sufficiently wide shipping opening kept
free. The existing entrances and driveways
of the residents on the transferred road
also remained unchanged.
Fig. 5.3.1-6 Luckenberg Bridge over the Havel in Brandenburg as an inclined-leg frame bridge
made of high-performance concrete B 85
Figure 5.3.1-7 Luckenberger Bridge - superstructure cross-section according to [Stritzke, 2002], p. 19
353
changed. The four-span slab girder cross-
section (Figure 5.3.1-7) with a width of
12.50 m accommodates two tram tracks in
the roadway area and a footpath and cycle
path on both sides. The abutments are
each founded on 12 large bored piles with
a diameter of 1.20 m and a maximum
length of 20.70 m. The boundary
conditions result in a relatively large
slenderness of l/h = 42.3/0.67 = 67 in the
middle of the bridge. This represents an
extremely slender construction for the
massive structure.
In order to analyze the long-term
deformations and the vibration behavior
of these extremely
354
the bridge was made of high-performance
concrete of strength class B 85. Although
high-performance concretes are not
uncommon in international bridge
construction, there are only around 7
bridges in Germany made of this building
material, most of which are small. As a
pilot project in the state of Brandenburg,
the Luckenberg Bridge is currently the
one with the largest span.
The inclined supports were
manufactured as prefabricated parts. This
made it possible to meet the requirements
of the concrete technology and minimize
the deformation of the supporting
structure. The superstructure was
constructed in two sections. An end gap
was provided in the middle of the bridge,
in which the two halves of the
superstructure were pressed apart after
the concrete had hardened. This allowed
the settlements due to dead load to be
largely anticipated and the superstructure
to be installed without constraint. The
compressive stress applied by the presses
had a positive effect on the formation of
cracks due to shrinkage. In addition, the
final gap for setting the gra-
Figure 5.3.1-8 Two-span frame structure according to [Holst/Holst, 2004], p. 136
Fig. 5.3.1-9 Longitudinal section of the Föhr Bridge - resolved abutments and elegantly haunched frame
beam
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
The new system was used for the first time,
so that no further measures were required
to achieve the target gradient.
Rigid frame bridges as flyover
structures, e.g. over highways, are also
often designed as two-span systems
(Figure 5.3.1-8).
Disc-type abutments can also be
broken up into a compression member
and prestressed, diagonally arranged
tension struts (Fig. 5.3.1-9), such as on the
Föhrer Bridge in Berlin [Heusel, 1951].
Other examples of rigid frame bridges
with detached frame stems include the
Danube Bridge near the Gänstor in Ulm
[Finsterwalder/König, 1951], the
Lombards Bridge in Hamburg
[Havemann/Sülz, 1953], the Dischinger
Bridge in Berlin [Heusel, 1957] and the
Balduin Bridge over the Moselle in
Koblenz [Schambeck/Böckel, 1973].
According to [Feistel/Vockrodt, 1970], the
degree of restraint is reduced by up to 15%
if the amount of the tensile area in m² is
greater than the moment of inertia of the
transom in m4 in the stem area and the
width of the stem area is smaller, as the
transom can deform between the
compression and tension members.
5.3 Rigid frame
bridges
than a quarter of the span. Since both
apply in most cases of solid bridge
construction, there is no fundamental
difference to the frame with a closed, rigid
stem.
Another form of restraining the
superstructure in the substructure can be
achieved by forming V-columns. In the
case of the Gemünden Main Valley Bridge
[Leonhardt et al., 1983] on the DB AG
line between Hanover and Würzburg, the
current bridge over the Main is designed
as a frame structure with spans of 82 m +
135 m + 82 m. Spreading the supports by
23 m reduces the beam span by around 20
%, which has a positive effect on both the
internal forces a n d th e
deformations. With construction heights
of 6.50 m above the columns and 4.50 m
in the middle of the span, slendernesses of
l/21 and l/30 were achieved.
In the case of long multi-span frame
bridges (Fig. 5.3.1-10), the change in
length of the superstructure due to
temperature, shrinkage and creep must be
taken into account.
Figure 5.3.1-10 Viaduct as a multi-span frame structure
Figure 5.3.1-11 Viaduct Zahme Gera in the course of the Thuringian Forest Highway
355
The use of bearings on the pier heads of
the edge bays must be taken into account.
However, this means that the frame effect
is lost in these areas. Examples of such
rigid frame bridges are the Bendorf Rhine
Bridge [Finsterwalder/Schambeck, 1965],
the Geislingen Kocher Valley Bridge
[Baumann, 1979], the Schweich Moselle
Bridge [Schambeck, 1976], the bridge over
the Vejle Fjord [Rausch, 1980], the Bern
Felsenaubrücke [Menn, 1976] and the
Schottwien Viaduct [Vogler, 1989].
A special type of frame structure (Fig.
5.3.1-11) was realized with the
construction of the Zahme Gera valley
bridge in the course of the A 71 highway
[Abel/Tiarks, 2003]. This is a four-span
load-bearing system in which the
haunched superstructure is flexurally
rigidly connected to the Y-shaped piers
with free support at the abutments. By
spreading the columns in their upper
section to form a Y, the superstructure of
such a frame structure can be kept
extraordinarily slender despite the large
span. With spans of 115 m
356
+ 145 m + 145 m + 115 m, the
construction height of the prestressed
concrete box in the spans and at the
abutments is at least 3.80 m and increases
in a parabolic shape to 6.70 m up to the
pier forks. Between the pier forks, the
bottom edge of the box was given a stitch
of 400 mm, resulting in a construction
height of 6.30 m in the pier axis. This
means that the slenderness above the
columns is l/22 and in the spans l/38.
The maximum pier height is approx.
63.50 m. The pier forks have a height of
approx. 20 m and an upper spread of
approx. 25 m. The face width of the full
cross-section of the forked branches is
reduced from 2.50 m at the column node
to 2.00 m at the lower edge of the
superstructure. In the lower pier shaft, the
shape of the forked branches is visually
continued by a 200 mm deep groove. The
forked branches are connected to both the
superstructure and the pier shaft in a
flexurally rigid manner. With its bold Y-
pillars, the Zahme Gera viaduct is one of
the most challenging bridges on the A
71/A 73 Thuringian forest highway, both
in terms of engineering and aesthetics.
In the case of inclined, prestressed
frame bridges, internal forces occur with
increasing inclination as a result of the
effects of restraint, as the transoms and
standards move under load.
Figure 5.3.1-12 Slate double-hinged frame in the course of the Erfurt bypass via the L 1055
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
deform differently. [Feistel/Schleicher,
1974] investigated the problem of the
influence of the formation of torsionally
soft stem cross-sections, stems suspended
in pendulum disks and transversely
inclined joint lines on the constrained
internal forces. According to this, there are
no special limit values for the inclination
or width of inclined, prestressed rigid
frame bridges for practical applications,
just as there are for the span of right-
angled prestressed concrete frames.
Experience with 3 inclined, prestressed
rigid frame bridges is reported by [Feistel
et al., 1974]. A 56 gon skewed, haunched
single-span frame structure with a three-
span plate girder cross-section is shown in
[Strauß/Hensel, 2001]. The span
measured in the bridge axis is 40.60 m
with a construction height of 1.00 m in
the center of the span and approx. 2.00 m
(in median) at the frame corners, resulting
in slendernesses of l/d = 41 in the span and
approx. 20 at the gate to the frame legs.
In the course of the Erfurt bypass, a
single-span structure in the form of a
prestressed double-hinged frame with a
slightly haunched superstructure was built
over the L 1055 (Leipziger Straße) (Figure
5.3.1-12). Due to this variant, the position
of the gradient could be kept low.
 bridges
5.3 Rigid frame
Mastic asphalt  Top layer Mastic
asphalt  Protective layer Bituminous
sheeting (single layer) Primer

Figure 5.3.1-13 Bridge in the course of the Erfurt bypass over the L 1055 - cross-section according to [Stritzke, 2002], p. 27

357
358
b concrete joints had to be implemented.
Figure 5.3.2-1a, b Railway bridge over the
Praterhauptallee in Vienna
be maintained. At the same time, the
superstructure appears very slender due to
the construction height of 1.00 m in the
middle of the bridge. Positive corner
moments are generated by the pre-
tensioning, so that the frame corners do
not necessarily need to be haunched, as is
the case with the steel concrete frame, and
could be reduced to the desired design
dimension. The span of the 71.65 gon
inclined supporting structure is 28.81 m
with a clear width of 26.00 m between the
abutments. The very flat, stepped
rounding of the underside of the frame
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
The cross-section of the superstructure in
conjunction with the frame stems inclined
at an angle to the embankment determines
the overall impression of the bridge. The
superstructure cross-section (Fig. 5.3.1-
13) continues behind the frame corners
up to the arch approach or end cross
girder. A tension plate with a thickness of
80 cm is arranged between the frame strut
and the superstructure slab strips to
ensure the stiffness of the frame struts.
Linear tilting bearings had to be
formed between the frame uprights and
the foundations. These frame joints are so
deep that they are no longer accessible in
the final state. Therefore, a maintenance-
free solution in the form of unreinforced
Cross girders were formed between the
stems in the superstructure. These cross
girders run downwards into diaphragm
plates, which cover the space between the
supports against the rear foundation. The
disks are divided in the middle by a space
joint so that the frame upright is not too
rigid in the transverse direction.
5.3.2 Steel rigid frame bridges
GÜNTER RAMBERGER
and FRANCESCO AIGNER
Steel rigid frame bridges are one of the
more rarely used bridge forms. In rigid
frame bridges, vertical or inclined
uprights are rigidly fixed into the bridge
deck.
5.3 Rigid frame 359
bridges
95,4 68,8 83,6 107,0
0,75%

Figure 5.3.2-2 Grand Duchess Charlotte Bridge

beam and thus reduce the bending

moments compared to a beam bridge.
However, the standards receive not only
normal force, but also bending moments and
their bearings not only forces in the axial
direction of the standards, but also
transverse to them. The static advantage of
reducing the bending moments is offset b y
t h e disadvantage, especially in the case of
inclined standards, that these must be
supported for assembly and that standards
and beams must be connected in such a
way that they can transmit bending
moments and transverse forces (frame
corner) perfectly. Examples of this can be
found above all in railroad bridge
construction over roads with footpaths on
both sides, where the supports are arranged
between the roadway and the footpath, see
Fig. 5.3.2-1. As the steel supports can be
easily damaged, they must be effectively
protected against impact from road vehicles.
A well-known example of a large frame
bridge with a span of 234 m is the
"Grand Duchess Charlotte Bridge" over the
Alzette in Luxembourg (Figure 5.3.2-2 and
Figure 5.3.2-3).

Figure 5.3.2-3 Grand Duchess Charlotte

Bridge - Assembly overview [Jacobi, 1969]
360
5.3.3 Rigid frame bridges as
composite and mixed constructions
ULRIKE KUHLMANN
and ANNETTE DETZEL
More recently, a number of frame bridges
have been designed as composite
structures, especially for overpasses of
other traffic routes.
One example of such a structure is the
bridge over the Storkow Canal near
Blossin [Fischer et al., 1999] in
Brandenburg. In order to prevent the
ramps from protruding too high from the
flat landscape, there was a desire for the
lowest possible construction height. With
a construction height of only 66 cm in the
middle of the 23.4 m wide span, the
specified clearance limits of 4.0 m height as
the height difference between the highest
point of the gra- dient and the
surrounding terrain could be maintained,
see Figure 5.3.3-1. In addition to the
advantage of the easy assembly of the steel
girders above the canal, the low dead load
of the composite superstructure made it
possible to reduce the construction height
even further. Finally, the frame
construction with the
Figure 5.3.3-1 Rigid frame bridge over the Storkow Canal, longitudinal section
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
Clamping of the longitudinal girders in the
abutments Structural joints and bearings,
which generally cause additional
maintenance costs. The slightly haunched
three composite girders are clamped into
the splitting of trains and center walls of
the abutments, which form an E in plan.
Two piles at a distance of 4.0 m under
each abutment wall absorb the frame
corner moment. In the horizontal
direction, the foundation is relatively soft
in the area close to the surface. This
means that longitudinal changes due to
temperature, creep and shrinkage can be
absorbed by horizontal movements
without causing constraints.
Two limiting cases are decisive for the
design of the composite bridge:
1. Low horizontal stiffness of the
structural base for determining the
maximum field torque
2. High horizontal stiffness of the
component to determine the maximum
clamping torques in the frame corners.
The steel girder is clamped to the wall
bearing using tension rods guided through
the top plate (see Fig. 5.3.3-2). Another
frame girder bridge, the flyover of the
Staats-
5.3 Rigid frame
bridges
Figure 5.3.3-2 Clamping of the composite
girders in the abutment (source Leonhardt,
Andrä und Partner)
Perlach-Unterhaching road over the A8
federal highway south of Munich [Doss et
al., 2001], the advantage of the low
superstructure height was the reason for
constructing a frame structure. The bridge
girder was delivered to the construction
site as a prefabricated composite part
including concrete deck, so that the
construction site sequence was simplified
and the construction time was only three
months. Section 9.3.2.3 contains a detailed
description of the bridge. Further
information on executed frame structures
including some design and construction
principles can be found in [Braun et al.,
2006].
Figure 5.3.3-3 Ronatobel bridge longitudinal section
361
An unusual trapezoidal frame structure
with an unusual use of materials can be
found in Switzerland near Furna [Infor-
mationsdienst Holz, 1999]. The Ronatobel
bridge is a four-span truss (see Figure
5.3.3-3). The diagonal braces and the
pendulum support consist of 2 glulam
timber girders with steel tube infill.
The deck girders made of glulam are
arranged as double girders under the
concrete slab. The bond is created using
steel plates. The plates are inserted into
the timber girders in groups of three and
dowelled. The swords projecting into the
roadway have holes through which
reinforcement bars are pushed. This
creates a dowel connection with the
concrete (see Fig. 5.3.3-4). In the final
state, the slab acts as a disk to transfer the
horizontal forces to the supports. The
protruding concrete slab also provides
good structural timber protection for the
timber structure.
Another timber-concrete composite
construction was built in Switzerland near
Sufers in 1996 [Informationsdienst Holz,
1999]. The Crestawald bridge consists of 4
frame girders that form a composite
cross-section with the roadway. The
connecting elements are headed bolts
welded onto steel plates.
362 5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures

Figure 5.3.3-4 Ronatobel bridge, doweling detail

Figure 5.3.3-5 Crestawald bridge, dilution detail

dowels (Figure 5.3.3-5). The steel plates are 5.4 Arch and tied-arch bridges
fastened to the timber beams with wood
screws. The shear force is transmitted via 5.4.1 Stone bridges
a welded cleat that is embedded in the
timber. The slender frame beams are JÜRGEN STRITZKE
connected at regular intervals via cross
beams for bending stiffness and are thus
5.4.1.1 Assessment of stone bridges
stabilized against tilting during
construction. In its final state, the
Stone vault and arch bridges are among the
roadway slab acts as a horizontal slab
oldest load-bearing systems for spanning
through which the wind and stabilizing
larger spans. For cost reasons, such
forces are transferred to the supports. Due
bridges are no longer built today.
to the overhang, it also serves as structural
However, if one considers that arch
timber protection for the timber
bridges, with a number of about 32% and
construction. The frame uprights were
a bridge usable area of 19%, make up a
additionally protected from direct water
considerable proportion of the existing
ingress by a copper cover.
road bridges in the new federal states,
These two examples show that the
their importance from the point of view of
correct use of materials in mixed
maintenance becomes clear. In [Der
constructions leads to aesthetically
Bundesminister für Verkehr, 1988] and
pleasing, structurally sensible solutions.
[Bundesministerium für Verkehr, Bau-
Many problems, such as wood protection
und Wohnungswesen, 1999], 218 stone
and horizontal stability, can be solved
bridges in Germany are presented in an
efficiently.
excellent manner.
5.4 Arch and tied-arch bridges
Span 1
Apex
Bow stitch f
Combat point
R2 R1
R R
R2
R3
Abutment
R3
hingeless support line arch
Multi-part basket arch
Figure 5.4.1-1 Bridge superstructure as a multi-part basket arch according to [Vockrodt et al.,
2003].
Arch bridges consist of hewn natural
stones or artificial stones, in particular
fired bricks, and in exceptional cases also
concrete blocks. The natural stones used
were those with high and medium
compressive strength, such as granite,
syenite, quartz porphyry, sandstone, but
also shell limestone. The quality and
suitability of typical natural building stones
for bridges is determined by the content,
structure and arrangement of the
minerals. This results in the bulk density,
durability, compressive strength and
workability as the most important
structural characteristics. It is not the
compressive strength of the stone alone,
but the masonry bond that is of decisive
importance for load-bearing safety and
durability.
In [DIN 1075, 1981], the arch and arch
bridge types were separated according to
the ratio of the pier height f to the span l.
If the ratio f/l < 1/3, it is an arch bridge; if
f/l > 1/3, it is an arch bridge. According to
[Busch, 1995], the ratios f/l = 0.06 and 0.29
are the limit values for flat and high arches
respectively.
The design of the arch bridges was
largely determined by their load-bearing
behavior. The arch bridges were designed
either as circular arches or as multi-part
basket arches composed of several circular
curves.
363
Superstr Combat point
R1 R2
ucture
R2
Substruct R3
ure
Abutment
R3
(Figure 5.4.1-1). The statically
determinate three-hinged arch, the single
statically indeterminate two-hinged arch
and the triple statically indeterminate arch
restrained on both sides were used as the
static system. Since the circular curve as a
bridge structure is not free of bending
moments, there are limits to the support
width with regard to the low tensile
strength of the masonry.
The situation is different when vaults
or arches are shaped according to the
support line. The support line represents
the connection of the penetration points of
the compression stresses of the individual
cross-sections combined to form a
resultant. If the resultant within the
1. core width, the entire cross-section is
overcompressed. If the eccentricity e of the
compressive force N increases, the tensile
zone is displaced and the cross-section
tears open. The gaping of the joint is
limited. [Brendel, 1950] has provided
information on limit spans of bridges with
support line form, which are characterized
by a closed mathematical solution. The
application of the support line method is
limited to vaults and arches with a span of
l ≤ 25 m and an arrow ratio f/l ≥ 1/7.
Arches with spans of l > 25 m or flatter
statically indeterminate arches must be
calculated according to the theory of
elasticity. For a realistic, mathematical
load-bearing capacity analysis, please refer
to [Lachmann,
364
1990], [Bechert, 1996], [Falter, 1999] and
[Vockrodt et al., 2003]. In particular,
[Vockrodt et al., 2003] contains basic
descriptions of the computational
verification on the basis of the currently
applicable regulations.
Under the repealed regulations of the
GDR, there were special regulations for
the recalculation of existing bridges ([Sw
120, 1973], [TGL 12999,
1977] SBA 169/89, 1989] and [Deutsche
Reichsbahn, 1991]). At the beginning of
the 1990s, guidelines for load classification
calculations for road bridges ([Der
Bundesminister für Verkehr, 1991], [Der
Bundesminister für Verkehr, 1992]) and
catalogs for repair solutions for certain
types of road bridges ([Der
Bundesminister für Verkehr, 1993]) were
published, which were issued specifically
for the new federal states, but are
generally applicable. The [Rili 805, 2002]
and the [UIC Code No. 778-3, 1995]
apply to the assessment of the structural
safety of existing railroad bridges.
For the structural safety assessment of
existing solid bridges, expe- rimental tests
are also included. In addition to the usual
determination of structural and geometric
parameters by tests on specimens taken
from the structure or by non-destructive
tests on the structure itself, the following
methods are also used:
Structural measurements under traffic
load before and after repairs to check the
mathematical investigations. This makes it
possible to check how accurately the
assumed structural modeling reflects
reality, since the influence of the end walls,
backfill, restraint in the abutments,
cracking, etc. are unknown influencing
variables. With the help of measurement-
based recalculation, in many cases a
sufficient load-bearing capacity of the
vaults can be ensured.
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
The structural integrity of bridges can be
verified or necessary repair measures can
be determined without immediately
abandoning the structure to demolition.
Examples of this approach are presented in
[Mildner, 1997], [Mildner, 2001],
[Mildner/Mildner, 2002].
With uncertain assumptions for the
input variables in the calculation, system
properties (stiffness, degree of restraint,
etc.) can often be determined with little
experimental effort and incorporated into
the mathematical verification (hybrid
structural engineering).
In addition to a mathematical stability
verification, load tests may also be carried
out in accordance with the [DAfStb
Guideline, 2000]. This is
This is useful, for example, if there is
insufficient information about the
properties of the building materials, the
position and shape of the reinforcement
and the accuracy of the modeling (e.g.
degree of restraint, bracing effect).
Fundamentals and experience regarding
the method of experimental structural
safety assessment of bridges were
developed as part of the EXTRA research
project ([Steffens et al., 1999],
[Opitz/Steffens, 2000]). Heavy-duty
vehicles, for example, can be used to load
bridges. For road bridges, a special
loading vehicle BELFA was developed and
built, which can be used for spans of up to
18 meters. When it is positioned and
assembled, up to 5 hydraulic cylinders
generate the controllable external test load
according to the prescribed load scheme
([Gutermann/ Steffens, 2002]). An
analogous BELFA-DB vehicle was also
tested for railroad bridges. All required
measurement data (deflections,
distortions, curvatures, acoustic emission
signals, etc.) can be tracked online on the
screen. Damage to the structure must be
prevented by adhering to specified criteria.
5.4 Arch and tied-arch bridges
5.4.1.2 Repair and strengthening of vaulted
and arch bridges
The repair and upgrading of existing
bridges is generally associated with an
adaptation to new functional
requirements. The following only deals
with measures that affect the
superstructure. Comprehensive
descriptions of the refurbishment of piers,
abutments and foundations as well as the
repair of seals, cornices etc. can be found,
for example, in [Vockrodt et al., 2003] and
[Nodoushani, 1996].
The simplest variant for repairing the
superstructure of an arch bridge is to
replace the filling, which can consist of
cohesive ballast materials, gravel sand or
other earth materials. The replacement
with lightweight concrete leads to a better
distribution of the traffic loads, reduces
the horizontal pressure on the end walls
and enables the proper installation of a
roadway seal.
The listed Saalebrücke Bad Kösen
bridge (Fig. 5.4.1-2) on the B87 was built
in 1892/93 as a vaulted bridge with 4
arches. In order to maintain the stability,
serviceability and durability of the bridge
and thus to preserve its important
function in the federal road network, a
365
Figure 5.4.1-2
Saale bridge Bad Kösen
extensive repair of the building is urgently
required.
The clear widths between the piers of
the structure are 24.5 m + 27.0 m
+ 27.0 m + 24.5 m. The edge piers have a
width of 5.0 m, the center pier and the
abutments have a width of 8.0 m each.
This results in the total length of the
bridge being 137.0 m. The arches, made of
yellow clinker bricks, have different
thicknesses between the apex and the
transom. The arch thickness is adapted to
the structural requirements: 1.16 m/1.29
m/1.45 m. The 1 m wide side elevations of
the arches are made of large-format shell
limestone and yellow sandstone masonry.
The arch pitch in the edge bays is 2.75 m,
in the inner bays 3.15 m. The vault has a
total width of 11.0 m.
In the course of renewing the structural
waterproofing, the existing arch fillings
were removed and replaced with an
inherently stable, reinforced lightweight
concrete (Figure 5.4.1-3). This made it
possible to achieve a largely uniform
loading of the clinker brickwork across
the width of the vault. Transverse tensile
stresses in the vault, which can only be
absorbed by masonry to a very small
extent, are reduced to a minimum.
Furthermore, there are no horizontal
loads on the end masonry.
 366
40 10,75 40

Granite slabs 3.5 cm mastic asphalt surface

Mortar bed course
Protective 3.5 cm mastic asphalt protective
concrete Single layer Sealing in accordance with
grain concrete ZTV-BEL-B 1/87 Lightweight
Granite raised reinforced concrete (LB 25)
kerb
25 Det. III 25
2% 2,5 % 2,5 % 2%

Protective pipes
for possible
supply and
disposal
companies
Repair of the masonry wall 1PE-HD ∅ 300
• Cleaning 5PE-HD ∅ 100
Clinker vault • Cleaning out damaged joints
• New grouting Sandstone
• Local stone replacement
• Force-fit grouting of cracks

the superstructures
5 Main supporting structures of
Sandston
e

Figure 5.4.1-3 Saalebrücke Bad Kösen - Section through the apex area
5.4 Arch and tied-arch bridges 367

more. By using lightweight concrete, it

was possible to avoid increasing the
permanent loads and to upgrade the load-
bearing capacity from bridge class 24/24
to 60/30. Widening of the bridge was not
necessary.
All natural stone and masonry surfaces
were thoroughly repaired, heavily
damaged stone was replaced and the
durability of the sandstone was increased
through stone consolidation. The
waterproofing was completely renewed as
an overlying seal.
In addition to upgrading an arch or arch
bridge, it may be necessary to
simultaneously increase the width of the
traffic area by means of a reinforced
concrete deck slab placed on the existing
superstructure with corresponding
cantilevers.
The Friedensbrücke in Plauen/Vgtl.,
better known as the Syratal Bridge (Fig.
5.4.1-4), was built between 1903 and 1905
as part of a bypass and is the largest natural Figure 5.4.1-4 Peace Bridge Plauen/Vgtl.
stone arch bridge in the world with a span
of 90 meters. The flat arch has a clear In recent years, the bridge has
height of 18.0 m at the apex. The undergone a comprehensive inspection
structural thickness of the arch is 1.5 m at and repair. On the arch itself, distortions,
the crown and 4.0 m in the transom area. deflections and comparative vibrations
The arch itself consists of 60% local thick- were measured across 6 cross-sections.
plate phyllite and 40% mortar. The Displacements were also determined at
lowering of the falsework already resulted selected joints and cracks. The structural
in considerable crown subsidence, which test and the test load were carried out in
increased to 440 mm by 1977. Even today, September 1996 using three four-axle
the average crown subsidence is still trucks with a total mass of 100 tons. Due
around 2 mm per year. Over the course of to the wealth of data obtained in the
the decades, research into the causes and individual load positions, a good
partial repairs were constantly carried out evaluation was possible. The bridge class
with the aim of stopping the subsidence. 60/30 was verified by taking into account
The bridge responded to measures such as the characteristic values of the building
cement grouting, partial renewal of the material and the data from the test load.
bridge waterproofing and cutting of joints Furthermore, it was shown that the dead
for defined force transfer with a temporary load could not be reduced unilaterally
increase in the crown subsidence and during the construction phase. The
subsequent stabilization to the average resulting stress redistributions would have
values per year. led to additional
368
crown subsidence. From this perspective,
a half-sided construction method could
not be the preferred option.
The most important finding from the
main bridge inspection was that there was
no continuously functioning bridge
drainage system. Over the decades, bridge
drains had disappeared due to road
surface renewals. The drainage systems
within the structure could not be properly
maintained due to a lack of material.
Obviously, the structural waterproofing
had not been fully functional at any time
since 1905. On both sides of the bridge, an
overcut bored pile wall with a drainage wall
in front was arranged between the splitting
of trains. Water flowing down the valley was
to be drained away in front of the
structure.
The first part of the repair was
characterized by the reinforced concrete
work, structural waterproofing, structural
drainage and railing construction. The
second part of the restoration of the Peace
Bridge was carried out in 2002. This
included the repair of the masonry in the
area of the arch, the end walls and the spar
vaults. The bridge was hit by 5 bombs
during the Second World War. As a result,
the cross-section at the top of the arch was
weakened by up to two thirds. The area of
the bomb hit repair, which is still visible
today, was not to be adapted to the rest of
the arch with shotcrete. This concrete seal
was repaired in accordance with [ZTV-
SIB 90, 1990] and remains visible in its
proper condition. The arch made of
quarry stones originally had an indicated
ashlar masonry consisting of mortar along
its entire length. This element was
reapplied to the arch and the asparagus
vaults.
An 11 m wide carriageway and two 3 m
wide footpaths could be arranged on the
16 m wide arch by forming a slight
cantilever (Figure 5.4.1-5). For this
purpose
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
From bored pile wall to bored pile wall, a
250 mm thick reinforced concrete slab is
laid over the entire surface of the structure
itself. This slab lies directly above the arch
on the newly placed lightweight concrete.
A frequently practiced option for
strengthening arched bridges is to
reinforce the masonry vault or arch with
concrete. This can be done with
reinforced concrete, as in the case of the
Erfurt Ross Bridge ([Baumbach/Vockrodt,
2000,
p. 42-46], [Vockrodt et al., 2003, p. 264-
265]) or by a reinforced shotcrete shell on
the underside of the superstructure
([Ruffert, 1983, p. 218-219]). This results
in a composite cross-section, which must
be verified as such. The prerequisite is an
appropriate doweling between the
masonry vault or arch and the
reinforcement in order to be able to
absorb the occurring shear forces.
According to [Stein, 2001], if there is no
separation between the reinforced vault or
arch and the other concrete filling, e.g. by
means of a concrete coating, a composite
structure in the form of a vault frame is
created.
A bridge can also be extended by
placing an extension structure next to the
existing one. The Krämpfertor bridge in
Erfurt ([Vockrodt, 2000],
[Baumbach/Vockrodt, 2000, pp. 31-35],
[Vockrodt et al., 2003, pp. 260-264]) can
be seen as a successful example of this.
A completely different approach was
chosen for the refurbishment of the
approximately 570 m long Wahren viaduct
([Patzschke, 1996]), which is a protected
monument, as part of the Leipzig freight
ring. The structure was built between 1904
and 1907 using the yellow clinker bricks
typical of Leipzig's railroad engineering
structures of the time. The compressive
strength of the facing bricks is between 40
and 50 MN/m². For the rear brickwork
 5.4 Arch and tied-arch bridges
Figure 5.4.1-5 Peace Bridge Plauen/Vgtl. - Cross-section at the arch apex

369
370
Average +166.84
7,00
1,18
0,32
1,68 4,64
Economica
l concrete
8,00
Figure 5.4.1-6 Cross-section of an arch of the
Wahren viaduct before repair according to
[Patschke, 1996].
red bricks of low strength and frost
resistance were used. Above the load-
bearing arches and between the end walls,
a so-called economy concrete was used.
Figure 5.4.1-6 shows the cross-section of
the as-built drawing. In the view, the
masonry arches are shown with a constant
thickness, although they continue in the
filling in sections of varying thickness
from the transom. In this way, an
interlocking between the backfill and
masonry was created, resulting in a
differentiated contribution of the backfill
for compressive and tensile forces.
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
leads. The clear widths of the vaults are 13
to 22 m and the crossing angles of the B6
federal highway and the Weiße Elster
river below are up to 20 degrees.
0,32
0,15 Operational concerns, considerable
damage to the waterproofing and locally
1,68 enlarged cracks and breakouts observed in
certain areas over many years made a
fundamental repair necessary. When
designing the roadway trough, the
requirements of the preservation order for
the preservation of the cornice band on
the one hand and those of [Rili 804, 2003]
for the roadway trough on the other had
to be met. The solution is shown in Figure
5.4.1-7.
The clear dependency of the cracking
movements on the temperature curves
was demonstrated by systematically
observing and recording the cracks over a
period of around 6 months. Calculations
showed that even a temperature increase of
15 K led to compressive stresses above the
permissible level. In particular, numerous
transverse tensile cracks in the apex areas
indicated extraordinarily high
compressive stresses. After a prolonged
period of heat with relatively high night-
time temperatures, the vault in the apex
area of arch 15 literally collapsed, and the
previous support line vault turned into an
arched vault.

1330 2200 2000 2000 2200

Building

= Railway
axis 1
centerline

centerline
of track

of track
axis

380 1100
380 520

650
700
935

1580

200 60

1:30 1:30
225 710

350
OK existing
200

cornice
= Demolition Gutter high point
joint

1568 3962 4007 1523

Figure 5.4.1-7 Normal cross-section of an arch of the Wahren viaduct after repair according to
[Patschke, 1996].
5.4 Arch and tied-arch bridges
the static system of a three-hinged arch.
Elastic adjustable apex hinges were
therefore installed in selected bends to
relieve the bend rows of the constraining
stresses due to temperature (Fig. 5.4.1-8).
This made it possible to reduce the
constraining stresses in the most
unfavorable bend apexes by 25-30%. As
the relieving influence of these elastic joints
in bends 6 and 15 was greatly reduced in
the direction of the bridge tenders, it was
decided to install a further elastic joint in
the initially unaffected bend 24. This
resulted in a division of the arch row into
4 sections.
Specially developed elastomeric
bearings (Fig. 5.4.1-9) for a longitudinal
force of 1.25 MN/bearing were installed as
elastic joints. In addition to the normal
forces, it must also be possible to transmit
transverse forces in order to exclude
mutual displacements and rotations of the
arch cut edges due to unequal loading of
the arch sections or possible arch
constraints. For this purpose, two steel
bearings without longitudinal force
transmission were arranged on the outer
sides (Fig. 5.4.1-10). With the slotting of
the
Figure 5.4.1-8 Arrangement of elastic joints in arch 15 of the Wahren viaduct according to
[Patschke, 1996].
371
The arch halves were supported without
tension on a shoring consisting of 4 in-
situ concrete slabs and a steel girder layer.
Prior to the installation of the bearings,
heavily reinforced concrete support
benches were constructed to spread the
load, which were deeply anchored in the
existing, toothed masonry of the vaults
and the above-lying concrete with very
variable strength. After the bearings were
installed, the arches were released by
gradually applying prestressing forces of 50
kN/bearing. The initial forces were
calculated as a function of temperature for
the condition without ballast and traffic
load on the basic static model. They
amounted to around 250 kN for a
temperature of 20 °C, e.g. for curve 15.
The forces are calculated in such a way
that the elastic system functions up to
around 0 °C. For lower temperatures, the
load-bearing effect is assumed to be a
support line vault. The design of the vault
slits blends harmoniously into the overall
appearance.
The further construction of the A72
highway, which began in the 1930s, and
its expansion to meet today's traffic
requirements posed a major challenge
372 5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures

Fig. 5.4.1-9 Principle sketch of the elastomeric bearing specially developed for the Wahren viaduct
according to [Patschke, 1996].

Steel bearing
without
longitudinal force
contact

Elastomeric bearing

Figure 5.4.1-10 Bearing arrangement on a slotted arch of the Wahren viaduct according to [Patsch-
ke, 1996].

The highway represents a major challenge
in terms of integrating existing bridge
structures into the concept of a modern
highway. The highway runs roughly
parallel to the Erzgebirge, Elstergebirge
and Fichtelgebirge mountains, which are
the source of numerous rivers flowing
northwards in deeply incised valleys. This
necessitated the construction of several
large and small bridges, some of which
were only begun and some completed at
the time, but in any case had to be
widened. When converting the existing
stone arch bridges to the current traffic
load, the architectural design of the old
structures had to be preserved
and the landscape as little as possible.
The construction of the Elster Valley
Bridge Pirk ([Cordes et al., 1993]), a stone
arch bridge consisting of 12 arches each
with a clear width of 33.5 m and a pier
spacing of 38.5 m to cross the approx. 500
m wide valley of the Weiße Elster, began in
1938 as part of the Reichsautobahn
Dresden - Naila highway and would have
been the largest stone arch bridge in the
world when completed. It has a total length
of 635 m and the greatest height above the
valley floor is 60 m. In addition to traffic-
related technical aspects, the bridge was
planned with the following in mind
5.4 Arch and tied-arch bridges
Figure 5.4.1-11 Saale bridge in the course of the A72 highway - longitudinal section according to
[WALTER∙BAU].
Aesthetic considerations were also taken
into account, as the aim was to create a
bridge structure that would blend
harmoniously into the surrounding
landscape in terms of its shape, material,
design and color. Due to the war, inputs
were stopped in 1940. The wall bearings,
piers, the 12 granite arches and the
brickwork above the piers for the spar
vaults were completed. Over 50 years, rain
and snow led to considerable lime
sintering in the unprotected structure. As
a result of the temperature fluctuations, the
brickwork of the piers was separated from
the layers of stamped concrete that had
been laid in sections.
The aim of the construction measures
to complete the Elster Valley Bridge,
which is important in the course of
today's A72 Chemnitz - Hof highway, was
to use the existing historical and structural
substance while taking into account today's
traffic standards. The natural stone
masonry was cleaned using the high-
pressure water jet method and then
repointed. Cracks and cavities in the pier
and arch areas were filled with a special
cement suspension.
Two separate, asymmetrical prestressed
concrete boxes, each with a cantilever of
6.61 m arranged on one side and running
through the piers, were chosen as the
load-bearing system, the vertical support
forces of which are transferred directly
into the piers via "support chairs" arranged
in the pier axes. Only the horizontal forces
in the longitudinal direction
373
The loads are transferred from the
support columns via longitudinal sheaves
into the vaults and carried by these to the
end structures. After producing the
supports and the lateral brickwork
according to the old model, the two
prestressed concrete boxes were produced
using the incremental launching method.
As the granite stones for the parapet were
not available in the required dimensions
and quantity, a double-shell construction
was chosen: A reinforced concrete
prefabricated slab designed locally as a
retaining wall was faced with 150 mm
wide granite stones.
The Saale bridge in the course of the
A72 highway ([WALTER∙BAU]) is
spanned by three bridges with pier
spacings of 58 m + 74 m
+ 62 m (Figure 5.4.1-11). The arch
supporting structure consists of masonry
granite blocks of different dimensions and
was neither sufficiently strong nor wide.
Tamped concrete of varying strength was
used as backfill in layers down to the
lower roadway. The lateral stringers and
the retaining walls in the area of the pier
chambers are also made of natural stone
masonry, and the granite stones bind into
the backfill concrete. A single-cell
prestressed concrete box with a constant
construction height of 2.5 m and a wide
cantilevered track slab on one side using
the incremental launching method was
therefore used as the superstructure for
each directional carriageway. A maximum
of 40 m can be bridged with this
superstructure cross-section.
374
be installed. In order to exclude the arches
from the load transfer, the substructures
in the area of the three large arches had to
be designed accordingly. They consist of
in-situ concrete columns and slabs, some
of which are founded flat on the existing
structure and others on rock. In the area
of the arches, massive, longitudinally
prestressed balance beams with cantilever
lengths of up to 20 m and construction
heights of 5 m were built. In conjunction
with the end structures to be bridged, this
resulted in continuous beams over 9 spans
with spans of 15 m to 40 m (Fig. 5.4.1-11).
The balance beams were supported by
grouted piles, which were tied into the pier
concrete, partially led into the foundation
and also led to an improvement of the
pier concrete.
The two superstructures are rigidly
supported in axes 100, 200 and 700 to 900,
Figure 5.4.1-12 Pöhl viaduct - longitudinal section according to [WALTER∙BAU].
Figure 5.4.1-13 Göltzschtal bridge in the course of the A72 highway - longitudinal section according to
[WALTER∙BAU].
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
while the axes 300 to 600 are elastic
supports that deform according to the
loads and lead to corresponding internal
forces. However, to reduce the internal
forces from external loads, especially in
the highly loaded outer webs, it was
necessary to add an additional bearing in
the area of the balance beams. To install
the balance beams and to accommodate
the prestressed concrete boxes, the old
backfill concrete above the stone arches
and between the side walls was removed
where necessary and structurally possible.
The design of the Saale bridge was such
that it could also be used for the later
reconstruction of the Pöhl viaduct (Figure
5.4.1-12) and the Göltzschtal bridge
(Figure 5.4.1-13) with adaptation to the
pier spacing of 45 m and
5.4 Arch and tied-arch bridges
62 m was economically feasible
([WALTER∙BAU]). Here, too, two
separate, asymmetrical prestressed
concrete boxes were installed as
superstructures using the incremental
launching method. In the case of the Pöhl
viaduct, by selecting spans of 30 m over
the arch and 15 m in the pier areas, it was
possible to design the bearing discs so
rigidly (Fig. 5.4.1-12) that the
superstructures are also rigidly supported
at all bearing points. The principle of
constructing the substructures with the
foundation of the bearing disks on grouted
piles corresponds to that of the Saale
Bridge.
In view of the pier center distances of
the Göltzschtal Bridge, the support widths
of the superstructures were always chosen
to be 31 m except for the end sections (Fig.
5.4.1-13). The bearing disks in the pier
areas are structurally stiffer than on the
Saale Bridge. Nevertheless, they are to be
regarded as elastic, so that here too
the structural characteristics of the Saale
bridge had to be taken into account.
5.4.2 Concrete arch bridges
FRANCESCO AIGNER
and THOMAS PETRASCHEK
5.4.2.1 General information
The arch is a predestined system for
concrete, a building material that can be
optimally used under pressure. Arch-type
constructions were successfully used very
early and independently in all parts of the
world. At the beginning of concrete
construction, practically all concrete
bridges were built as arch bridges: Some
actually as unreinforced concrete arches,
others as "monier arches", whereby
extremely considerable spans could be
achieved. For the development of arch
bridges, see [Pauser, 1987], pp. 18-85. Of the
many publications on the calculation of
massive arch bridges
375
The two inputs by Dischinger [Dischinger,
1937] and [Dischinger, 1939] are
mentioned, in which the load-bearing,
deformation and stability behavior,
including shrinkage and creep, are dealt
with exhaustively. For design issues, see
z. e.g. [Leonhardt, 1982].
5.4.2.2 Arc effect
The efficiency of arches is based on their
support line effect, i.e. the ability to
transfer a considerable part of the loads
only by normal forces and without
bending, which means that the transverse
sections are better utilized. Figure 5.4.2-1
schematically shows how the arch
functions.
If the support points are held
horizontally without displacement,
horizontal supports are created as a result
of vertical loads.
M0
forces H = horizontal shear), i.e. the
6f (
system is subjected to compressive forces
that increase as the span L increases and the
stitch f decreases. These compressive
forces generate compressive stresses in the
cross-section on the one hand and
counteract the "beam moments" M0 on the
other. In the ideal case of a support line
system (system in the form of a cable
line), the moments M0 disappear
completely: M0 + H - y = 0. This is analogous
to prestressed concrete: in this case, the
prestressing of tendons in a beam generates
compressive forces, the output forces of
which generate relieving bending moments
with the appropriate tendon geometry. In
the case of arches, the effect of gravity and
the simultaneous prevention of deflection
at the transoms creates a compressive
force, which in turn generates relieving
bending moments if the supporting
structure is shaped accordingly. In contrast
to prestressed concrete, the arch effect is, so
to speak, a system property (such as the
376
Fig. 5.4.2-1 Rope line, moment line and support line
mass) that exists as long as the system,
including its bearing, exists. The arch can
therefore be regarded as an ideally prestressed
structure that has all the advantages of
prestressed concrete, but not its
disadvantages (loss of prestressing force
due to creep, possibility of damage or
failure of tendons). Even if the aesthetic
quality of a supporting structure is not
generally binding, the arch must at least be
regarded as a "logical" system that frequently
occurs in nature - here mostly as a doubly
curved shell - especially when large forces
have to be overcome. Technically favorable
properties of the arch are its great stiffness,
its durability, its ability to absorb forces in
the longitudinal direction without problems
and with the smallest deformations (Brem-
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
and its favorable behavior in the event of
earthquakes. An arch bridge is
economically competitive if it is possible to
give the roadway structure comparatively
small spans and avoid high piers, i.e. if the
main obstacle or obstacles can be bridged by
one or more arches. An example is shown
in Figure 5.4.2-2, where large span widths,
high piers and complex foundations could
be avoided by lining up two arches with
spans of 120 m and 150 m.
5.4.2.3 Foundation
In many cases, the need for an above-
average quality building site is emphasized.
5.4 Arch and tied-arch bridges
but not quite rightly so. Although the
bearing force on a transom with an
inclination α to the horizontal is greater
than the vertical force by a factor of 1/sin
α, it should be noted that if any cleavage
lines are appropriately aligned, in practice
the slope is very often even stabilized by
the inclined bearing force of the arch,
which often makes the foundations
surprisingly simple (simpler than, for
example, with high, restrained piers), Fig.
5.4.2-3. Figure 5.4.2-3. The arch
foundations can also be adapted very well
to the ground conditions by changing the
effective bearing surface.
5.4.2.4 Bow shape
In order to make the best possible use of
the advantages of load trasnfer by the
support line effect
377
Figure 5.4.2-2 Overcoming an
obstacle with an arched supporting
structure [ÖBB picture archive].
the arch form must b e chosen carefully.
For the theory of support lines, see [Melan
et al., 1948], pp. 78-84. It should be noted
that each support line is only valid for a
specific fixed load pattern, i.e. it is not
possible to "place an arch in the support
line" per se. The arch axis should therefore
be selected in such a way that it comes
close to the support line for permanent
actions (dead loads, removal loads, and
possibly also a quasi-permanent share of
the traffic loads for very heavily used
bridges) and deviates from it as little as
possible for all other load patterns.
Finally, the bridge cross-sections must be
designed for the internal force
combination N + M = N - (1 + M/N) = N -
(1 + e). Tensile stresses arise when the
normal force N exits the "core" of the
cross-section (normal force centricity e >
core width k).
378
5.4.2.5 Classification of arch bridges
1. According to the position of the
roadway support structure to the curve:
– Arch bridges with elevated roadway,
Figure 5.4.2-4a and Figure 5.4.2-4b
(standard design in massive
construction)
– Arch bridges with suspended deck,
Fig. 5.4.2-4c (more often made of
steel: "Longer beams" see Section
5.4.3)
2. According to the ratio of the bending
stiffness of the roadway support
structure to that of the bridge:
– Arch bridges with rigid arch (arch
carries the supporting structure),
Figures 5.4.2-5a, 5.4.2-5b
– Tied-arch bridges (arch stiffening
the supporting structure), Figure
5.4.2-5c
3. For arch bridges with rigid arches,
additionally according to the static
system of the arch:
– Clamped arch, Figure 5.4.2-5a
– Double-hinged bend, Figure 5.4.2-5b
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
Figure 5.4.2-3 Slope stabilization using an arched
foundation
5.4.2.6 Project planning and preliminary
dimensioning of the arch
The following principles apply to arches
with elevated roadways. The arch can be
designed in such a way that it supports
itself and the superstructure (columns,
supporting structure) or in such a way
that it only acts as a stiffener for the
superstructure (tied arch). One problem
with this construction method is the
fabrication, as the arch sections, columns
and supporting structure must be
combined and generally secured
(supported, braced). In addition, the
advantage of creating a bridge over the
main obstacle that is stable and
independent of the rest of the bridge is
lost. Please refer to section 5.4.3 for the
static mode of action of arch bridges with
tied arches. Only systems with rigid arches
are discussed here.
The static system must be selected
depending on the geometry (arrow ratio
f/l) (for designations, see Fig. 5.4.2-1),
5.4 Arch and tied-arch bridges 379

Figure 5.4.2-4 Position of the roadway

support
c werks to the bow

Figure 5.4.2-5 Structural systems

of arch bridges
380
At best, the ground conditions in the
transom area can be of significance: Steered
bearings result in more even base
compressions, while fully restrained
bearings result in higher edge
compressions. Arches of indeterminate
position are common: single-hinged
arches, for flatter arches also double-hinged
arches. The following is given for
orientation:
f11
Clamped sheet ≥ to
3l 37 33
f 1
Double-hinged ≥ up to
1 The inclination of the imaginary
bend 3l
14 3
6 considerable effect on the
0
Single-hinged bends are ruled out due to
their poor creep, shrinkage and stability
behavior, three-hinged bends are also
unfavorable in terms of stability behavior,
but are sometimes used. Systems with an
apex joint are particularly unfavorable for
flat bends, as the first buckling eigenmode
is symmetrical and therefore the
shortening of the bend axis caused by
normal force compression, but above all
by creep deformations, promotes
buckling. See [Dischinger, 1937] and
[Dischinger, 1939] for the stability
behavior and all related questions.
If the arrow ratio f/l is sufficiently large,
the clamped arch is recommended in any
case. If the arrow ratio is small, the
double-hinged arch is an option, whereby
the design of the joints must be clarified at
the beginning of the bridge planning.
It is advisable to calculate the arc axis
numerically and not as a second-order or
higher-order parallel, as a cosh line or
similar or as a circular curve (unfavorable
arc shape!). The theoretical support line
has kinks at all points with concentrated
load application (supports), which can be
perceived as disturbing but also as
"logical" on the finished structure.
However, it should be noted that
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
the sheet can usually be viewed not only in
elevation but also in oblique view and that
this is where creases often look bad. With
rigid bends, the kinks can be smoothed out
to such an extent that they are hardly
noticeable. On the other hand, "bar bends"
are preferably placed in the center of the
arch due to their low inherent stiffness and
the resulting low ability to absorb moments.
Support line laid for permanent actions and
the kinks left in full size
(Figure 5.4.2-5c).
connecting line of the transom has a
effects on the appearance. Figure 5.4.2-6
shows two good options.
If the terrain is suitable, several arches
can be arranged, see Chapter 3 and Figure
5.4.2-2. The transom locations must be
carefully considered and selected. As
foundations are often laid on relatively
steep slopes, even small shifts in location
can have a major impact on the excavation
volume and the scope of any safety
measures. For arch bridges in particular,
the foundations are decisive for the cost-
effectiveness and overall quality of the
structure. Deep foundations are almost
never required for arched bridges. The
arch span width should generally not be
unnecessarily large, although the
influence of the foundation measures
must be taken into account. If the subsoil
conditions are suitable, a slightly wider
arch may even be more favorable overall.
Flat arches (small arrow ratio f/l) should
not be flatter than necessary with regard
to horizontal shear, transom
displacements, creep deformations and
stability. By bringing the supporting
structure and arch together, see Fig. 5.4.2-
7, it is possible to gain arrow height. For
aesthetic reasons, steep arches (large
arrow ratio f/l) should not be
unnecessarily steep.
5.4 Arch and tied-arch bridges
Figure 5.4.2-6 Height arrangement of the
transoms for roadway support structure in the
tank
The design in the crown area has a
considerable influence on the load
trasnfer of the longitudinal forces
transferred by the roadway support
structure and on the appearance, see
Figure 5.4.2-7. A gap can be left between
the arch and the roadway support
structure or these parts can be brought
together. In the first case, a minimum
distance of approx. 80-100 cm is often
required (Fig. 5.4.2-7b). In this case, it
may be easier to arrange a supporting
structure bay in the apex rather than a
column (Fig. 5.4.2-7c). The advantages of
the solution shown in Fig. 5.4.2-7d are the
very favorable transfer of longitudinal
structural forces (brakes!) and the
elimination of part of the supporting
structure; the disadvantages are the
discontinuities in the arch axis.
Arch cross-section: It follows from the
explanations in Section 5.4.2.4 that a
cross-sectional shape with a large core
width is more favorable than one with a
small core width in terms of stability
behavior and favorable absorption of
bending moments, i.e. the box cross-
section is clearly superior to the full cross-
section. This is
381
Figure 5.4.2-7 Options for designing the apex
area
also in analogy to high piers, which are
also designed with single or multi-cell box
cross-sections and not with full cross-
sections. According to the experience of
the first-mentioned author, which he
gained from calculation results on
numerous arch bridge projects in the span
width range of 30 to 250 m, the full cross-
section is only justifiable for smaller
arches (up to 40 m, at most approx. 50 m
span width). A larger full arch requires
considerably larger quantities of structural
concrete, places correspondingly greater
loads on the falsework, bracing etc. and
causes greater base compression. For large
arches (spans from approx. 180 m), there
is practically no longitudinal
reinforcement required at all if the shape
and cross-sectional design are favorable,
as the cross-section is always fully
overpressed. An arch with a variable
construction height, Figure 5.4.2-8, adapts
better to the distribution of forces than an
arch with a constant height and therefore
looks better in the opinion of the authors.
382
Figure 5.4.2-8 Course of the construction
height
Its production is problematic with some
construction methods. In the case of a
clamped arch, the height increases towards
the transoms; in the case of a double-
hinged arch, the height decreases towards
the transoms ("sickle arch"). In both cases,
the law h(x) = hS + (hK - h )S
- ξn, in the first case h > h , with n = 4,
K S
in the second case, hS >hK with n = 6 or
even n = 8. When designing an arch
bridge, the foreland bridges must of course
also be taken into account. A jump in the
height of the supporting structure only
makes sense, if at all, for very long bridges,
especially if the construction of the
roadway is different.
Figure 5.4.2-9 Arrangement of supports for a curved roadway structure in plan
Figure 5.4.2-10 Arrangement of the transom supports
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
railroad structure changes (e.g.:
supporting structure of the approach
bridges in composite construction,
supporting structure in the arch area in
solid construction).
Columns: Individual columns, column
groups or individual discs should be
arranged radially to the supporting
structure. In the case of more curved
roadway structures, the supports must be
placed on the curve, Figure 5.4.2-9.
Wherever possible, the transom
supports or transom sheds should be
moved slightly away from the theoretical
transom line (2 to 3 m, correspondingly
more for large arches) and only be
positioned on the arch in compelling
cases, Figure 5.4.2-10.
The arch transom and transom
supports have a common foundation. In the
case of arches with a box cross-section, the
support loads are transferred to the arch via
transverse plates. These should be
arranged vertically with regard to
production and the flow of forces. The
width of the transverse
5.4 Arch and tied-arch bridges
Fig. 5.4.2-11 Arch cross plates and
positioning of the stakes on the arch
The width of the column discs depends on
the column width and the inclination of
the column plane in relation to the arch
plane, Figure 5.4.2-11.
If the inside of the box is to be
accessible, the cross sections can be
provided with access openings if the cross
sections are large enough (in this case, a
separate access opening is not required in
each section).
The roadway supporting structures in the
arch area should always be designed as
continuous girders, so that no roadway
transitions are necessary in the supporting
structure and load bending moments due
to longitudinal forces (starting, braking,
friction) in the supports are avoided. Any
arrangement of roadway transitions above
the transom plates should be carefully
considered and only makes sense for
bridges with very long foreland bridges.
383
5.4.2.7 Determination of the main dimensions
Arch width: If the supporting structure is
strongly curved in plan, the minimum
width results from the structural
requirement that the supports can be
accommodated on the arch, see Figure
5.4.2-9. For straight supporting structures,
a sensible dimension must be selected,
taking into account the requirements from
manufacture and sufficient transverse
stiffness (wind forces, centrifugal forces,
stability transverse to the arch plane). The
cross-sectional height hS at the apex is
defined as the reference value for the
construction height of the arch, see Fig.
5.4.2-8. For an initial approach, the
following can be assumed:
l l
Road bridges hS = to
74 560
0 l
Railroad bridges hS = to
l 450
46
0
The stability behavior in the plane of the
arch expressed by the slenderness λ is also
ideally suited for a more precise
determination of the construction height
if the static verifications are carried out
according to the second-order theory and
λ therefore does not occur explicitly.
order and λ therefore does not occur
explicitly. The buckling safety factor γk is
calculated as λ = β ∙ l/i
and i= √ I 5 / A :
π2 ∙ E (σ) ∙ I
γk = ,
0H ∙ (β9∙ l)2
where E (σ) = ρ ∙ E0 , H = maximum
horizontal shear under service loads, and
according to Figure 5.4.2-12.
It should be: γk ≥ 3.0 or, more strictly:
γk ≥ 3.0 + λ/100. For bends with a variable
cross-section, the cross-sectional values I
or A must be selected so that the moment
of inertia I is exceeded by at least 60% of
the unwound bend length.
Wall thicknesses: see Figure 5.4.2-13.
384If the arch is designed with a box cross- 5 Main supporting structures of
section, the following are used for the base the superstructures
plate
 5.4 Arch and tied-arch bridges 385

Figure 5.4.2-12 Auxiliary values for estimating the arc stability

Figure 5.4.2-13 Wall thicknesses in

the transom area

and cover plate 25-30 cm (40-50 cm in the

transom area), correspondingly more for
very large web spacings. The web
thicknesses must be selected according to
the shear forces to be absorbed and are
generally 30-40 (50) cm.
Column dimensions: see Figure 5.4.2-14.
If the roadway structure is continuous,
practically only moments due to Figure 5.4.2-14 Column slendernesses
constraint arise in the columns:
kφ ∙ Beff ∙ φ kψ ∙ Beff ∙ ψ
Mφ = 0l or Mψ = 0l 5.4.3 Steel bridges
9 9
where k = factor, Beff = bending stiffness of GÜNTER RAMBERGER
the column, φ = end node torsion, ψ = bar and FRANCESCO AIGNER
chord torsion, l = column length. To keep
these moments small, the supports should Arch bridges are divided into true arch
therefore be designed to be as slender as bridges, in which the arch is the load-
possible. Useful values are in the range λ bearing element and the roadway is only
= 70 to 100. See Figure 5.4.2-14 for useful suspended or elevated, and tied-arch
column thickness graduations. For high bridges, in which the arch serves as
columns, hollow cross-sections are more reinforcement for the stiffening girder
favorable than solid cross-sections. (Figure 5.4.3-1).
386
Fig. 5.4.3-1 Real arch bridge and tied-arch bridge
Arch bridges have the advantage that
they are exceptionally economical
structures in their final state, as the arch
shape is close to the support line associated
with the load and thus the loads are mainly
transferred to the transoms or supports via
normal force. However, they have the
disadvantage that this force transfer only
works when the arch is closed. Arches
therefore need supports when they are
assembled. These can be designed as
supports or as inclined suspensions, but
always require additional structures for
assembly. Although steel arch bridges
have been built since the early days of
steel construction and are still being built
today with spans of over 500 m
(Fayetteville Bridge USA with a span of
518 m), their importance is declining
compared to cable-stayed bridges. Tied-
arch bridges with a suspended deck,
which are assembled on a pre-assembly
site and installed as a whole (e.g. floated
in), are very economical structures in the
span range of approx. 50 m to 150 m,
especially today. For this reason, tied-arch
bridges are discussed in particular below.
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
Tied-arch bridges, also known as
Langer's beams after the Austrian
engineer Josef Langer, who first
investigated them in 1861 and who built
the Fer- dinand Bridge over the Mur in
Graz in 1881 using this system, consist of
a stiffening girder, an arch, which is
usually rigidly connected to the stiffening
girder, or at least pinned, and the hangers
(Fig. 5.4.3-2). The arch span is between
L/9 and L/6 (L is the span of the
supporting structure). The arch is
designed with a parabolic axis. Between 6
and 14 hangers are arranged on the span,
usually in an even number so that no
hanger is in the middle of the bridge for
aesthetic reasons. The arch subjected to
compression has a hat or box-shaped
cross-section that is bending stiffness in
both directions. The hangers are made of
round or flat steel. The stiffening girder is
usually formed as a comb cross-section
with two main girders and an orthopaedic
plate on top.
In the case of railroad bridges, the
lightweight steel deck can also be arranged
between the main girders. The hangers are
connected to the arch by means of
 5.4 Arch and tied-arch bridges
Figure 5.4.3-2 View and plan view of a tied-arch bridge, single-track railroad bridge [DB -
technical guidelines and standards].
Transverse bulkheads on the stiffening
girders in the plane of the web plates of
the main girders, in rare cases also on the
transverse girders (Figures 5.4.3-3 and
5.4.3-4).
Particular design attention must be
paid to the integration of the arch into the
stiffening beam, as the arch is usually
designed with two webs, but the stiffening
beam is usually designed with one (Fig.
5.4.3-5). Here it must be ensured that the
vertical component of the normal arch
force is transferred to the bearing and the
horizontal component to the stiffening
beam. The end cross girder of the roadway
is often designed with the arch
introduction and the start of the main
girders transversely oriented.
Bends can be free-standing or
connected by frames and/or bracing
(Figures 5.4.3-6 and 5.4.3-7). Free-
standing arches require considerably
wider cross-sections than arches with
bracing to prevent buckling transverse to
the plane of the arch. The end transoms
are usually as high as the arch. Together
with the arches in the un
387
The lower section has an inclined frame to
dissipate the wind forces on the arch and to
stabilize the arch.
The arch walls are usually vertical, but
inwardly inclined arch walls were also built
so that the arches meet in the middle of
the bridge (Fig. 5.4.3-8). Central girder
arch bridges with torsionally rigid
stiffening girders were also built (Fig.
5.4.3-9).
The railroad bridge over the Rhine in
Düsseldorf-Hamm is a very interesting
example of a lattice girder bridge with bar
arch reinforcement in a large span. The
bridge with spans of 250.00m - 135.50m
(Fig. 5.4.3-10) crosses four railroad tracks
in the bulkhead bed, with two tracks
between the inwardly inclined truss walls
and one track on each side outside the
truss wall. The bridge was built parallel to
an existing double-track bridge, which
before the effects of the Second World
War consisted of two parallel bridges with
parabolic trusses and thus carried four
tracks.
388 5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
Cross section
portal

6500

750 2200 2200 750

structure axis
Centerline of

Supporting
50±0
track

h
700
2% 2%

End cross member

Section A-A
≥2200
≥750
structure axis
Centerline of

Supporting

50±0
track

700
2%

B B

Press attachment
point

15
0 Section B-B
r≥

A A

Figure 5.4.3-3 Cross-section and end cross girder of a tied-arch bridge, single-track railroad bridge,
flat steel hangers [DB - technical guidelines and standards].
 5.4 Arch and tied-arch bridges 389

Screwed hanger connection

B B

Section A-A

Section B-B

Section C-C
C

Alternative: Hanger connection welder

A 3,5 3,5

B B
300

Section A-A
200

14 14

A
measure
Control

∅55

Section B-B
200

14 14
300

"X" "X" 2,5%

Exterio

C
Section C-C 48
r

50° 50°
V T
C

Figure 5.4.3-4 Connecting the hangers [DB - technical guidelines and standards] and [Flentge, 1985]
5.4 Arch and tied-arch bridges 389

Figure 5.4.3-5 Base point design for railroad bridges,

favorable for fatigue resistance taking into account the weld
seam test [DB - technical guidelines and standards].
390 5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures

M. 1 : 2

"I"

Ceramic plates

"V" M. 1 : 2

30 55 55 30

"II " M1:2

"III"

"IV"

Figure 5.4.3-5 (continued)

5.4 Arch and tied-arch bridges 391

A
Cut under arch cover plate

B B
r≥
15
0

A
E
C C

View E

Section D-D

Section B-B

Coupled profiles

Section A-A
View E
I

"I" Section D-D

M. = 1 : 2

Section C-C Section C-C

Variant: HE profiles

Figure 5.4.3-6 Diagonal bracing and portal ledgers [DB - technical guidelines and standards].
392
Top view
r≥
15
0 0
D D
Section D-D
Overview
Elements
Figure 5.4.3-7 Vierendeel bracing and portal transom [DB - technical guidelines and standards].
In 1947, a bridge was rebuilt from the
remains of the destroyed supporting
structures. The new bridge was built using
the existing old piers, which were
removed once the new bridge had been
installed. The old bridge and its
substructures were also dismantled after
the new bridge was put into operation.
The arch levels of the new bridge are
arranged parallel to the truss levels. The
arches are supported on abutments and
central piers and are connected to the
stiffening girder via cross girders so that
the horizontal forces are not transferred to
the substructures but are short-circuited
via the stiffening girder. In the view, the
hangers lie in vertical planes, but in cross-
section they are at different angles
between
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
Section A-A
B B
r≥
15
Section B-B
Arch and truss top chord (Fig. 5.4.3-11).
The assembly method chosen was fixed
assembly and section-by-section
longitudinal displacement of the
supporting structure using an old pillar
that had not been used after destruction.
To install the arches, an auxiliary joint
was attached in the lower section and the
remaining arch sections were placed on
the roadway. The arch sections were then
lifted, the joints at the apex and at the
auxiliary joints were closed and the
hangers were installed (Fig. 5.4.3-12).
5.4 Arch and tied-arch bridges 393

2%

BIKE
PATH WALK

25%

GAS

DEWATERING

Figure 5.4.3-8 Design of a bridge over the Danube with inwardly inclined arch walls, triangular
arch cross-section

1570
1640

15000

750
12500 3000 12500

±0 6 + 16 cm

-3700

Figure 5.4.3-9 Center-girder tied-arch bridge over the Salzach [Beer et al, 1970]
394 5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures

Figure 5.4.3-10 View of the Hammer railroad bridge, [Volke, 2001]

Figure 5.4.3-11 Cross-section of the Hammer railroad bridge, [Volke, 2001]

5.4 Arch and tied-arch bridges 395

Shifting direction Gantry cranes

Neuss Düsseldorf
Without
roadway
Shifting bearing
and lowering device
135,00 m 140,00 m 110,00 m
New power pillar South pillar old Abutment Düsseldorf new

Shifting bearing and lowering device

Fitting the arched sections and bolts

Auxiliary assembly
joint

Auxiliary
Lifting pillar
support
Lifting the two halves of the arch

Closing the arch joints at the

auxiliary joints and in the vertex

3125512
42 3 6
Hanger assembly 76 7
8 8
sequence

Figure 5.4.3-12 Installation procedure

Above: Longitudinal insertion method for the truss below:
Arch assembly and hanger installation
396
5.4.4 Composite and mixed constructions
ULRIKE KUHLMANN
and ANNETTE DETZEL
5.4.4.1 Tied-arch bridges
(a) Fundamentals
The idea of arch systems is to transfer most
of the external load via normal forces and
not via bending moments. As a result,
comparatively high load-bearing
capacities can be achieved with slim,
minimal cross-sections. This system is
optimized if, as is usual with the bar arch
system, the arch pressure force is balanced
by a tension band in the roadway axis so
that only vertical loads and no horizontal
transverse loads are transferred to the
ground. Another typical feature of this
system is that the tied arch has a low
bending stiffness of its own compared to
the stiffening beams in the roadway axis, so
that the overall moment is predominantly
divided into a force pair of arch
compression force/stiffening beam tensile
force and individual bending moments of
the stiffening beams.
These bar arch systems as steel
constructions with orthotropic steel decks
or with reinforced concrete composite
slabs have become very popular in recent
years, especially for road bridges, because
they offer a number of advantages that are
particularly important today:
• The low construction height under the
roadway makes it possible to bridge
comparatively large spans - usually 60
to 100 m - while maintaining the
greatest possible clearance height, as is
necessary for overpassing waterways or
highways, for example.
• As the actual arch construction lies
above the roadway, the
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
Figure 5.4.4-1 Distribution of internal forces
in the beam bend
In the same way, only flat ramps are
required to approach the bridge, as is
favorable for flat terrain in northern
and central Germany, for example.
• The widely visible arch design allows
visual accentuation without any
additional economic expense.
The economic efficiency lies primarily in
the transfer of force through normal
forces instead of bending moments.
However, this only applies to symmetrical
loads such as dead loads. Unsymmetrical
loads, as they inevitably occur due to
traffic, lead to quite significant individual
bending moments in the stiffening girders,
which, as the diagram in Figure 5.4.4-2
also shows, are maximum when loaded by
traffic loads at the quarter points.
Accordingly, the maximum deflections
also occur at the quarter points.
As deflections are severely limited in
railroad bridges, DIN FB 101 [DIN-FB
101, 2003] requires the following,
depending on the type of bridge
Figure 5.4.4-2 Moment influence line in the
stiffening beam
5.4 Arch and tied-arch bridges
Figure 5.4.4-3 Dömitz Elbe bridge, top view
Since the design speed and span limit the
deflection to L/600 to L/2650, the system of
"soft" tied arch bridges has not yet
prevailed over the stiffer truss bridges for
this use. For road bridges, on the other
hand, it has become one of the most
frequently built composite bridge systems
in recent years, see also the
documentation of the Federal Ministry of
Transport [BMV, 1997]. Typical
dimensions and dimensions can also be
found here, such as the slenderness ratio of
the stiffening girders of around 40 and an
average structural steel weight of approx.
300 kg/m2. Table 5.4.4-1 provides an
overview of a series of tied-arch
composite bridges from the 1990s.
The data reveals some typical
geometric ratios such as the ratio of arch
stitch to span of about 1/7 to 1/6.
What these systems have in common is
the design of the steel bar compression
arch and the arrangement of a reinforced
concrete shoring slab in the tension band
area, so that the concrete slab is subjected
to almost centric tension. In a certain
sense, this design principle is contrary to
the basic rules of shoring construction, i.e.
the compression components are made of
concrete and the tension components of
steel. In addition to cost advantages, there
is a functional argument in favor of
designing the roadway slab as a concrete
component: During the transition from
the open roadway to the bridge structure,
a concrete roadway cools down less
quickly and thus poses less of a risk of
icing than a steel roadway.
397
(b) Special features of modern tied arch
composite bridges
Reinforced concrete roadway slab
In the cross-section of a typical tied-arch
composite bridge, the concrete deck is set
off from the two main steel girders. It is
supported only on the steel cross girders
with which it forms composite cross
girders. This separation between the
external steel main girders and the
concrete deck was originally intended to
minimize the effect of the concrete slab in
the tension band. The tensile stresses that
nevertheless arise in the composite slab
used to be overcome by high longitudinal
prestressing of the tendons.
In the meantime, a modified design
philosophy has also become established
for these composite arch bridges
[Kuhlmann, 1996], [Kuhlmann, 1997]:
Reaming of the concrete slab is permitted.
Tendon prestressing is dispensed with. A
reinforced slack reinforcement of 80 to 90
kg/m2
is inserted for the partial
participation of the concrete, which also
serves to limit the crack width.
The Dömitz Elbe Bridge [Lüesse, 1992],
[Lüesse et al., 1993] was the first arch
bridge with a reinforced, non-prestressed
deck in Germany. With a span of 178 m at
a crown height of 27 m and the visually
appealing cross-sectional shape of the
inclined suspension planes, it has become a
role model for a number of such bridges.
The arches, which are inclined at 88 gon,
are stabilized by a diamond-shaped
bracing.
Table 5.4.4-1 Bar arch composite bridges

398
Comple Longitudinal system Span L/h Cross section Width Concrete roadway Thicknes
tion width (with cap) s of the
L [m] [m] roadway
[cm]
Elbe bridge Dömitz 1992 Stub height = 27.0 m; hanger spacing 178 6,6 2 external stiffening 15,4 longitudinally taut; 32,0
11.3 m; crossbeam spacing 11.3 m/3 beams longitudinally slack;
transversely slack
Beer bridge Liersberg 1993 Stitch height h = 5.8 m; hanger 41 7,1 2 external stiffening 10,0 longitudinally tensioned; only 30.0 at the edge
spacing 3.6 m; crossbeam spacing 3.6 beams longitudinally prestressed at 50,0
m/2 the edge (traffic); slack
transversely; guided up to the
web of the VT
Landquart Bridge Au 1994 Stitch height h = 23.0 m; hanger 134 5,8 4 stiffening girders 11,9 transversely prestressed; only 30.0 at the edge
spacing 9.3 m; crossbeam spacing 9.3 under the track longitudinally prestressed at 120,0
m the edge (traffic); transversely
slack
Amperbrücke Inning; 1996 Stitch height h = 12.0 m; hanger 70 5,8 3 stiffening girders 15,4 transversely tensioned; 20,0-38,0-20,0
2 superstructures spacing 15.0 m; crossbeam spacing 15.0 under the track longitudinally slack;
m transversely slack; B 35
Saale bridge Calbe 1996 Stub height h = 17.0 m; hanger 100 5,9 2 external stiffening 13,4 longitudinally taut; 30,0
spacing 8.6 m; crossbeam spacing 8.6 beams up longitudinally slack;
m/3 to transversely slack;
20.1 up to the jetty of the VT;

Rünther Bridge
New Werra Bridge Münden
Replacement of Hiddingseler
Bridge Official draft
Elbe descent canal
Rothensee
Overpass B
281 Saalfeld
the superstructures
5 Main supporting structures of
B35
1997 Stub height h = 13.7 m; hanger 91 6,6 2 external stiffening 10,5 longitudinally taut; 30.5 to 36.9
spacing 8.0 m; crossbeam spacing 8.0 beams longitudinally slack;
m/2 transversely slack
Stitch height h 0 12.2 m; hanger spacing 67 5,5 2 external stiffening 20,5 transversely tensioned; 38,0-48,0-38,0
7,2 m; beams longitudinally slack;
No cross members transversely prestressed
Stub height h = 11.3 m; hanger 76 6,7 2 external stiffening 14,3 longitudinally taut; ≈ 33,0
spacing 7.0 m; crossbeam spacing 7.0 beams longitudinally slack;
m/2 transversely slack
1995 Stitch height h = 17.1 m; hanger 92 5,4 2 external stiffening 23,9 longitudinally tensioned; 32,0
spacing 6.9 m; crossbeam spacing 6.9 beams longitudinally slack;
m/2 transversely slack; B35
1996 Stitch height h = 6 m; hanger 39 6,5 2 external stiffening 17,6 longitudinally tensioned; 32,0
spacing 5.4 m; crossbeam spacing beams longitudinally slack;
3.5 m transversely slack; B35
 Dortmund-Ems
5.4 Arch Canal bridges1985
and tied-arch Stitch height h = 16 m; hanger 104,77 6,5 2 external
399stiffening 32,5 longitudinally prestressed; 27.0 at the edge
near Rheine spacing 8.7 m; crossbeam spacing 8.7 beams longitudinally 32,0
m/3 p r e s t r e s s e d ; only
transversely prestressed at the
edge
Weser bridge Holzminden 1997 Stitch height h = 15 m; hanger 89,0 5,9 2 external stiffening 17,3 longitudinally tensioned; 32,0
spacing 7.6 m; crossbeam spacing 7.6 beams longitudinally and
m/2 transversely slack; B35
5.4 Arch and tied-arch bridges
Figure 5.4.4-4 Dömitz Elbe bridge, cross-
section
Suspension vibrations
The Dömitz Elbe bridge has become
known among experts for another reason:
At the connection points of the hangers
made of 120 and 130 mm thick round steel
to the stiffening girders, fatigue cracks due
to rain-wind induced vibrations were
observed for the first time [Lüesse et al.,
1996], [Günther et al., 2000]. Strong
vibrations of the hangers of up to 300 mm
were triggered by the change in the
hanger cross-section due to the position
of the rain gutter along the hanger and led
to cracks at the fatigue-critical weld
connection details. Extensive
investigations followed, including the
development of a special damper. As the
phenomenon itself can hardly be reliably
399
Fig. 5.4.4-5 Recommended design of the
pendant connection, a) geometry, b)
dimensions according to [Günther et al.,
2000].
The recommendations that have been
developed in the meantime relate
primarily to the fatigue-compliant design
of the hanger connection, which is usually
not really hinged, but is "clamped" to the
stiffening girder in the plane of the arch
and to the arch perpendicular to the arch
plane. Fig. 5.4.4-5 shows the geometric
recommendations according to [Günther
et al., 2000], which also require a fatigue
analysis for traversing loads. Further
design recommendations are given in
[BAW, 2003] and [Leitfaden, 2007]. The
current state of the art is presented in
[Schütz et al., 2008].
Connection concrete deck/stiffening girder
Since the new design concept allows the
contribution of the cracked concrete
cross-section to be taken into account
statically, there is actually no reason to
separate the steel stiffening girder and
concrete slab. Various bar arch designs,
but also executions, therefore lead the
concrete slab up to the external steel
stiffening girders [Kuhlmann, 1996].
Considering the difficulty of maintaining
corrosion protection and the possibility of
soiling, the gap between the steel stiffening
girder and the cap structure is somewhat
problematic in terms of the durability of
the structure anyway. Due to a direct
shear-resistant
400 5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures

Fig. 5.4.4-6 Bridge over the Elbe downstream canal at Rothensee, cross-section

The gap is avoided by connecting the However, the concrete deck and steel
concrete roadway and the main steel girder are also connected by horizontal
girder, see also the cross-section of the dowels to the inner web, which together
bridge over the Elbe exit canal at with the web of the stiffening girder forms
Rothensee according to [BMV, 1997], see an airtight box.
Figure 5.4.4-6.
Here, the actual shear force is applied
via a horizontal bar with head bolt dowels,
which can be moved to the

Figure 5.4.4-7 Anchorage detail base point (source: Federal Ministry of Transport, StB 25)
5.4 Arch and tied-arch bridges
With horizontal dowels in thin panels,
the forces applied must be distributed
across the thickness of the panel. This
results in a splitting tensile stress, which is
only resisted to a small extent in the thin
panel. Horizontal splitting tensile cracks
are the result. Cracking in the concrete
therefore plays an important role in the
failure of the dowel connection.
Investigations of horizontal dowel
connections under longitudinal shear
have led to initial design and construction
rules, so that this connection can also be
used as planned in the future, see
[Breuninger/Kuhlmann, 2001].
Cross-tensioned roadway
The Amperbrücke In ning bridge for the
A96 highway south of Munich [Hagedorn
et al., 1997] represents a further
development of the direct connection
between the stiffening girder and the
composite slab. The idea behind this new
system is that the main steel girders are no
longer arranged next to the concrete slab
but underneath it. The main steel girders
thus act together with the concrete slab as
composite girders in the longitudinal
direction of the bridge. The roadway slab
no longer spans as it did with the
401
Figure 5.4.4-8
Amper Bridge
This system with a transversely spanned
composite slab corresponds to the very
economical system of typical composite
deck bridges. This system with a
transversely spanned composite slab
corresponds more or less to the very
economical system of typical composite
deck bridges, which is only spanned here
by two arches due to the larger span of
over 70 m, see Fig. 5.4.4-8.
The arch and roadway are connected to
each other via four very strong cross
girders and hangers.
The system is particularly economical
due to the reduction in the number of
individual structural elements and
connections. Instead of 16 to 20 cross
girders at a distance of 3.5 to 4 m, the
Amper bridge system with cross-tensioned
composite slab only has these 4 strong
cross girders. The crossing points between
the main girder and cross girder and the
hanger connection points in particular
require a considerable amount of welding,
so that their number is a significant factor
in the cost calculation.
Due to the significant reduction in the
number of hangers, however, a load case
comes to the fore for the arch design that
otherwise plays a rather subordinate role:
the load case "failure of a hanger". With
402
If a hanger fails, the hanger force acts as a
concentrated load on the arch and causes
a not inconsiderable bending moment
component which, despite being treated as
a bridge, has the higher bending stiffness.
"Catastrophic load case" with reduced
safeties in the case of the Amper Bridge
became relevant for measurement.
At the end of the bridge, the frictional
connection between the arch base points
and the carriageway is created by a strong
bracing system, see Fig. 5.4.4-9. Like the
three main girders, the bracing bars are
connected to the carriageway in shear
stiffness via shear stud dowels. The
composite slab is not prestressed, but only
reinforced with reinforcing steel.
Sheet stability
Typical of many tied arch composite
bridges, the Amper bridge also dispenses
with an upper stabilizing bracing between
the arches. This not only saves additional
structural members, which is
economically advantageous, but also
eliminates the difficult maintenance of the
bracing above the roadway. As a result, the
arch is stabilized out of its plane only by
the restraint at the arch base. Typically,
these arch forms
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
Figure 5.4.4-9
Amperbrücke Horizon-
talverband
This means a rectangular hollow cross-
section, which, as with the Amper Bridge
with a width of 1.2 m and a height of 90
cm perpendicular to the plane of the
The arch base restraint must therefore
be designed with particular care.
Perpendicular to the arch plane, it is
provided by the end cross girder, which
also has a third bearing in the middle, not
only in the case of the Amper Bridge, to
limit the deformation of the roadway
crossing. In the plane of the bridge, the
arch restraint is usually realized by the
stiffening girders in the case of external
stiffening girders. In the Amper Bridge
system, the strong diagonal bracing bars
that lead to the arch bases must partially
take over this task. The torsional stiffness
of the end cross girder, especially when the
end cross girder is designed with a box
cross-section, as found in other bridges,
also has an effect in this sense. While in the
final state the horizontal restraint is
ensured by the deck slab which is brought
up to the arch, in the construction state
without deck slab the transfer of the
horizontal bending moments around the
arch base point is always also ensured.
5.4 Arch and tied-arch bridges
Figure 5.4.4-10 Arch bridge over the Britzer Verbindungskanal [Photo and computer simulation
www.short-cuts.de]
The vertical bearing axis presents a
particular difficulty for the decisive
concreting load cases. In systems such as
the Amper Bridge, only the horizontal
four-deck system consisting of bending
stiff steel longitudinal and transverse
beams can be effective here, taking into
account the horizontal bending stiffness
of the shoring bars.
Despite this structurally and statically
complex design of the arch restraint,
horizontal bracing between the arches as a
frame or bracing system is only used if
additional downward forces have to be
transferred in addition to the horizontal
loads from wind and arch stability: For
example, from the inclination of the arch
planes, as in the case of the Dömitz Elbe
bridge, or because of a bend in the arch, as
was required for the widening of the
roadway at the arch bridge near Calbe
over the Saale [Fiedler/Ziemann, 1997].
(c) Special shapes
Number of sheets
As with the deck bridges, the double-
webbed plate girder also represents a
major challenge for the
403
In bar arch systems, the solution with two
arches to the left and right of the track is a
kind of optimal standard solution. Both
bends are utilized approximately equally,
one-sided stresses in the cross-section are
distributed to both bends according to the
lever law. Nevertheless, there are systems
that deviate from this in individual cases.
For example, a three-arch solution was
u s e d for the arch bridge over the Britz
connecting canal, see Figure 5.4.4-10,
[Svensson et al., 2000]. A two-arch
solution would have led to a large cross
girder height with the large required
carriageway width of 2 × 15.25 m, which
was not possible with the clearance limits
to be maintained over the canal. Two
separate superstructures with a total of
four arches were not chosen due to the
additional space required. The design of
the bar arch system, which runs over 112
m, also corresponds to the usual systems
with external stiffening girders and a
reinforced concrete slab that spans
longitudinally between the cross girders
and is not prestressed. Upper struts were
404 5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures

Figure 5.4.4-11 Arch bridge over the Britz connecting canal, cross-section

arranged between the arches in order to In contrast, the Danube Bridge

The central arch receives approximately
three times the load of the outer arches.
The central arch receives approximately
three times the load of the outer arches, a
clear sign that, as with all multi-girder
systems, the design with only two support
planes is overdimensioned due to the
throughput effect in the transverse support
direction.
Fischerdorf is a single central girder - tied
arch, see [Nather, 1994]. According to the
special design by Thyssen Engineering
GmbH, Klönne works, the steel bar arch
system was constructed with two
composite stiffening girder boxes with a
loosely reinforced steel deck slab. The
stiffening girder boxes, see Fig. 5.4.4-12,

Figure 5.4.4-12 Danube bridge Fischerdorf, cross-section

5.4 Arch and tied-arch bridges
Figure 5.4.4-13 Main bridge at the NATO ramp, view
and the more than 3.4 m wide end cross
girders form a horizontally lying closed
frame. The stiffening girders and arch
girders are each connected via eight
coupling cross girders and hangers.
The design with two separate boxes as
stiffening beams also ensures sufficient
stiffness under one-sided loading, as is
particularly required for the load cases
considered with regard to later
refurbishment
• Removal of the pavement and sealing
on one directional carriageway with
full traffic load on the other side
• Partial expansion of one of the two
roadway slabs to 20 m
The planning of the Danube bridge in
Fischerdorf is also an example of the high
value placed on the durability of the
structure by project owners today. Not
only were any renovation measures for
the concrete deck carefully planned in
advance, but the builder also required a
proof of operational strength - very
unusual for a road bridge in Germany at
the time. In the future, fatigue verifications
will also have to be carried out for road
bridges in accordance with the rules of the
European body of standards, unless it is
possible to demonstrate a fatigue-compliant
design by means of structural measures, as
is the case with orthotropic steel
roadways.
405
Infill
Tied-arch bridges are usually equipped
with vertical hangers. Their task is to
"hang up" the loads from the roadway into
the arch or to act as a "shear skin" between
the arch compression force and the
stiffening girder tensile force. They
therefore only participate in the transfer
of the symmetrical load components,
while the antimetric loads, e.g. from traffic,
are only absorbed by the bending of the
stiffening girders, see Fig. 5.4.4-1 and -2.
In contrast, the Main bridge on the NATO
ramp between Sulzbach and Niedernberg
[Schö- mig, 2000] with a span of approx.
150 m was planned with a diagonal truss
at the hangers in order to allow the arch
and its infill to also participate in the
transfer of asymmetrical loads. Due to the
weight of the concrete roadway, the very
slender diagonals are virtually prestressed
in tension, so that the compressive forces
from the truss effect primarily only reduce
the tensile forces from permanent loads in
the diagonals. Due to the diagonal infill,
the stiffening girders can be designed with
a lower construction height.
Despite the advantages described, there
are only a few tied-arch bridges for which
this type of infill was chosen. On the one
hand, this is certainly due to the fact that it
is not easy to achieve an optimal aesthetic
truss layout. On the other hand, the pre-
tension in the diagonals is only present to
its full height in the final state, so that
under certain circumstances it is not
possible for intermediate
406
The use of a pre-tensioning system is
necessary in the case of the most difficult
conditions and less loaded diag- nals.
The trade-off between economic and
technical possibilities and the demands on
aesthetic design is increasingly playing a
decisive role in the planning of bridges. As
the tied-arch designs over the
Mittellandka- nal [Beuke, 1998] show,
very unusual arch shapes and designs are
sometimes chosen for purely architectural
reasons.
-infill panels were selected.
5.4.4.2 Arch bridges
Real arch bridge
As already described for the tied-arch
bridge, arch structures prefer to carry
their loads via normal forces, i.e. the arch
is subjected to compression. In contrast to
the tied-arch bridge, however, the
horizontal loads of the true arch bridge are
transferred from the arch effect at the
abutment into the ground. This means that
no tensile forces occur in the roadway
girder. However, this type of load trasnfer
requires a correspondingly stiff foundation
that prevents horizontal displacements at
the base of the arch. These conditions are
met in the following example.
The viaduct over the Wilde Gera in the
Thuringian Forest is an arch bridge with
an overhead roadway that crosses a deep
valley floor (longitudinal section Figure
5.4.4-14), see [Denzer et al., 2000],
[Wölfel, R. 1999]. The load-bearing rock
close to the top of the terrain allows a
shallow foundation for the arch footings.
The original administrative design
envisaged a beam bridge with piers up to
110 m high and spans of between 60 and
114 m. The special design with a wide-
span arch made it possible to achieve the
required
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
This made it possible to avoid displacing
the landfill at the foot of one of the piers.
It was also possible to make the
superstructure, which only spans a
maximum of 42 m over piers and arch
supports, much slimmer.
The arch consists of a two-cell
reinforced concrete box, which was
constructed from both sides of the valley
using the cantilever method.
The composite superstructure is a steel
box with an overlying concrete roadway
supported by additional outer diagonals,
see Fig. 4.2.3-8, Section 4.2.3.3. The
diagonals are short-circuited via a tension
strip that is bonded to the roadway slab.
This transverse composite beam not only
acts in the transverse frame system of the
box, but also provides local support for
the slab. The combined effect of
transverse tension, bending and local load
trasnfer requires some special
considerations with regard to the design
and construction of this unusual
composite beam, which could also be
regarded as a reinforced concrete beam
with external steel reinforcement [Denzer
et al., 2000].
A fundamental feature of the bridge is
its one-piece superstructure. With a one-
piece superstructure, it must be possible
to renew one directional carriageway
while maintaining traffic on the other
directional carriageway. This leads to
considerable additional loads in the
superstructure, which must be taken into
account in the design and construction.
The problem is that the torsionally rigid
box cross-section is opened over a certain
area and torsional moments can only be
transferred via arching force stress. The
shear center point and main cross-section
axes also shift in this area. The
investigations for
5.4 Arch and tied-arch bridges
Figure 5.4.4-14 Wilde Gera viaduct, longitudinal section
the Wilde Gera viaduct have shown that
the condition "replacement of the
carriageway of one half of the bridge over
a length of 12 to 15 m" becomes a design-
relevant load case for the transverse
frame. In addition, when replacing the
carriageway in the end spans, additional
measures for lift-off protection at the
abutment must be taken into account.
With regard to the separation cut in the
middle of the slab when replacing one half
of the carriageway, it is necessary to arrange
an additional longitudinal girder in the
middle of the bridge to support the
carriageway slab, which in the case of the
Wilde Gera viaduct was designed as a
reinforced concrete beam.
Figure 5.4.4-15 Pùnt la Resgia arch bridge (source M. Gerold)
407
The Pùnt la Resgia bridge near
Innerferrera in Switzerland has a
comparable main structure to the "Wilde
Gera" bridge, but with a different use of
materials [Ge- rold, 2001]. The span
between the transoms is 45.7 m.
This is also a real arch bridge with an
elevated roadway (Fig. 5.4.4-15).
However, the arch, supports and deck
girders are made of glulam. The concrete
deck slab forms a composite transverse
section with the longitudinal girders. The
anchoring is carried out via reinforcement
bars glued into the timber girders (see Fig.
5.4.4-16). For the longitudinal beams and
the center sill of the arch
408
Figure 5.4.4-16 Detail wood-concrete
composite
the cantilevered concrete slab as
constructive wood protection. The timber
components were also additionally
impregnated by spraying or dipping.
Hybrid arch construction
Unlike the Wilde Gera viaduct, the
Beesedau Saale bridge is not founded on
load-bearing rock, but on relatively soft
ground. Since a rigid green
Figure 5.4.4-17 Saale bridge Beesedau, view
Figure 5.4.4-18 Saale bridge Beesedau, cross-section
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
As the construction to accommodate the
large horizontal forces would have been
disproportionately complex and
expensive, a modified arch bridge was
chosen. The two steel arches, which are
slightly inclined towards each other and
from which the deck is suspended, are
supported against the roadway deck at the
transoms via steel diagonal braces. This
transfers part of the arch shear force back
into the composite girders, where it is
short-circuited as a tensile force in the
deck. The load on the subsoil is thus
considerably reduced, see [Schmackpfeffer
et al.,1999], [Gebert/Schmackpfeffer, 2000],
[Heiland et al., 2000]. The modified arch
system is a hybrid system between the tied
arch, which transfers the entire tensile
force over the roadway, and the true arch,
which transfers the entire arch thrust into
the ground.
5.4 Arch and tied-arch bridges
Figure 5.4.4-19 Elbe bridge Pirna, longitudinal section
The superstructure cross-section consists
of two separate composite boxes, which
are only coupled at a distance of 13.20 m
via the steel hanger cross-beams and the
curved and inclined strut cross-beams.
This longitudinal separation of the
roadway slab serves to enable the roadway
slab to be replaced on one side at a later
date. Similar to the Wilde Gera viaduct,
considerable additional effort was required
for this. In particular, the cross girders
could not be designed as composite girders
but only as steel girders and had to be
dimensioned for one-sided loading
[Gebert/Schmackpfeffer, 2000].
The Saalebrücke Beesedau is also close
to the tied arch as a mixed system because,
unlike most real arch bridges, it does not
have an elevated roadway, such as the
Wilde Gera viaduct, but a roadway
construction below, which is attached to
the arch via round steel hangers.
Arch bridge anchored in itself
The third example, the Elbe bridge Pirna
[Eilzer et al., 1999], as an arch with a
roadway on top, again corresponds more
to the typical image of an arch bridge.
However, the compressive force of the
reinforced concrete arch spanning over
134 m over the Elbe is completely
transferred back into the steel composite
structure of the superstructure via arch
sections in the course of the side spans
supported over 90 m, see Fig. 5.4.4-19.
409
This form of construction has recently
been realized in a number of composite
bridges. Examples include the Isar Bridge
in Grünwald [Fink, 1999] and the
Humboldt Harbour Bridge in Berlin
[Schlaich/Schober, 1999b], an attractive
tubular structure. In both cases, these are
steel arches that carry a composite
superstructure or a prestressed concrete
superstructure and can be prefabricated
and attached to the superstructure
relatively easily due to their lower weight
and the possibility of prefabrication.
In contrast, the construction of the
reinforced concrete semi-circular arch for
the Pirna Elbe bridge in cantilever
construction with auxiliary pylon and
bracing causes considerable effort. The
coupling between the concrete arch and
the steel box of the composite
superstructure is also complex, see Fig.
5.4.4-20. In this area, the superstructure is
designed as a double composite cross-
section with a lower concrete slab. Steel
weights fitted with dowels protrude into
the arch cross-section and short-circuit
the arch compression force with the tensile
force present in the superstructure. The
transfer of concentrated high normal
forces directly via the bond joint between
steel and concrete poses a particular
problem. It can be avoided, as in the case
of the Saalebrücke Beesedau bridge, where
the force transmission between the steel
arch and the composite superstructure
only takes place via the steel structure.
The examples of anchored arch bridges
mentioned above show the particular
410
Figure 5.4.4-20 Elbe bridge Pirna, connecting structure arch superstructure
The wide variety of solutions that are
possible in composite bridge construction.
Optimal designs can be achieved with a
consistent mixed construction, which
allows low-cost construction with an
aesthetic, filigree appearance and
flexibility for later roadway replacement.
For example, why not arrange an internal
steel girder in the concrete arch as an
auxiliary support for the formwork during
construction and as a coupling element in
the composite joint in the final state?
Development will certainly continue in
the area of these hybrid constructions.
5.5 Cable-stayed bridges
GERHARD GIRMSCHEID
(except sections 5.5.5.1.3 and 5.5.6)
5.5.1 Design principles
In the international arena, cable-stayed
breaks for large spans have proven to be
extremely economical in recent decades.
Cable-stayed bridges consist of the
following load-bearing elements:
stretching girder, cable,
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
Pylon(s). The stretch beam is connected
to the cables in such a way that it is quasi
elastically supported. The cables are
attached to the pylon and transfer their
forces there.
A distinction is made between three
basic systems (Table 5.5-1):
1. Bundle system
2. Harp system
3. Fan system
In the bundle system, all cable axes
intersect at one point on the pylon axis and
are anchored in an anchoring structure.
With many cables, however, this can lead
to space problems at the pylon head. The
pylon is only stressed by normal forces
and therefore favorably. When viewed in
perspective, the cable overlaps usually result
in an aesthetically unsatisfactory
appearance.
The harp system has a particularly
attractive, aesthetic appearance. The
cables are anchored in the pylon at quasi-
equidistant intervals. Due to their equal
inclination, they receive equally high tensile
forces [Leonhardt/Zellner, 1972]. The
pylon is not only stressed by normal forces,
but also by bending moments.
5.5 Inclined cable
bridges
Table 5.5-1 Basic systems of cable-stayed bridges
Systems
The fan system largely combines the
advantages of the two systems mentioned
above. The cables are utilized equally. The
anchoring in the pylons is sufficiently far
apart. Due to the large number of cables, a
veil of relatively thin cables is formed.
This creates an aesthetically pleasing
appearance.
The development trend for cable-stayed
bridges is moving from systems with a few
large cables to small multi-cable systems
[Leonhardt et al., 1974], in which
Figure 5.5-1 Development trend from mono to multi-cable system
411
The cables are arranged at quasi-
equidistant intervals on the stretched
beam (Fig. 5.5-1).
cable bridges with a few large cables:
1. special construction aids to bridge the
large areas between the suspensions,
2. special local reinforcements in the
stretch beam,
3. special measures for anchoring the
cables in the crossbeam.
412
Table 5.5-2 Comparison of systems with one cable level and two cable levels
One cable level
Torsionally rigid cross-section
1 required (hollow cross-section)
Compared to two cable levels: Larger
cables at the same distance or the
2
same cables at a smaller distance
3 -
Examples:
In addition, the large cables are often no
longer pre-assembled and therefore have
to be produced on site.
The multi-cable systems enable an
economical, rational solution. The cable
spacing is chosen so close that:
1. prefabricated cables can be used,
2. no special auxiliary equipment is
required for cantilever construction,
thus ensuring a cost-effective and fast
construction process,
3. individual cables can be replaced under
traffic conditions.
With multi-cable systems, the bending
moments and the shear forces in the
cantilever beam are small and the bridge is
loaded evenly. This results in a low overall
height, which is only dependent on the
cable spacing and thus, if the stability
criteria are met, on the overall length of
the bridge [Girmscheid, 1987-1]. The
economic efficiency of the construction
can be
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
Two cable levels
No torsionally rigid cross-section required
(e.g. U-shaped cross-section is sufficient),
therefore lighter stretch beam
Compared to a cable level: Easier
anchoring due to smaller cable
diameter
Higher spatial system rigidity
Examples:
can be further increased if two cables are
used (Table 5.5-2).
Due to a tight cable suspension, the
yield beam is elastically bedded, which is
why only small shear forces and bending
moments arise [Girmscheid, 1987-2]. A
comparison with the bending moments of
a beam with the same span shows the
order of magnitude of the differences
(Table 5.5-3).
As can be seen from the principle
distribution of internal forces (Table 5.5-3,
stay cable system), the normal force acting
in the longitudinal direction, which is
caused by the horizontal components of
the stay cables, is usually the dominant
internal force in the yield beam
[Girmscheid, 1987-2]. A global load-
bearing analysis of a cable-stayed bridge
leads to the conclusion that the entire
yield beam can be considered in analogy
to an elastically embedded beam. This
results in the following decisive internal
forces:
5.5 Inclined cable
bridges
Table 5.5-3 Bending moment comparison of beam and cable-stayed bridge
Beam system
1
1. Drawbeam:
Large normal forces; small, continuous
bending moments between the rope
suspensions
2. Plate:
mostly due to the normal forces in the
yield beam in the entire area under
compressive stresses
3. Ropes: Tension
4. Pylon:
Large normal forces (total dead load +
live load), minimum possible moments
from eccentric traffic etc.
An economical solution is always found
when the specific properties of concrete
and steel are consistently utilized.
Supporting members that are mainly
subject to compressive stresses should
therefore be made of the relatively cheap
reinforced concrete, and supporting
members that are subject to high tensile
stresses should be made of steel profiles. If
these criteria are summarized under the
aspect of the overall optimization of the
structure,
413
Inclined cable system
the concept is to build the section girder
as light as possible in order to achieve
small cable cross-sections. This also
means that the masses are reduced not
only for the stretching girder and the
cables, but also for the pylons and the
foundation. However, it should also be
noted that cables must be measured for
both static tensile stress and fatigue stress.
If the tension member becomes very light,
e.g. in an all-steel version, the dead load
can drop to the order of magnitude of the
live load [Roik et al., 1986]. The static
tensile strength of the cable cannot be
utilized at these high stress amplitudes
compared to the static load. Therefore,
despite its low overall weight, the pure
steel version with its complex orthotropic
plate is only economical for very large
spans or extremely high slenderness.
Instead, for smaller and medium spans,
lightweight steel plates are used.
414
and cost-effective stretched beams made
of steel-concrete or composite
construction. Economical solutions are
obtained for these spans if the following
load-bearing members are selected:
• Reinforced concrete or steel main
girders
• Reinforced concrete slab instead of
orthotropic steel slab
• Reinforced or prestressed concrete cross
beams
• Reinforced concrete pylon with pre-
tension in the anchoring area
5.5.2 Construction elements
5.5.2.1 Angled cable
The stay cables are the distinctive load-
bearing elements of the stay cable bridge.
They contribute significantly to system
rigidity and system damping. Today,
factory prefabricated cables are usually
used, which consist of the cable and the
anchorage heads and are provided with
permanent or temporary corrosion
protection. The laid ropes and the parallel
wire ropes usually consist of individual
wires with a diameter of 5-7 mm
[Merkblatt: Ebene Seiltragwerke, 1980].
These steel wires have a higher carbon
content than mild steel and therefore a
higher strength, which is significantly
increased by cold forming (wire drawing).
However, the higher strength comes at the
price of significantly lower ductility, which
can be seen from the elongation at break.
The following rope types are usually used
for diagonal cable-stayed bridges:
1. Parallel ropes with strands or wires
[Andrä/Zellner, 1969].
2. Fully locked ropes [Havemann, 1962]
3. Tendon steel bundles or single bars
[Finsterwalder et al., 1985], [Technical
documentation: Single tendons, 1986].
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
The cable consists of the anchorage, the
rope and the corrosion protection; in
addition to the static strength, it must
above all have sufficient (dynamic) fatigue
strength, as the cable forces often have a
large oscillation range between upper and
lower tension. Table 5.5-4 lists some of the
cable characteristics [DIN 18809, 1987],
[DIN 18800, 1990], [prEN 1993-1-
11, 2001].
The fully locked ropes are very
complex to manufacture. Parallel wire
ropes and tension rods, on the other hand,
are only bundled in carefully combed,
parallel layers and then tied with a strand
at a high pitch, which results in
significantly lower manufacturing costs. It
is incomprehensible that there is hardly
any price difference between the rope
types in market competitions. It is
therefore necessary to keep all options
open when designing in order to select the
most favorable offer with regard to the
overall optimization of the construction.
The favorable influences that increase
the fatigue resistance of parallel cables are
not fully effective with concrete stay cable
bridges. This means that fully locked
cables are also a good solution despite the
lower modulus of elasticity.
The stiffness of the cable-stayed bridges
depends largely on the stiffness EA of the
stay cables. However, this stiffness is not
only influenced by the modulus of
elasticity, which depends on the type of
cable, but also by the sag f of the cables
[Ernst, 1965], which is independent of the
type of cable (Fig. 5.5-2).
In order to be able to work with an
idealized straight rope without sag in
structural engineering [Girmscheid, 1987-
2], the secant modulus must be calculated,
which represents the
5.5 Inclined cable 415
bridges
Table 5.5-4 Rope types for cable-stayed bridges

Reference values Max - ∅ *)

Modulus of elasticity [104

Breaking load **) [kN]

Corrosion protection

Application
Cable type

N/mm2]
Sketch

[mm]
- Galvanizing
Open spiral

– Auxiliary bracing
- Coating – Pull ropes for
- HDPE narrow assembly
ropes

extrusion

9700
110

15
- Mechanic protection - Main suspension
through galvanized cables
Fully locked coil

Z-wires Inner
- wires
Layed ropes (spiral ropes)

in zinc dust/aluminum
powder
ropes

- Outer wires
25500

with coating
167

16

- Galvanizing - Auxiliary ropes for

- Coating assembly
Round
strand
ropes

9 - 12
1800
50

- Temporary: - Main suspension

Wires greased, cables
waxed
Parallel wire

- Permanent:
HDPE cladding tube
pressed out with wax-
ropes

based p l a s t i c
25000

compound
160

20

- Permanent
Greased, waxed
Parallel strand
Parallel ropes

strands in tightly
extruded HDPE
sheathing loosely
drawn into HDPE
ropes

30000

sheathing tube
160

19

- Coating - Main suspension

cables
prestressing steel bars

Rod bundle Single

26-32
from single bars

- Injected into PE or
steel cladding pipe
with cement
15000
rods

250

20

*) Larger diameters possible

**) Approximate order of magnitude
416 5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures

Fig. 5.5-2 Stiffness change of the rope depending on the sag

sag is taken into account. The elastic are sometimes caused by the detachment
relationship is as follows: of v. Kármán's wind vortices, but mostly
Esek 1 by so-called rain-wind-induced
6E =10+ K -0a2 - 105-6 (Eq. 5.5-1) vibrations are stimulated.
As a solution of [Szabo, 1972]:
γ 2 - (σ + σ ) - E - 106 (Eq. 5.5-2)
∂2 w∂2 w
K= s u o m =S (Eq. 5.5-3)
4
0204 - σ 2 -0σ
o
2
u
7∂t2 7∂x2

The following average cable distances results in the natural frequencies of a straight
have proven to be useful (Table 5.5-5): rope (Fig. 5.5-3):
S4
Table 5.5-5 Cable spacing as a function of
the section beam design
k-π
fk = 9l - k = 1, 2, 3, ...

�
m3 (Eq. 5.5-4)
Stretch beam Cable spacing
reinforced concrete 5 - 10 m The undamped cable can reach
considerably large amplitudes (resonance
Composite construction 10 - 15 m range!). To keep these small
Steel 15 - 25 m

The fluctuation range of the cable

spacing depends on the roadway width
and traffic load. The distance is
determined from the maximum cable
force for cable sizes that can still be
manufactured in the factory.
Due to its low bending stiffness, small
cross-section and high tension, the single
rope is sensitive to vibrations like a string.
These vibrations Fig. 5.5-3 Natural oscillations of the single rope
5.5 Inclined cable
bridges
In the case of v. Kármán vibrations,
sufficient damping must be provided, and
in the case of rain-wind-induced
vibrations, a rough surface and wiping of
the water jet must be ensured.
The equation for the damped rope is
[Szabo, 1972]:∂2
∂2 w w ∂w
m =S -p+β (Eq. 5.5-5)
7∂t2 7∂x2 5∂t
S = Rope
force
p = Wind excitation force per unit length
m = rope mass per unit length
β = velocity-proportional damping
Damping can be achieved by:
1. Injecting the PE casing pipes with
cement mortar,
2. Attach neoprene rings to the end of the
steel anchor tubes (these also prevent
bending stresses in the cable at the
anchor head),
3. Installation of shock absorbers in the
cable anchoring area of the draw frame,
4. Attachment of negatively inclined
stabilizing cables.
417
5.5.2.2 Stretch beam
The task of the stretch member is to
1. to transfer the local loads to the cable
anchorages,
2. the overall system in the global
load distribution to achieve the necessary
stiffness
give,
3. to distribute concentrated loads to
neighboring cables.
The stay cable systems under
consideration are anchored systems in
which the horizontal components of the
cable forces are introduced into the
stretching girder and do not act on the
abutments. As a result, the horizontal
components of the cables place the area
enclosed by them under compressive
stress [Girmscheid, 10/1987]. As a result,
the stretching beam is subjected to
compressive normal forces by the cables.
Only a small area in the middle between
the first two cables of the cable planes is
not under prestress. In the case of
concrete beams, this area is prestressed by
longitudinal tendons, which are usually
pulled into the next two cable bays. The
normal

Table 5.5-6 Cross-sections for the suspension of the stretched beams

Suspension Direct Indirect

Assessment Advantages: Disadvantages:

1. Direct force progression 1. Redirection of forces
2. Continuous construction process 2. Additional constraint
3. Heavy cross members
418
forces in the yield beam are of decisive
importance for dimen- sioning, as the
bending moments from the dead load are
relatively small and the bending moments
from traverse are only slightly larger. The
large normal force has a very favorable
effect on concrete, as the tensile stresses
are overpressed. This allows relatively
simple and light cross-sections, as all loads
are transferred by the cables as elastic
supports.
The suspension of the section girder
should be such that the loads can be
transferred directly from the main girders
of the section girder to the cables without
additional deflection via the cross girders
(Table 5.5-6). In the case of expanded
girders designed as a girder grid and main
girder plate system, the cables are arranged
in two levels and anchored directly in the
main girders of the expanded girder. In
the case of box cross-sections, additional
cross beams must generally be arranged.
Table 5.5-7 Pylon types for two cable levels
Designation Pylon shapes
1. Cantilever
pylon towers
2. A-pylons
*) A-pylon with anchoring post
3. H-pylons and
portal pylons
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
to transfer the loads to the cable level(s)
(Table 5.5-6).
5.5.2.3 Pylons
The pylons are load-bearing elements with
predominantly normal force stress
[Girmscheid, 1987-2] from the cables.
Bending moments are mainly caused by
brake forces, temperature, wind and
earthquakes. The pylon types in Table 5.5-
7 offer a possible solution for anchoring
the multi-cable systems with the two cable
layers. Cantilever pylon towers do not form
a frame in the transverse direction and are
therefore less prone to deformation and
therefore susceptible to torsional
vibrations (Table 5.5-8).
The shape of the A-pylons results from
the optimization of the costs of the overall
structure. The A-pylon gives the system
*)
5.5 Inclined cable
bridges
Table 5.5-8 Influence of the pylons on the deformation behavior of the yield beam
Cantilever pylon
System
Deformation S-1
δ1 = 2 -l=2 -l
6EA
δ2 = 0
high torsional stiffness; this enables a
lightweight, open stretched beam (Table
5.5-8). The static shape of a
"Two-stroke" generates only slight bending
due to the dead load and during
construction. The pylon tip does not
deform laterally in the pure A-pylon,
except in the A-pylon with attached
anchoring stem. As a result, no additional
bending moments arise due to the high
cable forces, in contrast to the portal and
H-pylons. A-pylons are only indicated if
the height-to-width ratio remains in the
range of 0.3 ≤ b/h ≤ 0.7. The greater the
ratio b/h, the greater the spread and the
associated horizontal shear force in the
foundation. In addition, an excessively
inclined pylon column made of concrete
is difficult to produce. Not only the
associated cost increase, but also the
aesthetic appearance requires a the pylon legs.
modification of the shape.
If the positive influences of the A-
pylons on the torsional stiffness and the
associated aerodynamic stability are to be
maintained, a transverse beam (tension) is
introduced below the roadway and the
pylon legs are inclined inwards. The
419
A-Pylon
S l S S
E5A
δ1 = (S+2
E5A 34)
= 1.5 - l
E5A
l S S
δ2 = ( )
E5A 32
= 0.5 - l
5EA
However, this system is relatively resistant
to deformation in the transverse direction.
The lateral deformation of the system can
be reduced by keeping the inward-
positioned legs short (Table 5.5-7). If the
modified A-pylon becomes too soft due to
the dimensional ratios, a rigid truss is
formed below the runway, which only
receives normal forces and thus exhibits
negligible node displacements. This truss
stiffener greatly increases the transverse
stiffness, which is particularly necessary in
the event of earthquakes. However, the
production of this pylon form in concrete
is very complex.
With H-pylons, the different horizontal
force from the two cable planes due to one-
sided traffic load must be absorbed by the
bending stiffness of the crossbars at the
pylon head and the torsional strength of
As anchoring the cables to the pylon
head of the A-pylon is very complicated
due to the spatial inclination of the cables,
there is now a shift back to the less optimal
H-pylons and portal pylons. The H- and
portal pylon types have the following
advantages during manufacture and
assembly:
420
1. Anchoring to the pylons and the
stretching girder is easier because the
cables are only inclined in one plane.
2. The cable planes are distributed over
the two piston stems, so there are no
space problems for the tensioning
press.
3. Production is simplified.
Table 5.5-9 Effect of storage on the state variable
1st system with side and main opening
2nd system with external, side and main opening
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
The disadvantages are that:
1. two cable mounting devices are
required in the pylon stems,
2. more masses are required,
3. the H-pylon in the transverse direction
is a frame that requires more bending
stiffness because it is softer than a pure
A-pylon.
Assessment
Advantages:
Moments and shear forces
remain small and evenly
distributed over the entire
length of the bridge. This
makes it possible to have a low,
constant height of the
cantilever beam.
Disadvantages:
Lifting forces due to traversing
load and possibly dead load are
generated on the fixed or
moving bearing by the
suspension cables. Relatively
large end tangent angle φE
worsens the dynamic behavior.
Assessment
Advantages:
The outer fields force a small
end tangent angle φE as well
as smaller deformations v in
the main opening (rail
traffic). Disadvantages:
These positive aspects come
at the cost of relatively large
internal forces at the
transition from the outer to
the side opening. This means
that a larger cross-section of
the main girders is required
in the outer spans and at the
transition to the side span.
This makes construction
more difficult and more
expensive.
5.5 Inclined cable
bridges
5.5.3 Storage conditions
The longitudinal support of the overall
system - consisting of the main structural
elements of the cantilever beam, cable and
pylon - has a decisive influence on the
distribution of internal forces
[Girmscheid, 1987-2]. The aim is to
achieve a uniform distribution of shear
forces and moments due to dead load, if
possible without local jumps. Due to this
uniform loading, the yield beam can be
designed with a low, constant
construction height over the entire length
of the bridge. These uniform, relatively
small internal forces can only be achieved
with a completely elastically supported
beam that only has fixed bearings at the
edge. Any additional constraint due to a
fixed support causes significantly higher
internal forces in a local area. The
advantages and disadvantages of two
possible basic systems can be seen in
Table 5.5-9.
As a rule, the superstructure must be
anchored to the side span pillar due to the
large restraining forces of the last ca- ble
(Table 5.5-10). In systems with an outer
span, these lifting forces can be reduced
by the weight (support reaction) of the
outer span (Table 5.5-9, Sys-
Table 5.5-10 Anchoring options
Static system Solution Train pendulum
421
tem 2). Another way to reduce the end
tangent angle is to extend the system over
the side piers as a cantilever and articulate
the foreland bridge there.
The bearing of the longitudinal system
has a decisive influence on the behavior of
the pylon [Girmscheid, 1987-2]. The
longitudinal systems can be guided freely
on the staggers or fixed to one or all end
piers (Table 5.5-11). The cantilever beam
and the pylon head of system 1 (Table 5.5-
11) can move by the same amount without
any restoring effects occurring in the
pylon head. As a result, the vertical load
also remains vertical as a vertical load in
the pylon. The resulting large buckling
length requires a considerable bending
stiffness of the pylons in the longitudinal
direction of the bridge. In System 2 (Table
5.5-11), the deflection of the pylon head is
limited to the elastic dimension of the
system. The fixed bearing at the end pier
activates restoring forces when the pylon
head deflects. Together with the vertical
force at the pylon head, these form the
resultant force that passes through the
clamping point at the base. The internal
forces are determined according to theory
II. order [Girmscheid, 10/1987].
Steel clamp solution
422 5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
Table 5.5-11 Effect of the longitudinal system support on the pylons
Bearing of Freely movable Firm
the pillars
No. 1 2
System

Deformation

VR = Vertical resultant of the rope VR = Vertical resultant of the

forces rope forces
SII = Rope forces
G = Weight forces
δki = Displacement of the pylon according RII = Restoring forces of the ropes
to theory II. order vel = elastic length change of the
ropes according to theory II:
order
G = Weight forces
δki = Displacement of the pylon
according to theory II.
order
Theory
II. order

Buckling sk ≅ 2h sk ≅ 0.7h
length
Advantages 1. Temperature and K+S deformations 1. Longitudinal forces in the
symmetrical fixed bearing without
2. Roadway transitions equal bending
2. Favorable effect on
buckling
Disadvantages 1. Longitudinal forces via pylon bending

In order to dissipate the wind forces
acting on the cables and the stretching
girder, the system must be supported
laterally at the end pillars or at the pillars
and pylons. At least the lateral support
of the stretching girder on the pylon legs
should be designed as plain bearings,
which can be preloaded by springs to
ensure sufficient and safe lateral support.
5.5 Inclined cable
bridges
5.5.4 Aerodynamic behavior
Large bridge systems are set in vibration
by dynamic forces [Klöppel/Thiele, 1967],
caused by the wind's uplift and torque
forces, which act on the stretching girder
and lead to so-called flutter vibrations and
v. Kármán wind vortices. The effect of
these forces can be reduced by
1. aerodynamic design of the cross-
section of the girder (reduction of the
original dimensions) [Falster-Farø
Bridge, 1984],
2. Increasing the bending and torsional
stiffness of the yield beam [Saul et al.,
1984],
3. Increase of the system damping of the
total bridge [Gimsing, 1983].
These measures, separate or coupled,
reduce the effects. In the first case, the
wind-generated forces are kept low. In the
second case, the stretching beam is made
so rigid that no oscillations build up at the
wind speeds that occur in nature. In the
third measure, the system damping is so
great that the wind energy supplied to the
system is dissipated and the effects remain
small.
The cross-section of the stretched beam
is decisively influenced by the
aerodynamic behavior of the overall
system. In order to fully exploit the
advantages of close cable suspension in
two cable planes, the aerodynamic
behavior of the overall system must be
investigated. The wind drag can be
reduced to ct = 0.4 [Thie- le, 1976] by a
streamlined aerodynamic design of the
stretching beam with a wind nose to
divide the wind flow. The more
streamlined the airfoil is, the lower these
wind resistance coefficients become,
especially in the area with a small blowing
angle. Small blowing angles occur with
laminar
423
wind currents, such as those that prevail
in high gusts [Leonhardt et al., 1974].
These wind flows are caused by medium
wind speeds, which are very energetic. If
the system does not have sufficient
internal damping, dangerous resonance
oscillations can occur, which can be
reduced by using streamlined, closed or
partially closed cross-sections with a wind
nose. Large bridges that are exposed to
strong, but only briefly acting gusts do not
get into dangerous resonance vibrations,
as the energy supplied is usually not
sufficient.
After the collapse of the Tacoma
Suspension Bridge (USA), the stretch
girders were designed to be very rigid.
This was subsequently continued in the
case of cable-stayed bridges, in which the
girder was designed as a box girder or
truss tube with high torsional stiffness, but
this is not necessary for cable-stayed
bridges, as they have greater system
torsional stiffness with two cable levels
with close suspension.
The narrow inclined cable suspension
with two cable planes prevents the build-
up of a simple mode of vibration. The first
reason is that each stay cable has a
different natural frequency and any small
amplitude of a simple mode of vibration is
disturbed by interference from vibrations
of other frequencies. These systems have a
high system damping and are therefore not
susceptible to vibration [Girmscheid, 1987-
2]. The system damping is much more
effective than the pure material damping,
which influences the vibration behavior of
beam bridges.
The second reason lies in the non-
linearity of the elongation behavior of the
long inclined cables [Magnus, 1976]. The
abnormal resonance tube shows that no
infinitely large amplitudes can occur
(caution with short cables). As can be seen
from the comparison in Table 5.5-12
424
Table 5.5-12 System behavior with antimetric torsional vibrations
Cable-stayed bridge with cantilevered pylon
According to [Leonhardt/Zellner, 1970],
cable-stayed bridges with two external
cable planes have a high torsional stiffness
against the dangerous torsional vibrations.
This can be further increased if the two
cable planes are inclined to each other in
the transverse direction and combined in
an A-pylon. In contrast to H-pylons, A-
pylons prevent the cantilevered pylon
heads from moving in opposite directions.
A-pylons are therefore predestined for
large span widths or high traffic loads that
only allow small curvatures in the
stretched girder. Reinforced concrete or
composite stretch girders for cable-stayed
bridges with two cable planes (system-
inherent damping) and close cable
suspension can therefore generally be
designed as open U-sections without a
streamlined shape due to their high system
stiffness. This means that expensive,
aerodynamically closed cross-sections can
usually be dispensed with.
Table 5.5-13 Development of the span ranges for two cable levels
Stretched girder constructions
1. Reinforced concrete
cross-section Slab
U-cross-section
2. composite constructions
U-cross section
3. Steel structures with orthotropic plate
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
Cable-stayed bridge with A-pylon
5.5.5 Constructive design of the
construction elements
5.5.5.1 Stretch beam
Whether the stretched girder is made of
steel, composite or concrete depends on
the span and the conditions of the system.
Due to the close cable suspension and the
resulting relatively small bending
moments and very large normal forces,
concrete is the most suitable building
material [Girmscheid, 1987-1 and -2].
Steel stretched girders are much lighter
and therefore suitable for very large spans,
composite stretched girders for medium
and large spans, reinforced concrete
stretched girders as a U-section for
medium spans and as a slab for small
spans (Table 5.5-13). Combinations of
bending stiffness coupled main girders
made of different building materials have
also been implemented several times.
Especially when
Main spans
100 m
250-300 m
300-500 m
≥ 500 m
5.5 Inclined cable
bridges
the side openings are small compared to
the main opening, it is advantageous to
manufacture the longitudinal beams of the
side openings from concrete and those of
the main opening as composite or steel
beams.
The advantages of the steel construction
method - lightness, rapid recovery in the
event of a catastrophe and the fact that
two main girders are usually sufficient
even for wide bridges - are offset by the
disadvantages that orthopaedic steel decks
are more complicated and expensive than
reinforced concrete or prestressed
concrete slabs. In addition, the static load-
bearing capacity of the cables can
sometimes not be utilized in steel
construction, as fatigue resistance
becomes the decisive design criterion. The
live load comes close to the dead load in
light section beams. It is technically
possible to design cable-stayed bridges
with steel stretch girders as box cross-
sections with a cable plane. Due to the one
cable level
425
However, not all the favorable stiffnesses
inherent in the system of an inclined cable
bridge with two cable planes are
mobilized.
The development of the cross-sections
of concrete or composite stretched girders
is moving from closed or semi-closed
cross-sections to open, simple cross-
sections, which are designed as a girder
grid with main and cross girders as well as
a deck slab or as a main girder slab system
without cross girders. This is a logical
consequence of the system stiffness and
system damping considerations resulting
from a system with two cable planes and
the corresponding aerodynamic behavior.
With concrete and composite stretched
beams, the span is relatively small so that
the cables can generally be utilized to a
greater extent.

Table 5.5-14 Comparison of prefabricated and in-situ concrete stretched beams

Ready-made solution In-situ concrete solution
Advantages - Production under optimal - Monolithic construction without
environmental conditions, additional mounting tendons
without weather influences - No special storage space required for
- Shortening the construction time: finished parts
a) Through continuous pre-
production during greening
and pylon production
b) Quick assembly
z. e.g. using the lift-slab method
Disadvantages - Additional longitudinal tendons - Production only during satisfactory
are required for installation in climatic conditions
order to turn the multi-joint - Quality of concrete may not be as
system, consisting of consistent as with precast elements,
prefabricated segments and but sufficient (construction sites
cables, into a continuous abroad)
system and to provide sufficient
pressure for the epoxy adhesive
at the joints.
426
5.5.5.1.1 Concrete stretched beams
The expanded girder can be made from
precast elements or monolithically from
site-cast concrete. In the initial phase of
development, prefabricated segments
were used not only for production
reasons, but also to minimize the creep
and shrinkage shortening that would
cause changes in the rope forces.
The construction process for the
production of the stretched girder often
takes up to a year. During this time, the
stress in the stretched girder grows slowly
and continuously, which is why shrinkage
and creep have already greatly reduced by
the end of the construction period. In
addition, the longwall girder contains large
quantities of concrete steel in the
longitudinal direction, which further
reduces shrinkage and creep shortening.
Once the stretched girder has been
completed, the cables can once again be
adjusted to the cable forces of a
continuous girder under dead load. For
material and design reasons, there is
therefore no compelling reason to
manufacture the structure from
prefabricated parts if this is not more
favorable in terms of the construction
process, as the monolithic in-situ concrete
solution has the economic advantages
shown in Table 5.5-14. However, the
construction time can be significantly
shortened by manufacturing the stretched
girder from prefabricated parts, as the
prefabricated parts can already be
manufactured during pylon production.
Prefabrication ensures a consistently high
concrete quality even during periods of
bad weather.
There are three options for the open
cross-section of the yield beam (Table 5.5-
15):
1. the support grid system,
2. the main girder panel system,
3. the pure panel system.
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
The girder grid system consists of two
external main girders and load-distributing
cross girders, which are arranged at
equidistant intervals. For structural
reasons, a U-shaped expanded beam
(consisting of main beams and slab) is
selected. The open U-shape has the center
of gravity close to the plate. In addition to
the main girder, the plate can also be used
in the area of the effective width to
transfer the large normal forces. The
spacing of the cross beams is selected so
that a slab thickness of d = 0.25 - 0.35 m is
sufficient. The slab mainly spans uniaxially
in the longitudinal direction and is only
supported triaxially at the edge to the main
girder. The normal forces cause the slab to
receive a pre-tension that overpresses the
bending tensile stresses. Suspending the
cables from an A-pylon even results in a
slight pre-tension in the transverse
direction of the slab.
The main beam-plate system represents
a further simplification of the
construction method. The system consists
of two external main beams and a
continuous, virtually infinitely long panel
strip. The slab spans uniaxially between
the main beams. In accordance with the
bending moment curve, the thickness
increases linearly in the transverse
direction, from the edge to the center of
the plate. The slab is prestressed in the
transverse direction at intervals of 0.80 -
1.00 m with light tendons.
The pure slab solution is very
economical for bridges that are not very
wide (two-lane with footpaths). Due to its
cross-sectional shape, it has excellent
aerodynamic behavior and is easy to
manufacture. The slab is elastically point-
mounted at the cable anchorages.
5.5 Inclined cable 427
bridges
5.5.5.1.2 Stretched beams in composite construction As already described, the U-shape is the
statically most favorable cross-section for
Two variants are available for a composite the girder grid systems. In the first variant
construction (Table 5.5-16): (Table 5.5-16), particular attention must
1. Steel main and cross girder grating with be paid to the creep of the concrete,
concrete slab which, like shrinkage, can be kept to a
2. Reinforced concrete main beam and minimum by using prefabricated slabs and
slab with steel cross beams a small water-cement factor.

Table 5.5-15 Concrete stretched girder systems

Concrete slab thickness

Cross-section of the stretch beam Cross
Literature reference

beam

Cable distance [m]

Main opening [m]

Distance [m]
Height [m]
Building

Year

[m]
1. support grid system
Xiang Jia Tang Bridge

B + B design
(China)

1985

7,50
2,50
1,75
0,23
230

2. main girder - panel system

New Ohio River Bridge

Quade & Douglas

(USA)

0,3-0,6
1985

286,7
6,00
-
-

3. panel system
Bänziger+Köppel, R. Walther (CH)
Rhine bridge Diepoldsau

0,35-0,55
(CH)

1984

97,00
6,00
-
-
428 5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
Table 5.5-16 Composite stretched girder systems

Concrete slab thickness

Cross-section of the stretch beam Cross
beam
Literature reference

Cable distance [m]

Main opening [m]

Distance [m]
Height [m]
Building

Year

[m]
1. steel main and cross girders - reinforced concrete slab
New Ohio River Bridge (USA)
B+B - Design

286,5
14,33
1985

3,59
1,25
0,25
2. reinforced concrete main girder - steel cross girder - reinforced concrete slab
Xian Jia Tang Bridge (China)

7.50 or (11.25)
B+B - Design
1985

3,75
1,25
0,25
230

can. This is very important because the concrete slab can only withstand half of the
reinforced concrete slab should mainly normal forces in the long term due to
transfer the large normal forces not only creep and shrinkage, which is why the
at time t = 0, but also at time t → ∞. If main steel beams must be dimensioned
the slab can still shrink and creep more strongly. The precast slabs are
sufficiently, these forces are transferred to connected to each other above the cross
the main steel beam. One parameter is beams by butt-jointed reinforcement or
the ratio of the modulus of elasticity of by the PPCS method [Takenaka et al.,
steel and concrete after creep and 1986], [Girmscheid, 1986] and to the
shrinkage of the concrete. In contrast to main and cross beams by means of headed
a precast slab, in which shrinkage i s dowels.
largely completed by storage, a cast-in- The second variant (Table 5.5-16) offers
place slab takes over the shrinkage a further possibility to obtain a light and
process. economical construction.
5.5 Inclined cable
bridges
beams. The main girders, which are
predominantly subjected to normal
forces, are made of reinforced concrete,
while the cross girders, which are
subjected to bending due to the slab's own
load and the traffic, are made of steel. The
roadway slab is overpressed by the high
center of gravity of the cross-section and is
therefore made of reinforced concrete. For
the cable spacings mentioned, the main
girder heights are h = 1.5 to 2.5 m for road
bridges and h = 3.0 to 5.0 m for railroad
bridges. The span ranges can be taken
from Table 5.5-13.
5.5.5.1.3 Steel stretch beam
FRANCESCO AIGNER
and THOMAS PETRASCHEK
In the case of cable-stayed bridges for
road or rail traffic, steel stretch girders are
mainly economical for larger openings
(guide values: road from 200-250 m, rail
from 100-150 m). For bridges with large
main openings and considerably smaller
side openings, a combination of steel
(main openings) and composite or
prestressed concrete (side openings) is
usually more appropriate than the pure
steel solution. Due to the possible large
slendernesses h/l and the practically
inexhaustible design possibilities,
pedestrian bridges are often built as cable-
stayed bridges and are equipped with steel
stretch girders (various color options!).
Curved supporting structures are also
possible. Generally speaking, the design of
the stretched girders must be such that the
requirements for load-bearing capacity,
serviceability and fatigue strength are met
under the relevant loads. For the ratio of
span to beam height, [Stahl- bau, 1985]
gives a rough guide value of 60 ... 120 and
for the steel weight of the yield beam
429
(road bridge) is 4.1 kN/m². For railroad
bridges, approx. 35 kN/m per track
applies.
The internal forces are decisively
influenced by the guidance of the bracings
in longitudinal and transverse direction,
see section 5.5.1. If the bracings are
arranged at large distances, larger bending
moments M and shear forces V occur on
the discretely elastically supported beam
and require cross-sections with
sufficiently large section modulus W for
the yield beam. If, on the other hand, the
bracings are arranged at small distances, M
and V on the quasi-continuously
elastically supported beam remain small
and cross-sections with a small section
modulus are possible. In all cases, the
horizontal components of the cable forces
in the yield beam result in compressive
forces that shift the zero line downwards
for positive moments and upwards for
negative moments. The normal forces
must be taken into account when
verifying the system load-bearing capacity
(stability!) and the cross-section load-
bearing capacity. Usually, the influence of
deflections on the bending moments
(second order theory) is not very large
and lies in the range between 3 and 15%.
See [Volke, 1973] for the stabilization of
the yield beam by the cable geometry. By
specifying an appropriate pre-tension of
the statically indeterminate system that
unifies the moment pattern of the
stretched girder, the stretched girder can
be dimensioned economically, see Section
8.3.2.2 In addition to the final state, the
relatively easy assembly by free cantilever
construction must be taken into account
when designing the stretched girder, see
Chapter 9.
In addition to the longitudinal spacing
of the anchoring points, the design or
shape of the stretched girder depends on
how the bracing is guided in the
transverse direction. If there is a central
girder bridge
430
(bridge with one or two closely adjacent
cable planes in the center of the cross-
section), loads acting eccentrically with
respect to the cable plane must be
transferred by torsional moments in the
section beam. In this case, the design as a
torsionally rigid cross-section is absolutely
essential. Central girder bridges are only
suitable for separated traffic areas, e.g.
highway cross-sections. Pedestrian
bridges with a curved supporting
structure and a "cable area" (often located
on one of the sides of the bridge) also have
a torsionally rigid cross-section. If, on the
other hand, there are two external cable
planes, open cross-sections are possible.
The applied loads are distributed to the
girder webs by transverse bending (in the
case of two girder webs, approximately
according to the lever law; more precise
results are obtained according to the theory
of arch force torsion). A box cross-section
is of course also possible in this case. It
improves the transverse distribution of
eccentric loads, which reduces vertical
deformations in particular.
Figure 5.5-4 Danube city bridge, installation status
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
and cross-sectional twists can be reduced.
Figures 5.5-4 and 5.5-5 show an
architecturally very appealing example of
a modern cable-stayed bridge with two
bracing levels and a lower tubular bracing
(kinked for design reasons).
In these pictures you can also see the
strikingly designed brackets for the
introduction of the cable forces, and in the
second picture additionally the drawbars
for limiting the end tangent inclination
for future use as a railroad bridge. In
[Roik et al., 1986], various cross-sections
of cable-stayed bridge girders with
openings between approx. 60 and 460 m
and cross-sectional widths between
approx. 7.0 and approx. 40 m for road
bridges and some railroad bridges from
1955 to 1986 are shown. Although much
larger spans are used today, the
development of the typical beam cross-
sections can be studied on the basis of the
examples given: The first designs
corresponded fairly closely to the cross-
sections commonly used for single-span
bridges at the time.
5.5 Inclined cable 431
bridges

Fig. 5.5-5 Danube city bridge, bottom view [Pauser/Foller, 1997]

span and continuous girder bridges. Later
- also with regard to the ever-increasing
spans - more aerodynamically favorable
cross-sections were used (risk of wind-
induced oscillations in long-span bridges
in the assembly and final state!), as they
are also used in suspension bridges. When
assessing the aerodynamic stability, it
should be noted that with open profiles the
first bending and torsional eigenfre-
quency practically coincide, which can be
can, however, differ significantly with
closed profiles. Two-span solid-wall cross-
sections are common today. A special case
is the cross-section of the Öresund Bridge
(2001), which is intended for rail and
highway traffic. Figure 5.5-6 shows an
assembly condition.
In order to give the bridge a lightweight
appearance despite the comparatively high
girder (12.2 m at a distance of 490.0 m
between the pylons), the stretching girder
was

Figure 5.5-6 Öresund Bridge, state of construction [Krumbach/Hamm, 2000].

432
The girder is designed as a postless strut
truss. The two tracks are arranged at the
level of the lower chords, the road surface
above the upper chords. In Japan, post
and diagonal trusses are sometimes found
as GV-bolted constructions and with
lattice-like cross sections.
In the case of central girder bridges,
bridges with two cable planes with a
relatively small spread or bridges with a
curved supporting structure, this is always
designed to be torsionally rigid (box with
bottom plate or lower bracing). As the
bending moments remain small with
sufficiently tight bracing, a narrow base
plate is sufficient. In the case of vertical
webs, cantilevered brackets are supported
by inclined compression struts at close
intervals,
Figure 5.5-7 Rhine bridge Ilverich standard cross-sections [Saul et al., 2002].
Figure 5.5-8 Arno Bridge Florence, standard cross-section
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
z. The crosspieces are supported by round
tubes, for example, or the webs are
inclined. Combinations (inclined webs
with support of the brackets) are
appropriate for very wide load-bearing
structures (highway cross-sections). In the
case of road bridges, longitudinal girders
("hem girders") are usually arranged in the
area of the carriageway edges, which
distribute the large loads at the
carriageway edges (lorry lanes, heavy
vehicles at the edge of the carriageway),
thus relieving the cross girders and
reducing the number of supports required
for the brackets. Fig. 5.5-7 shows the
standard cross-sections of the main
opening of the Ilverich Rhine Bridge
(central girder bridge with 287.5 m main
opening), which was completed in 2001.
Fig. 5.5-8 shows the original cross-
section of the Arno Bridge Florence, 1978.
5.5 Inclined cable
bridges
Figure 5.5-9 Bridge over Ludwigshafen main station, standard cross-section [Freudenberg, 1970].
Figure 5.5-9 shows the open, two-span
cross-section of the cable-stayed bridge
over the main railway station in
Ludwigshafen/Rhine, which is suspended
from two cable levels outside the bridge.
Figure 5.5-10 shows the cross-section
of the cable-stayed bridge with torsionally
rigid box cross-section suspended from
two cable levels outside the bridge
(Danube City Bridge Vienna, 1997). In
order to convert the bridge into a railroad
bridge with a roadbed, the bending
moments must be reduced. This is done
by pulling in additional cables on brackets
already provided for this purpose.
The anchoring points at which the
tension members are suspended from the
cables (cable brackets) are of structural
importance. The anchoring of multi-cable
systems with correspondingly small cable
forces is naturally simpler than that of
systems with few cables with very high
tensile forces. If the bracing brackets are
located on the outer sides of the cantilever
beam, the anchoring points can be
deliberately emphasized, see Fig. 5.5-5. In
the case of central girder bridges, the large
individual forces introduced via the cables
must be transferred to the main girders by
means of (usually full-walled) transverse
plates. If additional cross girders are
arranged for larger cable spacings to
maintain the profile shape, truss plates can
also be used for these, see Fig. 5.5-7.
433
The connection of the stretching girder
to the pylons is also important for the
design of the stretching girder. If the
pylon or the pylon stems are located
within the bridge cross-section, the pylon
can be connected (hinged or clamped) to
the section girder or guided through
openings in the section girder and
supported by the latter on the pier. Fig.
5.5.5-11 shows a bending stiffness
connection between the stretching girder
and the pylon on the Oberkassel Rhine
bridge, which is particularly interesting in
terms of assembly, see Section 9.
A simpler design and more common
today is the case where the pylon legs are
outside the bridge cross-section (e.g. Λ-
pylon). In this case, the stretching girder
can either be suspended only from the
cables or connected to the pylons via cross
girders.
5.5.5.2 Pylons
The pylon stems are usually designed as a
hollow steel cross-section with large wall
thicknesses. The cross-section is mainly
subjected to compressive forces. Steel
pylons are only used when extremely
slender constructions are required. In
concrete constructions, the pylons are
provided with slack reinforcement; pre-
tensioning is only necessary in the area of
the cable anchoring and the cable brackets.
 434
TRAIN 8.50
1.0 3.25 3.25 1.0

TRACK BALLAST TROUGH DETAIL

6.80

1.40
1.40

the superstructures
5 Main supporting structures of
REVISION CAR REVISION CAR

5.55 5.55
9.86 9.86

Figure 5.5-10 Donaustadtbrücke, cross-section for road and rail traffic [Pauser/ Foller, 1997].
5.5 Inclined cable
bridges
Longitudinal section in cable axisLongitudinal section
Fig. 5.5-11 Rhine bridge Oberkassel, bending stiffness of the connection between the stretched girder
and the pylon [Beyer et al., 1977].
in any existing cross beams is required.
During the construction phase, the pylon
legs are cantilevers with relatively low
normal forces from dead load, which are
subjected to bending.
Depending on the construction
method and pylon shape (e.g. A-pylon),
temporary pre-tensioning is necessary for
concrete pylons during the construction
phase. It should also be noted that cable-
stayed bridges with a hard cable
arrangement require significantly stiffer
pylons than those with a fan-shaped
arrangement [Stahlbau Handbuch, 2.
Band, 1985], or back-tensioning must be
arranged on additional piers in the side
spans. This is due to the rigid
deformability of the overall system,
caused by the low vertical stiffness of the
equally inclined cables.
5.5.5.3 Cable anchoring
The anchoring of the cables in the pylon
and in the stretch beam is a very
important detailing task. With the
relatively large laid cables or parallel wire
ropes, it is important to prevent cable
bending at the entrance to the anchor head
due to fatigue strength problems
[Girmscheid, 1987-2]. If the steel
construction
435
in transverse axis
solution with a clevis or eye bar and bolt,
the anchor is guided by a short steel tube
with a damping ring (Table 5.5-17). This
steel tube has the task of transferring the
forces that are introduced at the flange of
the anchor head to the concrete by shear,
of providing the concrete with additional
membrane reinforcement in the
introduction area and of guiding the cable
straight at the end by means of a pressed-
in neoprene damper ring in order to
prevent bending in the area of the anchor
head.
The anchor head design options listed
in Table 5.5-18 [EN 1993-1-11, 2007] are
available for mounting and fixing the
anchor heads. The forces should be
transferred directly; this is a basic
principle for an optimal design. For this
reason, the main girders of the tension
member should be attached directly to the
cables (Table 5.5-6).
The force application areas always
require additional effort from the engineer
in order to perform a realistic calculation
in these areas. A very good picture can
always be achieved with a finite element
calculation by selecting a section of the
application area. This more detailed
investigation
436
Table 5.5-17 Design options for reducing the bending angle at the anchor head
Stretch beam
Steel
concr
ete
Compoun
d
will be carried out in the execution case, at
least for checking purposes. The
preliminary calculation can be carried out
using the truss analogy (Table 5.5-19).
There are basically two options for
anchoring the cables to the pylon:
1. The continuous cable is guided over a
cable saddle and anchored only in the
main girders of the stretching girder.
2. The interrupted cable is anchored to the
pylon and to the stretching girder.
The first method is only possible for laid
cables that can withstand bending with
transverse pressure. As the tendency with
cable-stayed bridges is clearly towards
multi-cable systems with dense
suspensions, the cable saddle is usually
not practicable due to the space required
and the resulting pylon height. In
addition, mainly parallel wire ropes and
parallel rod bundles are used.
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
Pylon
which cannot be bent over a cable saddle.
Today, the cables are anchored in the
pylon. The anchor heads are placed at a
minimum distance so that, in addition to
installation, subsequent inspection and
maintenance are also possible, which leads
to the fan system. The anchoring options
are summarized in Table 5.5-19.
5.5.5.4 Corrosion protection
Corrosion protection is of crucial
importance for the safety and durability of
cable-stayed bridges. The measures to be
taken depend on the type of cable (Table
5.5-4 and Table 5.5-20).
However, the corrosion protection of
the cables should be built up in several
layers, independent of the cable, and
basically consists of at least three stages:
5.5 Inclined cable 437
bridges
Table 5.5-18 Possible anchor head design
Picture Ref. Description Tighten
1 FEA Simple anchor head that -
serves as a fixed end
anchor head that is not
tensioned
2 SPA Modified fixed anchor, By placing two-
which has an extended part steel plates
anchor sleeve with an (shims)
internal thread into underneath
which the press
3 SPA plunger is screwed By turning the
union nut

4 SPA An eye rod is screwed By hooking the

into the modified base eye rod into a pin
anchor in the internal between two
thread of the anchor anchored steel
plates
5 FEA Modified form of No. 4.
The entire anchor head is
made of one casting with
eye bar

SPA = stressing
anchor FEA = fixed
anchor

• Corrosion protection of each individual In some circumstances, a water drainage

wire,
• Corrosion protection of the rope
interior t o prevent the ingress of
moisture,
• Corrosion protection of the rope
surface.
Furthermore, the anchoring construction
must be designed accordingly so that no
water (snow, rain, fog, general moisture)
can penetrate the end anchorages and
deflection flaps, i.e. so that there are no
weak points in the corrosion protection.
All transitions and connections must
therefore be sealed with a permanently
elastic, non-brittle material (e.g. neoprene
cone in Fig. 5.5-14). In addition, the
bottom
opening may be provided in the outer
casing tube to drain off the condensation
that accumulates in the outer casing tube.
The wires, strands, cables and
anchorage heads must be protected
against corrosion and damage at all stages.
This concerns
• the construction phase with
production, transportation, storage and
assembly, and
• the utilization and operating phase.
In addition, measures may have to be taken
to protect against mechanical stress.
438 5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
Table 5.5-19 Cable anchoring in the pylon head
Ref. System Advantages and disadvantages Structural analysis
- truss model

Advantages:
- Assembly and inspection
in the interior
- Weatherproof
- Simple anchoring of the
vertical cables
- Mounting from a platform
Disadvantages:
- Statically unfavorable: high
Hollow pylon

splitting tensile forces,

highly stressed
compression struts

Advantages:
anchoring (full pylon)

- Static: Rope forces overpress

each other
Disadvantages:
Offset crossed

- Anchoring the vertical cables

- Assembly of two platforms
Crossed anchoring (full
pylon)

Advantages:
- Simple scarf work
Anchoring
Coupling
anchor -

- Static: force application

Disadvantages:
- Special coupling anchors
Advantages:
- No large shuttering effort
- Statically clear force control
Disadvantages:
Structural steel

- Special anchor heads

anchoring
5.5 Inclined cable
bridges
Table 5.5-20 Rope types for main load-bearing elements of cable-stayed bridges
Fully locked spiral rope (1 Parallel wire cable
layer of Z-wires)
5.5.5.4.1 Corrosion protection
for fully locked cables
Fully locked coil ropes consist of a round
wire core and one to several lengths of
spirally laid Z-wires. Due to the
manufacturing process, fully locked coil
ropes only have very small cavities
between the individual wires. Due to the
closed surface, fully locked coil ropes
generally offer a high level of corrosion
protection. The individual wires are
protected against corrosion by
galvanization (100% zinc) or by a Galfan
coating (95% zinc, 5% aluminium).
Depending on the wire diameter, the zinc
coating is between 180 and 340 g/m2, while
the zinc-aluminum coating of the round
and Z wires can b e up to around 300 g/m2.
It should be noted that the galvanizing
process can negatively change the material
properties of the steel (tensile strength,
fatigue behavior). Wires coated using the
Galfan process also offer much better
protection against atmospheric influences
than purely galvanized wires; their
resistance is three to four times higher
than that of normal hot-dip galvanized
wires, which is why additional corrosion
protection is generally not required when
using them.
439
Parallel stranded cable
is dispensed with. However, the Galfan
process is a new process and therefore the
long-term behavior is still largely
unknown, which is why the process has not
yet been used for main load-bearing
elements.
If the individual wires are galvanized,
the cavities between the wires are filled with
a rope filler (zinc-rich primer on polyoil
base or rope filler with aluminium
powder) when the ropes are laid
[Technical documentation: Fully locked
coil ropes, 2002]. Even with galvanized
ropes, additional corrosion protection is
usually applied after installation by means
of multiple coatings, as damage during
transport and installation cannot be ruled
out.
In the case of fully locked coil ropes, the
rope is anchored exclusively in conical or
cylindrical anchorage sleeves (Table 5.5-
18), which are mechanically cast.
According to [ON EN 13411-4, 2009],
only lead or zinc-based alloys or ployester-
based zinc or synthetic resin casting
systems with an inorganic filler and
suitable curing agent are suitable for
casting. The wire ends must be covered
with grouting material by at least 5 mm to
ensure full corrosion protection. The
anchoring is fixed with a
440
Covered with a protective cap. As with the
cables, the anchoring structure is given a
multi-layer anti-corrosion coating.
5.5.5.4.2 Corrosion protection for parallel wire cables
Parallel wire cables consist of a certain
number of bare or galvanized wires with a
diameter of 7 mm, which are combined
into a bundle of parallel wires. As a rule,
the wire bundle is drawn into a
polyethylene tube and the cavities are filled
with an anti-corrosion compound.
However, the anti-corrosion compound
only provides additional protection if it is
not displaced or pressed out by water, heat
or vibrations. The choice of filling
compound depends both on the surface
treatment of the wires, as zinc and cement
injections, for example, are not
compatible (Table 5.5-21), and on the
dynamic requirements regarding the
damping of the cables. Cement injections
are problematic insofar as the grouting
material is fatigued by the cable vibrations
and can be damaged with the cable.
Anchor plate
Anchor
sleeve
Protective
cover
Potting
Trumpet
Mother
Fig. 5.5-12 Cone anchorage HiAm (movable anchorage) [Technical documentation inclined cable,
2002].
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
can develop cracks over time. When
cracked, the ropes are no longer
surrounded by a completely closed,
alkaline environment. This can
subsequently lead to corrosion due to the
ingress of moisture (condensation water)
and oxygen. The following active and
passive fillers are used in today's cable
systems:
• Active: Suspension of zinc in a
polyurethane oil,
• Passive: permanently elastic-
plastic wax.
Depending on the number of wires, the
individual wires are anchored in an
anchor sleeve with an inner cone (up to
approx. 200 wires) or in the base body (up
to approx. 400 wires).
• The wire bundle is fanned out in the
cone and the individual wires are
anchored in a perforated plate with
upsetting heads. The cone is cast with a
casting compound consisting of epoxy
resin, steel beads and zinc dust. The
polyethylene pipe is cast tightly into the
connecting pipe (Fig. 5.5-12).
• The base body is also staked with
upsetting heads. The
Connection pipe
HPDE cladding tube
Parallel wire bundle
Corrosion protection
compound
5.5 Inclined cable
bridges
Anchor plate
Connection pipe
Base body protective
cover
Pulling sleeve
Trumpet
Mother
Fig. 5.5-13 Base body anchorage DINA (movable anchorage) [Technical documentation for stay
cables, 2002].
Sealing the holes in the base body with
epoxy resin prevents the ingress of
oxygen and moisture and prevents
fretting corrosion. The wires are
combined into a tight bundle in the
telescopic tube, the cavities are pressed
out with a corrosion protection
compound and the telescopic tube is
cast tightly into the connecting tube
(Fig. 5.5-13).
Parallel wire cables are supplied pre-
assembled, including the anchorage,
pulled in and tensioned on site. At the end
of the anchoring trumpet, the parallel wire
cable is stored in a neoprene ring and the
transition from trumpet to cable is sealed
with a neoprene cone. The anchoring
construction is covered with a protective
cover, which is also injected. Table 5.5-21
lists possible combinations of corrosion
protection measures for parallel wire
cables.
If bare wires are used, they must be
treated with a corrosion inhibitor (e.g.
grease or wax). This temporary corrosion
protection can be used without additional
protective measures in
441
Telescopic tube
HPDE cladding tube
Wire guide
Corrosion protection
compound
However, this is problematic during the
construction phase, as it can take several
months or even one to two years before
the cladding pipe is injected.
Thick-walled HDPE pipes are generally
used for stay cables. The pipe wall
thickness depends on the handling of the
cables during production, winding and
installation and on the pressure of the
corrosion protection compound during the
pressing work.
It should be noted that steel ducts can
only be used for cables that are not
factory-made. Due to their length, steel
ducts must be welded, whereby welds are
generally weak points and can lead to
damage to the wires if not carried out
correctly (protruding braids inside the
duct). Steel ducts are therefore hardly used
any more.
5.5.5.4.3 Corrosion protection for parallel stranded cables
Parallel-stranded cables consist of
individual cable strands that are pulled
into a sheath one after the other. The cable
strands have a diameter of 0.6˝, according
to
442 5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
Table 5.5-21 Combinations of corrosion protection measures

Components Possible combinations

I II III

Wires
blank X X
galvanized X
Corrosion protection compound
Permanently plastic X X
Cement injection X
Casing tube
HDPE pipe X X X
Steel tubes (X) (X) (X)

ASTM 15.2 mm (nominal cross-section prepared for installation (including

140 mm2, primarily used in the USA and
Asia) or according to European standard
15.7 mm (nominal cross-section 150 mm2,
primarily used in Europe). A stranded wire
consists of 7 waxed or greased individual
wires with diameters of 5.1 - 5.2 mm per
wire, whereby the 6 outer wires are wound
around the slightly thicker center wire.
The gaps between the wires are filled with
wax (e.g. System Mono- strand minimum
120g/m [Technical documents: Stay
Cables, 2001]) or grease. The strand is
then wrapped in a tightly extrusion-
coated HDPE sheath (applied by dipping
and bonded to the steel wires by shrinking
during cooling). The tightly extruded
HDPE sheathing guarantees that the steel
is always protected from external
influences, even when fully stretched.
These cable strands are manufactured in
the factory to high quality standards as
continuous strands and delivered to the
construction site wound onto bobbins.
The cable strands are cut to the required
length on the construction site and
removal of the HDPE sheathing in the
anchoring area). The strands are then
pulled into an HDPE protective tube one
after the other and tensioned. The cable
strands usually remain loose in the
sheathing so that individual strands can be
replaced at any time.
The anchoring of the parallel strand
bundles is fixed at one end of the cable
and adjustable at the other, whereby the
individual strands are fixed with wedges
for both types of anchoring (Fig. 5.5-14).
The cables can be tensioned on both sides.
The most important element of on-site
corrosion protection during installation is
to inject the cavities around the strands in
the fan-out area of the anchorage structure
with a corrosion protection compound that
prevents the penetration of moisture in the
long term [Technical documents: Stay
Cables, 2002], [Technical documents:
Prestressing Systems, 2002]. The
corrosion protection compound must not
be displaced or pressed out by water, heat
or vibrations.
5.5 Inclined cable
bridges
Anchor plate
Anchor head with wedge
anchorage
Protective cover
Anchor sleeve
Mother
Corrosion protection
compound
Figure 5.5-14 Anchoring system (retensionable)
At the end of the anchoring trumpet,
the parallel stranded cable is supported in
a damper ring and the transition between
the trumpet cable and the cable is sealed
with a neoprene sleeve. The anchoring
structure is covered with a protective
cover, which is injected.
5.5.6 Additions to composite and
mixed constructions
ULRIKE KUHLMANN
and ANNETTE DETZEL
5.5.6.1 Criteria for selecting the
construction material for the face
frame
Cable-stayed bridges are one of the most
promising bridge systems for the future
and their development potential is far
from exhausted, as they combine decisive
economic advantages with a wide range of
aesthetic design options. In comparison to
arch bridges and the other cable-span
system of suspension bridges, the fact that
the static load-bearing capacity of the
bridge is reduced by the successive
cantilever construction starting from the
pyramids has a favorable economic effect.
443
Connecting tube
Stranded wires
Neoprene cone
HPDE cladding
tube
damper ring
Trumpet tension ring
The end system is developed from the
systems of the construction stage. By pre-
tensioning the cables, a favorable moment
curve can be set in the stretch beam. In
principle, this applies to all cable-stayed
bridges, irrespective of the design of the
stretch girder.
The design of cable-stayed bridges in
composite construction therefore does not
differ in principle from that of pure steel
or concrete systems. The shape of the
pylons, the number of cable levels and the
arrangement of the cables are designed
according to the same criteria and lead to
the most diverse variants.
In addition to historical and regional
preferences - in Europe, North America,
Japan and Australia, for example, the road
surface was predominantly built in steel,
while in South America and China the
building material was predominantly
concrete - the different design of the road
surface is mainly based on economic
aspects.
Due to the load-bearing system of the
cable-stayed bridge, a concrete stretched
girder is provided with the compressive
prestressing that is so favorable for its
mode of operation without the need for
expensive tendons. Compared to steel,
however, a concrete beam has the
disadvantage of a higher dead load. Pure
444
Costs
200 300 400 500 600 700
Main span [m]
Fig. 5.5-15 Cost comparison for different stretch beam materials (source Leonhardt, Andrä und
Partner)
Steel constructions, on the other hand,
lead to a reduction in the required cable
cross-sections due to their lower weight,
but only with very large span widths does
this advantage outweigh the high
production costs of the orthotropic
roadway, see the compilation of the
production costs of cable-stayed bridges
as a function of the span width and the
section girder material in Figure 5.5-15.
The logical consequence of this is the
introduction of composite construction
for the cantilever girder of cable-stayed
bridges. The materials concrete and steel
are primarily subjected to compression and
tension in accordance with their
properties. Installation is also simpler. The
steel girders can be transported to the
construction site and assembled in large,
relatively light, prefabricated units and
then serve as formwork girders for the
production of the concrete slab.
In detail, the following advantages of
composite construction for cable-stayed
bridges can be formulated:
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
Concrete roadway
Orthotropic slab
Composite roadway
Hybrid concrete/steel
Hybrid
concrete/composite
800 900 1000
• The normal forces from the main
system generate a compressive prestress
in the concrete slab. The tensile stresses
that occur from the slab bending as a
result of local load application in the
concrete slab are largely overpressed by
the pre-tension.
• The steel girders are quick and easy to
assemble and serve as scaffolding for
the formwork of the concrete roadway.
• When the in-situ concrete slab is
produced in direct alignment with the
steel structure, a self-weight composite
is created, which leads to material
savings.
• The dead load of the composite
structure is lower than that of a pure
concrete structure, so that lower forces
are generated in the cables, pylons and
foundations. Compared to the pure
steel construction, the composite
construction is heavier. However, the
good damping properties make up for
this disadvantage.
5.5 Inclined cable
bridges
Figure 5.5-16 Normandy Bridge - view
Figure 5.5-17 a) Prestressed concrete cross-section, b) Steel cross-section
So-called hybrid constructions or mixed
constructions also prove to be favorable,
see also Fig. 5.5-15: the stretching girders
are produced in the middle of the span as
steel or composite girders, so that the
cables with a low inclination, which are
already subject to the greatest stress, have
less dead load from the stretching girder.
445
have to bear. Concrete is used close to the
pylon, where the normal compressive
forces in the section girder are greatest.
Due to the shorter cable lengths and the
greater inclination of the cables, the
higher loads from the concrete weight can
be transferred economically, see also
[Engelsmann et al., 1993]. In addition
446
the back anchors of the cables in the side
bays are subjected to higher loads, so that
tension anchoring can be dispensed with
at the bearing points.
A well-known example of such a mixed
construction is the Normandy Bridge over
the Seine near Le Havre (Fig. 5.5-16).
With a main span of 856 m, it was the first
cable-stayed bridge to enter the area of
very large spans, which had previously
only been realized by suspension cable
bridges. In the central section, the span
girder is a steel box girder cross-section
over 624 m, while the cross-section in the
side spans and in each case 116 m above
the pylons cantilevering into the main
span is made of prestressed concrete, see
Fig. 5.5-17. The high wind loads were
relevant to the design here, which not
only led to the formation of a wind-slip
box cross-section with bracing on both
sides to the very stiff Y-shaped pylons, but
also utilized the clamping of the concrete
track in the pylons [Virlogeux, 1990].
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
5.5.6.2 Cross-section design and
formation of the composite joint
Probably the first cable-stayed bridge to be
built according to the composite
construction concept is the Hooghly River
Bridge in Calcutta, India
[Schlaich/Bergermann, 1996]. As the
foundation conditions were quite poor, a
relatively light composite construction
was chosen for the main girders. The
project owner's requirement was to use
Indian materials and manufacturing
techniques. The design and assembly were
therefore essentially based on the
capabilities of the local steel construction
industry. The know-how for welder
connections on the construction site or for
the use of high-strength bolts in pre-
stressed connections was not available. As
a result, all steel joints were riveted. As
labor was available on site, the concrete
carriageway was not constructed using
prefabricated parts or finished formwork
elements, but with formwork built on site.
Block dowels with loops were welded to
the top chords of the longitudinal and
transverse beams as a means of bonding.
Figure 5.5-18 shows the cross-section of
the Hooghly River Bridge.
Figure 5.5-18 Hooghly River Bridge in
Calcutta, cross-section (after
[Schlaich/Bergermann, 1996])
5.5 Inclined cable
bridges
-A
Figure 5.5-19 Sunshine Skyway Bridge, view
Figure 5.5-20 Sunshine Skyway Bridge, cross-section
Similar to the Hooghly Bridge in
Calcutta, the second example, the
Sunshine Skyway Bridge in Florida, [Saul
et al., 1984] is also an open stretch girder
cross-section in which the two cable levels
are guided to the external main girders.
Figures 5.5-19 and 5.5-20 show the view
and cross-section of the bridge. The
external asymmetrical main girders have
inclined webs in the direction of the cable
plane, to which the stay cables are
anchored. The concrete deck spans
between the cross girders in the
longitudinal direction of the bridge. In
contrast to the Hooghly bridge, it was
made of prefabricated parts that are
connected to each other by in-situ concrete
joints. The longitudinal joints, in which
pressure results from the effect of the
cross girders, are
447
ViewLongitudinal section in bridge axisView A
joints along the length of the bridge. The
transverse joints, in which tension can also
occur near the center of the bridge, are
offset from each other. As a bonding agent,
shear stud dowels were placed on the cross
girders in the dowel recesses, which were
then cast with site-cast concrete. The
joints were wide enough to allow the
reinforcement to be joined by overlapping,
and the edges of the slabs were profiled to
improve the shear interlock.
The twin composite cable-stayed
bridge over the Houston Ship Channel
near Baytown, Texas [5.46] is similar to
the Sunshine Skyway Bridge described
above. However, due to the large width of
the roadway, two independent
superstructures were built, each 24 m
wide,
448
with pylo- nes coupled at the level of the
section girders (see Fig. 5.5-21). Here too,
the main girders have inclined webs and
are located at the edge of the bridge deck
to allow direct anchoring of the cables.
The original design envisaged concreting
the concrete deck on land before installing
the composite grating in order to achieve a
self-weight bond. However, in order to
avoid the high lifting weights,
prefabricated slabs with in-situ concrete
joints were used instead. The transverse
joints were located above the top chords of
the cross beams so that the
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
Figure 5.5-21 Bridge over
the Houston Ship Channel,
cross-section
belts also served as "baffles".
The examples show that the cross-
sectional design of the section girder is
codetermined by the main load-bearing
system of the cable-stayed bridge.
• The main longitudinal beams are
preferably located on the outside of
both box girders and open plate girders
in order to be able to anchor the cables
directly.
• The concrete roadway spans
longitudinally between the cross
girders. The longitudinal compressive
forces from the main load-bearing
5.5 Inclined cable
bridges
effect largely overwhelm the
longitudinal tensile stresses from local
load application.
• In order to minimize the redistribution
of longitudinal compressive forces
from the concrete roadway to the steel,
precast concrete parts are often
installed. The joints between the
precast elements are provided with
overlapping reinforcement to distribute
the cracks.
• Open cross-sections are often
combined with A-pylons. The cables
anchored to the outside of the beam
converge at the top of the pylon,
forming a rigid, spatial framework that
stabilizes the torsionally soft beam.
5.5.6.3 Special solution double
composite cross-section
The cross-section of the Cape Shui Mun
Bridge in Hong Kong [Saul/Hopf, 1997a],
[Saul/Hopf, 1997b] was determined by the
requirement that the traffic had to be
arranged in two levels, an upper level for
the highway with two directional lanes,
each with three lanes, and an upper level
for the highway with two directional
lanes, each with three lanes.
Figure 5.5-22 Cape Shui Mun Bridge, cross-section
449
a stationary track and a second lower level
for a double-track S-Bahn and two
emergency lanes. As both the top chord
and the bottom chord of the box act as a
track slab, a double-bracing construction
was used. It is worth noting that the two-
storey road and suburban railroad bridge
above is a mixed construction, not only in
cross-section but also in the longitudinal
direction of the bridge. The three-cell
cross-section consists of a composite
superstructure only in the central section
of the main opening, which is 387 m long.
The side spans and edge areas of the
central opening are made of pre-stressed
reinforced concrete. The two cable levels
reach to the left and right of the outer
boxes and are anchored in an H-shaped
pylon in the form of a fan. The transverse
bracing of the boxes is provided by the
transverse frames designed as Vierendeel
beams, as the rail and road traffic inside
the box does not permit diagonal bracing
(Fig. 5.5-22). Longitudinal bracing in the
plane of the inner posts distributes the
concentrated traffic loads over several
transverse frames. In order to avoid the
diagonals of
450
To keep the superstructure as free as
possible from stresses from the main
structure, they were only bolted together
after all permanent loads had been
applied. The connection between the
prestressed concrete superstructure and the
composite superstructure is made via a
transition element, which also served as a
prefabrication spigot for the prestressed
concrete superstructure constructed with
incremental launchers during assembly.
The longitudinally prestressed
reinforced concrete composite slabs have
large openings in the area of the urban
railroad (see cross-section in Fig. 5.5-22)
to ensure good air extraction even in the
event of a fire.
The examples described show that
composite cable-stayed bridges are
designed according to a combination of
criteria relating to cost-effectiveness, ease
of assembly and manufacture and
functional requirements. The consistent
application of these principles often leads
to bridge systems that are also fascinating
due to their aesthetic appearance.
For more in-depth questions on cable-stayed
bridges, the following further reading is
particularly recommended:
[Andrä/Saul, 1974], [Bacchetta/Rüst, 1985],
[Birkenmaier/Narayanan, 1982], [Graf/Bremer,
1941], [Klingenberg/Plum, 1955], [Köppel/Bac-
chetta, 1984], [Koger, 1983], [Leonhardt et al.,
1979], [Leonhardt et al., 1980], [Maschwitz
et al., 1985], [Menn, 1987], [Modemann/Thön-
nissen, 1979], [Roberts, 1966], [Rosemeiner,
1986], [Schambeck/Kroppen, 1982], [Schlaich/
Bergermann, 1984], [Stein, 1986], [Tang, 1972],
[Thul, 1972], [Tschemmernegg/Obholzer, 1981],
[Völkel et al., 1977] and [Weitz, 1983].
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
5.6 Suspension bridges
GÜNTER RAMBERGER
and FRANCESCO AIGNER
For very large spans, today up to 2000 m,
suspension bridges are used. The
suspension bridge with the largest central
span is currently (2009) the Akashi Kai- yko
Bridge between Kobe and the Awachi
Islands in Japan (Fig. 1.4-37) with a total
length of 3911 m and a central opening of
1991 m, whose pylons are around 300 m
high. Earth-anchored suspension bridges
are used for large spans. These consist (in
the order of manufacture) of the anchor
blocks, the pylons, the suspension cables, the
hangers and the bridge beam (see Fig. 5.6-
1). The top picture shows the anchor
blocks, pylons and suspension cables, the
middle picture shows the assembly of the
hangers and the stiffening girder and the
bottom picture shows the final state.
False or self-anchored suspension
bridges are hardly ever built today, as the
bridge beam must first be completed
before the cable span can be arranged and
therefore the bridge beam only requires
additional supports in the field for
assembly, which usually represent an
obstacle to traffic in the area under the
bridge. Today, the non-genuine
suspension bridge is being replaced by the
inclined cable bridge, which is also
anchored in terms of horizontal force, but
which allows installation without
additional lower supports.
The supporting elements of the
suspension bridge are the suspension
cables. A suspension cable is either made
from parallel, high-strength wires on the
spot, using the so-called air spinning
process ("spinning" = twisting is actually
the wrong term, as the individual wires
are laid in parallel).
5.6 Suspension 451
bridges

Figure 5.6-1 Construction of the Akashi Kaikyo Bridge

452
is produced. First, a catwalk is installed on
which the wire bundles are laid (see Fig.
5.6-2). Roebling first used the air spinning
process on the Brooklyn Bridge in New
York in 1883. The top image shows a
schematic representation of cable
spinning. The cable anchorage is shown at
the bottom left, the anchor saddle on the
cable anchorage at the bottom center and
the catwalk at the bottom right.
Instead of air-spun parallel wire
bundles, prefabricated strand bundles (see
Fig. 5.6-3) or, in the case of smaller cable-
stayed bridges, prefabricated fully locked
cables can also be used. An auxiliary cable
stay is also required for prefabricated
tension elements. On the
Fig. 5.6-2 Air spiders during the construction of the suspension bridge over the Firth of Forth [Kollmeier,
1964].
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
The suspension cables are deflected using
pylon tips. The deflection radius depends
on the type and diameter of the elements
used for the cable. The cables are
anchored to the two anchor blocks
arranged at each end of the bridge. In the
case of air-spun cables, several wires are
guided around an anchor, which is
tensioned back, and in the case of
prefabricated strands and cables, the end
pieces are anchored in a cage-like steel
structure. The weight of the anchor block
must be high enough to absorb both the
horizontal and vertical components of the
cable forces (Fig. 5.6-4).
The height of the pylons depends on
the stitch of the suspension cables, which is
marked L/12 to L/8
5.6 Suspension
bridges
Figure 5.6-3 Akashi Kaikyo bridge, suspension cable consisting of strand bundles
(L = span of the center span) is defined.
The pylons are usually two-legged
bending stiffness frames with box cross-
sections with an upper transom and a
transom to support the bridge beam (Fig.
5.6-5). They can be clamped into the
foundation or supported on the
foundation. For assembly, they must be
clamped (provisionally) at least in the
longitudinal direction.
In general, two suspension cables and
therefore two suspension levels are used.
There are also mono-cable suspension
bridges where the cable in the middle may
only reach up to the clearance limits. The
pylons of mono-cable bridges are usually
A-shaped [Leonhardt, 1982].
453
Figure 5.6-4 Resulting forces in the
anchor block
The cable harness bearings are
positioned directly above the stems.
Today, welded cable harness bearings are
usually used, which must extend over the
most unfavorable detachment point of the
cable in order to prevent the cable from
kinking.
Once assembly is complete, the cross-
sections of the suspension cables are
pressed into a round shape and wrapped
(taped) with soft iron wire layer by layer.
As the suspension cables cannot be
replaced, the corrosion protection of the
cables, which are composed of notch-
sensitive (rust notches) wires with a small
volume and large surface area, is of crucial
importance. All wires used are usually
fireproofed.
454
Figure 5.6-5 Pylon shapes [Weitz, 1975]
galvanized. The wrapping is given a multi-
layered coating structure, and it is
essential that attention is paid to
maintaining this. In modern suspension
bridges, corrosion protection is achieved
by special measures such as wrapping with
foil and pressing in dried air.
The stiffening beam is used to
distribute the loads acting on the roadway
to the suspension cables. It is subjected to
bending. Stiffening girders are
manufactured as solid wall or lattice
girders (Fig. 5.6-6).
Traffic on truss girders can also be
routed on two levels
z. e.g. lower chord level: rail traffic, upper
chord level: road traffic. The stiffening
girder can be bending stiffness via the
pylon pillars or can be interrupted at the
pylon pillars and supported in a hinged
manner (Fig. 5.6-7). With
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
Continuous beams generate relatively
high negative bending moments at the
pylo- nal pillars. The stiffening girders in
the side openings can be suspended
without intermediate supports for short
intermediate spans, suspended from the
support cable for large spans or designed
with supports from below. The hangers
can be arranged either vertically or at an
angle up and down.
Inclined hangers slightly increase the
system rigidity. The hangers lead from
two-part clamps, which are clamped onto
the suspension cables, to the connection
devices on the beam. Hangers are made
from fully locked cables or strand bundles.
It is relatively easy to replace the hangers
and this should be taken into account in
the design as a planned load case.
The aerodynamic stability of the
structure is a problem that must be taken
into account, especially with large span
suspension bridges. The incoming wind
can excite suspension bridges to coupled
bending-torsional oscillations, so-called
flutter oscillations. A world-famous
example is the Tacoma Bridge, which
collapsed in 1940 as a result of wind-
induced flutter vibrations. Today, it is
possible to prove both experimentally in
wind tunnels and mathematically that
structures are aerodynamically stable up to
the wind speeds encountered in nature at
the location of the structure. Today, solid
wall beams are generally designed with
streamlined cross-sections (see Figure 5.6-
6). Active measures such as the
adjustability of the inclination of the edge
area may also be able to eliminate the risk
of fluttering. Another measure to increase
aerodynamic stability is to divide the
beam into several strips with longitudinal
intermediate spokes.
5.6 Suspension 455
bridges

34300/2=17150 34300/2=17150
38700/2=19350 38700/2=19350
1200 1700 700 15000 750 750 15000 700 1700 1200
2% 2%

1765 906
3000

4500 27300/2=13650 27300/2=13650 4500

Figure 5.6-6 Truss box cross-section [Wiechert, 1984] and solid wall cross-section [Li et al,
2001]

Fig. 5.6-7 Different systems of stiffening beams [Stahlbau, 1985].

456
Figure 5.6-8 Cross-section proposed for the Messina Bridge [Gimsing, 1998].
through which the wind can flow (Figure
5.6-8).
It must be noted that the static wind
forces in the horizontal direction must
also be absorbed by the beam and it
therefore also requires a corresponding
bending stiffness around the vertical axis.
When dividing the beam into strips and
spaces, the strips should be connected in a
shear-resistant manner so that they
interact statically in a transverse section.
For economic reasons, suspension
cables are generally dimensioned
according to the II. This is because the
cable forces are reduced when the stub is
enlarged. For reasons of load-bearing
safety, the pylons must be designed
according to theory II. order (with
consideration of imperfections).
5.7 Tensioning strap bridges
JÜRGEN STRITZKE
5.7.1 Introduction
Since Ulrich Finsterwalder presented the
first design of a prestressed bridge ready
for execution, a number of such bridges
have been built. The term span bridge refers
to a load-bearing system in which the
span is suspended from abutment to
abutment.
5 Main supporting structures of
the superstructures
continuous, more or less sagging tendons
are embedded in a relatively thin
tensioning band in relation to the span
width. This tensioning strip forms the
roadway or, in the case of greater sagging,
is formed with an elevated roadway. The
advantages of this load-bearing system are
primarily to be seen in the predominant
longitudinal force loading, the simple
production without falsework and the low
concrete consumption.
In 1958, in an effort to overcome wide
obstacles economically with bridges with
large spans, the first ready-to-construct
design of a three-span ribbon bridge with
a maximum span of 408 m was created to
bridge the Bosporus [Nehse, 1973].
Finsterwalder designed this type of bridge,
in which road vehicles could drive directly
over an extremely flat tensioned concrete
strip. However, the time was not yet ripe
for the realization of this bold project. The
basic idea is thousands of years old, but at
that time such suspended structures were
made of wood (e.g. the wooden footbridge
over the Yarkhun River in Chitral
between the Himalayas and Pamir).
Tensioning straps were used for the
first time in the construction of the 216 m
long conveyor belt bridge at the
Holderbank-Wildeeg cement factory
[Walther, 1969]. For public transportation,
the principle of the tensioning strap was
used for the Bir-
5.7 Tensioning strap
bridges
Figure 5.7-1 Longitudinal section of the span bridge over the Sázava near Hvězdonice
cherweid [Scartazzini, 1969] over the N 3
national road near Pfäffikon (CH). An 8.5
m wide span bridge with an elevated
roadway was built in 1973 over the 100 m
deep valley of the Rio Colo rado
[Lin/Kulka, 1973].
Some interesting pedestrian bridges in
the Czech Republic deserve special
mention. In 1977, for example, the two-
span prestressed bridge over the Sázava
[Kobca/Brejcha, 1978] with a maximum
span of 78 m was built near Hvězdonice
(Fig. 5.7-1). The 250 mm thick span was
concreted on a suspended formwork and
subsequently post-tensioned. Two further
single-span prestressing conveyor bridges
span the Svratka in Brno-Bystrc and
Brno-Komin [Stráský, 1981] with approx.
63 m and
457
approx. 78 m span length. A three-span
span bridges the Vltava in Prague-Troja
with 85.5 m : 96 m : 76 m (Figure 5.7-2).
Today, there is a whole series of existing
span bridges (Table 5.7-1).
5.7.2 Load-bearing effect
In contrast to suspension bridges, the
suspension cables, the stiffening girders and
the roadway are combined in one element,
the span. The tensioning band consists of
a relatively thin concrete cross-section with
tendons running from abutment to
abutment. The load-bearing system is a
flat tensioned cable. The sag, which
determines the bridge grade, is determined
by the maximum tensioning force.
Fig. 5.7-2
Tensioning belt
bridge over the
Vltava in Prague-
Troja
Table 5.7-7 Selection of designed tensioning strap bridges

458
Designation/country Number max. free belt Belt Tape Belt radius max. tensile max. Execution
of fields length L width thickness with dead force or tangent
load and prestressing inclination
average
m m temperature kN %
m m
Transportbr. Holderbank CH 1 216 3,16 400 11600 1963/64
Bircherweid CH 1 40 2,80 0,18 450 7000 19,5 1967
Osaka J 1 19 5,40 0,10 870 18000 2,8 1968
Freiburg i. B. D 3 34,5 4,40 0,25 300 16000 14 1969/70
Rhône Geneva-Lignon CH 1 136 3,10 0,40/ 0,08 420 17,5 1971
Peak Park GB 1 34 1,80 0,16
Rio Colorado CR 5 108 8,50 1973
Hvezdonice CZ 2 73 2,70 0,25 11,1 1977
Brno-Bystrc CZ 1 57 3,80 0,30 13850 7,6 1979
Prague-Troja CZ 3 96 3,80 0,30 1984

the superstructures
5 Main supporting structures of
Brno-Komin CZ 1 72 3,80 0,30 17900 7,6 1985
Pforzheim D 1 50 3,00 0,18 300,86 6,26 1991

Nymburk CZ 3 46,5-102-70,5 1985

Komeritz CZ 1 63,0 1983
Radonice CZ 1 63,0 1984
Prerov CZ 2 67,5-28,5 1983
Zatec CZ 2 36,5-75,5
Velke Brezno CZ 4 79,5-114-144-55,5
5.7 Tensioning strap
bridges
The longitudinal slope of the roadway is
limited to the maximum permissible
longitudinal slope. The almost exclusively
occurring tensile forces are absorbed by
the tendons. In contrast to the usual
superstructure structures, the concrete
does not have a primary load-bearing
function here. It forms the roadway and
the stiffening support, ensures corrosion
protection, increases the tensile rigidity of
the system and thus reduces the
deformations that occur under changing
loads and temperatures. In continuous
systems, the inner supports are designed
as pendulum supports in the longitudinal
direction of the bridge so that no
horizontal forces can occur on the inner
supports, even if the load varies from field
to field. Changing traffic loads and
temperature changes lead to geometric and
elastic changes in the length of the
tensioning band. In order to ensure the
resulting sagging and to reduce the
associated bending stresses on the span at
the abutments and over intermediate
supports, so-called unrolling sections are
arranged there. The installation of steel
roll-off bearings, foils or elastomer
bearings between the tensioning strap and
the abutment spigot as well as the
deflection table enables the tensioning
strap to be lifted off the substructures on
the roll-off section when the tensioning
strap shortens. The further development of
tensioning band bridges led to the elevation
of the track. The load-bearing tensioning
strip is then designed with a significantly
greater sag than the directly accessible
tensioning strip. The elevation only takes on
the function of the track and can therefore
be formed extremely easily. Special design
measures must be taken to transfer the
very high horizontal forces into the
ground. If rock is present, rock anchors
provide an appropriate and economical
anchoring. Otherwise
459
the use of appropriately long prestressed
grouted anchors as permanent anchors for
the introduction of large tensile forces is
more economical than the formation of
gravity abutments. The impact of the high
costs for the end anchors can be reduced
by increasing the number of openings.
5.7.3 Construction process
Figure 5.7-3 shows various cross-sectional
designs. The thickness of the Bircherweid
bridge is 120 to 180 mm. With d/L =
180/40 000 = 1/222, this span bridge is 10
times slimmer than a comparable bridge
of conventional design. Towards the
supports, the belt thickness increases to
360 mm. Like the bridge in Prague-Troja,
the prestressing belt bridges in Brno were
assembled from individual segments that
were suspended from the prestressing
cables and subsequently tensioned
together.
Normally, you will not set up a
falsework to produce a monolithic
concrete belt, but instead attach the
formwork to the previously installed
tendons. During the concreting process,
the sag of the strip and thus the horizontal
force changes as the fresh concrete load
increases. This must be taken into
account, especially in the case of post-
tensioning constructions running over
several spans. The same applies to
prestressed bridges made of precast
elements. The abutment displacements as
a result of the large tensile forces must be
recorded as realistically as possible, as this
has a strong influence on the sag of the
tensioning band. As a rule, a gap is initially
left in the concrete strip until the dead load
has become effective and the resulting
abutment displacements have subsided.
The sag of the tensioning band can then be
corrected by re-tensioning or slackening
and the gap left can then be closed.

superstructures
b
Figure 5.7-3 Cross-section design a) Bircherweid prestressing bridge; b) Brno prefabricated
bridge
5.7.4 Stresses
The influence of changes in the shape of
such flat-tensioned ropes, such as
tensioning band bridges, on their internal
forces is so great that the latter are always
calculated according to the theory
II order are to be calculated. Since
prestressed bridges cannot be
manufactured without bending stiffness,
bending moments in the longitudinal and
transverse directions occur in addition to
larger longitudinal forces. The occurring
bending moments of the longitudinal load
only have an insignificant influence on the
normal forces. A two-stage solution is
therefore possible. The normal forces are
determined on the flexible rope, and then
the bending moments of the longitudinal
load are calculated. The moments due to
uniformly distributed loads are generally
of secondary importance, while the
bending moments due to concentrated
loads and in the end area of the tensioning
band can be of decisive importance for the
design.
The pre-tension and the resulting
shortening of the tensioning strap also
reduce the sag of the
4605 Main supporting structures of
As a result of shrinkage and creep of the
concrete, the originally applied concrete
compressive stress drops much more than
with other prestressed concrete systems. In
most cases, prestressed bridges are so wide
that bending moments also occur in the
transverse direction as a result of evenly
distributed load strips and single-cell
loads in the longitudinal direction. Half-
sided loading of the stress ribbon bridge
results in different sag changes in the two
ribbon edges. The antimetric part of the
half-sided load leads to a twisting of the
strap and thus to a change in the strap
tensile forces as well as to the generation
of torsional moments. The different
horizontal tension at both edges of the
tensioning band generates moments
around the vertical axes in the deflection
tables of multi-span systems, which cause
considerable torsional stress in rigid
substructures. In the case of torsionally
soft supports, the deflection tables twist as
a result of the half-sided live load of a bay
and lead to sagging of the neighboring bays
in opposite directions.
5.7 Tensioning strap
bridges
sense. Information on the calculation of
tension band bridges can be found in [Eibl
et al. -1, 1973]. Investigations into the
vibration behavior and aerodynamic
stability of tension band bridges must be
carried out in any case, as these are
extremely slender structures with a low
natural frequency. [Scar- tazzini, 1969]
and [Batsch/Nehse, 1972] report on
vibration tests carried out. Further
illustrations of prestressed bridges can be
found in [Mach/Trčka, 1985],
[Stráský/Pirner, 1986], [ Stráský, 1987],
[ Bock, 1992],
[Schlaich/Bergermann, 1994], [Bögle et
al., 2003], [Stráský, 2005] and [Schlaich et
al., 2005].
5.7.5 Economic efficiency
The main cost factors are, on the one
hand, the comparatively high
consumption of prestressing steel for the
tendons and the possibly considerable effort
required to anchor the tendons to the
abutments. As the illustrated cross-
sections (Fig. 5.7-3) show, post-tensioning
bridges have an extremely low
construction height. Concrete
consumption is very low as all secondary
tendons are omitted. The relatively low
dead load and the horizontal tension,
which increases only linearly with the
span l, with a constant ratio of the span l
to the prestressing band sag f, allow much
larger spans than conventional prestressed
concrete superstructures.
The costs of the abutments are
independent of the number of bridge
spans. The larger the number of spans, the
greater the load-bearing capacity of the
existing subsoil and the smaller the span
radius, the more economical the prestressed
ribbon bridge. The limits of application of
prestressed strip bridges are defined by
the maximum permissible end tangent
inclination.
461
of the belt, the maximum prestressing
steel tension and the ratio of the total load
to the dead load of the tendons.
The use of the flat-tensioned cable in
the form of tendon bridges, consisting of a
relatively thin concrete cross-section with
tendons running from abutment to
abutment, leads to extremely slender and
economical constructions due to the
predominant longitudinal force load. The
area of application extends to both
pedestrian and road bridges. Numerous
advantages characterize the system of the
stress ribbon bridge.
5.7.6 Outlook
The use of carbon fiber lamellae (CFRP
lamellae) in the construction of new load-
bearing structures offers economic and
design potential that has been little
exploited to date. The use of carbon fibre
lamellae instead of tendons or steel strips
enables the further development of these
bridge support systems, as larger spans
and slimmer cross-sections can be realized
with this material compared to
conventional mild steel due to its
approximately ten times greater tensile
strength at one fifth of the dead load.
Schlaich/Bleicher, 2007] reports on a 13 m
wide test structure with CFRP lamellae.
However, a number of further
investigations are still necessary for a
practical application, as CFRP lamellae
react very sensitively to mechanical and
fire effects, the influence of the deflection
radii on the transverse pressure, wear and
friction of the lamellae is not yet
sufficiently known and possibilities for
intelligent damping of these
extraordinarily light constructions must
be found.
6 Storage
URSULA FREUNDT
Chapter 6 incorporates work by Günter
Ramberger on the storage of bridges.
6.1 Overview
So far, the variety of load-bearing systems
used in bridge construction has been
presented. The bearings describe the type
of support for the systems. Supports occur
at different levels in the load-bearing
systems. The supports between the
ground and the structure are usually
surface supports. Determining the
distribution of support forces over
surfaces is the task of the theory of
elasticity and soil mechanics and is not
dealt with here, nor is line support, which
can be rigid or elastic depending on the
idealization of the elastic properties of the
base. In this chapter, the term support is
used to describe support on bearings that
allow the number of degrees of freedom to
be defined and keep the point of action of
the support forces within the narrowest
possible limits. These supports are usually
arranged in the plane between the
superstructure and substructure, and are
understood to include all support points
in this plane. Therefore, the following
descriptions include both the
combination of bearings that interact for
the movement and transmission of forces
in a structure (bearing system), as well as
all the necessary measures that ensure the
transmission of forces and the
movements. This chapter describes the
tasks and requirements for the bearings.
The task of transmitting forces between
the components with simultaneous
rotation and displacement is performed
by the bearings, which are discussed in
more detail in section 10.2.
All bearings are spatial bearings with 6
degrees of freedom and therefore also
with 6 independent support force
components in the rigidly supported
body. The individual designs are
characterized by the fact that certain
movement possibilities of the support
remain permitted, while the remaining
movement possibilities are prevented and
act as independent support forces. An
overview of the common bearings with
details of the possible degrees of freedom
and support force components is given in
Table
6.11. The information on possible
movements should only be interpreted
qualitatively.
For elastic supports, the forces and
movements are coupled. For this reason, 9
degrees of freedom can be formally
counted for elastomeric bearings in Table
6.11. Force and movement are distributed
according to the existing stiffnesses in the
support system, which is why these
bearings should be considered as system
components. The support force
components that are also formally missing
for the line bearings in the table are
moments in the direction of the prevented
rotations that were not specified.
464 6 Storage

Table 6.1-1 Overview of common bearings

Relative movements/transmittable forces

-X
X - possible ; G - not possible
Y t Shifts Twists Transmittable
forces

Symbol in the Bearing type

storage level

Elastomeric bearing (EL) XXXXXX XXX

Elastomeric bearing with X G X X X X X X X

retaining construction (FK) for
one axle

EL with single-axis movable X G X X X X @ X X

sliding part and FK for the
other axis

Elastomeric bearing with X X X X X X 4W ## X

oo
two-axis movable sliding part

Elastomeric bearing with FK G @ X X X X X X X

for two axes

Elastomeric bearing with two- X X X X X X 4# 6# X

axis movable sliding part and
FK for two axes

Pot bearing

X X 4# X X X lN D X
Pot bearing with zvveiach
sig movable sliding part

Spherical bearings M M M X X X X X X
with retaining
construction
Spherical bearings with X @ G X X X G X X
uniaxially movable sliding part

Stählern es point tilt bearing X X X X X X

Steel point tilt bearing with X G G X X X U X X

uniaxially movable sliding part

Steel linear tilting pad X G X X X

Steel linear tilting pad with X G G @' X X X

uniaxially movable sliding part

Single roller bearing X fll 4# X 4W 4W X X

Single roller bearing with

sliding part for the other
direction
6.1 Overview 465

The bearing also influences the dynamic
properties of the supporting structure. In
earthquake-prone areas, this fact can be
specifically utilized through "earthquake
isolation". Earthquake isolation of bridges
is a design concept in which the dynamic
response of the bridge to earthquake
effects is specifically modified by inserting
an isolation system in the bearing plane
between the substructure and
superstructure. An isolation system in this
context is a horizontally "soft" bearing, i.e. a
bearing with a low effective horizontal
stiffness. The effective stiffness of the
isolation system is defined as the sum of
the horizontal stiffnesses of all elements of
the mounting. In addition to the common
bearings documented in Table 6.11, there
are some special elements for this task.
Table 6.12 provides an overview.
This support must realize the forces and
loads to the same extent as in the system
calculation of the normal case, i.e. without
earthquake loading. This brief overview
makes it clear that both the regulations for
structural design and those for bearings
and seismic devices must be observed for
the bearings. It is planned to establish a
summary of the individual issues from the
various sets of regulations that must be
observed for bearings as an appendix to
the basic principles of structural design.
Table 6.13 provides an overview of the
regulations relevant to the situation.

Table 6.1-2 Earthquake devices (ASD)

ASD (class) Effect Examples
Insulators Elements that carry the vertical loads Horizontally displaceable or
and at the same time provide horizontal deformable bearings, e.g.
isolation, i.e. have a low horizontal reinforced elastomer bearings
stiffness
Springs Elements that generate displacement- Horizontally acting springs
dependent horizontal forces, i.e. have a e.g. made of steel or elastomer
defined horizontal stiffness, but are not
used for vertical load transfer

Damper Elements for the dissipation of energy. viscous dampers, hysteretic

The effect can be based on viscosity, elements and friction elements
hysteresis, friction and other principles

Connections Elements that enable or exclude force ShockTransmitter fuses

transmission in the event of an (fuses)
earthquake, i.e. elements that bring
about a transition in the event of an
earthquake
466 6 Storage

Table 6.1-3 Regulations

Standard Issue Title
Structural engineering, actions, determination of internal forces and verification - European
standardization
DIN EN 1990 2002-10 Basics of structural engineering
DIN EN 1990/A1 2006-04 Fundamentals of structural engineering (amendment)
DIN EN 1991-1-x 2002-2008 General actions on supporting structures
DIN EN 1991-2 2004-05 Traffic loads on bridges
DIN EN 1992-2 2007-02 Concrete bridges - Design and construction rules
Structural engineering, actions, determination of internal forces and verification - German
standardization
DIN FB 101 2009-03 Effects on bridges
DIN FB 102 2009-03 Concrete bridges
DIN FB 103 2009-03 Steel bridges
DIN FB 104 2009-03 Composite bridges
Design of structures against earthquakes - European standardization
Fundamentals, earthquake effects and rules for buildings
DIN EN 1998-1 2006-04

DIN EN 1998-2 2006-06 Bridges

DIN EN 1998-2/
2008-09 Bridges (change)
A1
DIN prEN 15129 2007-07 Earthquake devices
Bearings in construction - European standardization
DIN EN 1337-1 2001-02 General regulations
DIN EN 1337-2 2004-07 Sliding parts
DIN EN 1337-3 2005-07 Elastomeric bearing
DIN EN 1337-4 2004-08 roller bearing
DIN EN 1337-4
2007-05 Roller bearing (correction)
Correction 1
DIN EN 1337-5 2005-07 Pot bearing
DIN EN 1337-6 2004-08 Tilting bearing
DIN EN 1337-7 2004-08 Spherical and cylindrical bearings with PTFE
DIN EN 1337-8 2008-01 Guide bearings and retaining structures
DIN EN 1337-9 1998-04 Protection
DIN EN 1337-10 2003-11 Inspection and maintenance
DIN EN 1337-11 1998-04 Transport, intermediate storage and installation
Bearings in construction - German standardization
Guide bearings and retaining structures - Design and
DIN V 4141-13 2008-11
manufacture
6.2 Tasks and assessment of storage
6.2 Tasks and assessment of
storage
The basic requirements for the bearing are
a permanently safe transmission of the
supporting forces both vertically and in
the bearing plane and a permanently low
constraint realization of the movements.
This means that the bearings used
should ideally enable the movements
without significant resistance forces and
without influencing the line of action of
the vertical force (without eccentricity).
The vertical forces must be transmitted
with small movements in the direction of
force.
Bearing technology is based on the
mechanical, usually combined principles
of rolling, sliding and deformation.
Resistance values are also associated with
this. These are based on rolling or sliding
friction or on deformation resistance. In
the displaced state, the vertical load also
has an eccentricity. The ideal case does
not exist.
In principle, the assessment of the
bearings is only possible in the overall
system of the structure including the
foundation. The bearings are arranged on
the abutments, columns or piers and
therefore also receive the deformations of
these, including those of their
foundations.
In many cases, however, bearings also
allow the static model for the
superstructure to be separated from the
static models of the substructures. Even
then, the bearings should be arranged in
the static system where the movement
takes place, usually eccentrically to the
axis of the supported beams.
The following criteria are suitable for
assessing a specific situation:
• If the settlements and deformations of
the substructures do not have a decisive
influence on the section sizes and
deformations of the superstructure, the
467
the systems can be separated
• If the resistance values of the bearings
have no influence on the internal forces
and deformations of the superstructure
and / or substructure, these are not
relevant to the system. Separate load-
bearing systems for superstructure and
substructure can be used for the
calculation. The deformations of the
individual components can be
superimposed.
In all other cases, separation of the
systems is not recommended.
These criteria are usually met for beam
and slab-type, transversely stiff
superstructures on rigid substructures
that are not at risk of settlement. In
contrast, superstructures with insufficient
transverse stiffness and/or superstructures
on high slender piers must be examined
on the entire system, taking into account
the resistance values and eccentricities.
This is essential for large bridges with
inclined or curved ground plans. The
effects of superstructure - bearing -
substructure - foundation interactions
arise in these cases both for the stresses
and for the movements. The influence of
the bearings of bridges with high slender
piers and the influence of the specific
bearing on the overall system and thus on
the stability behavior of the piers has been
shown several times in the literature.
Examples include the Siegtal Bridge
[Luchner, 1967] with a maximum pier
height of 102.55 m, the analysis of the
influence of different bearings
[Rieckmann, 1970] and the comments by
[Eggert, 1996]. If in these cases the
support systems of superstructure and
substructure are separated and the bearing
behavior is not taken into account, the
relative movements between
superstructure and substructure are
overestimated and the pier utilization is
underestimated. With several supported
piers
468
The errors are superimposed on each
other in the same structure and the result
can no longer be estimated.
In earthquake-prone areas, the storage
can be designed as "earthquake isolation",
as described in 6.1. The requirements for
storage in this case correspond to those
described above in the event of a non-
earthquake. Two further requirements are
defined for earthquakes:
• A severe earthquake with a low
probability of occurrence is assigned to
the ultimate limit state in the event of
an earthquake. In this case, the anti-
seismic functions of the stakes may be
damaged after the earthquake, but the
load-bearing function of the bearing
for non-seismic actions must be
maintained.
• The serviceability limit state
The probability is a lighter quake with a
high probability of occurrence during
the period of use
Horizontal elastic response spectrum (EC8) Soil classes A,
spectrum type 1
3,5 Vibration time extension
(earthquake isolation)
3,0
2,5
System 1: Se(T = 0.3s) = 2.99 ag
2,0
Se(T)/ag
1,5
1,0
0,5
System 2: Se(T = 0.9s) = 0.91 ag
0,0
0 0,5
weakly damped system (D = 2%)
Figure 6.2-1 Acceleration response of a system with varying stiffness and damping of the bearing
arrangement
6 Storage
assigned. After this earthquake, the
storage including the anti-seismic
functions should not be impaired.
When applying the concept of earthquake
isolation, the superstructure bearing is
designed as an isolation plane with a low
horizontal stiffness; the superstructure is
thus dynamically decoupled from the
substructures and thus from the
earthquake excitation. This decoupling
means that the superstructure, as a
separate, vibrating system, has a relatively
long natural period of vibration (T ). This
leads to a reduction in the spectral
response accelerations Se (T) as a measure
of the stress on the structure in the event
of an earthquake, as illustrated in Figure
6.2-1.
However, extending the basic vibration
time leads to an increase in the relative
(spectral) displacements between the
superstructure and substructure Sde (T ).
This can be prevented by the use of
earthquake devices, e.g. vibration
dampers.
Reduction in stress due to increased
vibration time with the same
damping
Stress reduction
by increasing the d a m p i n g
with the same basic vibration
time
1 1,5 2 2,5 3
Basic oscillation time T [s]
medium damped system (D= 10%)
6.2 Tasks and assessment of storage
Elastic response spectrum of displacement (EC8) Soil classes A,
spectrum type 1
70
Vibration time extension
(earthquake isolation)
60
50
Increase in stress due to increase
40 in vibration time with the same
Se(T)/ag
damping
30
20
10
System 1: Sde(T = 0.3s) = 6.8 mm / ag
0
0,0 0,5
weakly damped system (D = 2%)
Figure 6.2-2 Displacement response of a system with variation of stiffness and damping of the
bearing arrangement
dampers can be partially compensated for.
The basic result is shown in Figure 6.2-2.
The assessment of the bearings is of
particular importance for bridges in
seismically endangered areas. It must meet
all the requirements of load-bearing
capacity and serviceability and also the
requirements of the seismic limit states. In
the simplest case, earthquake isolation can
consist of the use of specifically designed
deformation bearings. As a rule, however,
this consists of bearings with additional
earthquake devices (see Table 6.1-2). The
determination of forces and movements
for the earthquake case must be carried
out on the overall system and
supplements the determination for the
static effects. When planning bridges and
their bearings in earthquake-prone areas,
it is necessary to process the requirements
(earthquake and non-seismic effects) as an
overall concept. Only in this way can the
469
Stress reduction
by increasing the
d a m p i n g
with the same basic vibration
time
System 2: Sde(T = 0.9s) = 18.6 mm / ag
1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0
Basic oscillation time T
[s]
medium damped system (D= 10%)
properties of the individual elements can
be used and coordinated in a targeted
manner.
The realization of the above-mentioned
requirements of the bearing, permanently
safe transmission of the support forces
both vertically and in the bearing plane
with permanent low constraint realization
of the movements, requires constructive
measures for the supporting structure and
bearing under static and dynamic loads.
These serve:
• the transfer of vertical loads between
the superstructure - bearing -
substructure components within the
narrowest possible action limits,
• the shear-resistant connection of the
bearings to the structural components.
The force transmission leads to the transfer
of concentrated loads into the contact
areas of the superstructure and
substructure and thus to local stresses. It
therefore influences the geometry of the
bearing layout. The mathematical and
design solution for solid components
470
is discussed in Chapter 7 and Section 8.6.
For steel or composite superstructures, a
corresponding stiffener is required in the
support area.
The shear-resistant connection of the
bearings to the structural components can
be achieved by friction if the load is
sufficient and the load is predominantly
static or, in other cases, by connecting
means, e.g. shear studs.
Support is provided by bearings and
seismic devices. These are high-quality
construction products that are subject to
heavy loads during their service life. For
example, sliding distances of 400 m per
year can occur on sliding parts as a result
of temperature and traffic. This is not
possible without signs of wear. For this
reason, bearings and seismic devices must
be replaceable. The necessary precautions,
press contact surfaces and replaceable
connections must be taken into account
during planning.
In the presentation of the
requirements, the forces of the bearing
arrangement are always assumed to be
compressive forces. All common bearings
are bearings for the transmission of
compressive forces. As a rule, tensile
forces should be avoided in the case of
supported bridges. However, objective
boundary conditions can force solutions
that also lead to tensile forces. In these
cases, special designs are used.
6 Storage
6.3 Choice of storage
and arrangement of the bearings
In principle, two types of storage are
possible:
• The elastic bearing, whereby
deformation bearings realize the
displacements and rotations through the
deformability and at the same time
absorb forces in the plane through the
deformation resistance
• the support with fixed points. In these
cases, the forces are absorbed in the
plane at the fixed point.
The application limits of elastic mounting
are clearly defined by the capacity to
absorb forces in the plane.
A number of principles must be
observed when selecting the bearing
system in accordance with its task. The
bearing system must be designed in such a
way that the movements are possible with
low resistance forces, that tensile forces are
avoided and that the individual bearings
can be maintained and replaced. For
example, the direction of movement of
moving bearings should always be in a
horizontal direction (Figure 6.3-1), as this
prevents any additional horizontal effects
on the other bearings under vertical loads
(dead load and live loads).
Many bearing arrangements that are
restraint-free for uniform temperature
changes result in restraints under
eccentric vertical loads and under
horizontal loads, which are often caused
or intensified by the bearings always being
arranged eccentrically to the beam's center
of gravity (Figure 6.3-2)
Single-span bridges
Supported single-span bridges are
structures that are supported on rigid
abutments and thus the bearings usually
separate the structural system between the
superstructure and the bridge.
6.3 Choice of bearing and arrangement of bearings
displaced b r i d g e
Figure 6.3-1 Horizontal bearing displacement [Ramberger,
2002]
and substructure. The choice of bearing
can therefore be derived from the
supporting forces and movements of the
superstructure. The classic support of a
single-span bridge is on four vertical force
bearings and is therefore simply statically
indeterminate for vertical forces.
The directions of movement must be
selected in such a way that the movements
of the superstructure can take place largely
without constraint, both with uniform
temperature changes and with horizontal
forces transverse to the axis. Figures 6.3-3
and 6.3-4 show the two basic bearing
types.
In the event of seismic stress, fixed
points on abutments of the bridge
Figure 6.3-2 Bearing restraints for a single-span bridge with eccentric traffic load [Ramberger, 2002].
471
very large forces in the plane [Klöker
1997, Bachmann, 1990], which can hardly
be determined close to reality. Elastic
support, which is the basis of earthquake
isolation, is therefore particularly useful for
massive single-span bridges in seismically
endangered areas, although additional
measures may be required to limit
displacement in the event of use and
earthquakes, e.g. the use of seismic
devices.
Bearing arrangement
The arrangement of the bearings depends
on the cross-sectional design and the
available space.
472
H(HL)
HL
Figure 6.3-3 For horizontal forces transverse
to the axis, restraint-free support of a single-
span bridge, eccentric longitudinal force
absorption [Ramberger, 2002].
With articulated cross-sections in
concrete, steel or composite construction,
the vertical forces are most easily
transferred where they reach the
abutment - at the intersection points of
the main girder axes with the abutment
axes of the abutments. In these cases, the
bearings are only arranged at other points
under a support cross member in
exceptional cases. The rotation of the
structure around the longitudinal axis is
prevented on abutments, which is why
Figure 6.3-5 Bearing of a steel bridge on the
abutment [Ramberger, 2002].
Stiff
Split tensile
reinforcement
Figure 6.3-6 Presses and starting points for bearing replacement [Ramberger, 2002].
6 Storage
H1 H3
HL
H2 H4
Figure 6.3-4 Elastic mounting of a single-span
bridge
At least two vertical bearings are required,
Figure 6.3-5.
The required attachment points for
hydraulic presses for changing the
bearings must be provided in the structure,
equipped with appropriate splitting tensile
reinforcement at the top and bottom in
the concrete and stiffened with
appropriate stiffeners in the steel (Fig. 6.3-
6)
In the case of solid slab cross-sections,
the magnitude of the supporting forces
depends largely on the bearing type and
arrangement. The load distributions must
be taken into account here and space must
be provided for the arrangement of
presses for bearing replacement. In
Chapter 7, Figure 7.2-11 shows a support
bank with arrangement of the bearings
and press contact areas.
With inclined or curved bridges, care
should be taken to ensure that the
bearings that absorb the horizontal forces
receive the greater vertical forces (obtuse
corner, outside of arch, Figures 6.3-7 and
6.3-8). This reduces the inclination of the
resultant (Fig. 6.3-9).
6.3 Choice of bearing and arrangement of bearings
Figure 6.3-7 Support of an inclined, single-
span bridge [Ramberger, 2002].
Figure 6.3-8 Support of a curved, single-span
bridge [Ramberger, 2002]
R situation to be bridged. The geometry of
V the ground plan and the height of the
V stiffness in the plane. This must be taken
R
H H
Figure 6.3-9 Inclination of the resultant for
different vertical forces [Ramberger, 2002].
For skew-angled, solid slab bridges
with crossing angles of less than 50gon,
the support forces at the acute corners
must be checked for lift-off. The bearing
arrangement (indent the bearing from the
acute edge) and the consideration of the
existing vertical stiffness of the bearings
ensure a realistic bearing force assessment
and in many cases no lift-off occurs.
In the case of skewed and/or curved
bridges in seismically endangered areas, a
further aspect must be taken into account
in the bearing arrangement - the
agreement of the center of mass of the
superstructure with the center of rigidity
of the bearing. If the center of gravity of
the
473
If the superstructure and the horizontal
stiffness center (in the projection onto the
positional plane) do not coincide,
asymmetrical and coupled vibration
modes of the superstructure arise, which
lead to additional displacements in the
event of an earthquake. If the stiffness
center cannot be adjusted with the bearings
required for use, the position of the
stiffness center can be changed by using
earthquake devices, primarily springs (see
Table 6.1-2).
Continuous beam
Continuous girders over two or more
spans are also supported on rigid
abutments at the ends of the bridge; the
intermediate supports are columns or
piers, which can also be of different
heights in a bridge depending on the
supports and piers determine their
into account when selecting the bearings.
The two bearing types (elastic; fixed-point
bearing) are also common for continuous
girders. Mixed bearings are also used,
where one or more slender central piers
are clamped into the superstructure and
the remaining piers are supported. The
stability of the overall system must be
examined when selecting the bearing.
As with single-span bridges,
continuous girders each have at least two
vertical force bearings at the abutments
(Figure 6.3-10).
If the torsional rigidity is sufficient, one
bearing on each pillar is sufficient.
Figure 6.3-10 Principle of a two-span bridge
[Ramberger, 2002].
474
Figure 6.3-11 Two-span bridge with
longitudinally displaceable vertical force
bearing on piers [Ramberger, 2002].
All abutments or piers can be used to
absorb the horizontal forces transverse to the
bridge axis by arranging one bearing each
in a non-displaceable manner in the
transverse direction (Figure 6.3-11).
If the supporting structure has
sufficient stiffness around the vertical axis,
in many cases it is sufficient to absorb the
horizontal forces only on the abutments
and thus in a statically determined
manner (Fig. 6.3-12). However, the
bearings on the piers, which are movable
on all sides, then transfer their vertical
force eccentrically, whereby the type of
bearing and the arrangement on the pier
(sliding part to the superstructure or to
the pier) determine the
influence the effect of eccentricity.
In the case of long bridges or bridges
with high piers, it may be advisable to fix
the superstructure in the longitudinal
direction of the bridge on one or more
piers positioned in the middle of the
longitudinal direction. With movable
bearings on the abutments, the horizontal
forces are distributed to the fixed piers;
with fixed bearings on the abutments, the
pier heads are held in place by the
superstructure, thus significantly reducing
the buckling lengths of the piers.
Figure 6.3-13 Curved multi-span bridge with pole beam support, displacement at the bridge end
not in the direction of the bridge axis [Ramberger, 2002].
6 Storage
Figure 6.3-12 Two-span bridge with vertical
force bearing on piers displaced on all sides
[Ramberger, 2002].
If the supporting forces and
movements permit, elastic bearings with
deformation bearings should be used for
continuous girders. In the case of
horizontally curved continuous beams, it is
advantageous to align the direction of
movement of the bearings at the
abutments in the direction of the track
axis due to the track transitions or rail
extensions. In order to achieve a bearing
that is free of constraint for uniform
temperature changes, all other directions
of displacement of one-sided fixed
bearings must include the same angle with
the pole beam to the fixed bearing
(Figures 6.3-13, 6.3-14).
Bearings on the abutments must always
be arranged so that the displacement of the
bearings coincides with the displacement
of the rail crossings (see section 10.3). In
the case of finger crossings, sliding plate
crossings and rail pull-out devices, the
displacement of the bearings at the
abutments must be in the direction of the
bridge axis.
Both types of base bearing are suitable
for the storage of continuous beams in
seismically endangered areas, the position-
6.3 Choice of bearing and arrangement of bearings
Figure 6.3-14 Curved multi-span bridge with constraint-free bearing for uniform temperature
change, displacement at the bridge end in the direction of the bridge axis [Ramberger, 2002].
The stakes with fixed points and the
elastic bearing (earthquake isolation).
As described for single-span beams, the
arrangement of the bearings depends on
the building material and the cross-
sectional design of the superstructure. In
the case of single piers, the cross-section
required for the calculation is often not
sufficient to accommodate the bearing and
the press-fit attachment point. Possible
solutions are dealt with in Chapter 7.
Figure 7.3-4 shows an example.
The arrangement of fixed points for
earthquake bearings should generally be
on one or more piers, as fixed points on
the abutments experience very large forces
in the plane in the event of an earthquake,
as already explained. Seismic devices
should be arranged at the location where
the installed elements can achieve their
maximum (dynamic) effect. It makes no
sense to specify generalizations with
regard to the use of earthquake devices; it
is always necessary to adjust the bearing
and the earthquake devices to the given
situation. In the case of elastic support
(earthquake isolation), the same stakes
must be met as for the support of single-
span bridges, in particular the symmetry of
stiffness and mass distribution must be
observed.
After the basic choice of position has
been shown, the arrangement of the
bearings is determined from the load-
bearing behavior and geometry parameters
of the superstructure cross-section.
475
and the resulting basic geometry of the
substructure, the choice of bearings is now
missing.
For the selection of bearings and seismic
devices are required:
• the forces and movements to be
transmitted,
• the performance parameters of
common bearings and seismic devices,
• the bearing resistances,
• the storage requirements from the
building additions.
Information on determining the forces and
movements is provided in section 6.4. To
determine the movement capacities in the
case of isolation, the notes in section 8.7.3
must also be observed. DIN EN 1337-1,
2001] provides an overview of the common
bearing types; a condensed presentation is
shown in section 6.1, table 6.1-1. A detailed
presentation of the installation of
individual bearing types can be found in
section 10.2.
As deformation bearings are robust
bearings in terms of installation,
maintenance and service life, their possible
use is always checked first. If space is
limited or if the displacements or rotations
cannot be reasonably realized with
deformation bearings, the use of other
bearing types is examined. All bearings can
be combined with sliding parts, so that the
displacement size alone is not a decision
criterion.
476
6.4 Determination of
forces and movements
6.4.1 General information
Determining the forces and movements of
the bearing is an iterative process, like all
verifications in the construction industry.
Once the load-bearing system has been
selected, the forces and movements at the
bearing points are determined according
to the expected effects. The magnitude of
the determined values allows the bearing
type to be preselected. This allows the
design intentions (geometry) to be
checked for compatibility and then the
bearing type to be determined. The
resistance forces, which are summarized
in section 6.5, are now known and the
forces and movements of the bearing
arrangement can be calculated.
Irrespective of the expected exceptional
and earthquake effects, these must first be
determined for the effects of the rebound
cases. The results are used by the bearing
manufacturer to prepare the bearing
statics and by the structural engineer for
further monitoring in the structure. It is
therefore necessary to compare them
between the parties involved.
Verifications for the combinations of
the two limit states are required for the
structural analysis and, as a rule, also for
the supports. Accordingly, the forces and
movements must also be determined for
the action combinations of the two limit
states. Since the supports realize the
boundary or rail pad conditions of the
structural system, the action combinations
of the structure apply.
The partial safety factors of the effects
for the ultimate limit state are derived
from considerations of the transverse
section plane. The internal forces, which
are usually determined in a physically
linear manner, are used for the
verification on the transverse section plane.
6 Storage
cross-sectional plane. The associated
deformations (e.g. deflections) increase
disproportionately to the internal forces
due to the non-linear material behavior,
which is why the linear calculation is not
applicable. A non-linear deformation
calculation to determine the movements
of bearings is generally not justified for
reasons of cost.
For this reason, rules for determining
the forces and movements on bearings
and transition structures were
summarized in [DIN-FB 101, 2009] in
Annex O. The aforementioned Annex O
also contains supplementary rules for the
design of bearings. The rules for
determining the movements according to
Annex O are based on empirical data and
are determined by means of linear
calculation. The following procedure was
chosen:
• Determination of the forces and
movements with the characteristic
combination of actions. To determine
the measured values of the forces and
movements in the ultimate limit state,
the following must be observed:
• The design values of the forces and
movements are obtained by multiplying
the force and movement resulting from
each individual action by the
corresponding partial safety factor.
• The design values of the movements
from creep and shrinkage are obtained
by increasing the mean creep and
shrinkage coefficients according to
[DIN-FB 102, 2009] by a factor of 1.35
and the design values of the
movements from pre-tension by
applying the mean value of the pre-
tension.
• The movements and forces that arise
after the bearings have been installed
must be determined for piers that are
to be treated according to Theory II.
The movements and forces arising after
installation of the bearings must be
determined using the characteristic
combination of actions and half of the
 6.4 Determining the forces and movements 477

value of the geometric equivalent The extreme values of the movements can
imperfection. be compensated for with the help of the
single-sided settings.
The forces and movements for bridges
with seismic isolation are determined in
the limit states for earthquakes described
6.4.2 Example for determining the forces and
in Section 6.2. The forces and movements
movements and the verification procedure for
of seismically isolated bridges can only be
reinforced elastomeric bearings
calculated for the entire system, taking into
account the dynamic properties of the
Basics:
bearings (Section 6.2). Possible calculation
Bearing: [DIN EN 1337-3, 2005]
methods from which the forces and
Actions: [DIN-FB 101, 2009]
movements of the bearings can then be
derived are described in Section 8.7.3.
The determination of forces and
movements for bearings is regulated in
Forces and movements from the
Annex O of the above-mentioned DIN
construction process
technical report and the verifications for
When determining the design values of
reinforced elastomeric bearings in [DIN
the movements from the fluctuation of the
EN 1337-3, 2005].
constant temperature component
(uniform temperature change), an
Verification of the sum of elastomer strains
installation temperature (average building
according to [DIN EN 1337-3, 2005],
temperature at the time the bearing and
Section 5.3.3
building are connected) must be assumed.
Summarized elastomer distortion:
This depends on the construction process
and the manufacturing method. As it is εt,d = KL ∙ (εc,d + εq,d + εα,d ) ≤ 7.0
generally difficult to predict the conditions
The proportions of the total distortion are
at the time of installation, assumptions
calculated as follows, whereby additional
must be made that are on the safe side.
limit values must be observed for the
This means the assumption of a
shear distortion:
Elastomer distortion from vertical
loading:
additional (in addition to the ,  ċ Fz,d
measurement ε =
value) uniform temperature changes c,d G ċ Ar ċ S
the change. The cited Annex O specifies
an increase in the design value of the with the design value of the vertical force
Fz,d
negative and positive temperature
component of the temperature fluctuation Elastomer distortion from displacement:
by each
10 K in each case. If the average building vxy,d
εq,d = C , 
temperature at the time of connection Tq
of the bearing and structure is determined
with the design value of the displacement vxy,d
by temperature measurements, then no
increases in the temperature components Elastomer distortion from bearing torsion:
(ar ċ αa + br� ċ αb ) ċ
of the temperature fluctuation are ,d ,d ti

required.
Even if during the construction process
the fixed point is changed, enlargements are
The changes in the uniform temperature change taken into account.
must be When moving
i
478 6 Storage

εα ,d = εαx,d =
� ċ � (t )
bearings can be determined by bearing pre- with the design value of the torsion α
 6.4 Determining the forces and movements
The verification of the summary elastic
distortion must be carried out in the
ultimate limit state and requires the
design values of the forces and
movements from this limit state.
The forces and movements Fzd , vxy,d
and αab,d must be determined in
accordance with [DIN-FB 101, 2009],
Annex O. This is based on the
characteristic combination of actions. The
design values are obtained by determining
the forces and movements from the
individual actions of the characteristic
action combination with subsequent
augmentation of the individual results with
the corresponding partial safety factors.
In addition to determining the forces
and movements for the bearings, the
example also checks the effects of a
verification that takes into account the
associated design values or a verification
with maximum values. Under "associated"
Figure 6.4.2-1 Cross-section variant 1, concrete variant
Figure 6.4.2-2 Cross-section variant 2, composite variant
479
values are understood as the results of a
specific load position.
Example: 3-span bridge with two
different cross-section designs
For this example, the support forces,
displacements and rotations were
calculated for the actions. The
characteristic values of the individual
results are given in Tables 6.4.2-1 and -2.
Assumptions and simplifications for the
calculation of internal forces:
• Examination on the beam system, the
transverse direction ϑb and vy are
neglected
• Effects from the manufacturing
technology, time of installation and
overheight of the superstructure are
not taken into account. The bearing
deformations due to dead load and pre-
tension are applied in full.
480 6 Storage

Figure 6.4.2-3 Longitudinal section

Figure 6.4.2-4 Storage plan

Table 6.4.2-1 Compilation of the results of the forces and movements from the individual actions
(characteristic values) for cross-section variant 1
Description AV [kN] BV [kN] A ϑ[10-3] B ϑ[10-3] vA [mm] vB [mm]
1 Dead load 1490,46 3752,09 -2,37 0,39 0,00 0,00
2 Expansion load 354,00 969,00 -0,63 0,10 0,00 0,00
3 pre-tension 67,30 -67,30 4,18 -0,80 7,86 4,11
4 K+S -5,33 5,33 0,90 -0,30 30,45 21,90
5 UDL in field 1+3 462,00 504,00 -0,92 0,71 0,00 0,00
6 UDL in field 2 -54,70 577,00 0,28 -0,62 0,00 0,00
7 UDL in field 1+2 394,00 1147,00 -0,57 -0,05 0,00 0,00
8 TS in field 1 293,00 279,00 -0,75 0,40 0,00 0,00
9 TS in field 2 -37,70 304,00 0,20 -0,44 0,00 0,00
10 TS to A 534,00 -0,66 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
11 TS to B -0,35 534,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
12 Braking load 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 -0,25 -0,25
13 Starting load 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,25 0,25
Uniform cooling
14 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 19,93 10,56

Uniform heating
15 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 -13,70 -7,26

Temperature
16 88,50 -88,50 0,80 -0,25 0,00 0,00
top side higher
Temperature
17 -57,33 57,33 -0,52 0,17 0,00 0,00
underside higher
(The index on the displacements/rotations indicates the bearing, not the axis of the displacement/rotation).
 6.4 Determining the forces and movements 481

Table 6.4.2-2 Compilation of the results of the forces and movements from the individual actions
(characteristic values) for cross-section variant 2
Description AV [kN] BV [kN] Aϑ[10-3] B ϑ[10-3] vA [mm] vB [mm]
1 Dead load 721,92 1977,52 -0,20 0,05 -0,96 0,39
2 Expansion load 350,06 972,71 -1,07 0,18 -0,47 0,20
4 K+S -123,75 123,75 -1,32 0,60 9,78 5,94
5 UDL in field 1+3 453,95 501,42 -1,58 1,20 -0,32 1,19
6 UDL in field 2 -57,33 574,13 0,48 -1,03 -0,19 -1,01
7 UDL in field 1+2 382,42 1146,15 -0,98 0,07 -0,86 -0,37
8 TS in field 1 282,87 285,55 -1,29 0,68 -0,62 0,46
9 TS in field 2 -41,59 304,45 0,35 -0,74 -0,12 -0,72
10 TS to A 524,02 3,61 0,00 0,00 0,02 0,00
11 TS to B 3,87 516,62 0,00 0,00 -0,01 0,00
12 Braking load -1,10 -6,35 0,00 -0,01 -0,21 -0,20
13 Starting load 1,10 6,35 0,00 0,01 0,21 0,20
Uniform cooling
14 38,46 -38,46 0,57 -0,19 23,19 11,97

Uniform heating
15 -28,57 28,57 -0,39 0,14 -17,23 -8,89

Temperature
16 66,32 -66,32 0,94 -0,32 -3,07 -2,16
top side higher
Temperature
17 -79,63 79,63 -1,13 0,39 3,68 2,59
underside higher

(The index on the displacements/rotations indicates the bearing, not the axis of the displacement/rotation).
482 6 Storage

Design values of forces and movements
for the verification of elastomer
distortions according to [DIN EN 1337,
2005],
Section 5.3.3
According to Annex O of [DIN-FB 101,
2009], the design values of movements due
to creep and shrinkage under compression
are to be
increase in the mean creep and shrinkage
coefficients according to [DIN-FB 102,
2009] or [DIN-FB 104, 2009] with a factor
of 1.35. This factor is not a partial safety
factor, but leads to fractile values of the
creep and shrinkage coefficients.

Table 6.4.2-3 Design values of forces and movements for the bearings of cross-section variant 1
AV BV ϑA ϑB vA vB
[kN] [kN] [10-3] [10-3]
[mm] [mm]
Maximum support force bearing A and tension ϑ
1,35(1+2)+1,0*3+1,0*4+1,5*(5+10)
max A 4141,6
+1,35*0,8*16
Bearing A
1,35(1+2)+1,0*3+1,35*4+1,5*(5+10)
train. 0,83
+1,35*0,8*16
ϑ
Maximum support force bearing B and tension ϑ
1,35(1+2)+1,0*3+1,0*4+1,5*(7+11)
max B 8894,9
+1,35*0,8*17
Bearing B
1,35(1+2)+1,0*3+1,35*4+1,5*(7+11)
train. -0,65
+1,35*0,8*17
ϑ
Maximum rotation of bearing A and tension. Av
train. 1,35*(1+2)+1,0*3+1,0*4+1,5*(5+8)
3622,6
A +1,35*0,8*17
(EK1)
max ϑ 1,35*(1+2)+3+1,35*4+1,5*(5+8)
-1,72 Bearing A
(EK 1) +1,35*0,8*17
train. 1,0*(1+2)+1,0*3+1,0*4+1,5*(6+9)
1863,4
A (EK +1,35*0,8*16
2)
max ϑ 1,0*(1+2)+3+1,35*4+1,5*(6+9)
3,97
(EK 2) +1,35*0,8*16
Maximum torsion bearing B and tension. Bv
train 1,35(1+2)+1,0*3+1,0*4+1,5*(5+8)
7547,9
B (EK +1,35*0,8*17
1)
max ϑ 1,35*(1+2)+3+1,35*4+1,5*(5+8)
1,30 Bearing B
(EK 1) +1,35*0,8*17
train 1,0*(1+2)+1,0*3+1,0*4+1,5*(6+9)
5885,0
B (EK +0,8*1,35*16
2)
max ϑ 1,0*(1+2)+3+1,35*4+1,5*(6+9)
-2,58
(EK 2) +1,35*0,8*16
Horizontal displacement for bearing A and B
max v 1.0(3)+1.35*(4)+1.5*(14) Bearings A and B 75,9 47,9
 6.4 Determining the forces and movements 483

Table 6.4.2-4 Design values for the forces and movements of the bearings of cross-section
variant 2
AV BV ϑA ϑB vA vB
[kN] [kN] [10-3] [10-3]
[mm] [mm]
Maximum support force bearing A and tension ϑ
1,35(1+2)+1,0*4+1,5*(5+10)
max A 2885,6
+1,35*0,8*(14+0,75*16)
Bearing A
1,35(1+2)+1,35*4+1,5*(5+10)
train. -4,48
+1,35*0,8*(14+0,75*16)
ϑ
Maximum support force bearing B and tension ϑ
1,35(1+2)+1,o*4+1,5*(7+11)
max B 6697,5
+1,5*0,8*(0,35*15+17)
Bearing B
1,35(1+2)+1,35*4+1,5*(7+11)
train. 1,70
+1,35*0,8*(0,35*15+17)
ϑ
Maximum rotation of bearing A and tension. Av
train. 1,35*(1+2)+1,0*4+1,5*(5+8)
2428,7
A +1,35*0,8*(0,35*15+17)
(EK1)
max ϑ 1,35*(1+2)+1,35*4+1,5*(5+8)
-9,16 Bearing A
(EK 1) +0,8*1,35*(0,35*15+17)
train. 1,35*(1+2)+1,0*4+0*(6+9)
1442,5
A (EK +1,35*(14+0,75*16)
2)
max ϑ 1,35*(1+2)+1,35*4+0*(6+9)
-2,11
(EK 2) +1,35*(14+0,75*16)
Maximum torsion bearing B and tension. Bv
train 1,35(1+2)+1,0*4+1,5*(5+8)
5383,8
B (EK +1,35*0,8*(0,35*15+17)
1)
max ϑ 1,35(1+2)+1,35*4+1,5*(6+9)
4,41 Bearing B
(EK 1) +1,35*0,8*(0,35*15+17)
train 1,35(1+2)+1,0*4+1,5*(5+8)
5424,4
B (EK +1,35*0,8*(0,35*15+17)
2)
max ϑ 1,0(1+2)+1,35*4+1,5*(6+9)
-2,08
(EK 2) +1,35*0,8*(14+0,75*16)
Horizontal displacement for bearing A and B
1.35(1+2)+1.35*(4)
max v Bearings A and B 46,3 27,6
+1.35*(18+0.75*17)

Dimensioning of bearings under cross- Dimensioning of bearings under cross-

section 1 (solid)
Unanchored bearings according to [DIN
EN 1337-3, 2005] with the geometries
shown below were selected and the
summary elastomeric distortion analysis
was carried out.
section 2 (composite)
Unanchored bearings according to [DIN
EN 1337-3, 2005] with the geometries
shown below were selected and the total
elastomeric distortion was determined.
484 6 Storage

Table 6.4.2-5 Summarized elastomer distortion for the bearings of cross-section variant 1
Bearing dimensioning - QS 1, bearing A
Cross- Fz,d - ϑ Cross- Fz,d - ϑ
section 1 max max train section 1 max max train
Bearing A - max - - max Bearing B - max - - max
train train
a [mm] 400 400 400 a [mm] 500 500 500
b [mm] 500 500 500 b [mm] 600 600 600
aʹ [mm] 392 392 392 aʹ [mm] 492 492 492
bʹ2B9 [mm] 492 492 492 bʹ2B9 [mm] 592 592 592
↩ ↩
n 9 9 9 n 6 6 6
t [mm] 11 11 11 t [mm] 11 11 11
s [mm] 4 4 4 s [mm] 4 4 4
Fz [kN] 4141,6 4141,6 1863,4 Fz [kN] 8894,9 8894,9 5885
vx [mm] 75,9 75,9 75,9 vx [mm] 47,5 47,5 47,5
ϑa [rad] 3,97E-03 8,30E-04 3,97E-03 ϑb [rad] 2,58E-03 6,50E-04 2,58E-03
A [mm²] 200000 200000 200000 A [mm²] 300000 300000 300000
Aʹ [mm²] 192864 192864 192864 Aʹ [mm²] 291264 291264 291264
Ar [mm²] 155521 155521 155521 Ar [mm²] 263144 263144 263144
S 9,92 9,92 9,92 S 12,21 12,21 12,21
[N/ [N/
Gd 0,8 0,8 0,8 Gd 0,8 0,8 0,8
mm²] mm²]
εc,d 5,035 5,035 2,265 εc,d 5,189 5,189 3,433
εq,d 0,767 0,767 0,767 εq,d 0,720 0,720 0,720
εαx,d 0,292 0,061 0,292 εαx,d 0,444 0,112 0,444
Σε 6,093 5,863 3,324 Σε 6,353 6,021 4,597

Figure 6.4.2-5 Proportions with associated/maximum calculation values for cross-section variant 1
 6.4 Determining the forces and movements 485

Table 6.4.2-6 Summarized elastomer distortion for the bearings of cross-section variant 2
Bearing dimensioning - QS 2, bearing A
Cross Nsd - ϑ Cross- Nsd - ϑ
section 2 max max train section 2 max max train
Bearing A - max - - max Bearing B - max - -
train train max
a [mm] 350 350 350 a [mm] 450 450 450
b [mm] 450 450 450 b [mm] 550 550 550
aʹ [mm] 342 342 342 aʹ [mm] 442 442 442
bʹ2B9 [mm] 442 442 442 bʹ2B9 [mm] 542 542 542
↩ ↩
n 6 6 6 n 4 4 4
t [mm] 11 11 11 t [mm] 11 11 11
s [mm] 4 4 4 s [mm] 4 4 4
Fz [kN] 2885,6 2885,6 2428,7 Fz [kN] 6697,5 6697,5 5383,8
vx [mm] 46,3 46,3 46,3 vx [mm] 27,6 27,6 27,6
ϑa [whee 9,16E-03 4,48E-03 9,16E-03 ϑb [wheel] 4,41E-03 1,70E-03 4,41E-03
l]
A [mm²] 157500 157500 157500 A [mm²] 247500 247500 247500
Aʹ [mm²] 151164 151164 151164 Aʹ [mm²] 239564 239564 239564
Ar [mm²] 130699 130699 130699 Ar [mm²] 224605 224605 224605
S 8,76 8,76 8,76 S 11,07 11,07 11,07
[N/ [N/
Gd 0,8 0,8 0,8 Gd 0,8 0,8 0,8
mm²] mm²]
εc,d 4,723 4,723 3,976 εc,d 5,052 5,052 4,061
εq,d 0,702 0,702 0,702 εq,d 0,627 0,627 0,627
εαx,d 0,773 0,378 0,773 εαx,d 0,923 0,356 0,923
Σε 6,198 5,803 5,450 Σε 6,602 6,035 5,611

Figure 6.4.2-6 Proportions with associated/maximum calculation values for cross-section variant 2
486 6 Storage

Summary of the results of these
examples for the verification of the
summa- rial elastomer distortion
In the examples, the formation rules for
determining the forces and displacements
were shown and it was investigated whether
the use of associated values when forming
the action combinations for the bearing
design enables optimization of the required
bearing size. Possible variations between
the calculated values of the support force
and the torsion were investigated. The
consideration of associated values for
The results, which were verified using two
examples, illustrate the recommendation to
perform the calculation using the
maximum values.
Verification of the t o r s i o n a l l i m i t
c o n d i t i o n o r "gaping in the bed
joint" For the verification of the torsional
limit condition or "gaping in the bed
joint" (Section 5.3.3.6 of [DIN EN 1337-
3:2005])
the deformations vz,d , ϑa,d and ϑb,d are
required, whereby the deformation vz,d is
calculated as bearing compression from F
.z,d

Proof:
ar
The stock shifts were not included in the   ntFz,d θa,d + br θb,d
since the relevant influences that cause ( + ) �
Gd S E Ar 
shifts are either of a permanent nature b
(pre-
stress, creep and shrinkage) or show no This verification must be carried out in
interaction with the vertical load and the ultimate limit state.
torsion (uniform cooling/heating). The left-hand term of the equation is
In the calculated sums of elastomer vz,d and the right-hand term is referred to
distortion, the sum of the distortions from below as v .α,d
vertical load and displacement dominates The unfavorable constellation for this
the total sum by far. For this reason, the verification consists of a low vertical
use of associated values does not show a deflection (low superimposed load) and a
significant result; the sums determined are large torsion. This again raises the
only slightly reduced. question of whether maximum values or
Even if these statements are not associated values can be used. This
universally valid, as they only apply to question is also examined using the above
these example.

Table 6.4.2-7 Design values of the minimum support force and the associated torsion, cross-section
variant 1
Minimum load Av and tens. Torsion
min A 0,95*(1+2)+1,0*3+1,0*4+1,5(6+9)+1,35*0,8*17 1611,8
Bearing
train ϑ 0,95*(1+2)+3+1,35*4+1,5*(6+9)+1,35*0,8*17 2,71 A
Minimum load Bv and tens. Torsion
min B 0,95*(1+2)+1,0*4+1,0*3+0*(6+9)+1,35*16 4303,6
Bearing
train ϑ 0,95*(1+2)+3+1,35*4+1,5*16 -1,13 B
 6.4 Determining the forces and movements 487

Table 6.4.2-8 Verification of "gaping of the bed joint", cross-section variant 1

Cross- Nsd - ϑ Cross- Nsd - ϑ
section 1 min min - train section 1 min min - train
Bearing - max train - Bearing B - max train - max
A max
a [mm] 400 400 400 a [mm] 500 500 500
b [mm] 500 500 500 b [mm] 600 600 600
aʹ [mm] 392 392 392 aʹ [mm] 492 492 492
bʹ2B [mm] 492 492 492 bʹ2B [mm] 592 592 592
9↩ 9↩
n 9 9 9 n 6 6 6
t [mm] 11 11 11 t [mm] 11 11 11
s [mm] 4 4 4 s [mm] 4 4 4
Fz [kN] 1611,8 1611,8 1863,4 Fz [kN] 4303,6 4303,6 5885,0
ϑa [wheel 3,97E-03 2,71E-03 3,97E-03 ϑb [wheel] 2,58E-03 1,13E-03 2,58E-03
]
vz,d [mm] 2,52 2,52 2,91 vz,d [mm] 2,12 2,12 2,90
vα,d [mm] 0,52 0,35 0,52 vα,d [mm] 0,42 0,19 0,42

Table 6.4.2-9 Design values of the minimum support force and the associated torsion, cross-section
variant 2
Minimum load Av and tens. Torsion
0,95*(1+2)+4+1,5*(6+9)+1,35*0,8
min A 649,5
*(0,35*15+17)
Bearing
0,95*(1+2)+1,35*4+1,5*(6+9) A
train ϑ -3,11
+1,35*0,8*(0,35*15+17)
Minimum load Bv and tens. Torsion
min B 0,95*(1+2)+4+1,35*(14+0,75*16) 2807,4
Bearing
train ϑ 0,95*(1+2)+1,35*4+1,35*(14+0,75*16) 0,45 B

Table 6.4.2-10 Verification of "gaping of the bed joint", cross-section variant 2

Cross Nsd - ϑ Cross- Nsd - ϑ
section 2 min min - train section 2 min min - train
Bearing - max train - max Bearing - max train - max
A B
a [mm] 350 350 350 a [mm] 450 450 450
b [mm] 450 450 450 b [mm] 550 550 550
aʹ [mm] 342 342 342 aʹ [mm] 442 442 442
bʹ2B [mm] 442 442 442 bʹ [mm] 542 542 542
9↩ 2B
9
↩
n 6 6 6 n 4 4 4
t [mm] 11 11 11 t [mm] 11 11 11
s [mm] 4 4 4 s [mm] 4 4 4
Fz [kN] 649,5 649,5 2428,7 Fz [kN] 2807,4 2807,4 5383,8
ϑa [rad] 9,16E-03 3,11E-03 9,16E-03 ϑa [wheel] 4,41E-03 4,50E-04 4,41E-03
488 6 Storage
vz,d [mm] 1,06 1,06 3,98 vz,d [mm] 1,31 1,31 2,51
vα,d [mm] 1,04 0,35 1,04 vα,d [mm] 0,65 0,07 0,65
6.6 Planning documents
Summary of the results for the
verification "gaping of the bed joint"
The verification of the gaping of the bed
joint could not always be fulfilled with the
maximum values in the example
examined. The distance between bearing
compression due to normal force and
bearing compression due to torsion
increases considerably when using the
associated values, so that the use of
associated values to fulfill the verification
condition makes sense. As this verification
is often not possible for small supports,
which can occur due to live load positions
with a relieving effect even in structures
with a small span, a minimum value for Fz
/A' of 3 N/mm² was defined for anchored
bearings. In this example, the verification
for the minimum value/maximum value
variant would still not be fulfilled, as a
compression of 3.6 N/mm² is present.
6.5 Bearing resistances
Bearings generate either restoring forces
(deformation bearings), which are
proportional to the displacements, or
frictional forces (plain bearings, roller
bearings), which are proportional to the
vertical forces. These bearing resistances
act on the non-displaceable bearings via
the superstructure and must be taken into
account in their support reactions. All
rotatable bearings have restoring torques
or frictional torques, the effects of which
on superstructures and substructures
must also be taken into account, but can
often be neglected. The resistances that
depend on the design and the material or
material pairings are specified in the
standards for the respective bearings (see
Table 6.1-3). Since the movement and
deformation resistances are dependent on
a large number of factors, the
487
The use of the specified resistances
assumes that the bearings are not exposed
to the following influences The use of the
specified resistances assumes that the
bearings are not exposed to the following
influences:
• Temperatures outside the defined limits,
• Velocities of displacements and
rotations that are not caused by
displacement (i.e. not for earthquakes),
• Contamination in the contact surfaces.
For bearings with fixed points, the
horizontal support force acting on the
fixed point must be determined from the
resistance of the entire bearing system. It
should be noted that the forces resulting
from the resistances act partly favorably
and partly unfavorably. The calculation
must therefore take into account the
favorable and unfavorable design values of
the permanent loads for determining the
horizontally acting support force due to
friction in motion bearings. When using
reinforced elastomeric bearings from
different manufacturers, this applies to the
different shear moduli.
The resistances of the bearings and
earthquake devices in the event of
earthquake loads depend on the strength
of the earthquake and the specific
deformation characteristics. These can
only be determined by testing and must be
obtained from the bearing manufacturer.
6.6 Planning documents
The choice of bearings and the selection
and arrangement of bearings for a bridge
require cooperation between the project
owner, planner, contractor and
488 6 Storage

bearing manufacturer. This is also
reflected in the planning of the bridge.
This is documented by the bearing plan,
the bearing displacement plan and the
bearing list. According to [DIN EN 1337-
1], the bearing plan should contain the
following information:
a) Bridge in plan with depiction of the
bearings (symbols)
b) Details in the storage points
c) Type of bearing at each location
d) A table listing the requirements for
each bearing
e) Details on the bearing, installation and
removal
In current practice, the storage plan in the
design and construction plan contains the
details a) and d). This existing plan is
concretized during the implementation
planning. The specific bearing and the
bearing manufacturer are known in detail.
In this phase, the
storage transfer plan, which also fulfills
specification b).
A bearing list is required for the
preparation of the bearing statics by the
bearing manufacturer. It is the
responsibility of the structural engineer to
prepare these documents. The bearing
manufacturer drafts the detailed bearing
plans after preparing the bearing statics,
which fulfill the requirements e).
The bearing list must contain all the
required design values of the forces and
displacements for the decisive
combinations of the two limit states for
the verification of the bearings.
As a rule, the bearings can be designed
for the maximum force and movement. If
the efficiency is impaired, then associated
values are also required. The latter is
particularly important for torsionally soft
superstructure cross-sections. Using the
example of the areas of influence of open
and closed cross-sections in continuous
beams

Figure 6.6-1 Influence surface for the bearing force of a three-span bridge with an open
(torsionally soft) cross-section [Ramberger, 2002].

Figure 6.6-2 Influence surface for the bearing force of a three-span bridge with a closed (torsionally
rigid) cross-section [Ramberger, 2002].
6.7 Measuring forces and movements on bearings
The difference is illustrated in Figures 6.6-
1 and 6.6-2.
Since the verification of the bearings
includes all connections in the bearing
and all equipment elements, the
characteristic values of the bearing forces
and movements from each individual
action must also be included in the
bearing list. Other combinations may be
decisive for the elements mentioned.
6.7 Measuring forces and
movements on bearings
Bearings are components whose
functionality can only be guaranteed if
they are handled with care. To ensure
load-bearing capacity and functionality,
the bearing components are tested prior to
the declarations of conformity or
approvals and continuously monitored
during production. The tests are carried
out under defined boundary conditions.
Behavioral studies on the mode of action
under real conditions and effects can only
be carried out by measuring bearings in
the structure with accompanying
measurements on the structure. The
forces and movements are of interest here.
Only a few measurements of forces or
pressures at the bearing points are known.
Although sensor-equipped (usually cup)
bearings for measuring bearing forces
have been offered and also installed on
various occasions, measurement results
are not available. Since damage to steel
bridges with torsionally soft cross-
sections, for example at the end transverse
beams, has been detected several times,
more attention is being paid to the
problem of establishing the planned
positional conditions, i.e. a bearing force-
controlled support for these bridges or
also for bridges with geometrically
complicated layouts. An evaluation of the
measured support forces without
correction,
489
IFF Engineering & Consulting GmbH,
Leipzig [IFF, 1992-97], showed deviations
from the calculated bearing forces of 50 to
200% for the above-mentioned types of
structure, despite careful geodetic
alignment of the bearing points. Extensive
measurements, including force
measurements, are currently being carried
out by hump foreman [Bergmeister, 2001]
on bridges on the Brenner highway.
Measurements of displacements and
rotations of bearings in the structure were
mostly carried out to validate the
conditions of the approval tests and to
determine the accumulated sliding
distances for estimating the service life.
Information on this can be found in [Ibac
F 195, 1984, Ibac F 192, 1990, Hakenjos,
1985 and IBL No. 804, 1977]. In summary,
it was determined that
• that the accumulation of the short-term
movements resulting from traffic load
have the greater share of the
accumulated sliding distance compared
to the temperature movements.
• that the coefficients of friction under
the various temperature and load effects
have a wide scattering range, the effect
of which on the service life of the
bearings is not yet sufficiently known.
In [Weitsch, 2002], measurements of
displacements and rotations on bearings
during the passage of a truck with a known
configuration, load and speed are
evaluated and compared with analog
calculation results. Further deformation
measurements on bearings under traffic are
not known from the literature, so that
Weitsch's measurements can currently only
be evaluated as a trend. Measurements
were carried out on the bearings of the
viaduct over the Schwarza, a nine-span
single-span steel composite bridge with a
maximum height over
490
Fig. 6.7-1 Position of the measuring points in the storage plan. The filled bearings were measured.
Erfurt
55 m75 m80 85 m
m m
Figure 6.7-2 Longitudinal view of the viaduct over the Schwarza
Terrain of 65 m. The bearing plan with
details of the measured bearings is shown
in Figure 6.7-1. All bearings of the bridge
are spherical bearings.
The longitudinal view of the bridge is
shown in Figure 6.7-2.
At the time of the measurements, the
bridge construction work was nearing
completion. The expansion joints, caps
and the final road surface had not yet been
completed. The measurements were
carried out at different speeds of the test
vehicle. Measurements were taken at
walking pace, 10 km/h, 30 km/h and 50
km/h. In addition, slow drives were
carried out with a 15 s stop in the middle
of each field. The time of measurement
was in May at a mean outside temperature
of 26 °C with strong sunlight. The
following results were obtained for the
rotations:
• The course of torsion at the individual
bearing points is independent of the
vehicle speed (10 to 50 km/h).
6 Storage
675 m
Schwarza
L1131
Schweinfurt
85 m 85 m 80 m70 m60
dependent. Even a stop in the middle of
the field and a 15-second application of
the load shows no changes. Only the
dynamic components are speed-
dependent.
• Good agreement is achieved between
calculation and measurement.
However, the calculation was carried
out in the overall load-bearing model
without bearing resistances. Figure 6.7-
3 shows the results for bearing axis 50.
The longitudinal axis of the bridge is
defined as the x-axis.
The measurements of the displacements
in the axial direction concentrate on the
bearings at abutment axis 0. As the
structural temperatures increased during
the measurement period, the
displacements are superimposed values
from temperature and traffic. The following
results are of interest:
• The displacements show a strong
dependence on driving behavior. Both
the different speeds and stopovers lead
to different results.
6.7 Measuring forces and movements on bearings 491

Figure 6.7-3 Measured and calculated bearing rotations around the y-axis for axis 50

• At present, the influence of driving observed. These diagrams clearly show

behavior cannot be realistically
calculated.
Figure 6.7-4 shows a measurement result
when passing at walking pace, whereby the
unplanned passage of an unloaded
construction site vehicle influences the
displacements at the marked points. The
occurring stair line was always measured
for such events.
that traffic influences disturb the
longitudinal displacements due to
temperature. As a rule, the longitudinal
displacements come to a brief standstill.
Figure 6.7-5 shows the measured
displacement when the test vehicle passes
at 30 km/h. These measurement results
show a relatively continuous displacement
curve.

Figure 6.7-4 Horizontal displacement of axis 0 at walking pace and disturbance by a construction site
vehicle
492
Figure 6.7-5 Horizontal displacement of axis 0 during a crossing at 30 km/h
All measurement results shown are
influence lines of the deformations of the
specified bearings.
6.8 Inspection and maintenance of
bearings and bearing supports
Bearings and bearing supports must be
designed in such a way that the bearings
can be inspected, maintained and replaced
if necessary. This principle, formulated in
EN 1337, Part 1, has been standard
practice in Germany for more than 30
years. Unless there is a special reason, the
inspection of bearings and bearings is
carried out as part of the monitoring and
testing of bridges, for which DIN 1076 has
existed in Germany since 1930. Updated
several times and accompanied by
guidelines, this standard represents an
essential basis in the bridge maintenance
system.
EN 1337, Part 10 is also dedicated to
the special problem of inspection and
maintenance of bearings. It specifies
general requirements and special checks
for individual
6 Storage
types of bearings and their metrological
recording as well as a proposal for
documentation as a sample.
The basic requirements for storage are
in accordance with section
6.2 a permanently safe transmission of the
support forces both vertically and in the
bearing plane and a permanently low
constraint realization of the movements.
The inspection of the bearing can
generally only include the movements in
the bearing plane.
Testing the supporting forces requires
appropriate equipment.
The displacements in the bearing plane
of supported load-bearing systems are
predominantly caused by the temperature
of the structure due to climatic effects and,
in the case of concrete bridges, also by the
time-dependent creep and shrinkage
behavior. The recording of the actual state
of the bearing displacements therefore
requires the simultaneous recording of the
shadow outside air temperature as
continuously as possible.
The building mean temperature is
influenced by geometric, building
material-specific and
6.8 Inspection and maintenance of bearings and bearing supports
climatic parameters and therefore cannot
be determined directly via the shade
outside air temperature.
The method of displacement
measurement depends on the bearing type
and the equipment of the bearing. The
"actual state" of the displacements at the
existing mean temperature of the
structure must be compared with the
target state at the same mean temperature
of the structure. The determination of the
target state requires knowledge of a
defined initial state. For this purpose, DIN
EN 1337, Part 11 requires the zero
measurement for the individual bearings
at the time of the start of function with the
respective current air and/or building
temperature and its documentation.
Correct installation of the bearings is of
decisive importance for the permanent
function of the bearing arrangement over
the expected service life. However, the
documentation of the zero condition
during installation is of comparable
importance for the inspection. Section
10.2.8 highlights further aspects relating
to the installation of bearings.
If irregularities occur in one or more
layers when comparing the actual and
target state of the displacements, the cause
is usually to be found in the deformation
behavior of the supporting structure. Such
causes can be
• When determining the bearing loads,
the effects of the bearing were taken
into account.
system is not taken into account.
• Movements have occurred at
abutments or supports/piers due to
unplanned settlements in the subsoil.
• The stiffness of the substructures was
not taken into account when
determining the movements.
While in the first two cases a bearing
repair is usually necessary
493
the latter case usually only leads to
overdimensioning of the bearing.
The rotations of the bearings in the
bearing plane are determined by the direct
superstructure loads and the linear
temperature gradient in the
superstructure. A
The "zero state" of torsion can hardly be
defined. Depending on the material and
type of manufacture, the superstructure is
mounted in a pre-curved position for
aesthetic reasons. However, the bearings
are installed straight. Checking the torsion
is therefore reduced to measuring the
current torsion of the bearing. The
measurement of the torsion is again
dependent on the bearing type; DIN EN
1337, Part 10 provides some information
on this.
The support or bearing forces can only
be measured during the main tests if the
bridge has been equipped with force
measuring bearings. These bearings are
usually available as pot bearings, but are
only used in special cases. With these
bearings, the force is determined via a
pressure sensor in the elastomer. As a rule,
however, the inspection is limited to a
visual check of the bearings on the
support force side.
A functional bearing arrangement
requires functional bearings. The
inspection of the bearings therefore
requires additional basic and bearing
type-specific controls, such as
General aspects
• Sufficient remaining movement
capacity, depending on the type of
layer and the current building
temperature
• Visible defects in the bearing
• Visible defects on the adjacent
components
• Corrosion protection
• Bearing bedding and anchoring
• Condition of the sliding and rolling
surfaces
494
Fig. 6.8-1 Press attachment on falsework,
supporting structure lowered
• Condition and functionality of the
restraints.
Aspects dependent on storage type
• for sliding parts with PTFE elements,
measurement of the gap height
between the sliding plate and the
carrier plate
• for elastomeric bearings, visual
inspection of the uniformity of the
deformations and any cracks
• for pot bearings, the measurement of
the distances between pot and lid
opposite in the direction of rotation
• for rollers and spherical bearings the
measurement of the torsion angle
• for guideways, measurement of the
largest clearance of the sliding joint
If defects are found during the inspection
of the storage and bearings, these must be
rectified.
The repair of bearings can include:
• Correcting the position of the bearings
• Replacing the entire bearing or
individual parts
• Renewal or addition of corrosion
protection
• Tamping work
• Crack repair for superficial elastomer
cracks
6 Storage
Figure 6.8-2 Press attachment on pillar, supporting
structure lifted out
The majority of the measures mentioned
can only be carried out when the load-
bearing structure is relieved or excavated.
Although excavation can lead to traffic
restrictions, it should not lead to traffic
closures. Lifting the supported component
to replace bearings is defined as a typical
action in the regulations for actions on
bridges [DIN-FB 101, 2009]. The lifting
dimension, the design situation and the
traffic loads to be taken into account are
regulated. Other possible actions can be
movements or horizontal forces due to the
current deformation state of the structure.
Information on this is given in EN 1337,
Part 10.
The press-fittings for excavation are
usually arranged on the piers and
abutments. This must therefore be taken
into account when selecting the geometry
of the design. In exposed cases, the press
attachment can be provided on the pier
foundations, which then requires ground-
standing scaffolding for excavation.
The repair of bearings always requires
special expertise and is usually associated
with considerable manual effort. Durable,
low-use and low-wear bearing
constructions are therefore always
preferable.
7 Substructures
URSULA FREUNDT
7.1 Overview
Bridge substructures include the
abutments, supports and piers as well as
their foundations. For small and medium-
sized bridges, the cost of the substructures
accounts for up to 60% of the total cost.
This illustrates the need for thorough
calculation and design work. The main
function of the substructures is to support
the superstructure and transfer the forces
to the foundation. The bearing comprises
the supporting elements of a structure and
the way in which these elements act.
Depending on the type of bearing,
displacements and rotations between the
superstructure and the substructure are
released or prevented. All actions on the
superstructure, both the vertical and
horizontal loads and the reactions of the
deformations, must be transferred to the
foundation. There are many forms of
formation available for this. These include
the fixed connection of the superstructure
to the abutment walls or supports and
piers, the articulated connection or the use
of components, the bearings, which enable
rotations between two components,
transfer loads and enable or prevent
displacements.
The substructures of a bridge therefore
also include the arches that support the
superstructure. This is discussed in the
section
5.4 Arch bridges. The bearings as
components are described in chapter 10,
section
10.2. With the draft of the
bridge and the choice of structural system,
the specific structural form of the
substructures is also decided. They are
essential elements of the design. The
bearing level is usually located between the
superstructure and substructure. However,
in the case of arch or rigid frame bridges,
for example, it can also be located between
the substructure and the foundation.
7.2 Abutment
7.2.1 Definition, tasks and
design principle
The technical term abutment goes back to
the time of vault structures. "Elastic arches
that are resistant to impermissible
deformations are spanned between fixed
abutments" [Melan, 1948]. The task of the
abutments was thus clearly described and
it still applies to arch bridges today. The
abutments of arch bridges have the task of
absorbing and transmitting the force of
the forces. They are therefore the
continuation of the arch and their shape is
primarily determined by the foundation
conditions.
Today, the term abutment stands for
the final structure at the end of a bridge,
regardless of the type of structure and
design. The abutments form the end
support of bridges and the beginning of
the continuing traffic embankment. This
dual function characterizes their task, their
loading and their constructive design.
496
Figure 7.2-1 Box-shaped abutment -
schematic diagram
As the final support of the bridges, the
abutment absorbs the vertical and
horizontal loads from the superstructure.
Wall-like elements are suitable for this
purpose, which is why the component is
also called an abutment wall. The abutment
wall is also a retaining structure for the
traffic embankment that begins in the
ground jump and absorbs the earth
pressure.
In the embankment area, further
structural elements are required to close
off the earth structure required for traffic
guidance. They are called splitting of
trains, and since their
Figure 7.2-2 Abutment of a beam bridge in its final state
7 Substructures
If the task is to transfer the earth pressure
from the embankment, wall-like elements
are also suitable for this. The load trasnfer
of the individual components of the
abutment takes place via the foundation
into the building ground. The resulting
spatially structured structure as a whole
forms the abutment. Figure 7.2-1 illustrates
the principle explained using a box-
shaped abutment.
The finished structure is dominated by
the design of the embankment and the
overall appearance of the bridge. The
abutment components are only partially
visible. Figure 7.2-2 shows an abutment in
its final state with corresponding
equipment (embankment stairs, drainage
trough)
Reinforced concrete is practically the
only building material used. To improve
the visual effect as part of the building
design, cladding made of natural stone or
artificial stone (clinker) is often used.
Constructions made of unreinforced
concrete, natural stone or clinker are only
rarely used for smaller drainage channels.
7.2 Abutment 497

7.2.2 Arrangement of abutment wall

and splitting of trains - Abutment types

The variety of existing structural forms of

the abutments depends on the route of the
traffic route (inclined or curved), the type
of the underpassed traffic route or the
overpassed traffic route (rail, road or
waterway or valley), the type of structure
and the construction height of the bridge,
the height of the earth embankment and
the load-bearing capacity of the Figure 7.2-3 Sash shapes and slope shapes
construction base. Abutments are also
design elements of the bridge and
therefore part of its design language. Structure in a partially filled state.
The arrangement of the wing walls For the abutment with parallel wings,
determines the basic shape of the the length of the wing wall determines the
abutment. Figure 7.2-3 shows the basic type of abutment. If the abutment wall is at
wing positions in relation to the the foot of the embankment, the splitting of
longitudinal axis of the bridge. A trains is usually so long that they require a
distinction is made between parallel foundation and a box abutment is created
wings, diagonal wings and slope wings as shown in Fig. 7.2-2. If the abutment is
(perpendicular to the longitudinal axis). arranged close to the embankment crest,
It is of course possible to combine the splitting of trains are short and can be
different blade arrangements. Figure 7.2-4 attached to the abutment wall as cantilever
shows a smaller drainage channel with wings. The resulting shape is called a
inclined wings. Additional parallel wings simple abutment. Figure 7.2-6 shows the
are required for the transition to the road possibilities in principle.
embankment. Figure 7 .2-5 shows the
same

Figure 7.2-4 Drainage channel with inclined wings and parallel wings for the transition to the road
embankment
498
Figure 7.2-5 Structure backfilled before the road pavement is installed
The arrangement of the abutments has
a dominant influence on the design of the
overall structure and its integration into
the landscape. Large wing walls give the
bridge a gateway effect. Small wing walls
integrate the bridge into the landscape.
However, the larger span is also associated
with higher construction costs.
Inclined or embankment wings form
the end of the embankment directly at the
abutment. There is no need to form an
embankment cone as with abutments with
parallel wings. They are often used for
smaller frame-like structures. The wing
walls are
Figure 7.2-6 Arrangement of abutments in the
embankment area
7 Substructures
usually designed as independent
components and separated from the
abutment wall by a space joint.
The cross-sectional shape and the
geometry in the ground plan of abutments
depend on the functional parameters
shown. The width of the abutment is
determined by the design of the
superstructure. The length of the splitting
of trains depends on the slope inclination
and the arrangement of the abutment
wall.
Economic considerations and
increasing mechanization lead to further
development and special forms in the area
of abutments. Examples include the sheet
pile abutment and the bored pile wall. In
both cases, the actual foundation
component is designed in such a way that
it fulfills the function of dam safety and
load transfer.
Fig. 7.2-7 Principle of blade support on sheet
piles (HOESCH design)
7.2 Abutment 499

support from the superstructure. A

concrete beam is installed at the head of
the bored pile or sheet pile wall to act as a
support bench. Fig. 7.2-7 shows the
principle of the so-called knife-edge
bearing on steel sheet piles. The bored pile
wall can be designed as an open or closed
wall. In the first case, additional wall
elements (facing formwork or similar) are
required to secure the soil of the backfill
(Fig. 7.2-8).
Figure 7.2-8 Bored pile abutment of a frame
Abutments are design elements of the bridge with scour apron
bridge and therefore part of its design
language. For this purpose, concrete
surfaces and formwork structure, as well bridge, but in many cases also according
as cladding with artificial or natural stones, to a design concept for all bridges on a
also offer extensive possibilities. The design section of the route. Figure 7.2-9 from
is coordinated with the design of the [DEGES, 1996] shows an example of a
splitting of trains with natural stone
masonry.

conical formwork

vertical formwork

Horizontal, planed board or concrete formwork 1.00 1.00

Terrain end field

vertical,
rough sawn board formwork
Horizontal, rough sawn board
formwork 45º

rough sawn board formwork regular layered masonry with

irregular layer heights of 20-35 cm

View of wing wall

Figure 7.2-9 Abutment design concept for a beam bridge [DEGES, 1996].
500
7.2.3 Construction of the components
7.2.3.1 Abutment wall
The abutment wall consists of the bearing
wall and, in the case of supported
structures, a bearing bench and an earth-
side chamber wall arranged behind the
end of the superstructure (Fig. 7.2-10). The
depth of the support bench in the bearing
plane is determined by the design of the
superstructure and its necessary
movement clearance. The cross-sectional
shape and construction method (steel,
prestressed concrete) of the
superstructure determine the required
length development beyond the bearing
line. This results in abutment depths that
are not required as a wall cross-section for
the transfer of loads. This results in a
tapering of the wall at the rear. In the case
of large viaducts with high superstructure
cross-sections and corresponding
7 Substructures
the projection behind the support line, the
formation of a solid wall structure is
uneconomical and it is therefore
dissolved. The resulting cavity provides
space for access to the storage level.
The upper part of the abutment wall is
the bearing bench, which transfers the
bearing forces from the superstructure to
the abutment wall. The local load
absorption and distribution leads to
stresses for which both the concrete
quality and the reinforcement
arrangement must be designed. This is
explained in more detail in the calculation
of the substructures in section 8.6. In
terms of design, the arrangement and
geometry of the bearings and the required
press contact surfaces for subsequent
replacement of the bearings must be taken
into account. The space required should
not be underestimated, especially with
oblique floor plans (Fig. 7.2-11).
Figure 7.2-10 Abutment wall
for supported superstructures
Figure 7.2-11 Support bench
with bearing base and press support
surfaces
7.2 Abutment
The superstructure is protected from
the backfilling of the abutment by the
arrangement of a so-called chamber wall.
The function and design of the chamber
wall depends on the displacements and
rotations of the superstructure end. For
small spans up to about 15 m and the
arrangement of a longitudinally fixed
bearing, only the rotations of the
superstructure end can be realized as relative
movements between superstructure and
substructure, e.g. with a footing design as
shown in Fig. 7.2-12.
With larger spans and thus greater
superstructure heights and with the
arrangement of a longitudinally movable
bearing, the movements become so large
that special roadway transition structures
are required that are anchored in the
chamber wall. For transition structures
with expansion lengths of more than 80
mm, it makes sense to maintain these
components from the lower level. In this
case, the chamber wall is arranged in such
a way that an accessible maintenance and
inspection corridor is formed. In
prestressed concrete superstructures, t h e
tendons are anchored at the ends of the
superstructure. This means that the
chamber wall can only be concreted after
the pre-tension has been applied. This
poses a number of technological and
reinforcement-related problems that must
be taken into account during planning. In
the case of a monolithic connection of
abutments
501
Figure 7.2-12 Chamber wall
and superstructure closure
The construction of the chamber wall is
not required for bridges with a bearing
wall and superstructure, as is the case with
frame bridges, or when forming a
concrete joint for small spans, as the
protective function is not required.
The rising abutment wall has no special
design features. The width depends on the
cross-section of the bridge. In the case of
large abutment widths, it is necessary to
form joints in order to reduce
constraining stresses in a controlled
manner. In the case of separate
superstructures, the substructures are
usually also clearly separated by a space
joint. The arrangement and design of the
joint should be carried out with great care,
as it is always a weak point in the structure
in terms of durability. Although the
abutment wall can, in principle, be
represented in its structural design, an
abutment, like a bridge, is always an
"individual construction". A planner will
be able to take over some details, but never
the complete abutment.
Similarly, there are also special
solutions that cannot be presented here
due to their diversity. The sheet pile
abutment and the bored pile wall were
mentioned as examples under 7.2.2.
Another solution for the construction of
abutment walls is the reinforced earth
construction method. In this case,
additional stabilizing elements are used in
the embankment material.
502
The supporting structure can be used to
transfer loads from the superstructure.
With appropriate dimensioning, the loads
from the superstructure can be
transferred via this supporting structure.
In [bau-zeitung, 1994], abutments made
of reinforced earth are described as an
economical construction for a railroad
bridge. The reason for the application was
a subsidence-sensitive subsoil. Design
issues are secondary to structural safety
issues in these constructions.
7.2.3.2 Splitting of trains
Tasks and wing shapes have already been
described. Splitting of trains are clamped
into the abutment wall in the frame. This
achieves a statically favorable load that
allows economical designs. However, this
is no longer the case with large splitting of
trains and especially with the arrangement
of sloping or embankment splitting of
trains. The splitting of trains
7 Substructures
should then be separated from the
abutment wall by a space joint.
Independent wing structures are created as
retaining walls. By arranging a shear
connection, such as shear force bolts or an
interlocking space joint, Figure 7.2-13,
different wall deflections perpendicular to
the wall plane between the individual
components are avoided. The end of the
splitting of trains, which is led into the
embankment in the case of parallel
splitting of trains, is designed at an angle
to the slope. To ensure proper compaction
of the backfill to be installed later, this
slope is formed at an angle of ≥ 60°. At
angles < 60°, there are areas under the
splitting of trains that can no longer be
reached with the appropriate compaction
equipment. In this case, which is mainly
used for cantilever sashes, the end face of
the splitting of trains is given a so-called
undercut, which is, however, not possible
with formwork technology.
nically complex (Figure 7.2-14).
Figure 7.2-13 Spatial joint formation
between abutment and wing wall
(interlocked spatial joint)
Figure 7.2-14 Wing formation with undercut
7.2 Abutment
Safety measures are required for road
users at the transition from the bridge to
the crown of the embankment. For this
reason, the lateral caps of the
superstructure in the area of the abutment
are continued on the parallel wings. An
edge cap forms the upper wing end and
has the same features (railings, crash
barrier) as the superstructure cap.
7.2.3.3 Drainage and backfilling
Although the backfill of the abutment is
not a component in the true sense of the
word, it requires special representation
due to its influence on the bearing and the
quality of the traffic route.
While the bridge, including its
abutments and foundation, undergoes
linear elastic deformations, apart from
settlements, pla- stic deformations are to
be expected in the backfill material in the
embankment area, which can lead to
settlement differences between the bridge
and the embankment. In order to avoid
this as far as possible, on the one hand the
formation of the components to be
backfilled must be taken into account and
on the other hand the backfill material and
its compaction must be specifically
selected. Recommendations and stakes for
the suitable choice of backfill material are
set out in [Arbeitsausschuss: Einfluss der
Hinterfüllung auf Bauwerke,
503
Figure 7.2-15 Cantilever on
parallel wing in the transition area
to the road embankment
1994] are given. Minimum requirements
for the construction of backfill for the
creation of traffic areas are defined, the
backfill area towards the embankment is
demarcated, the selection, the time of
installation and the installation of the
backfill material with the necessary
compaction is recommended. Statements
are made on the sensible arrangement of
the rear drainage and the associated filter
layers. In addition, suggestions are made
for constructive details for abutment
structures.
Some design criteria have already been
discussed in the previous section on the
wings. The accessibility of the backfill area
for the corresponding compaction
technology must also be ensured for the
abutment wall, especially if the support
bench has a corresponding projection on
the ground side (60°). With inclined
bridges, there are areas in the sharp corners
that cannot be properly sealed. Such
niches or spandrels must be avoided in the
geometric design of the components or
fixed by installing a so-called insulation
made of lean concrete during backfilling.
It should be possible to compact the
backfill material to 100% of the simple
Proctor density. Special problems arise
with railroad bridges for high-speed traffic
and the formation of a
504
Figure 7.2-16 Drainage of abutment backfill
on a firm road surface. The curvature radii
occurring in the transition area due to
differences in settlement can affect ride
comfort and safety. In [Jaup/Kempfert,
2001], model tests with and without
transition constructions are used to
optimize the constructive design of this
area. An empirical formula is intended to
facilitate practical application.
Due to the design of the concrete water
reservoir, there is a risk of water backing
up on the ground side and entering the
backfill via the embankment. Appropriate
precautions are taken on the ground side
to counteract this. This includes the
arrangement of an appropriate drainage
and seepage layer consisting of a geotextile
drainage mat in conjunction with the
formation of a seepage layer of coarse-
grained, water-permeable backfill
material. At the base of the wall or at the
level of the groundwater table, a seepage or
drainage pipe is formed, via which the
water is fed into the receiving water
course, Figure 7.2-16.
All the measures described serve to
ensure the durability of the abutment
structure and a virtually settlement-free
transition from the bridge to the adjoining
traffic route.
7 Substructures
7.2.4 Design of abutments
7.2.4.1 Abutments for supported superstructures
Supported superstructures are defined
here as bridges that are equipped with
bearings between the superstructure and
substructure. The bearings are arranged on
a bearing base on the bearing bench. Since,
according to current experience, the
service life of the bridge is longer than that
of the bearings, press-fitting areas must be
provided on the bearing bench, which
serve to lift the superstructure when the
bearings are replaced. As already
described, these design conditions
determine the dimensions of the support
bench. The design of abutments of
supported bridges is carried out taking
into account the above-mentioned
concerns after a balanced analysis of
variants in accordance with the overview
shown in Figure 7.2-17. Only then does
the geometry design follow according to
structural and production requirements.
The arrangement and selection of
construction joints and joints required for
the design must be selected taking into
account the manufacturing technology and
the geometric dimensions of the individual
components. Construction joints should
be selected in such a way that they are not
located in the area of
7.2 Abutment 505

Figure 7.2-17 Basic design steps for an abutment

506
of visible surfaces. For dummy and spatial
joints, the arrangement should be such
that the formation is as simple as possible.
The choice of building materials
depends on the environmental influences.
In the case of underpassed roads, the
abutments are often located in the spray
mist area. Groundwater and stratum water
are often aggressive towards concrete.
However, these factors do not require any
additional protective measures and can be
controlled using suitable concrete. The
illustration reflects the procedure for
medium and large bridges. It also
illustrates the structural effort required for
abutments. The basic development does
not contain any references to design issues.
Many forms are possible if the basic
structural requirements are observed.
Even small supported bridges require
abutments. The smaller span does not
change the functional stakes. However,
the reduced flow variables allow other
designs. For example, simple concrete
joints can be arranged on the abutment
walls up to spans of around 15 m. In these
cases, changes in the length of the
superstructure are compensated for by
twisting the abutment walls and deforming
the
7 Substructures
Figure 7.2-18 Concrete joint
backfill. Transition constructions can be
omitted and replaced by a permanently
elastic joint in the bridge deck. There are
various options for forming the concrete
joints. A permanent design should not be
underestimated in terms of construction
and production technology. Figure 7.2-18
shows one possible design.
The targeted interaction between
backfill and abutment wall and the
utilization of the associated deformation
reactions are also described in [England et
al., 2000] under the term integral bridges
for spans up to 85 m.
7.2.4.2 Abutments for frame-type bridges
In the case of rigid frame bridges, the
abutment can be formed by wall-like end
struts. The bending stiffness of the
connection between the superstructure and
the abutment eliminates the design
problems of the end support. The wing
design corresponds to that described
above. If the frame corner is already
located in the embankment crest, it is
possible to arrange detached end
supports. The possibilities for designing
rigid frame bridges are described in section
5.3
7.3 Supports and pillars
shown. A separation of superstructure
and substructure is not sensible, at least
for single-span rigid frame bridges.
7.2.4.3 Abutments for arch bridges
The abutments form the continuation of
the arch here. The arch pressure line must
experience such a load propagation in the
abutment that the load on the building
foundation is not exceeded. Arch
abutments are therefore the foundation of
the arch and are therefore described in
section 5.4. Particular attention must be
paid to low deformation. The choice of
arch bridges therefore requires good
subsoil, preferably solid rock. Otherwise,
high costs for the abutments are to be
expected. However, it should be noted
here that if the fissure lines of the rock are
suitably aligned, the slope can be stabilized
by the direction of the bearing force
resulting from the arch.
7.3 Supports and pillars
7.3.1 Definition, tasks and
design principle
Columns and piers are supports for multi-
span bridge superstructures between the
abutments. They are created by
continuous structures or beams, frames or
arches arranged in a row. The definitions of
supports and piers are used differently by
different authors. Piers are understood to
be wall-like components that extend across
the width of the main beams of the
superstructure, whereas the dimensions in
the direction of the bearing line of
columns are significantly less than the
width of the superstructure or consist of
several elements. This means that the
boundaries are fluid, in some cases they
are
507
also led over concrete dimensions [Holst,
1990-1], [Leonhardt, 1979]. In all cases,
piers are the more compact structures.
They give the impression of great stability,
which they have, and they are therefore
mainly used in water at lakes or rivers or
for high viaducts. The advantage of
unobstructed views under the bridge and
the radiance of the entire structure can be
achieved by using columns.
As their main function is to transfer the
loads and absorb the deformations of the
superstructure, the arrangement and
design of the supports and piers cannot be
separated from the overall system of the
bridge and the detailed cross-sectional
design of the superstructure. The
supporting structure presents itself as a
unit to both the observer and the designer.
Piers and columns consist of the head,
which represents the support bench, the
shaft and the foundation. The connection
to the superstructure and the foundation
can be executed differently depending on
the design. The basic options in the
longitudinal direction of the bridge are
shown schematically in Table 7.3-1. In the
transverse direction, the systems range
from the pendulum support to the so-
called pier disc, depending on the
required stiffness.
The design of the connection
influences the effects in the overall system
and the load on the supports and piers.
They have to absorb the bearing reactions
of the superstructure and transfer them via
the foundation into the subsoil, whereby
they also assume a stiffening function in
the longitudinal and transverse direction of
the bridge. Today, piers are made of
reinforced concrete. Today, natural stone
or clinker brickwork is only used in the
renovation of listed structures. For the
design of new bridge structures
508
Table 7.3-1 Connection types between columns and superstructure or foundation
In practice, only facing brickwork is still
used. Steel-reinforced concrete can also be
named as the main construction material
for columns, whereby steel columns are
occasionally useful and attractive. In
individual cases, steel composite columns
are also used. If no clamping with the
superstructure is provided, the load is
transferred via bearings. These are
arranged on the column head in such a
way that they are accessible. Pressing
points should also be provided for
changing bearings. There are many
different shapes for columns and piers.
The design significance has already been
mentioned. The 2000 documentation
[BMVBW, Department of Road
Construction, Road Traffic, 2000] defines
design principles and shows 30 examples.
Columns and piers support the
superstructure between the abutments.
They thus frequently delimit underpassed
traffic routes and special precautions must
be taken for accident situations on these,
such as ship collisions or vehicle impacts.
The effects resulting from such accident
situations, which must be taken into
account in the structural calculation, as well
as constructive protective measures, are
described in section
8.6. Passive protective devices such as
protective dolphins, sliding walls, crash
barriers, etc. are independent structures
and components that prevent a direct
impact on the load-bearing structure. This
is discussed in more detail in Chapter 10.
7 Substructures
7.3.2 Arrangement and cross-
sectional design of pillars
It has already been shown that piers are
often used in rivers. Their arrangement is
then determined by their use by shipping
and/or by the hydraulic conditions. This is
also the case in the foreshore areas. The
cross-sectional shapes can generally be
derived from the rectangle. The edges are
rounded or broken according to the
hydraulic requirements. Both solid and
hollow cross-sections are used. As current
piers generally have a low height, the solid
cross-sections are only subject to low
stresses due to the load trasnfer of the
superstructure in the longitudinal and
transverse direction, but the production of
massive concrete components leads to
unfavorable stresses from the outflowing
hydration heat and shrinkage differences.
In the hollow cross-section design, the
interior is accessible and can be used for
bridge maintenance facilities. Less
material is required, but the walls are
subject to higher loads. For applications in
the river, solid cross-sections dominate.
The superstructure is primarily supported
by bearings. Special precautions must be
taken to account for ship impact.
7.3 Supports and pillars
The arrangement of piers of high valley
bridges is a question of the overall concept
of the bridge. The arrangement of the
piers in the system determines the overall
impression of the bridge. Regularity and
symmetry create a harmonious overall
impression. The same applies to the ratio
of superstructure height to pier thickness.
Balanced proportions convey safety and
confidence in the bridge construction.
Increasingly, the consideration of nature
and environmental issues leads to bridge
designs and the definition of pier
positions.
Piers of high viaducts place different
demands on the construction than river
piers. The cross-sections are also derived
from the rectangle and can be squared.
The edges are rounded or broken for
design reasons. The piers usually have a
slight taper towards the top. They are
often designed as a hollow cross-section
and accommodate facilities for walking on
and draining the superstructure. Figure
7.3-1
509
Figure 7.3-1 Typical pier
cross-sections and pier head
formation
shows three principle cross-sectional
forms of piers with their head design.
While the hollow pier can be accessed via
the shaft, the other variants can only be
accessed from the superstructure or by
using special equipment (lifting platform,
under-bridge equipment).
In the case of long viaducts, the support
heights change according to the shape of
the valley. When deciding on the design,
particular attention must be paid to the
effect of the piers, which vary in height
but are as similar as possible, in
connection with the superstructure, as
shown in Figure 7.3-2 [Peter/ Wetzel,
2002]. The pier head was adapted
accordingly for the different
superstructure heights.
The superstructure is usually supported
by bearings. The stress on piers of high
viaducts is caused by the vertical loads of
the superstructure, wind in the transverse
direction and bearing resistances in both
directions. In the case of high piers,
stability considerations
510
Superstructure height
3.70 m
+474.30
+455.30
Figure 7.3-2 Piers of different heights
[Peter/Wetzel, 2002].
tions. If there are several piers of different
heights and with different bearings, it is
essential to consider the system as a
whole. A well-considered calculation and
design is required.
The specific problems with railroad
bridges, especially in the high-speed
network, have led to the development of
various support systems in bridge
construction for the transfer of horizontal
forces in the longitudinal direction of the
bridge. The high brake and approach
loads as well as the interactions between
the track and the superstructure and the
resulting constraints require special
designs for the superstructure and special
solutions for the substructures, depending
on the length of the structure and the
stiffness conditions in the supporting
structure.
With long bridge lengths, the
abutments alone are no longer sufficient
to absorb the longitudinal forces. Deep
valleys lead to uneconomical pier
dimensions and complex foundations for
viaducts in order to achieve the required
stiffness.
7 Substructures
Superstructure height Superstructure height
3.70 m 6.50 m
+422.00
to ensure the ability to absorb longitudinal
forces. This situation led to the
development of the A-frame system, in
which the large longitudinal forces are
transferred via inclined supports. The
superstructure as a two-part continuous
girder is connected via a longitudinal force
coupling.
7.3.3 Arrangement and cross-
sectional design of supports
As with the piers, the choice of support
position is determined by the system and
the overall situation of the bridge.
However, the existing subsoil, existing
traffic routes or topographical features can
be constraints. There are several possible
solutions in the transverse direction and in
the ground plan geometry, depending on
the superstructure cross-section. The pillar
described above, which takes up the width
of the main supporting structure, is
broken down here into individual
columns or wall strips. If the individual
7.3 Supports and pillars
Figure 7.3-3 Possibilities of resolved supports
If the supports are not arranged directly
under the main beams in the case of
resolved superstructure cross-sections or if
the transverse stiffness is not sufficient,
cross beams or support beams are required.
In this way, frame-like supports can be
created, which also allow a good design
due to the inclination of the supports.
Figure 7.3-3 shows the principal
possibilities.
The geometry of the supports is
influenced not only by the dimensioning
and the design intentions but also by the
arrangement of the bearings. The cross-
sectional shape can be round, square,
rectangular and all geometries describing
these shapes.
511
Straight, V-shaped or Y-shaped designs
are possible in the elevation. The choice of
shapes is only possible in the unity of the
overall design. Nevertheless, certain rules
can be derived. For example, round
supports are advisable for skewed and/or
curved bridges as they are directionally
neutral.
7.3.4 Pillar or column head
The shape of the column head is
determined by the type of connection to
the superstructure. If bearings are
arranged then
512
Figure 7.3-4 Formation of column heads
In the case of moderately high columns,
the design cross-section is often not
sufficient to accommodate the bearing and
press attachment point. In this case, it may
make sense to tighten the column head, as
shown in Figure 7.3-4, for example.
However, this requires wide main beams in
articulated structures, as projections of
the column head have a negative effect on
the overall impression.
For bridges that consist of several
single-span beams in the longitudinal
direction or where the superstructure
cross-sections are highly articulated in the
transverse direction, the column head
must accommodate several bearings. The
corresponding design is called a
hammerhead. The required width
Figure 7.3-5 Hammerhead formation
7 Substructures
of the prop head can only be achieved by a
targeted overhang. An example (Fig. 7.3-
5) illustrates the principle.
The column head forms the support
bench and the bearing bases are arranged
on it. Good accessibility is therefore
required. This is realized either by the
superstructure with corresponding exit
openings or by bridge inspection devices
(Fig. 7.3-6). In the case of hollow piers,
access can be via the pier shaft.
Figure 7.3-6 Access to the column head via the
box girder of the superstructure
7.3 Supports and pillars
If the superstructure is connected to
the columns, frame-like supporting
structures are created. These supporting
structures are described in section 5.3.
Mixed bearings are also useful for
multi-span bridges. The selection is also
influenced by the manufacturing process
of the superstructure. For example, the
requirements of the structural condition
and the final condition can be optimized
when using cantilever construction. The
column and superstructure are clamped
monolithically, whereby static and design
reasons lead to different shapes.
7.3.5 Manufacture
As previously explained, reinforced
concrete is the main building material for
columns and piers. Preferably, it is
produced on site. The use of prefabricated
reinforced concrete parts or steel columns
is limited to smaller structures or
pedestrian bridges. As an example for the
production of high piers for viaducts, the
principle of the
"walking formwork" [NOE, 2000]. The
concept of this walking formwork is based
Fig. 7.3-7 Use of the walking formwork on the Y-pillar of the Zahme Gera viaduct (factory photo
Adam Hörnig-AG, NL Weimar)
513
is based on the principle of the
parallelogram, in the diagonal of which
hydraulic cylinders provide the walking
movements, i.e. the forward movement.
Starting from the basic position, in which
both platforms are anchored to the
structure at one level, one platform is
pushed upwards by the hydraulic
cylinders after the anchoring has been
released and is anchored to the structure
again in the new position. As the
hydraulic cylinders retract, the second
platform is pulled upwards to also be
anchored to the structure. This means that
one side of the climbing or walking
scaffold is always firmly connected to the
structure. This formwork was specially
developed for the construction of the
branches of the Y-pillar of the "Zahme
Gera" viaduct rising at an angle of 60° (Fig.
7.3-7).
7.3.6 Pylons
As part of the main load-bearing system of
a cable-stayed or suspension bridge,
pyloids are not substructures in the
conventional sense. With regard to their
load-bearing effect as
514
However, the function is basically the
same for a component that is primarily
subjected to longitudinal force.
7.4 Foundations
7.4.1 Tasks and overview
The selection of the foundation structure
and the consideration of the interaction
between the structure and the subsoil are
fundamental decisions for the design of the
bridge in terms of both statics and
economics. Depending on the subsoil and
hydrological conditions, foundation costs
can amount to up to 80% of the
superstructure for small structures. Soil
assessment, foundation reports and
cooperation between the soil surveyor and
structural engineer are essential factors for
a stable structure. The foundation has the
task of transferring all the loads of the
bridge and, as a rule, of the embankment
into the load-bearing subsoil
permanently, safely and without
damaging settlements. The geometry and
dimensions depend on the properties of
the subsoil and the hydrological conditions
as well as on the system and the size of the
bridge. A general distinction can be made
between shallow and deep foundations.
If the load-bearing subsoil beneath the
abutments and supports is sufficiently
thick, shallow foundations can be used. In
bridge construction, these are individual
foundations with a rectangular or square
ground plan or foundation slabs. If the
load-bearing subsoil is so deep that even
special additional measures, such as
z. If it is not possible to construct a shallow
foundation at a reasonable cost, e.g. ground
replacement, a deep foundation is chosen.
This tri@ also applies to foundations in
water where water retention is not
possible.
7 Substructures
foundation is not possible. Deep
foundations include, for example, pile
foundations, pneumatic foundations or
well foundations. The necessary
construction pits and their securing,
especially in built-up areas, can also lead
to the choice of deep foundations. Table
7.4-1 provides an overview of common
foundation types depending on geological
and hydrological conditions.
7.4.2 Shallow foundations
7.4.2.1 General principles - design
principles
A shallow foundation is generally used
where the subsoil is of such a nature that the
structure can be founded with sufficient
stability even at a shallow depth. The
foundation arranged for the load transfer
into the subsoil transfers the forces into
the subsoil over a large area. The
foundation area must be large enough to
ensure that the permissible load on the
subsoil is not exceeded. From today's
perspective, reinforced concrete is
practically the only building material used
for bridge structures. Unreinforced block
or strip foundations lead to uneconomical
dimensions due to the forces to be
dissipated. The internal stresses that can
be absorbed depend on the materials used
and the mechanical properties of the
subsoil. This results in minimum
requirements for the thickness of the
foundations and their structural design.
The decisive criteria for the failure of a
shallow foundation are the ground failure,
tilting and sliding safety as well as the
buoyancy safety. The basic verification of
stability is explained in more detail in
section 8.6.4. A further limit state of the
load-bearing capacity is formed by the
exceptional deformations.
7.4 Foundations 515

Table 7.4-1 Common foundations based on [Weidemann, 1982]

Type of foundation Soil conditions Water conditions excavation pit
shallow foundation Load-bearing subsoil at No water Open excavation pit
shallow depth with embankments
or
Excavation shoring
Moderate water Open excavation pit,
inflow pump sump
strong water inflow excavation pit with
bunging Pump sump
Well Load-bearing subsoil at No water
foundatio moderate depth
n Moderate water Open dewatering
inflow
Caisson (pneumatic Load-bearing subsoil at strong water inflow Foundations in
foundation) great depth open water or under
water
Piles Load-bearing subsoil at any
moderate to great depths
Bored piles Load-bearing subsoil at any Casing the borehole,
moderate to great depths supporting fluid

that lead to failure of the supporting
structure. For simple cases, taking into
account specified boundary conditions
such as soil type, geometry, embedment
depths and water conditions, the base
pressure check may be carried out instead
of the base failure and settlement check
[DIN 1054].
7.4.2.2 Subsoil improvement
As shown in Table 7.4-1, a shallow
foundation requires load-bearing subsoil.
If the condition of the existing soil
material is not sufficient to support the
foundation loads, it is possible to improve
the subsoil. In principle, there are three
different methods, the application of
which depends heavily on the type of soil
and its properties in order to achieve
economical results. The system in the
picture
7.4-1 shows the basic methods of ground
improvement. It provides a general
overview.
The following methods are used for the
foundation of bridges due to the local
expansion of the foundations and the
usually high loads from the supporting
structure.
• Compaction of the soil
Common methods of compaction are
deep vibration (vibro compaction).
Compaction improves the layer density
of the existing soil. Increasing the layer
density of loose soil layers significantly
improves their load-bearing capacity.
The basic prerequisite is that the
cohesion in the soil is so low that it can
be compacted by vibration. The process
can be supported by adding water.
516 7 Substructures

Figure 7.4-1 Methods for ground improvement -

overview according to [Smoltczyk, 1991].

• Soil replacement (shear strength, cohesion), which leads

In the case of less thick, non-load-
bearing soil layers, these are completely
or partially replaced with suitable
material. The soil is replaced locally
under the foundation surface. When
replacing soil in groundwater, the use of
lean concrete is advantageous as there
is no need for costly compaction.
• Soil consolidation
The addition of binding agents
improves the soil mechanical
properties.
to an increase in load-bearing capacity.
The main field of application for these
methods is in road construction, where
the binder can be easily introduced and
mixed into the layers close to the
surface. For bridge structures, injection
methods are mainly used, which also
allow deeper layers to be reached.
7.4 Foundations
7.4.2.3 Manufacture
Shallow foundations are constructed
directly on the load-bearing subsoil. In its
final state, the foundation level must be
below the ground that has been affected
by frost. During construction, the surface
of the soil must be prevented from
softening and being destroyed by
moisture and mechanical effects. For this
reason, a so-called blinding layer of lean
concrete is applied immediately after the
foundation subgrade has been produced.
If the foundation subgrade is below the
groundwater table, appropriate measures
must be taken to retain water and prevent
buoyancy.
7.4.3 Pile foundations
7.4.3.1 Pile systems and construction
If the subsoil is unsuitable for the
formation of a shallow foundation, the
less load-bearing layers are passed
through with the foundation components
and the loads are transferred directly to
deeper load-bearing layers. The use of pile
foundations is widespread in bridge
construction, the design and execution of
which is described in more detail below.
The pile forces are transferred in a
concentrated manner via the pile tip and,
with appropriate integration, via friction
between the pile casing surface and the
surrounding soil. The non-load-bearing
soil layers are penetrated either by
displacing the soil laterally during driving
or by removing the material during
drilling. The load-bearing capacity of a
pile foundation is essentially determined
by the subsoil conditions, the pile
properties, the method of installation and
the pile arrangement.
517
influenced. Due to their stiffness, piles
with larger diameters in particular can
also absorb bending stresses. The restraint
in the subsoil is provided by the lateral
bedding of the pile shaft. Figures 7.4-2
and 7.4-3 show two bridge structures with
pile foundations.
In the bored pile foundation shown
(Fig. 7.4-2), the horizontal forces from the
bridge support structure are transferred
via the pile, which is elastically bedded in
the subsoil. The lateral bedding creates a
restraint for the pile. The required
embedment length of the pile depends on
the bending stiffness of the pile and the
lateral base compressions of the soil that
can be absorbed. In Fig. 7.4-3, the driven
piles are arranged as a pile block system.
Horizontal forces can be transferred by
the inclination of the piles. The pile is
virtually only stressed by longitudinal
forces. The inclined arrangement is also
possible with bored piles up to about 1:10.
7.4.3.2 Bored piles and their production
The bored pile is characterized by its
production on site in a cavity in the
subsoil, which is usually created by
drilling but also by other methods such as
dredging, flush drilling, etc. The pile shaft
is concreted directly against the in-situ
soil. The pile shaft is concreted directly
against the existing ground. The pressure
of the fresh concrete creates very good
interlocking with the surrounding soil.
Until the concrete is poured, it is usually
necessary to secure the borehole wall
against loosening. This is done either by
casing or by a liquid overpressure
(supporting liquid). In addition to the
round piles with diameters of 0.3 m to 3.0
m, other cross-sectional shapes, such as
slurry walls (barretts), are also used.
518 7 Substructures

Figure 7.4-2 Bored pile foundation for abutments and piers - piles clamped in the subsoil

Figure 7.4-3 Driven pile foundation for a pedestrian bridge - load trasnfer via pile trestle system

are manufactured according to the same 7.4.3.3 Displacement piles

principle, are classified as bored pile
methods. The bored piles usually have a
circumferential reinforcement that is
inserted into the borehole as a
prefabricated reinforcement cage before
the concrete is poured using the
contractor method. Figure 7.4-4 shows a
reinforcement cage for a bored pile. The
base, spacers and spacer rings serve to
stabilize and secure the position of the
reinforcement cage.
Compared to the bored pile, the soil is
displaced in the area of the pile cross-
section when it is driven into the ground.
The classic variant of the displacement pile
is the driven pile. This is made of
reinforced concrete, steel or previously
wood and is driven into the ground using
a drop weight. Due to technical
developments, today the pile is usually
driven in by means of so-called rapid
impact driving, by vibrating it into the
ground.
7.4 Foundations
Figure 7.4-4 Reinforcement cage for a bored pile
or pressing in. Displacement piles also
include the various types of site-cast
concrete displacement piles, in which a
corresponding pipe with a fitter base end
is driven into the ground, filled with
concrete and pulled out again. The
displacement of the soil during
penetration and the associated
compaction generally improves the load-
bearing capacity of the subsoil.
Driving obstacles above the load-
bearing strata can prevent the pile from
being driven or make it much more
difficult. In areas with dense development
and settlement, particular consideration
must be given to whether the vibrations
and noise pollution associated with
driving are acceptable and whether this
could cause damage to neighboring
buildings, for example.
519
7.4.4 Selection criteria and design of
the foundation
A prerequisite for the technical design of the
foundation of the bridge structure is the
soil mechanical information and
geotechnical framework conditions for the
respective location of the supporting
structure. This information is provided to
the civil engineer in the form of a subsoil
report. As part of the subsoil report, the
analysis is carried out and the resulting
description of the properties of the
building ground, which enables
qualitatively and quantitatively verified
technical design planning for the entire
structure. Further design criteria are
derived from the requirements resulting
from the overall situation of the
supporting structure.
8 Calculation
8.1 Effects on bridges
MANFRED KEUSER
8.1.1 General information
Bridges are highly stressed engineering
structures that are exposed to a large
number of very different impacts. The
actions can be categorized according to
their origin as follows:
• Impacts from the building,
• Impacts from the use of the building,
• Impacts from the building
environment.
Interactions do occur, for example
z. For example, in the case of actions from
creep and shrinkage of the concrete,
which can be assigned to the actions from
the structure according to their origin,
whose absolute values and, in particular,
their development over time are strongly
influenced by the structural environment.
Another way of differentiating between
the various actions can be obtained by
considering the different effects on the
system reactions of statically determinate
and indeterminate systems.
A distinction is made between
• Effects of loads and forces,
• Effects from constraints.
The effects of loads and forces produce a
clearly defined equilibrium on a statically
determined system.
state of equilibrium. For statically
indeterminate systems, a clear state of
equilibrium can also be calculated,
assuming linear-elastic material behavior
and taking into account the compatibility
conditions. This is no longer possible
when using non-linear material equations,
as the superposition principle does not
apply here and the influence of the load
history must be taken into account. This is
dealt with separately elsewhere. Usually,
the gravity-induced effects, e.g. the dead
load of the structure, are referred to as
loads.
Actions from constraints such as
temperatures, support movements, etc.
are characterized by the fact that they do
not cause internal forces on statically
determinate systems, but only
deformations. In statically indeterminate
systems, the hindrance of stress-free
deformations leads to stresses that are
directly proportional to the stiffness of the
structures under investigation. Since the
material behavior of both steel structures,
e.g. due to the formation of yield joints,
and solid bridges is highly non-linear as a
result of crack formation, especially in the
vicinity of the load-bearing loads, the
internal forces resulting from constraints
are generally not proportional to the
corresponding actions. In the extreme
case of a ductile structure, where local
failure can be ruled out, the effects of
restraints theoretically have no influence
on the stability of the structure.
522 8 Calculation

safety. For the serviceability limit state
verifications, the internal forces due to the
effects of restraints are of much greater
importance.
As bridges are always part of
transportation routes or supply facilities,
they must meet the defined requirements
for load-bearing capacity and
serviceability. With the development of
modern transportation systems on roads
and railways, the relevant impacts have
also increased considerably over the past
200 years. This is clearly illustrated by the
example of road bridges, for which, until
the end of the 19th century, carriages and
crowds of people represented the decisive
impacts from use. Wooden and masonry
bridges, which were designed and built by
master builders according to empirical
rules, were completely sufficient for this
purpose. The invention of the automobile
resulted in significantly greater vehicle
loads, for which the bridges were designed
according to the rules of engineering
based on the now well-known scientific
principles of mechanics.
and structural analysis. At the beginning
of the 19th century, in parallel to material
and design standards, standards were also
developed to define the actions in order to
ensure that bridges meet the same
requirements for a particular use. With
the further increase in road traffic,
especially heavy goods traffic, the vehicle
loads specified in the standards were
increased again and again. The effects of
road traffic to be applied in accordance
with DIN 1072, 1941 edition, are given in
Table 8.1-1 and can be seen in Figure 8.1-
1.
In addition to taking into account the
static equivalent loads of the design
vehicles, [DIN 1072, 1941] takes into
account the influence of dynamic effects
by means of a load-increasing vibration
coefficient φ. This support span-
dependent vibration coefficient has a
particularly strong effect for short spans
with a maximum value of 1.64; its
significance decreases with increasing
spans. In 1951, with the drafting of a new
DIN 1072 standard in Germany, the 60-To

Table 8.1-1 Table of standard loads from DIN 1072, April 1941 edition
Bridge class I II III IV
Total weight t 24 16 7
Steamroller Front wheel t 10 7 5
Rear wheel t 7 4,5 1
t/m2
Replacement load 1,6 1,1 0,5
Total weight t 12 9 6
Trucks Front wheel t 2 1,5 0,75
Rear wheel t 4 3 2,25
t/m2
Replacement load 0,8 0,6 0,4
For the main beams 25 - 25 t/m2 0, 50,45 0,4
Crowds of people with a span 25 - 125 Straightforward
(also as a from [m] > 125 t/m2 switch on 0.
replacement for 40.35
other loads, see t/m2
0.3
above) For the remaining 0,5 0,45 0,4
parts
8.1 Actions on bridges 523

vehicle was introduced for the highest

bridge class. To take account of the
further increase in vehicle loads and traffic
volume, the load patterns were basically
retained in the new version of DIN 1072
in 1985, but for the highest bridge class
60/30, an SLW 30 in the secondary lane
had to be taken into account in addition to
the SLW 60 in the main lane, see Fig. 8.1-
2.
Statistical studies carried out on behalf
of the Federal Ministry of Transport by
the Fraunhofer Institute for Service
Strength, the Institute for Steel
Construction at RWTH Aachen
[Sedlacek/Jacquemond, 1984] and the
Institute for Solid Construction at
Darmstadt Technical University Figure 8.1-1 Load models according to DIN
[König/Gerhardt, 1985] showed that the 1072, April 1941 edition
increase in heavy goods traffic leads to
changes in

Figure 8.1-2 Load models according to DIN 1072, 1985 edition

524 8 Calculation

Table 8.1-2 Overview of national standards with information on actions

Standard Designation Scope of application
DIN 1072 Traffic loads for road bridges Germany until 30.04.2003
DS 804 Railroad bridges Germany until 30.04.2003
DIN Technical Report Effects on bridges Germany as of 01.05.2003
101
ÖNORM B 4002 Road bridges Austria from 1970
RVS 15.114 from 1999
SIA 160 Actions on supporting structures Switzerlandfrom
1989
BS 5400-2 and Specification of Loads; Loads for Englandf
BD 57 Highway Bridges rom 1978
from 1988
AASMTO Bridge Design Specification USAfrom 1994

the vehicle collectives. In addition, the
problem of fatigue, which cannot be
neglected, especially in the case of steel
and steel composite bridges, had not been
taken into account in the regulations to
date, nor had realistic approaches for
taking account of the unevenness of the
roadway when calculating the vibration
coefficients.
With the foreseeable further increase in
the permissible axle loads for trucks and
the significant increase in heavy goods
vehicles requiring a permit, the impetus
was given for updating the load standard
for road bridges. Different
In contrast to railroad bridges, for which a
European load standard already existed in
the 1980s, a uniform European load
standard for road bridges was presented
for the first time in 1992 in the first draft
of EURO CODE 1, Part 3: Traffic Loads on
Bridges [EC-1, 1991]. The load concept
contained therein, which is based on
statistical studies to define the load
models, was based on the traffic near
Auxerre on the Paris - Lyon highway
[Nather, 1993].
Numerical simulation programs were
used to evaluate the data and simulate the
dynamic effects.

Table 8.1-3 Characteristic features of Auxerre traffic [Nather, 1993].

Lane 1 Lane 2
Vehicle flow24 hrs. 8158 1664
Heavy traffic flow 24 hours 2650 153
Distribution of truck types in the heavy goods traffic flow:
Two-axle vehicle 22,7 % 27,6 %
Three-axle 1,3 % 3,5 %
Semi-trailer truck 65,2 % 58,4 %
Truck with trailer 10,8 % 10,5 %
8.1 Actions on bridges
The following points were examined for
time step calculation methods:
• which exceed the permissible loads
dynamic behavior of different bridges,
• according to the road traffic regulations,
dynamic characteristics of the vehicles,
• are subject to approval. The speed
Influence of uneven road surfaces,
• permitted on the bridge for the special
Influence of different speeds.
The aim of the investigations was to
define equivalent load models and control
loads with which real traffic can be
comprehensively represented. In 1991,
CEN was commissioned to develop the
EU ROCODES with the aim of developing
a coherent set of load standards EC-1 and
design standards EC-2 for reinforced and
prestressed concrete, EC-3 for steel and
EC-4 for composite structures. The first
draft was presented at the beginning of
1992.
In contrast to the earlier standards, the
dynamic effect is already included in the
vehicle loads of DIN Technical Report 101
[DIN-FB 101, 2003] and the European
load standard [EC-1, 1991], both in the
individual loads and in the distributed
loads. It is only for the fatigue checks that
the influence of the impact effect in the
area of the roadway transitions must also
be taken into account. On the other hand,
a dynamic load increase factor is retained
for the loads from rail traffic.
8.1.2 Basics
In practice, it is not possible to calculate
the structures with the real loads from the
use of the structure. It is therefore
necessary to define standard load patterns
on which the design of the structures can
be based. [Rackwitz, 1996] explains the
principles for determining standard load
patterns, to which reference is made here.
He points out that the standard loads are
not
525
cover the loads resulting from exceptional
heavy transports. Such special transports,
transport must also be regulated in the
permit. It must also be specified whether
the journey over the bridge may only be
made alone and which vehicle distances
must be maintained.
With [DIN-FB 101, 2003], a load
standard for bridges was introduced in
Germany for the first time in May 2003,
covering all types of road, rail employee,
footpath and cycle path bridges. DIN
Technical Report 101 represents the
implementation of the European
standards concept [EC-1, 1991] in the
national standards applicable to Germany.
The differences to the future load
standards in other European countries are
limited to the "boxed values",
z. e.g. the α-factors with which the
characteristic values of the loads are
modified, which is why further load
standards are not presented here.
The semi-probabilistic safety concept
[DIN 1055-100, 2001], which also forms
the basis for the design standards in DIN
Technical Reports 102, 103 and 104, is the
basis for the verifications in the ultimate
limit state and the serviceability limit
state. A detailed description of the basic
principles for this can be found in
[Rackwitz, 1996], [Spaethe, 1992],
[Schueller, 1996], [Mehl- horn, 1998], for
example. This provides a coherent safety
and verification concept.
The characteristic values are decisive
for defining the loads from the use of a
bridge by road, rail employees or
pedestrians and cyclists. They are
generally determined on a statistical basis,
i.e. on the basis of a limited probability of
exceedance for
526 8 Calculation

a bridge during its usual period of use are
defined as fractile values. Non-frequent
values with a return period of one year,
frequent values with a return period of one
week and quasi-permanent values that can
be expected to occur at any time are
derived from this. These values are
calculated by multiplying the characteristic
values by α-factors, see [DIN-FB 101,
2009]. The design values are obtained by
multiplying the characteristic values by
the respective partial safety factors, which
are given in Table 8.1-4.
To determine the decisive internal
forces, decisive design situations and
critical load situations must be taken into
account.
cases must be defined. Combination rules
are defined for the superposition of the
internal forces from the individual load
cases for the verifications to be performed.
Examples of this are the superposition of
variable vertical and horizontal loads by
defining traffic load groups, see [DIN-FB
101, 2009], there Table 4, or the rules for
the superposition of several variable
actions from road and rail traffic.
For the description of the highly
complex temperature effects in reality,
[DIN-FB 101, 2009] uses an extended
approach compared to the earlier
regulations. The principles for this are
explained in Section 8.7.1. When
superimposing the load cases in the
design, the

Table 8.1-4 Partial safety factors for actions: Ultimate limit states for road bridges according to [DIN-FB
101, 2009].

Impacts Designation Dimensioning situation

S/V A
Permanent actions: Dead loads of load-bearing
and non-load-bearing components, permanent
effects of the subsoil, groundwater and water
Unfavorab
ly priced γGsup 1,35 1,00
γGinf
1,00 1,00
Horizontal earth pressure from soil and γGsup 1,50 -
superimposed load
pre-tension γP 1,00 1,00
Settlements γGset 1,00 -
Traffic
Unfavorab γQ 1,50 1,00
le 0 0
favorable
Other variable effects Unfavorable
favorable γQ 1,50 1,00
0 0
Exceptional effects γA - 1,00

S: Permanent dimensioning situation

V: Temporary assessment situation A:
Exceptional assessment situation
8.1 Actions on bridges 527

Table 8.1-5 Design values for actions for use with action combinations
Dimensioning Permanent Independent variable Extraordinary
situation effects Gd actions Qd impacts and
impacts due to
earthquakes
Permanent and γG - Gk ; (γP - P )k Predomi Other
temporary nant
γQ1 - Qk1 γQi - φ0i - Qki

Extraordin γGA - Gk ; (γPA - P )k φ11 - Qk1 φ2i - Qki γA - Ak or Ad

ary
Earthquake Gk φ21 - Qk1 φ2i - Qki γ1 - AEd

The combination rules must be observed
in all situations.
8.1.3 Effects from the building
• Dead load
• pre-tension
• Creep and shrinkage
The impacts from the building are
permanent impacts,
i.e. actions with very low load velocity. The
dead load of the structure is determined
from the volume of the components
multiplied by their weight. The
characteristic values to be applied here
can be taken from [DIN 1055-1, 2002], for
example:
Pre-tensioning using high-strength
tendons made of steel or, in special cases,
glass or carbon fiber material is mainly
used in concrete bridge construction.
Table 8.1.6 Calculated values of the weights
for determining the dead loads
reinforced γ = 25 kN/m3
concrete
Wood γ = 4 - 8 kN/m3
to create a stress state opposite to the other
actions and thus compensate for the low
concrete tensile strength. The calculation of
prestressed structures is described in detail
in [Mehlhorn, 1998] and is discussed in
detail in Section 8.5 of this book, see also
Sections 5.1 and
5.2.1 Therefore, only the differences in the
actions for the different types of pre-
tensioning are briefly described here. Pre-
tensioning causes forces perpendicular and
possibly also parallel to the axis of the
tendon at the points where concrete and
tendon are in contact with each other, see
Fig. 8.1-3.
Technical information on the
individual clamping methods such as
coefficients of friction, undesired deflection
angles etc. can be found in the respective
general building inspectorate approvals.
In many cases, concrete bridges are
subject to stresses from creep and
shrinkage of the concrete (see sections
8.5.4 and 8.5.5). This causes the following
actions:
• Loss of clamping force
• Redistribution of internal forces when
changing the static system of statically
indeterminate structures

Steel γ = 78.5 kN/m3

528
Figure 8.1-3 Contact effects between concrete and tendon; force transmission from prestressing
from the tendon to the concrete
• Redistribution of internal forces for
settlements or bearing movements of
statically indeterminate structures
Detailed information on this topic can be
found in [Mehlhorn, 1998]. The
influences of creep and shrinkage also
have a considerable effect on the internal
forces and deformations of timber bridges,
see [Neuhaus, 1994] and [Reyer/Benning,
1998], and must not be neglected.
8 Calculation
8.1.4 Impacts from the use of the building
A distinction is made between the
following types of impact from the use of
the building
• constant influences
• variable effects
• extraordinary effects
Under permanent effects, the loads from
fixed installations such as caps, seals, road
surfaces, lamps, railings, etc. must be taken
into account.
8.1 Actions on bridges
Figure 8.1-4 Permanent actions from the use of a road bridge
power supply and signaling systems, etc.
are summarized. Variable actions describe
the loads from use under normal
application conditions from motor vehicle,
rail or passenger traffic or other use.
Extraordinary actions include the loads
from the impact of vehicles on load-
bearing components, unusual occurrence
and unusual position of vehicle loads.
In the following, the main actions
resulting from the use of bridges for a wide
variety of uses are summarized; detailed
information on this can be found in
[DIN-FB 101, 2009]. Further national
load standards are not discussed, as it is
foreseeable that the EUROCODES
concept will also be introduced in other
European countries.
8.1.4.1 Effects from road traffic
The effects of road traffic are defined in
[DIN-FB 101, 2009], Chapter 4.
Permanent impacts from the use of a
road bridge are the dead load of the road
surface, whereby according to
529
[DIN-FB 101, 2009], an additional 0.50
kN/m2 must be applied for the creation of
a compensation gradient, the dead load of
the seal, the caps, the guiding devices and
the other aforementioned fixed
installations.
Variable vertical loads from vehicle
traffic are described in 3 load models. The
characteristic values of the loads, see
Table 8.1-7 and Figures 8.1-5 to -7, result
from the basic values of EC-1 by
multiplication with factors α, which are
subject to national regulation.
Load model 1
Main load model for the verifications in
the ultimate limit state and the
serviceability limit state
Load model 2
Load model for the design of individual
components
Load model 3
Load model for fatigue analysis
Loads from military vehicles are to be
applied in accordance with [STANAG,
1969].
As variable horizontal loads
must be taken into account:
• Brake and starting loads
• Centrifugal loads
530 8 Calculation

Table 8.1-7 Basic values and adjusted basic values of live loads for load model 1 and 2 according
to [DIN-FB 101, 2009].
Position Double axle Evenly
distributed
Basic value αQi Adjusted basic value load

Axle load Qik in kN Axle load αQi ⋅ Qik qik (or qrk ) in
kN/m2
in kN
Lane 1 300 0,8 240 9,0
Lane 2 200 0,8 160 2,5
Lane 3 0 - 0 2,5
Other lanes 0 - 0 2,5
Residual area (q )rk 0 - 0 2,5

Figure 8.1-5 Load model 1 (main load model) according to [DIN-FB 101, 2009].

• Earth pressure on abutments and • Impact loads on superstructures

foundations due to traffic loads
Traffic load groups are defined for the
superposition of variable vertical and
horizontal loads, see [DIN-FB 101, 2009].
Exceptional effects
are the following horizontal loads
• Impact loads on pillars and other
supporting components
• Impact loads on scuff plates
• Impact loads on protective devices
• Impact loads on load-bearing components
and the following vertical loads to detect
deviating vehicles
• vehicles on footpaths and cycle
paths.
Other typical impacts for road bridges are:
8.1 Actions on bridges
Figure 8.1-6 Load model 2 (single axis)
according to
[DIN-FB 101, 2009]
• Effects on railings
• Loads from supply and disposal lines
• Effects from lifting the superstructure
to replace bearings
8.1.4.2 Impacts from pedestrian and
bicycle traffic
As with a road bridge, the permanent
loads are the dead load of the pavement,
the dead loads of the caps, the railings and
the other fixed installations.
Variable vertical loads are defined in 2
load models. The main load model
provides for a uniformly distributed load
qfh = 5.0 kN/m2 , which may be reduced as
follows for foot and cycle bridges with
spans of more than 10 m:
120 2 can be stimulated. This is described in the
2.5 ≤ qk = 2.0 + ≤ 5.0 in [kN/m
Lsj + 30
]
with qk = live load
Lsj = considered single support width
Figure 8.1-7 Load model 3 (fatigue load model) according to [DIN-FB 101, 2009].
531
For the design of individual components,
an individual load Qfwk = 10 kN with a
footprint of 10 cm × 10 cm must be
assumed. If this is planned by the project
owner, service vehicles must be taken into
account.
According to [DIN-FB 101, 2009],
variable horizontal loads must be taken
into account:
• 10 percent of the total load resulting
from the evenly distributed vertical load,
• 60 percent of the weight of the company
vehicle.
Exceptional actions for footbridges and
cycle bridges
• Loads from vehicle impact on
supporting components
• Loads from vehicle impact on the
superstructure
• Unscheduled presence of vehicles on
the bridge. The load model and the
loads are defined in Figure 8.1-8
Particular attention must be paid to the
dynamic behavior of footbridges and
cycle bridges, as structures are often used
that are subject to vibrations caused by
users.
section 8.7.2.
532
8.1.4.3 Impacts from rail traffic
In contrast to road bridges, [DIN-FB 101,
2009] adopts the traffic loads for railroad
bridges from [DS 804, 2000] almost
unchanged from the previous set of
regulations [DS 804, 2000], as they were
not taken into account within the scope of
the
Figure 8.1-9 Permanent actions from the use of a railroad bridge
8 Calculation
Figure 8.1-8 Loads for unscheduled presence
of a vehicle as an exceptional load on a
footbridge and cycle path bridge
UIC have long been harmonized in Europe.
For trams, narrow-gauge railroads, rack
railways and funiculars, reference is made
to special regulations. As with road
bridges, separate regulations for the
determination of traffic load groups are
also defined for railroad bridges.
8.1 Actions on bridges
As with road bridges, permanent
impacts from the use of a railroad bridge
result from the caps, the roadway (ballast,
slab track), noise barriers and safety gear.
In addition, the railway-specific
installations such as overhead lines,
signals, cable ducts and cables must be
taken into account.
The variable vertical loads are
described in [DIN-FB 101, 2009] in the
load models UIC 71 for passenger traffic
and SW for heavy goods traffic.
Regulations are defined in [DIN-FB
101, 2009] for the load distribution by the
rail as well as sleepers and ballast. The
dynamic effect of rail employees is taken
into account on the one hand by
multiplying the characteristic vertical
loads by a dynamic coefficient ϕ.
a) for carefully maintained tracks
, 16
2
ϕ=2 + 0.82 1.00 ≤ Φ2 ≤
LΦ 1.67
with
- 0,2
Figure 8.1-10 Load model 71 and characteristic values of the vertical loads for a track
Figure 8.1-11 Load model SW and characteristic values of the vertical loads of the load models
SW for a track
533
b) for tracks with normal maintenance
2.16
3 ϕ= + 0.73 with 1.00 ≤ Φ3 ≤ 2.00
LΦ - 0,2
with LΦ = decisive length in m according
to [DIN-FB 101, 2009], there Table 6.2
In addition, the risk of resonance and
excessive vibrations must be investigated
for railroad bridges, see [DIN-FB 101,
2009], Chapter IV and Annexes E-H. The
fundamentals of the vibration behavior of
bridges are discussed in Section 8.7.2.
As variable horizontal loads
must be taken into account:
• Centrifugal loads (centrifugal forces)
• Side impact (rolling force)
• Effects of starting and braking
• Pressure and suction effect from train
traffic (aerodynamic influences)
• Earth pressure from live loads on
abutments and foundations
Exceptional impacts from railway traffic
are divided into two design categories.
534
situations to take account of any
derailments:
• Design situation I: Derailments of rail
vehicles where the derailed vehicles
remain in the track area of the bridge
• Design situation II. Derailment of rail
vehicles where the derailed vehicles
remain on their edge in the track area
and do not fall off the bridge
For design situations I and II, vertical
equivalent loads are defined in [DIN-FB
101, 2009] and [DIN 1055-9, 2003].
Horizontal loads are to be assumed:
• Impact loads from derailed rail vehicles
under supporting structures
• Impact loads from road vehicles under
the bridge
• Catenary break
Further information on extraordinary
effects can be found in [Rackwitz, 1996].
8.1.4.4 Other impacts from the
use of the building
For canal bridges and bridges that cross
waterways with shipping traffic, impact
loads from ships on the river piers and the
superstructure must be taken into
account. Since the magnitude of the
impacts to be applied depends on a large
number of factors, this must be
determined in consultation with the
responsible water and shipping authorities.
The basis for this can be found in
[Rackwitz, 1996], Section 11. In the case of
ship impact, a distinction is made between
frontal impact in the direction of travel
and flank impact perpendicular to the
direction of travel and normal to the
component surface. In the case of flank
impact, the friction
8 Calculation
joint parallel to the component surface. As
a rule, a static equivalent load from ship
impact is applied when designing bridge
piers. To take into account the dynamic
influences, the static equivalent loads are
multiplied by a dynamic load factor DLF
with a value between 1.3 and 1.7 by
multiplying the dynamic equivalent loads.
Table 8.1-8 contains the dynamic impact
loads according to [DIN-FB 101, 2009].
Belt bridges are used to transport bulk
cargo in power plants, open-cast and
mining operations, industrial plants, port
facilities, etc. The vertical and horizontal
loads to be applied from the conveyor
belts, including the goods they carry, must
be determined by the manufacturer,
usually a specialist engineering company,
in consultation with the project owner
and the structural engineer.
Many bridges, especially in urban
areas, are used to carry pipework, and
special pipework bridges are used
exclusively for this purpose. The main
effects of pipework are vertical loads from
the dead load of the pipe and its filling. In
addition, horizontal loads can occur as a
result of constraint due to temperature
differences.
8.1.5 Impacts from the building
environment
Irrespective of the design and their use as
traffic structures, bridges are exposed to
impacts from the building environment.
Temperature effects are defined in
[DIN-FB 101, 2009], Chapter V. This is
discussed in detail in section 8.7.1.
Settlement of foundations and the
Bearing lifting for replacing vents
8.1 Actions on bridges 535

Table 8.1-8 Nominal values for dynamic impact loads Fdyn according to [DIN 1055-9, 2003].
Waterways - Class a) Dynamic impact loads
Frontal - Impact load Flanks - impact
FFdyn load FLdyn
MN MN
I 2,0 1,0
II 3,0 1,5
III 4,0 2,0
IV 5,0 2,5
Va 8,0 3,5
Vb/Via 10,0 4,0
Vib 14,0 5,0
Vic 17,0 8,0
VII 20,0 10,0
a Vessel
characteristics according to waterway classification (according to European Commission for
Europe ECE, Main Working Group inland navigation Resolution No. 30.12 November 1992)

The lifting of the bearings causes cutting
forces in statically indeterminate
constructions. A vertical displacement of
the support axis of at least 1 cm must be
assumed for lifting the bearings, unless a
higher value is required due to the design.
The predicted settlements are to be taken
from the soil expertise. In the case of steel
and steel composite bridges, the lowering
or raising of support axes can be used to
introduce a constraining moment that
acts as pre-tension.
Wind loads are defined in [DIN-FB
101, 2009], Appendix N.
Snow loads can generally be neglected
for bridges. They must be taken into
account for covered bridges, bascule
bridges or for verifications of structural
conditions. The characteristic values can be
taken from [DIN 1055-5, 2007].
Earthquake loads must be taken into
account in earthquake-prone areas.
This is discussed separately in section
8.7.3.
8.1.6 Construction stages
In the construction stage, bridges are
subjected to specific actions from the
construction process and construction
sequence; in the case of sectional
construction, various structural systems
must also be examined in accordance with
the respective construction stages. The
effects in the construction stages must be
defined on a project-specific basis in each
individual case. The vertical loads result in
particular from the following causes:
• Storage of building materials, armor,
etc. on the superstructure
• Concreting processes
• Attached scaffolding (cantilever
scaffolding, push-pull scaffolding)
• Loads from heavy-duty vehicles
536
• Loads from lifting gear (cranes, der-
ricks, etc.)
The horizontal loads result in
p a r t i c u l a r f r o m t h e following
causes:
• Wind loads
• Bracing
• Anchorages
• Brake forces
• Stabilizing forces
When calculating the internal forces and
deformations of reinforced concrete and
prestressed concrete structures produced
in sections, the redistributions of the
internal forces from permanent actions due
to the creep of the concrete must be taken
into account.
8.2 Systems, load-bearing
behavior, internal forces
MANFRED KEUSER
8.2.1 Basics
The construction of a bridge today is
generally preceded by very detailed
planning, which includes the calculation of
the expected stresses on the structure as an
essential component. Although the
possibility of creating a structural analysis
as a basis for the planning and
construction of a bridge has only a
relatively short tradition compared to the
entire history of bridge construction, it is
one of the indispensable prerequisites for
the construction of a bridge.
Figure 8.2-1 Areas of innovation in bridge
construction
8 Calculation
modern bridge construction. Research into
the theoretical basis and the development of
efficient methods for calculating the load-
bearing behavior of building structures, in
addition to the development of building
materials and construction methods, played a
decisive role in the development of bridge
construction.
It was not only the Romans who built
their stone arch bridges according to
empirically gained knowledge that was
passed down from master builder to
master builder; bridges such as the Stone
Bridge over the Danube in Regensburg in
1140 were also re- alized until the Middle
Ages without knowledge of the theoretical
principles of load-bearing behaviour.
There was no significant progress in any
of the fields of innovation shown in Figure
8.2.1; in some cases, knowledge was even
lost. The first innovations appeared in the
Renaissance, when Italian master builders
were the first to succeed in constructing
significantly slimmer stone arch bridges
using geometric methods by changing the
radii of the underside of the bridge. This
was the first fundamental new
development in stone bridge construction
in 1500 years.
The first attempts to develop the
mechanics of building constructions
beyond geometry were made by Leonardo
da Vinci (1452-1519), see Figure 8.2-2,
and Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), see Figure
8.2-3 [Galilei, 1993]. However, the
proportionality relationships established by
Galileo were not suitable for accurately
describing the load-bearing behavior of
even simple structures due to a lack of
knowledge about material behavior. It was
only with the development of the
fundamentals of mechanics during the
Age of Enlightenment, which was associated
with names such as Navier (1785-1836),
Hooke (1635-1703),
Johann Bernoulli (1667-1748) and Jacob
Bernoulli (1654-1705), the basis for
today's calculation methods in bridge
construction was laid. As at the same
time, initiated by the increased
 8.1 Actions on bridges 537
requirements of the traffic situation
8.2 Systems, load-bearing behavior,
internal forces
Fig. 8.2-2 Composition of forces according to Leonardo da Vinci [Straub, 1964]
After the invention of the railroad, in
particular, and the development of mild
steel and powerful steam-powered lifting
gear, fundamental innovations were also
introduced in the two other fields of
innovation, the 19th century saw a rapid
development in bridge construction.
Filigree steel bridges with spans of over
200 m could be calculated, designed and
built, whereas in the centuries before, the
maximum spans of stone bridges had been
limited to little more than 30 m. The
construction of steel bridges was
extremely complex. The construction of
steel bridges was strongly influenced by
the significantly limited calculation
possibilities compared to today. Graphical
procedures, such as the calculation of
forces in truss constructions according to
Ritter (1826-1908), dominated.
In the 20th century, the graphical
methods were replaced by analytical
methods for calculating internal forces
and deformations. With the construction
of increasingly slender structures, the
theoretical study of stability, as
exemplified by Euler (1707-1783),
became necessary and
537
investigations were carried out into the
dynamic behavior of the building
structures
z. e.g. by Wöhler (1819-1914). While the
initial focus was on developing differential
equations for individual components such
as rods, cables, beams, plates and disks and
solving them for special boundary
conditions, the past two decades have seen
the development of numerical methods
for calculating complex structures. It is no
coincidence that the first electronic data
processing system was developed in 1940
by Konrad Zuse, a civil engineer in Berlin
[Zuse, 1993], in order to automatically
solve the sliding systems that occur in
static calculations. Even if the finite
element calculation programs used in
practice today also allow the calculation of
very complex structures, their application
requires a high degree of knowledge of the
basics of modeling and calculation
methods on the part of the engineer using
them, precisely because of these diverse
possibilities.
With both traditional and modern
numerical calculation methods, the
538
Figure 8.2-3 Calculation model of the clamped beam according to [Galilei, 1993].
modeling can be divided into four areas,
see Fig. 8.2-4. Comprehensive knowledge
of the fundamentals in all areas of
modeling is an indispensable prerequisite
for achieving meaningful results from the
calculations. It should always be noted
that these are models that can only
represent reality within their application
limits. As a rule, modeling in bridge
construction is carried out at the macro
level, see [Keuser/Purainer, 2003], but for
detailed areas, such as the connections of
tendons or the connections of hangers in
tied-arch bridges, more detailed modeling
at the meso level is required.
The basis for the load models
are discussed in detail in section 8.1.
8 Calculation
delt. When applying standards, it must be
checked to what extent these describe the
actions to a sufficient extent for the
respective individual case. When
quantitatively determining the actions, the
objective of the respective internal forces
calculation must be taken into account:
• Proof of stability (tilting, sliding)
• Verification in the ultimate limit state
• Verification in the serviceability limit
state
In the following, the modeling of the
geometry, the loads, the mechanic
behavior and the material of bridge
structures will be discussed. With regard
to the theoretical
8.2 Systems, load-bearing behavior, 539
internal forces
mechanic model Geometric
model

Material Load
model model

a) Partial models

Micro area:
detail points

Rib of a reinforcing bar

Measuring
range: Z Z
Components
Expansion body with reinforcing bar

Macro area:
Buildings

Plate girder bridge

b) Model levels
Figure 8.2-4 Modeling for static calculations

For a detailed description of the structural
principles, please refer to
[Ramm/Hoffmann, 1995]. The current
state of the art allows the detailed
calculation of a wide variety of bridge
structures, see Figures 8.2-5 and 8.2-6.
The choice of a suitable structural model
naturally depends on the type of structure
in question. Therefore, in this section, in
addition to presenting the basics of
modeling and calculation, this is
explained using individual selected
examples.
A special consideration of modeling and
the calculation of internal forces and
deformations is therefore necessary in
bridge construction, since in all cases
In general, much higher loads and
significantly larger dimensions occur in
the longitudinal and transverse directions
than in conventional building
construction. Technical and economic
optimization and safe design therefore
require all load-bearing mechanisms to be
taken into account as far as possible. The
main individual components of a bridge,
which are usually connected to each other
by bearings, are analyzed,
• Superstructure
• Abutment
• Pillar
for the verifications in the ultimate limit
states and the serviceability limit states.
540
Figure 8.2-5 Examples of primary structures, longitudinal direction of the bridge
Figure 8.2-6 Examples of secondary supporting structures, bridge transverse direction
calculated separately. For the overall
stability and for the transfer of horizontal
loads, however, a calculation of the entire
structure is required, as for frame, cable-
stayed and suspension bridges. With
regard to the calculation of cable-stayed
bridges, reference is made to [Walther,
1994], and with regard to span bridges to
[Eibl et al., 1973-1].
8.2.2 Superstructures
The dominant actions on the
superstructure are the vertical loads and
the associated constraining actions
(temperature, settlement, pre-tension).
8 Calculation
On the one hand, they generate local
stresses in the directly loaded structural
elements and, on the other hand, stresses
in the main load-bearing system of a bridge.
In addition, the horizontal loads must be
transferred in the longitudinal and
transverse direction of the bridge. The
traditional procedure for the calculation of
bridge structures provides for the division
of the overall structure into substructures
for the calculation of the internal forces,
which are accessible to a static and, if
necessary, a dynamic calculation on the
basis of the known theoretical principles
and the available calculation tools. With
the progress made in mechanics, structural
analysis and numerical methods, it has
become possible to
8.2 Systems, load-bearing behavior,
internal forces
In recent decades, with the development of
ever cheaper and more powerful
calculation programs and computers, there
has been a fundamental change in the
approach to modeling and calculating
structures in bridge construction towards
the investigation of more complex
systems.
8.2.2.1 One-dimensional systems
However, as the traditional approach is still
widely used today and it is also
advantageous in terms of understanding
the load trasnfer, the modeling is
presented in this chapter using the
example of a two-span girder bridge with a
two-span slab girder cross-section in solid
construction. With regard to the special
features of other bridge types, reference is
made to the corresponding chapters of
this book as well as
z. For example, reference is made to
[Leonhardt, 1979], [Menn, 1990],
[Schleicher, 2003] and [Holst/Holst,
2004].
A prerequisite for the procedure
described below is comprehensive
knowledge of the theoretical principles
and the load transfer mechanisms of the
bridge structure to be calculated. When
selecting the mechanic model, a
distinction is first made between
longitudinal and transverse support
systems or primary and secondary support
systems.
Figure 8.2-7 Two-span girder, beam model
541
secondary load-bearing effect. The
longitudinal system is represented by
plane or spatial beam structures on the
basis of technical bending theory. In the
case of a box girder, the entire cross-
section can be described in this way, and
in the case of a plate girder, a web with the
associated part of the roadway slab. With
this approach, only the main load-bearing
effect is modeled in the mechanic model,
and only the internal forces modeled in
this model can be calculated. All other
stresses that are not represented in the
model must be examined separately and
the results superimposed.
The cross-sectional system, which is
formed by the deck slab in the case of a slab
girder, can alternatively be formed by
beam systems, see Figure 8.2-6, if no
calculation is carried out as a slab
structure, see 8.2.2.2. The support
conditions for the deck slab are
determined by the bending and torsional
stiffness of the longitudinal girders and, if
present, the cross girders as well as their
deflections and rotations. As these are not
constant in the longitudinal direction of
the bridge, areas in the middle of the span
and near the end and intermediate
supports are usually examined. As shown
in Figure 8.2-6, the internal forces can be
calculated in two subsystems and then
superimposed. The detailed
representation of these
542
The calculation method can be found in
[Holst/Holst, 2004]. The clamping of the
roadway slab in the longitudinal direction
in the cross beams is unsuitable for a
calculation with beam models due to the
biaxial load trasnfer, so that biaxial
models must be used here.
To set up the structural system, in
addition to selecting the appropriate
differential equation, for the example in
Fig. 8.2-7 the differential equation of the
plane beam according to the technical
bending theory, the support conditions
must be defined in such a way that they
adequately describe the structure to be
calculated. The stiffness of the supporting
components is decisive here. Only if it is
significantly higher than the stiffness of
the supported component (factor approx.
100:1) can a non-displaceable support or a
rigid restraint be assumed: If this is not the
case, the bearing can be represented by
springs. If the calculation of the spring
stiffnesses is not possible with sufficient
certainty, e.g. in the case of restraints in the
pier or abutment, it makes sense to
investigate an upper and lower limit value
of the stiffness of the restraint. In
addition, the effect of support
displacements and rotations should be
investigated.
Figure 8.2-8 Contributing panel width, stress distribution in compression chords
8 Calculation
If the structure has a skew-angled
support, i.e. the support axes are not
arranged perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis of the bridge, it is
recommended to model the structure in a
biaxial model, see 8.2.2.2, in order to be
able to adequately take into account the
influences of the stiffnesses of the
longitudinal and transverse support
members. The same applies to bridges
curved in plan.
The geometric model is defined by the
bridge geometry and the requirements of
the mechanic model. For a continuous
girder according to the technical bending
theory, the cross-section values must be
determined in addition to the spans:
plane beamA, Iy spatial
beamA, Iy , Iz torsion IT , Iω
As the dimensions involved are large, it is
generally not possible to assume constant
distortion and stress conditions in the
transverse direction of the bridge, so that
the widths involved must be determined.
Numerous researchers have dealt with this
issue and developed approximation
solutions based on suitable mechanic
models for calculating the cross-section
values, taking into account the
8.2 Systems, load-bearing behavior,
internal forces
The stiffness of the roadway slab and the
bending and elongation stiffness of the
webs is developed on the basis of the
stiffness of the slabs and plates. The actual
width of the roadway slab or the
proportion that is attributable to the
respective web is reduced to the effective
width for which the largest normal stress
actually occurring over the web is
assumed to act constantly over the effective
slab width and leads to the same resulting
force in the compression zone, see Fig. 8.2-
8.
[Brendel, 1960], [Stritzke, 1977] and
[Schleeh, 1973] have developed tools for
calculating the effective slab width for solid
bridges, taking into account different
types of load (area, strip, concentrated
load) and the stiffness of the slab in
relation to the stiffness of the webs. [DIN
1075, 1981] is the standard for calculating
the effective slab width in Germany. The
work of [Schmidt/Peil, 1976],
[Schmackpfeffer, 1970] and [Alb-
law, 1976].
When determining the geometric
model, the position of the design points
must be defined in addition to mapping
the structural geometry. In the
longitudinal system, the individual spans
of parallel chord beams are usually divided
into 10 sections of equal length, each of
which is used for the ultimate and
serviceability limit state verifications.
Variable cross-section dimensions such as
haunches or web reinforcements must be
taken into account when determining the
design points. In the transverse system, the
design is generally carried out at the points
of the extreme values of the internal
forces.
As a rule, the material model provides
for the use of linear-elastic material
behavior. Non-linearities such as
plasticizing in steel construction or
cracking are not taken into account.
543
The effects of non-linear material
behavior in concrete construction are only
explicitly taken into account in structural
calculations of superstructures in
exceptional cases. With regard to the
effects of non-linear material behavior in
concrete fractures, reference is made to
[Ernst, 1976 and Mehlhorn/ Ernst, 1976].
An approximate consideration of the
effects of non-linear material behavior is
usually done by modifying the stiffnesses.
The effects on section sizes and
deformations can be captured in the static
calculation, e.g. by reducing the modulus
of elasticity or better by using non-linear
moment-curvature relationships, see
8.2.3.2.
Like the geometric model, the load
model is strongly predetermined by the
mechanic model. The actions from loads
and constraints must be prepared in such
a way that they can be applied to the static
system of the plane or spatial beam in a
way that is equivalent to the actual load.
This means that the loads in the
transverse direction of the bridge must be
combined to form a resultant that acts on
the system line of the beam. The
eccentricity of the resultant is the
corresponding torsional moment. The
calculation of the load resultant is carried
out by means of transverse flow lines, in
the determination of which the stiffness of
the individual components of the
superstructure (deck slab, longitudinal
girder, cross girder) and, if necessary, the
supporting components must be taken into
account. Beyond the theo- retical
principles, [Beck, 1953], [Trost, 1961],
[Bieger, 1962],
[Nötzold, 1969] and [Holst/Holst, 2004]
dealt with this topic and developed
practically applicable methods. While
Trost's inputs in his work presuppose
support beams and, if necessary, field
cross beams, [Nötzold, 1969] was the first
to develop a method in which cross beams
can be dispensed with. Since transverse
beams
544 8 Calculation

1)
1) 2) 3) 2)

,75 3)
1,00 0 ,85 0

1) Rigid mounting of the roadway slab on the longitudinal beams

2) Panel beams with standard dimensions
3) Box girders with normal aspect ratio (1:1 to 1:2) and plate
girders with wide webs
Figure 8.2-9 Shear influence lines for two-strand slab beams with different stiffness ratios slab/web
according to [Holst/Holst, 2004].

Since two-span slab beams without In the vast majority of calculation

bearings are significantly softer in the programs, the other option is selected. In
transverse direction, the calculation this case, the load is applied in short
method according to [Nötzold, 1969] takes sections, usually in the tenths of a point
into account the bearings in the transverse over its corresponding influence length,
direction of the bridge and the stiffness of and the internal forces resulting from this
the substructures. Figure 8.2-9 shows the portion of the load are calculated. A check
qualitative curves of transverse influence is then carried out at the individual tenths
lines for different stiffnesses of the of a point to determine whether an
longitudinal girders for 2-section slab internal force has a positive or negative
beams. For standard cross-section value and this then becomes the maximum
dimensions, a transverse distribution of internal force.
0.85/0.15 can be assumed as part of a
preliminary design, and 0.75/0.25 for slab
beams with wide webs.
The actions prepared in this way are
used to calculate the internal forces for the
individual load cases. For the permanent Figure 8.2-10 Influence line for the moment M1 , two-
actions, the loads are applied to the system span beam
in the locally occurring magnitude. When
calculating the internal forces from the
variable actions, there are basically two
ways of determining the most unfavorable
load position. The first option, the
evaluation of influence lines, is mainly
used for preliminary calculations.
Figure 8.2-11 Moment limit line from variable
actions, three-span beam
8.2 Systems, load-bearing behavior,
internal forces
or minimum are added up. In addition, the
other internal forces belonging to this
partial load case are added up accordingly.
The result is a curve for the maximum
and minimum internal forces with the
corresponding other internal forces, e.g. for
a flat beam:
Dimensioning associated
cut size Cut sizes
max/min M tens. V, pull. MT
max/min V tens. M, pull. MT
max/min MT pull. M, pull. V
With this procedure, it is no longer
possible to trace the load position from
which the internal forces at the individual
design points were calculated. The
calculation of the internal force extremes
as a result of variable actions can
practically only be carried out with this
method using suitable calculation
programs, as it requires a high numerical
effort. In practical application, this method
is now the standard procedure for
calculating internal forces.
As with the plate girder, the influences
from the load-bearing effect in the
transverse direction can also be recorded
for the box girder using special models
and incorporated into the calculation of
the internal forces and deformations on
the main load-bearing system. An
overview of the calculation
Figure 8.2-12 Torsional loading of box girders
545
of concrete box girder bridges
[Schlaich/Scheef, 1982]. To calculate the
additional stresses resulting from the fact
that the cross-sectional shape is not
maintained, [Steinle, 1970], [Glahn, 1980]
and [Lindlar, 1984], among others, have
developed procedures in which the profile
deformation and the resulting internal
forces are calculated on the basis of an
analogy to an elastically bedded beam. In
this method, the torsional stress is divided
into a component that causes profile
torsion and a second component that
causes profile deformation.
The proportion that causes profile
torsion is described by the theory of St.
Venant's torsion, assuming a constant shear
flow in the circumferential direction. The
portion resulting from the equilibrium
conditions, taking into account the
folding effect in the corners of the box
cross-section, which causes a profile
deformation, is determined by the
warping force torsion. For this, solutions
can be set up on the basis of an analogy to
the theory of the elastically supported
beam, as both are described with the same
differential equations. The stiffness of the
box cross-section in the transverse
direction is described by the bedding
coefficient CB and in the longitudinal
direction by the moment of inertia Iers of a
replacement beam, e.g. according to
[Menn, 1990].
546 8 Calculation

according to [DIN 1075, 1981]

la/h ≥ 18; la/b ≥ 4
la : Distance between the cross members
b: average box width
h: average box height
according to [Menn,
Figure 8.2-13 Stresses from profile
deformation 1990].
lo ≥ 2 ⋅ (b + h)
lo : Single-span beam: Span Continuous
In addition to transverse bending beam: Spacing of the moment-
moments, the profile deformation also zero points
generates additional longitudinal normal cantilever: double span
stresses. According to [Leon- hardt, 1979],
the transverse bending moments can be
estimated at approx. 20 % of the 8.2.2.2 Two-dimensional systems
maximum restraining moment at the
contact point between the track slab and For main structures, e.g. slab bridges that
the web for common cross-section cannot be described by one-dimensional
dimensions. The additional longitudinal systems and for the calculation of
normal stresses only need to be taken into roadway slabs, a calculation as a flat
account if the following limit values are surface structure is required. For the direct
exceeded: calculation

Figure 8.2-14 Boundary conditions for the elastically bedded beam as an equivalent system for
recording the profile deformation
8.2 Systems, load-bearing behavior,
internal forces
The correct consideration of the geometry
and boundary conditions poses serious
problems when calculating the internal
forces using the plate differential
equation. Since the supporting
components, such as the longitudinal
beams, do not represent a rigid support
and the stiffness of the support conditions
varies in the longitudinal direction, a
closed solution is not possible, apart from
very simple plate load-bearing structures.
In addition, the representation of different
load positions of the load-bearing vehicles
is very complex. For practical application,
tables and spreadsheets have therefore
been compiled, particularly for the
calculation of roadway slabs, which can be
used to calculate practical slab structures.
In addition to literature for general slab
structures such as [Pu- cher, 1968] or
[Stiglat/Wippel, 1983], [Rüsch, 1981] has
developed special calculation aids for the
calculation of slabs.
Figure 8.2-15 Static system of a roadway slab with clamping in longitudinal and transverse beams
547
developed for bridge deck slabs. When
calculating internal forces using tables, the
influences of different support stiffnesses
are estimated using additional
considerations on beam structures. The
scope of the results of calculations using
tables is generally very limited, as only
internal forces at selected points as well as
maxima and minima are usually specified
here.
Therefore, from 1950 onwards, the
approximate calculation with the help of
support grids has become the common
method for the representation of plates in
the mechanic model. Here, the slab is
divided into strips in the longitudinal and
transverse directions, which are connected
to each other at the crossing points in a
bending and torsionally rigid manner. A
detailed description of this calculation
method is given in
548
Figure 8.2-16 Two-span plate beam, flat models
[Homberg/Trenks, 1962]. In the case of
plate beams, the webs are represented by
eccentrically connected spatial beam
elements. In [Menn, 1990] a method for
the calculation of such systems is
described. Particular attention must be
paid to accurate modeling of the
stiffnesses, taking into account the
eccentricities of the individual beams.
Care must be taken to ensure that the
stiffness of the webs is accurately
described by cross-sectional values, taking
into account the interacting plate strips.
There are several problems with this
method. This is
8 Calculation
On the one hand, the determination of
adequate bending and torsional stiffnesses
of the individual longitudinal and
transverse beams, in particular taking into
account non-linear material behavior. On
the other hand, it is difficult to calculate
the internal forces of the girder grid back to
the plate internal forces, as the DGL of the
beam is not a limiting case of the plate
DGL. The numerical calculation only
became practically manageable through
the use of electronic data processing
systems, as this w a s the only way to find a
practicable solution to the systems of
equations.
8.2 Systems, load-bearing behavior,
internal forces
With the rapid development of numerical
calculation methods, the use of beam-
grillage models is increasingly being
replaced by plate systems based on the
finite element method. In the mechanic
model, the plate load-bearing behavior is
described by a numerical approximation
method as part of the approximation, see
[Wunderlich/Redanz, 1995]. The
geometric model depicts the supporting
structure in plan with high accuracy, the
thickness direction is determined by
integrating the stresses over the plate
thickness. With regard to the material
model and the load model, the statements
in 8.2.2.1 apply.
For bridges mounted at an oblique
angle,
i.e. for bridges whose support axes are not
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of
the superstructure, the skew must be taken
into account for both slab and beam
bridges if it is less than 80°. For slab
bridges, a
Figure 8.2-17 Bridge plan view with important geometric dimensions
Figure 8.2-18 System of a three-span bridge supported at an oblique angle
549
numerical calculation using the finite
element method, as the mapping can be
much closer to reality in both the
mechanic and the geometric model than
in a beam-grillage calculation.
Due to the inclined support, the
superstructure is restrained in the cross
beams. The clamping moments of the
longitudinal beams in the end transverse
beams, in the case of the inner supports
the differences in the bending moments
between the two support rims, generate
torsional moments in the transverse
beams, the bending moments in the
transverse beams generate torsional
moments in the longitudinal beams. Due
to the oblique-angled support, the
longitudinal beams exhibit different
deflections in sections arranged
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis,
which leads to torsional stress in the
longitudinal beams. The magnitude of the
clamping and torsional moments depends
on the skew and the stiffness of the
individual components. A suitable tool for
checking the results
550 8 Calculation

Figure 8.2-19 Systems for horizontally curved bridges

dT M
of the EDP calculation are therefore =- ⎜⎛ + eq + t ⎞⎟ =- mT
manual
Calculations with limit value ds ⎝r ⎠
considerations - articulated bearing/rigid (8.2-1)
clamping
d2
- represent. For solid bridges, the M 1 dT ⎞
reduction = - ⎛q -
stiffnesses due to crack formation must be ⎜ ⎟
ds2 ⎝ r ds ⎠
taken into account.
In the case of bridges curved in plan, The torsional load of the horizontally
the longitudinal girders are usually curved, curved beam is made up of three
unlike prefabricated bridges. This results in components:
a continuous coupling of bending and
torsional moments in the longitudinal • eccentrically applied vertical load, e.g.
girders. The corresponding formulation of from traffic
the differential equation of the • Torsional moment load, e.g. from wind
horizontally curved beam is briefly shown • Redirection of bending moments due
below. to horizontal curvature
The differential equations of the
horizontally curved beam result from
equilibrium considerations on the support
element:

Figure 8.2-20 Element of a horizontally curved beam

8.2 Systems, load-bearing behavior,
internal forces
8.2.2.3 Three-dimensional models
While the calculation of plate girders
using plane FE models has now become the
norm, more complex structures such as
plate girders or box girders, where a clear
distinction can be made between
longitudinal and transverse load-bearing
effects, are usually calculated using one-
dimensional systems in solid bridge
construction even today. This is not least
due to the fact that the entire set of
regulations in solid construction is based
on a member-oriented modeling of the
mechanical behavior and the design is
based on section sizes, which require a
complex back calculation in a spatial FE
calculation. In exceptional cases, plate
girders and box girders are also modeled as
spatial load-bearing structures for solid
bridges using folded structure models
based on FEM. In steel and steel
composite bridge construction, modeling
by means of three-dimensional folded
structure models according to the FEM is
much more prevalent in practice than in
solid bridge construction. [Schleicher,
2003] provides a detailed overview of the
representation of such load-bearing
structures in the mechanic and geometric
model. The stress-oriented verifications in
steel construction allow the calculation
results to be prepared without time-
consuming determination of the resulting
internal forces. This form of mapping
requires the selection of suitable element
approaches in the mechanical model. For
this purpose, folded elements can be used,
which are created by superimposing a disk
element with a plate element, whereby the
stiffness matrix does not contain a
coupling of the two load-bearing effects,
as is the case with shell elements, which are
also suitable for such calculations. When
selecting the element type, quadrilateral
elements should be preferred to
551
triangular elements, since the plate and
slice differential equations can be better
approximated for the elements with
deformation approaches that are mostly
used in commercial FE programs.
In the geometric model, the
construction is represented in the
centroidal lines of the individual
components. In the case of solid bridges,
this results in the problem that the
component thicknesses are included in the
stiffness when shell or folded elements are
used, but are only inadequately described
in the geometric model. This has a
particular effect in those areas of the
structure in which components are
monolithically connected to each other, e.g.
in the connection between the
longitudinal girder/cross member and
deck slab/longitudinal girder. This leads
to the spans and thus the internal forces
being overestimated. By coupling the
degrees of freedom of the elements in the
area of the thickness of the clamping
component, this effect can be reduced with
regard to the global internal forces. On the
other hand, the quality of the results for
the local internal forces is significantly
deteriorated with this approach. With
steel components, this problem does not
arise to the same extent as with solid
structures due to the low material
thicknesses. In comparison to triangular
elements, quadrilateral elements have
disadvantages in the possibilities of a good
representation if they do not have an
isoparametric element approach, but are
bound to a rigid shape, e.g. the rectangle.
The theoretical principles are described in
detail in [Wunderlich/ Redanz, 1995]. To
select a suitable element density, several
calculations with characteristic loads
usually have to be carried out in order to
achieve an optimum between the required
effort in mapping and calculation and the
quality and significance of the results.
Modern calculation
552 8 Calculation

Figure 8.2-21 Two-span

bridge, FE folding structure
model

programs sometimes offer the possibility of additional considerations may be required

adapting the element density to the load for limited areas of the design. These are
processes by means of automatic mesh e.g:
adaptation. • Support points, press attachment points
• Anchoring and deflection areas of
tendons
8.2.2.4 Detailed areas
• Cross member
• Stiff
For the calculation of the main stresses of
• Intersections such as trailer
bridge structures, modeling is carried out
connections
in the macro range. Local stresses are not
included in the models or are only Parts of the construction are usually mapped
mapped with insufficient accuracy, so that at the meso level, see [Keuser/Purainer,
for localized 2003], using the

σ = p - a/h

h/4
P a/ D
a/2 α h/4
Z

a/2 h/4
a/4
h/4

h/4 h/2 h/4

b)

Figure 8.2-22 Examples of calculation models of detail areas. a Stresses from an FE calculation of
the hanger connection of a tied-arch bridge [Schleicher, 2003]; b Framework model for the
anchorage area of a tendon
8.2 Systems, load-bearing behavior,
internal forces
Finite element method. The folded
structure and shell elements mentioned in
8.2.2.3 are used for plane loads. These are
only suitable to a limited extent for three-
dimensional tasks, so that spatial elements
with three-dimensional displacement
approaches are used here. A significantly
more differentiated description is
required in the material model than at
the macro level in order to be able to
describe local stress concentrations,
plasticization and crack formation
realistically. In concrete construction, in
addition to numerical calculation
methods, the use of framework models to
describe the load-bearing behavior in state
II continues to be of great importance.
Two examples of the calculation of bridge
details are shown in Figure 8.2-22.
8.2.2.5 Construction stages
Bridges are load-bearing structures with
large dimensions that are usually
constructed in several stages. The
calculation models for the individual
construction stages must take into account
the changes that occur during construction.
In particular, the following changes can
occur, which are important for modeling:
Figure 8.2-23 Changing the static system: Cycle shifting
553
• Changing the geometry
• Modification of the static systems
• Change in the effects
• Change of storage
Depending on the building method and
building materials used, model changes
result in the following building methods:
• Production on falsework or shoring
• Clock shift
• Cantilever construction
• Mixed construction (prefabricated
parts with in-situ reinforcement)
• Production with auxiliary supports
• Production of the roadway slab in a
pilot-step process or continuously
• Section-by-section production of the
track slab in the transverse direction
In the case of concrete structures, it
should also be noted that additional
stresses arise as a result of the creep and
shrinkage of the concrete installed at
different times and that the internal forces
have time-dependent components. In
addition to describing the effects of creep
and shrinkage in the load model, it must
be possible to capture the description of
these phenomena in the mechanic model.
554
Figure 8.2-24 Modification of the static system: Mixed construction
In the material model, the time-
dependent material behavior must be
taken into account in suitable
formulations. Reference is made here to
[Mehlhorn, 1998]. Neurath, 1983]
describes a calculation method for the
calculation of sectional prestressed
concrete bridges in mixed construction
using precast elements, in which the non-
linear material behavior is approximately
taken into account, taking into account
the time-dependent creep and shrinkage
processes.
8.2.3 Substructures
In addition to the aspects of modeling
described in 8.2.2, the modeling of the
subsoil-structure relationships in the area
of the foundations is also considered.
Figure 8.2-25 Illustration of the soil-structure interaction
8 Calculation
interaction is required. A detailed
description of the calculation of the
substructures is contained in Section 8.6, so
that the model formation and the static
systems are essentially dealt with here.
8.2.3.1 Abutment
As with superstructures, individual
subsystems are traditionally calculated for
abutments and the results are then
superimposed. It should be noted that
abutments are usually folded structures
that are subjected to both bending and
membrane forces. The calculation can be
carried out using plane sections that are
arranged horizontally and vertically in
such a way that
8.2 Systems, load-bearing behavior,
internal forces
that the essential load-bearing effects can
be recorded, see Figures 8.2-26, -27 and -
29. In this case, the plate load-bearing
effect is recorded by additional
considerations. A detailed description of
the individual load approaches is given in
[Holst/Holst, 2004].
The calculation according to [Eibl et
al., 1979] allows a better consideration of
the plate load-bearing effects. First, the
internal forces in the individual plates of
the subsystems are calculated separately,
then a moment compensation is carried
out at the common connecting edges of
two plates. The slab forces result from the
support reactions or shear forces at the
slab edge of the adjoining slab.
Figure 8.2-26 Box abutment, calculation
sections
Figure 8.2-27 Box abutments, static subsystems
555
For the introduction of the support
forces, a truss model is usually examined
as an equivalent system instead of a slab
calculation, see Fig. 8.2-28. The normal
force loading of the abutment wall is
estimated by means of equilibrium
considerations, neglecting the
compatibility. The splitting tensile forces
must also be calculated in the immediate
area of the abutment base.
Any deep foundations required using
piles or wells are also calculated separately
from the other components in this
approach, see Fig. 8.2-30. The base plate
of the abutment, which also serves as the
pile head plate, is considered to be rigid.
The piles are considered to be horizontally
elastically embedded bars and are
clamped in the pile cap plate. If the piles
are embedded in a rigid load-bearing
layer, e.g. a rock horizon, a rigid vertical
bearing is arranged at the bottom edge of
the pile. When embedding in soft layers, a
vertical bedding is selected in accordance
with the specifications of the soil expertise
to take into account the skin friction. In the
case of very soft layers, the possibility of
negative skin friction, i.e. the transfer of
dead loads from the subsoil to the pile
foundation, must be taken into account.
The resulting actions from the rising
abutment, including the dead load of the
pile head plate, must be taken into account.
556 8 Calculation

Figure 8.2-28 Example of systems for calculating box abutments according to [Eibl et al., 1988].

is applied at the center of gravity of the slab The complexity of the load trasnfer is
and distributed to the individual piles as generally greater than that of
horizontal and vertical forces as well as pile superstructures, which makes it difficult
head moments on the basis of the to divide the overall system into sub-
displacement method. The internal forces systems that are easier to calculate. In
in the individual piles are determined addition, the calculation of abutments
exclusively on elastically bedded beams. with FE programs usually has economic
In recent years, the numerical advantages for the structural engineer, not
calculation of wall bearings as spatial least because geometry and actions can
folded structure systems using the finite often be generated, at least qualitatively, by
element method has become more modifying the data from previous
established in practice than in the case of calculations. An example of a
superstructures. The reason for this is the geometrically demanding abutment
calculated using FEM is shown in Figure
8.2-31.

8.2.3.2 Pillar

Bridge piers, especially for high viaducts

with large spans, are usually designed as
bar-shaped components with a solid or
hollow cross-section. In the case of
bridges that run at a low height above
ground and river bridges, the piers are
usually designed as solid reinforced
concrete slabs, the calculation of which is
basically analogous to that of an abutment
Figure 8.2-29 Framework model for an wall without restrained splitting of trains, so
abutment wall that it is not necessary to refer to this again
here.
8.2 Systems, load-bearing behavior,
internal forces
Figure 8.2-30 Pile or pile-slab foundation
Figure 8.2-31 FE system of an abutment with
pile foundation
557
Figure 8.2-32 Structural system of a bridge
pier
is considered. Piers are subjected to high
normal forces from the vertical support
forces of the superstructure as well as
bending moments and shear forces from
the horizontal and vertical support forces
and the wind loads in the longitudinal and
transverse direction of the bridge.
When describing the pier as a
cantilever clamped into the foundation,
the beam is used as a mechanic model in
accordance with technical bending theory.
Due to the high normal force
requirement, in addition to the standard
measurement, a verification must be
carried out taking into account the
additional internal forces from the
deformations according to second-order
theory. order deformations. As these
depend to a large extent on the stiffnesses,
the decrease in bending stiffness due to
cracking and the influence of creep due to
fatigue loads must be taken into account
in the material model. The use of M-N-κ
relationships has proven to be useful for
the realistic calculation of deformations and
internal forces, taking into account the
stiffnesses in state II. For practical
application, the following is used for a
defined cross-section and a constant
normal force on excellent
558 8 Calculation

κ = curvature of the
M bending line
N = const.
M4 R = radius of curvature
M3
M2 4
3 1 Start of crack formation
2
2 Reinforcement on the
tension side
M1
1 M 3 Reinforcement on the
1 κ= =
R EI pressure side

1 4 Cross-section fails in tension or

κ ⎮⎡ compression
⎤
⎣m
⎦
Figure 8.2-33 Simplified moment-curvature relationship

the relationship between the bending The calculation of the dimensions taking
moment, the bending stiffness and the into account the II. order and the realistic
curvature of the bending line. behavior of the material according to the
principle of virtual forces.
If the cross-sectional dimensions or x M M ⋅ dx x
1
the normal force over the beam height is w(x) = ∫ = ∫κ (x) M1 (x) dx
not EI
is constant, the pier is subdivided into o o
sections for which the respective mean (8.2-5)
values of the cross-sectional values and the As these are usually non-linear moment
internal forces are assumed to be and stiffness curves, the integration
approximately constant, thus cannot be carried out in a closed loop.
approximating the continuous course in a Therefore, numerical integration
staircase shape. This applies, for example, methods, e.g. according to Simpson, are
to the piers of high valley bridges, which used, in which the curved curves are
generally have slimmer dimensions recorded parabolic section by section. The
towards the pier head and also have a head displacement determined in this way
varying normal force due to the dead load is greater than the value used to determine
of the pier. Mo due to the additional moments. The
With the relationship between bending final deformation w (x) is therefore
moment and cross-sectional stiffness calculated incrementally.
created according to Figure 8.2-33, the
deformations and the resulting section
sizes can now be calculated.
V w (x)
M
Mo κo
1
M
x linear-elastic
M I I part

Δ H

M1 κ1 H
Static system bending moments M Curvature κ Virtual moment H
Figure 8.2-34 Calculation of a cantilever column according to theory II. order
8.2 Systems, load-bearing behavior,
internal forces
n
w (x) = wo (x) + ∑Δ wi (x)
i=1 (8.2-6)
with wi (x) = wi (x) - wi−1 (x)
wo (x) Deformation according to
theory
I. Order
∆wi (x) Deformation increase
according to theory II.
Order in calculation step i
The calculation can be aborted if the
increase in deformation Δwi (x) falls
below a tolerance value, e.g. 5% of the
deformation according to first-order
theory.
8.2.4 Complete systems
For frame bridges, cable-stayed bridges and
suspension bridges, for beam bridges in a
row of
Figure 8.2-35 Calculation of internal forces from horizontal loads in the longitudinal and transverse
559
special cases, e.g. for calculating rail stresses
for railroad bridges.
For high viaducts with limited horizontal
deformations, it is necessary to calculate
the main load-bearing effects on an
overall system in which superstructures
and substructures are connected, see Fig.
8.2-35. For bridges with low stiffness of
the substructures, calculations of the
internal forces according to second-order
theory are required on the overall system.
For bridges with low substructure
stiffness, calculations on the entire system
are required to calculate the internal
forces according to second-order theory,
as the supporting effect of the
superstructure on the piers can only be
captured realistically in this way. This case
can occur for large pier heights and for
foundations with low stiffness. The
representation in the mechanic model is
usually done by means of spatial truss
elements, which are represented in the geo
560 8 Calculation
direction on the overall system
 8.2 Systems, load-bearing behavior,
internal forces
metric model are arranged in the lines of
gravity of the individual components. If the
support paths are limited by design
measures, this must be taken into account
by considering systems with variable
articulation, for example by introducing
deformation-dependent support
conditions. Alternatively, modeling can be
carried out using folded or shell elements,
see Section 8.2.2.3. In the material model,
the non-linear material behavior must be
taken into account, especially for the piers,
see 8.2.3.2, e.g. through realistic M-N-κ
relationships. The description of the actions
in the load model corresponds to the
procedure explained in 8.2.2.1. It should
be noted that the superimposition of
individual load cases is not permitted
when using non-linear material equations.
Therefore, the most unfavorable
horizontal loads and constraint must be
applied to the system together.
8.3 Calculation of steel bridges
GÜNTER RAMBERGER,
FRANCESCO AIGNER
and THOMAS PETRASCHEK
8.3.1 Basics
Regardless of the building material and the
construction method, the European
standards (EN) require verification of the
load-bearing capacity and serviceability of
the structures, as well as verification of the
fatigue strength in the case of dynamically
loaded structures or structural
components. The basis for the checks is
laid down in [EN 1990]. The verifications
refer to limit states, which are defined as
those states beyond which the required
properties are no longer fulfilled.
561
1. Load-bearing capacity limit state: The
structure must not collapse under the
loads that occur during construction,
during use including repair work and
during the required remaining service
life. The ultimate limit states are
– Loss of static equilibrium
(overturning or sliding of the
structure or individual parts
conceived as a rigid body: Proof of
positional safety);
– Fracture or deformation of structural
components classified by law as
severely disabled due to reaching the
yield point;
– Loss of stability of the structure or
individual parts;
– Development of a mechanism of the
entire structure or of structural
components (kinematic chain). This
type of failure is only of significance
in bridge construction in the event of
exceptional effects (earthquake,
impact).
2. Serviceability limit state: In order to
fulfill its function, the structure must
have the required service properties for
the intended use. Serviceability limit
states are, among others:
– Deformations that impair the use or
appearance;
– Vibrations that impair use;
– Lifting on bearings (without risk of
overturning).
3. Fatigue resistance limit state:
– Fracture in a cross-section due to
material fatigue.
The computational verifications carried
out instead of large-scale tests are based
on the following mathematical models:
8.3 Calculation of steel bridges
1. Action model: The decisive actions
(loads, displacements, temperature
effects) for the verification are
determined on the basis of observations
and measurements or on the basis of
the intended operation and are laid
down in the load standards [EN 1991].
The standard distinguishes between
permanent actions G, variable actions
Q and exceptional actions A. For
bridge recalculations, real operating
load trains can be considered instead of
the standard load models, whereby
specific operating restrictions can be
taken into account.
2. Resistance model: The resistance of a
structure depends on geometric
parameters a and material properties X.
In contrast to the actions and the
safety-related assessment, the resistance
of the structure or component depends
on the building material used. The rules
for determining the resistances are
specified in the building material-
specific standards (steel construction:
EN 1993).
3. Safety model: The basic principles and
standardized preparation of the
underlying semi-probabilistic safety
concept are given in [EN 1990]. The
safety model links the action model with
the resistance model. It records the
scatter in the actions and resistances and
idealizations in the model formation
and regulates the safety level. Actions
and resistances are not variables that can
be precisely specified, but depend on
scattering variables (actions, material
values, component geometry).
Therefore, safety against reaching the
above-mentioned limit states cannot be
specified numerically by comparing
expected values. If the initial values are
given by density functions
561
statistical methods can be used to
specify probabilities with which the
limit states are reached (failure
probabilities). In order to avoid having
to carry out the practical calculation
with the density functions
(probabilistic safety concept), but to be
able to carry it out with fixed values and
thus to simplify it considerably, the
actions and resistances are decoupled
from each other and the characteristic
values (95% fractile values for actions,
5% fractile values for resistances) are
used to calculate partial safety factors γSd
≥ 1 (for actions) or γRd ≥ 1 (for
resistances) design values of the actions
Gd , Qd and resistances Rd are obtained.
The static verifications are carried out
with these design values (semi-
probabilistic safety concept). Partial
safety factors γSd > 1 must be used for
the structural safety verification if this
makes the verification less favorable,
otherwise γSd = 1 must be set. When
verifying serviceability, γSd = γRd = 1.
When calculating Gd , Qd , the fact that
statistically independent effects are
unlikely to interact in full magnitude, i.e.
with the individual values Qki , is taken
into account by introducing
combination coefficients ψi ≤ 1 when
all relevant individual effects are
superimposed. With the combination
coefficients, all variable individual
actions (accompanying actions: i ≥ 2)
can be reduced to one (leading action: i
= 1).
It must be demonstrated that the limit
states under consideration in terms of the
required failure probabilities are not
reached or exceeded under the decisive
actions. In the
562 8 Calculation

EN 1990, the failure probabilities are When determining the cross-section

defined as 10-6 per year for ultimate limit
states and 10-3 per year for serviceability
limit states.
Verification format for the load-bearing
capacity verification (limit state: loss of
equilibrium):
≤ Ed, stb
Ed, dst
resistance, local buckling of thin-walled
cross-section parts due to compressive
stresses must be taken into account. Four
cross-section classes are defined
depending on the width/thickness ratios
b/t, the stress curve and the edge
conditions of the individual plates under
consideration:

where: Class 1 - plastic cross-sections: The

cross-sections can fully plasticize (flow
E d,dst Unfavourable (destabilizing) joint formation) and have sufficient
effect of the impacts rotational capacity in the fully
E d,stb Favourable (stabilizing) effects of plasticized state so that moment
the impacts redistribution is possible;
The resistance of the structure or
Class 2 - compact cross-sections: The
structural components to the actions can
cross-sections can fully plasticize (flow
be expressed via the resistance to the
joint formation), but have no rotational
actions, via the cross-sectional resistance
capacity in the fully plasticized state, so
or via the resistance in the cross-sectional
that moment redistribution is not
fiber. Verification formats for the load-
possible;
bearing capacity verification (limit state:
yielding): Class 3 - semi-compact cross-sections:
QRk The cross-sections cannot plasticize,
but at the most highly stressed cross-
section edge the yield strength can be
increased.
QSd ≤ = QRd limit fy be utilized;
γM Class 4 - elastic cross-sections: Without
(impact level)
stiffeners, the yield point fy cannot be
utilized at the most demanding cross-
SSd ≤ SSd (QSd ) ≤ QRk = QRd sectional edge.
γM
(cross-sectional stress) Depending on the utilization of plastic
reserves and the associated ability to
redistribute moments, [EN 1993]
recognizes three types of calculation for
the ultimate limit state design:
(fiber stress) whereby:
Q Impacts Method P-P: yield joint theory (or yield
S Cross-sectional zone theory), see [Rubin et al., 1982].
stress Requirement: Plastic cross-sections at
σv v. Mises comparison voltage the points where yield joints are formed
f Yield pointy or compact cross-section at the last
γM Partial safety factor yield joint;
Index "Sd" Action side Index Method E-P: Elastic calculation of
"Rd" Resistance side internal forces, cross-sectional analysis
with consideration of plasticization
8.3 Calculation of steel bridges
barability. Requirement: Compact
cross-section for the flow joint;
Method E-E: Elastic calculation of
internal forces, verification of elastic
limit load.
Solid-wall bridge constructions are
characterized by high cross-sections
welded together from welders with thin
webs and, if necessary, thin chords. In
order to utilize the elastic limit load of such
cross-sections (yielding in the edge fiber),
the thin pressed plates must be stiffened.
According to [EN 1993-2, 2007], the E-E
and E-P methods are permitted for the
load-bearing capacity check in steel bridge
construction; a plastic internal force
calculation (P-P method) is only permitted
for exceptional actions. In addition to the
stress limitation, the validity of the
superposition law is of particular
importance for elastic internal force
calculation (calculation methods E-E and
E-P). This means that internal forces due
to variable loads (live loads) can be
determined by evaluating influence lines
or influence surfaces.
Bridge construction often involves
systems that consist of nested individual
systems. For example, the deck plate of an
orotropic slab with longitudinal and
transverse beams has the following
functions:
• Local load transfer of the loads acting
on the deck to the side members
(bending stresses)
• Upper chord of the side members
(diaphragm stresses)
• Upper chord of the cross members
(diaphragm stresses)
• Chord of the main beam (membrane
tension)
Stress conditions consisting of global
components and local load applications
must be treated similarly. In
563
In such cases, the equivalent stresses
resulting from the individual support
systems (σx , σy , τxy ) must be added
together. The ultimate limit state design
can only be performed in the cross-
sectional fibers:
fy
sv = sv (QSd ) ≤ fRd = .
gM
The same applies to the proof of fatigue
strength.
The effects of imperfections must be
taken into account when verifying load-
bearing capacity. There are geometric
imperfections (e.g. unwanted pre-
curvatures, misalignments, connection
eccentricities) and structural
imperfections (residual stresses from the
rolling or welder process,
inhomogeneities, anisotropies, etc.). For
the practical calculation, structural
imperfections are initially expressed by
geometric imperfections and these are
usually taken into account in the static
calculation by means of equivalent loads.
The sizes of the imperfections to be taken
into account are specified in the material-
specific standards (e.g. [EN 1993-1-1
or 1993-2, 2007]). The imperfections must
be taken into account in such a way that the
design situation becomes less favorable as a
result. The design and tolerance standards
are closely linked to the problem of the size
of the imperfections. In the case of simple
stability verifications (buckling
verification), the imperfections are already
included in tables and are not directly
taken into account in the verification.
Verification format for the serviceability
limit state verification (limit state:
deformations):
Ed ≤ Cd
where:
Ed Effect of the decisive load combination
(e.g. deflection)
Cd Limit value of the effect
(e.g. limit value of deflection)
564
In the serviceability verification, only the
changes in shape due to the live loads
(traffic loads) are taken into account.
Changes in shape due to permanent effects
are compensated for by superelevation and
are therefore irrelevant for the
serviceability verification.
8.3.2 Selected problems
In the following sections, some typical
static problems in steel bridge
construction are highlighted as examples:
1. Target form and definition of the
workshop form
2. System preload for statically
indeterminate systems
3. Calculation of assembly conditions
4. fatigue resistance
5. Secondary stresses in trusses
6. Theory II. Order for suspension bridges
7. Dents in flat sheet metal
8.3.2.1 Target shape and workshop shape
The starting point for the design of a
supporting structure is the nominal shape.
This is the geometry that the structure
should have under the effect of the dead
load g1 (steel structure) and the
permanent loads g2 (e.g. roadbed, edge
beams, track). The target shape is
determined by the track design
specifications with regard to the track
geometry (upper edge of the track or
upper edge of the track). The supporting
structure axis is thus determined by the
track construction and the supporting
structure cross-sections. In contrast to
structures built with in-situ concrete,
where the target shape is determined by
shaping the supports appropriately when
the soft concrete is poured (Lehrge-
8 Calculation
geometry), in the prefabricated steel
construction method, the desired shape is
achieved by shaping the supporting
structure to be installed or the supporting
structure parts (components) to be
installed accordingly. The shape of the
load-bearing structure produced in the
workshop, which results in the target shape
after assembly (g1 ) and after the
application of all permanent influences (g2
) under the effect of gravity, is called the
workpiece shape. It corresponds to the
load-bearing shape in the unstressed state.
The workshop shape is obtained from the
nominal shape by applying the
deformations due to g = g1 + g2 in the
negative direction (superelevation). The
reference temperature is the annual mean
temperature T0 = +10 °C, to which all
building and component dimensions are
related. This is particularly important for
systems that change shape under the
influence of temperature, e.g. arch and
rigid frame bridges. If steel tape measures,
i.e. measuring tapes with the same thermal
expansion coefficient αT as the parts to be
measured, are used when cutting the
individual items, no adjustment of the
lengths due to the influence of
temperature needs to be taken into
account. The measurement is then
"absolutely incorrect", but "relatively
correct". The situation is different if ropes
are cut to length on a stationary cutting
bench whose measuring marks are
practically independent of the
temperature. In this case, when the ropes
are cut to length, the temperature
difference between the
The above-mentioned reference temperature
of the structure (+10 °C) and the
temperature of the cut-off bank must be
taken into account. Figure 8.3-1 shows the
workshop shape of a small inclined
cantilever bridge whose upper edge of the
carriageway is located in a crest with a
radius of r = 10000 m.
8.3 Calculation of steel bridges
Figure 8.3-1 Workshop form of a cable-stayed bridge
8.3.2.2 System preload for statically
indeterminate systems
In an n-fold statically indeterminate
system, n independent static variables
(internal forces X*i or deformations δ*i )
can be freely selected under the effect of a
specific load pattern, resulting in the
internal force state S* . If the
corresponding variables resulting from a
conventional statically indeterminate
calculation are denoted by Xi or δi and the
resulting internal force state by S and if Xi
≠ X*i or δi ≠ δ*i , then Si ≠ S*i . This means
that
565
unloaded system is a cutting force state
other than zero. The difference between
the internal force states S and S* to be
determined for the same load pattern
corresponds to a system prestress. The
system prestress is a residual stress state
(sum of support forces = 0). If there is a
reversibly clear relationship between
stresses and strains (elasticity theory), a
specific internal force state S is assigned
exactly one displacement state δ and vice
versa. Therefore, the cutting force state S*
can be generated by correspondingly
shaping the workshop-produced
components. Thus
566
In statically indeterminate systems, the
internal forces are directly dependent on
the geometry and the calculation of the
internal forces is inextricably linked to the
shape of the workshop; the determination
of the workshop shape is an extremely
important part of any structural
calculation. The simple possibility of
system prestressing through shaping is of
particular economic importance insofar as
a residual stress state can be introduced
into the overall structure with a generally
tolerable additional expenditure of material
in some structural components, by means
of which the internal forces can be
optimally adjusted for the final state. If
reference is made in particular to the
permanently acting load g = g1 + g2 , the
deformation state assigned to the desired
system prestress only needs to be taken
into account in addition to the already
necessary determination of the structural
shape. The state g1 + g2 + P = g + P
"permanent load + system prestress" is
combined to form the state "permanent
load".
and still designated with -g. The
The workshop shape of such pre-stressed,
statically indeterminate systems is basically
determined in the same way as that of non-
pre-stressed systems by determining the
deformation pattern of the "permanent
load" state
(without pre-tension: g; with pre-tension: -g)
is determined and plotted in the negative
direction from the nominal shape.
Looking at
z. For example, the cable-stayed bridge
shown in Fig. 8.3-1, significant mass
savings can be achieved by pre-tensioning
measures, i.e. by determining a suitable
workshop form for the expensive road deck
that deviates from the workshop form for
permanent loads. In addition, the workshop
production of the pylon is simpler. With the
triple statically indeterminate system,
three independent static variables can be
selected. In the present case, this was
chosen:
8 Calculation
1. MF1,g + max. MF1,q = MSt1,g + min. MSt1,q
2. MF3,g + max. MF3,q = MSt2,g + min. MSt2,q
3. M1 = 0 (pylon moment-free)
The first two conditions are aimed at the
most uniform utilization possible and
thus favorable dimensioning of the yield
beam, the third condition at a simple
design of the pylon. Fig. 8.3-2 shows the
moment lines Mg , Mq , Mp , M-g, M g+ q , M-g
+ q (all at service load level) as well as the
corresponding shape of the structure,
which results from the nominal shape by
subtracting the bending line w-g. A
comparison with Fig. 8.3-1 shows how a
completely different cutting force
distribution can be achieved by changing
the workpiece shape.
For components with normal forces
(pylons, stretched beams, cables), the
corresponding changes in length must of
course also be taken into account when
determining the workshop shape. Ropes
receive the force resulting from the static
calculation by being cut to length
accordingly. In the case shown here, the
stretch beam is 6 mm longer and the pylon
3 mm longer than in the zero state. In
order to maintain the intended rope
forces, the ropes must be installed 108 and
107 mm shorter than corresponds to the
tension-free state. The figure shows that
the selected system pre-tensioning results
in significantly lower max./min. The
selected system tension results in
significantly lower max. The cable forces
and normal forces in the pylon are
significantly greater: The cable forces due
to g + q are 2630 and 2490 kN respectively,
those due to g- + q 5230 and 5120 kN
respectively. In the
pylon, the normal force due to g + q
-2400 kN and as a result of g- + q -4700 kN. The
The additional costs for these elements,
which account for approx. 10-20% of the
total mass of the structure in a cable-
stayed bridge of standard design, are
disproportionate to
8.3 Calculation of steel bridges 567

Figure 8.3-2 System prestressing for a cable-stayed bridge

568
the extremely significant savings made on
the structurally complex section girder
(box cross-section with orthotropic deck
slab). For example, in the case of the
Oberkassel Rhine bridge (for assembly,
see Chapter 9.2.5), the masses of the
stretch girder, pylons and cables are
approx. 7000 t, 600 t and 500 t
respectively; without system prestressing,
the masses would have been approx. 11000
t, 450 t and 300 t respectively. In addition,
in the case of ropes, it is the cutting to
length, the attachment of the rope heads
and the installation that cause the majority
of the costs, but hardly the rope material
itself. In this case, the maximum support
forces at the left and middle support are
also greater due to the system pretension.
The effect of system prestressing must
always be taken into account during
repair work, conversion work and finally
during demolition. Due to the residual
stress state, there is no proportionality
between external influences and the
component or cross-section loads, i.e. the
removal of loads can result in decisive
load fluctuations for which all load-
bearing capacity verifications (cross-
section verifications, component
verifications) must be fulfilled.
8.3.2.3 Calculation of assembly conditions
Assembly calculations are used for the
static assessment of systems before the
final state, the determination of press
loads, stacking forces, prestressing forces
in cables, etc. The structural analysis of
the intermediate states in precast steel
construction corresponds in its
importance to the structural analysis of
the falsework of in-situ concrete bridges.
The fact that by far the largest number of
accidents in the construction industry
occur during the manufacture and
assembly of structures [Scheer, 2000]
shows the paramount importance of
assembly calculations. All decisive
intermediate states are
8 Calculation
statically verified, whereby it is very useful
to first show the assembly sequence
schematically (in drawings). After
completion of the assembly and after the
application of all permanently acting loads
and any support movements, the cutting
force state must be verified.
"permanent load" is present. This internal
force condition is composed of the
permanent loads g = g1 + g2 and the
system prestress P that may be present in
statically indeterminate systems and fully
characterizes the fully assembled structure
under the
mentioned load pattern g or g- = g + P. Since
after completion of the installation and
application of the removal loads g2 in the
supporting structure, the pre-calculated
internal forces and
Deformation states due to g or g- before-
Once the structural elements are in place
("final state"), any assembly conditions
can be statically verified by recalculation
from the final state. However, for the
practical calculation of structures that are
erected using the two most frequently
used erection methods in large steel
bridge construction - cantilever and
launching (for the erection of steel
bridges, see Chapter 9.2) - it is simpler
and therefore expedient to treat these two
construction methods differently.
In the case of load-bearing structures
that are manufactured in cantilever
construction, as well as in the case of load-
bearing structures in which the load-
bearing elements are assembled
beforehand (e.g. suspension bridges), the
assembly conditions with regard to the
positioning conditions are part of the final
system,
i.e. contained in it. The solution described
above is therefore particularly useful in
these cases. Initial state
is the load caused by the constant load g or g- and
the final state described by the target shape.
The assembly systems under
consideration are extracted from the final
state as subsystems by means of cutting.
 8.3 Calculation of steel bridges 569
In place of the part of the
construction that is not yet present
(residual system), the subsystems
are
570
The cutting forces from permanent load
are applied with the opposite sign for the
subsystem, as the final cutting forces are
applied for the subsystem, but the residual
system is not yet present, but this will
eventually load the subsystem with the
cutting forces. The external actions are in
the underlying cutting force state
"permanent load" are already included
and therefore do not need to be applied
separately. The expansion loads g2 (road
surface, roadbed, edge beams, noise
barriers, etc.) are applied at a later point in
time, so these loads, which are present in
the "permanent load" cutting force state
but are not yet actually acting, must be
applied to the subsystem in the opposite
direction to their direction of action. The
same applies to any abutment
displacements that have not yet been
applied and are contained in the
"permanent load" state. Assembly loads
(e.g. lifting gear) that are not included in
the "permanent load" state but actually act
on the subsystem must also be taken into
account when calculating the subsystems.
Thus, the internal forces or deformations
for a tested assembly state M are obtained
by superimposing the internal forces or
deformations of the following systems:
1. End system under constant loads g
or g-
2. M1: Mounting system at whose
interfaces with the rest of the system the
cutting forces of the final state are
applied with opposite signs: -S-g. Cutting
forces: SM1
3. M2: Mounting system on which the
loads contained in the final state, but
not yet applied, act against their final
direction of action: -g2 . Internal forces:
SM2
4. M3: Mounting system on which the parts
that are not included in the final state
but are included in the
8 Calculation
loads acting in the assembly condition
under consideration: gM , GM . Internal
forces: SM3
To explain the described procedure, a
continuous beam over four bays is
considered, which is assembled from one
side in cantilever construction. Fig. 8.3-3
shows the subsystem assembled up to
point E with the lifting device K. The
following are required:
1. stack height at point 2, so that at point
3 the bearing is reached
2. Cutting forces of the mounting system
The structure is assumed to be in its final
state. This state is characterized by
the internal forces due to g- = g + g + P= g + P.
1 2
By specifying three internal forces,
z. e.g. the column moments M-g, 1, M-g, 2, M-g , 3,
the triple statically indeterminate system
can be pre-tensioned, see section
8.3.2.2 Section a shows the initial system,
section b the internal forces M-g and V-g of
the final state. Detail c shows the load-
bearing structure assembled up to point E
with the front attachment K. Compared to
the final state, the removal loads g2 are
missing here or the weight of the front
attachment GK , the weight of the shot to
be assembled ΔGE-3 and assembly payloads
qM also have an effect. Detail d shows the
subsystem with the cutting sizes of the
final state entered at the cutting edge with
reversed signs and the corresponding
cutting forces, detail e shows the
subsystem with the removal loads g2 that
are not yet present and therefore to be
subtracted and the corresponding cutting
forces. Subfigures f and g show the
subsystem with the weights GK (lifting
device) and GE-3 (shot E-3) and the
continuously distributed assembly loads
qM , again the cutting forces and the
bending line. To ensure that the last
component fits straight onto the bearing
at point 4 under the loads mentioned,
point 2 must be reduced by the dimension
∆h2
 8.3 Calculation of steel bridges
Figure 8.3-3 Assembly calculation by back calculation from the final state
be raised, whereby the condition
∆h2 - (wE, ∆h2 = 1 + w'E, ∆h2 = 1 - ∆l ) + w3M = 0
must be fulfilled. The drawing file h shows
the internal forces and the bending line of
the subsystem under investigation. The
following generally applies to the internal
forces: S = S-g + SM1 + SM2 + SM3 .
Figure 8.3-4 shows a second example
schematic representation of the
construction of a symmetrical cantilevered
571
Inclined cable bridge. The end system is
shown in section a. The cutting forces M-g ,
V-g , N-g act in the end system. Partial figure
b shows the structure under consideration
with the lifting gear, partial figure a shows
the sectional view. Detail c shows the
assembly system with the negatively
applied internal forces of the final state S-g
(internal forces: SM1 ), detail d shows the
572
Figure 8.3-4 Assembly calculation by back calculation from the final state
Assembly system with the negative
removal loads g2 (internal forces: SM2 ) and
drawing file e shows the assembly system
with the assembly loads (internal forces:
SM1 ). The internal forces of this assembly
state
are again S = S-g SM3 . + SM1 + SM2 +
In the case of supporting structures
that are produced by insertion (launching),
the bearing conditions change
continuously. Regardless of the final
position, each beam cross-section
becomes a span or support cross-section.
In particular, the structural components
that are subject to low stress in the final
state (areas of the moment zero points)
often have to be dimensioned more than
the final state requires in order to allow for
assembly. Since the assembly systems are
not included in the final system, it is
generally more appropriate for the assembly
calculation not to calculate back from the
final state - as in the case of cantilevered
prefabrication - but to start from the
existing component geometry (workshop
form) and to verify the construction states
directly. The initial state is the workshop
form, into which a system prestressing can
be introduced by means of appropriate
shaping. The advanced system is placed in
the considered, advanced state on all
available bearings at the correct height.
8 Calculation
The top layer is placed on top. All loads are
applied to the system supported in this way
(weight gSt of the assembled structure,
assembly loads qM ) and the internal forces
for the construction stage are determined
from this. This results in
the cutting forces or deformations for a
tested assembly condition M
by superimposing the internal forces or
deformations of the following systems:
1. Constraints due to statically
indeterminate mounting of the
weightless system due to statically
indeterminate mounting
2. Dead load gSt of the construction of the
mounting system under consideration
3. Assembly loads qM , QM
Due to the statically indeterminate
bearing that is present from three bearing
points onwards, constraining forces arise
in the bearings and constraining internal
forces in the system that change with each
position of the lancing progress and that
must be taken into account in the static
verifications, as the verifications must be
carried out according to method E-E and
stability (buckling) is of paramount
importance for thin-walled cross-sections
of class 4.
To explain the procedure described
above, the process shown in Fig.
 8.3 Calculation of steel bridges
8.3-3, which is launched from one side.
Figure 8.3-5 shows the schematic steps for
the assembly calculation.
Detail a shows the finished structure
and the workshop form, while detail b
shows the examined structural condition.
In drawing file c you can see the beam
supported at points A and 2. In fact, the
beam also rests on the bearings at points 0
and 1. The corresponding paths are to be
treated as impressed displacements Δh0 ,
Δh1 . Finally, subfigure d shows the
assembly system with the loads gSt (weight
of the steel girder) and qM (assembly
loads).
8.3.2.4 fatigue resistance
Frequent load changes lead to fracture
failure at stress states below the fracture
strength or yield strength of the material in
structures or components that are
predominantly not subjected to static
loads, e.g. rail or road bridges, due to
material fatigue. Therefore, for such
structures, in addition to the usual static
verifications, the
573
Figure 8.3-5 Installation calculation by direct
calculation of the structural condition
Verification of fatigue resistance.
Especially for bridges with shorter spans
and for components subject to highly
dynamic loads, e.g. roadway girders,
fatigue verification is often decisive. To
date, there is no theory for the numerical
calculation of the fatigue strength or
fatigue resistance based on the notch
geometry, i.e. no S-N curves (see below)
can be calculated based on the
characteristics of a notch detail. For this
reason, tests must be used to a large
extent, especially for fatigue verification.
See [Haibach, 1989] for fundamentals and
calculation methods in the sense of today's
standardization. The current state of the
art, also in connection with [EN 1993-1-9,
2007], is compiled in [Good Design
Practice, 2000]. Welded details with
correspondingly high residual shrinkage
stresses are characteristic of steel
structures and the following influences are
of particular importance for fatigue
behavior:
• Number of load cycles N
• Voltage differences ∆σ = σo - σu
• Constructive training (notch effect)
574
In contrast, t h e influence of the average
voltage level is comparatively low
σm = σo + σu and material strength,
02 2
except in the case of pure compressive
threshold stresses on non-welded
construction details. Unlike in mechanical
engineering, where the strength tests
(including fatigue) are carried out on 1:1
models (prototypes), in civil engineering
(and in large-scale mechanical
engineering) the verifications are carried
out on mathematical models. Particularly
in the case of fatigue verification, test
results from small part and component
tests must be used. The result of a fatigue
test is the correlation between the number
of load cycles N and the maximum stress
σo that can be achieved with a fixed
undervoltage σu under periodic loading,
see Fig. 8.3-6.
Figure 8.3-7 shows the result of a
Wöhler test in the form of a Wöhler line in
simple logarithmic representation.
It can be seen that the bearable stress
approaches a limit value σD as the number
of load cycles increases. The so-called
fatigue resistance σD is the stress that
endured "infinitely often" (formerly gene-
Figure 8.3-6 Periodic load
Figure 8.3-7 Wöhler line in simple logarithmic
representation
8 Calculation
2 - 106 times, today 5 - 106 times, with shear
stress 108 times). Stresses
above the fatigue resistance ∆σR < ∆σD
are referred to as creep strength.
Large scatter is typical of all fatigue
tests, even when the tests are carried out
with the greatest care. In order to be able
to make a plausible statement about the
fatigue behavior of a component, a
sufficiently large number of identical tests
must be carried out and fractile values
(5%, 50%, 95%) must be derived from the
individual results using statistical
methods. In a double-logarithmic
representation and taking into account
load cycle numbers N ≥ 104 (lower load
cycle numbers correspond to a "low-cycle"
failure and do not fall under "fatigue"), a
straight line with a slope of 1/m is
approximately obtained, see Figure 8.3-8,
which makes the analytical treatment
particularly simple.
With the intersection a of the Wöhler
line with the abscissa
log a = log ND + m - log ∆σD
for load cycles N < ND the time stability
ΔσR is obtained as a function of
a -1
of the number of load cycles N to ΔσR =
N
() m
3 or the yield strength associated with
the fatigue strength Δσ R
a
load cycle number to N = . With
Δ6σ
outward
R
Figure 8.3-8 Normalized Wöhler line in double
logarithmic representation
 8.3 Calculation of steel bridges
Figure 8.3-9 Non-periodic stress
Figure 8.3-10 Reservoir method
The Wöhler line for stress differences Δσ
< ∆σD is continued with a view to the
"fatigue strength verification".
The original, in the older pre
and from the machine tool, the
The concept for the construction of the
against the "fatigue resistance", which
corresponds to an "infinitely long" service
life of the structure.
In fact, the stress on real components in
the construction industry is by no means
perio- dic, see Figure 8.3-9.
Also, "fatigue-resistant" constructions
are no longer required, i.e. constructions
that last "indefinitely", but constructions
that are sufficiently dimensioned for the
intended service life (e.g. 120 years). The
corresponding proof is referred to as
"proof of service strength". In order not to
increase the number of test parameters
excessively, fatigue tests are practically
only possible for periodic loading. The
transfer of the real stresses, e.g. of the
cross girder of a road bridge, to the special
case of periodic loading is carried out by
575
by means of damage accumulation
hypotheses, of which that according to
Palmgren-Miner ("Miner rule") is most
frequently used. First, the stresses
determined by calculation or by strain
measurements on the structure at the
investigated location are ordered
according to a counting algorithm and
converted into stress cycles Δσ = ∆ε - E. In
the counting algorithms, the order of
occurrence of the voltage cycles Δσi is
generally not taken into account. The
most important counting algorithms are
the rainflow method described in [EN
1993-1-9] and the reservoir method (Fig.
8.3-10).
When used correctly, both methods
provide identical results. If different
stresses Δσi , which lead to fatigue failure
after Ni load cycles (periodic loading),
occur ni times, one load cycle corresponds
to the partial damage 1/Ni and ni load
cycles correspond to the partial damage ni
/Ni . Condition for the fatigue
∑ ni = 1 . Prerequisite
failure is
Ni
This assumes that the material has not
undergone any cold work hardening and
that the mean stress σm is approximately
constant. The Miner rule is an
approximation; the test results for
ni
∑ values that can deviate significantly
Ni
from 1.0 on both sides. Fatigue tests with
non-periodic loading have shown that
individual stress cycles ΔσR > ∆σD cause a
drop in fatigue resistance. For this reason,
stress differences must also be
<∆σD must be taken into account by
"Threshold value of fatigue resistance"
∆σL . This is the stress difference below
which damage will not occur under any
circumstances. For practical verification,
the Wöhler line is used from ND to NL
= 108 continued, but with the
576
significantly lower inclination m + 2.
Stress cycles below the corresponding
value ∆σL have no influence. The above
formulas for the conversion of non-
periodic stresses must then be adapted
accordingly, see e.g. [Haibach, 1989].
By adding up the partial damages ni /Ni
and converting to the
"Total number of load cycles" ∑ ni can be
calculated with
NE - ∆σ Em = a
the " damage-equivalent voltage
swinging width for single-stage load
collectors
1
⎛ ∑ni ⋅ Δσi⎞m
tive": Δσ E= ⎟ .
⎝
⎜NE ⎠ Much easier than with individually
The mathematical proof of fatigue is as
follows:
ΔσR (N )E
γ Ff ⋅ Δσ ≤ operating
γ Mf
E2
resp.
ΔτR (N )E
γ Ff ⋅ ΔτE2 ≤
γ Mf . matching coefficient: λ = λ1 - λ2 - λ3 - λ4 ≤
This means:
• ΔσR (NE ): Damage equivalent chip
for single-stage load collective and
corresponding load cycle number
• γFf : Partial safety factor for the fatigue
load
• γMf : Partial safety factor for the first
fatigue strength
The factor γMf is between 1.0 and 1.35
and is dependent on whether the construc
tion as damage-tolerant or non-damage
is classified as tolerant or whether it is
controllable or uncontrollable. The "notch
group" is the fatigue strength of a
particular notch detail ΔσC at NC = 2 - 106
load cycles. The reference to NC results
from the need to be able to adopt the
fatigue tests carried out over 100 years at
2 - 106 load cycles without recalculation.
The notch group applies to a single fiber
8 Calculation
of a cross-section. Within a cross-section,
there can be a wide variety of notch
groups. Among others, the following
design details are provided in [EN 1993-1-
9]:
• Non-welded construction details
• Welded composite cross sections
• Cross seams
• Non-load-bearing or load-bearing
welder's seams
• Hollow profiles and hollow profile
connections
• Orthotropic plates of railroad bridges
cken
real stress cycles, the post-tensioning of rail
and road bridges is
proof of service strength for specific
conditions by using
standardized load models (e.g. load model
71 for railroad bridges) using
of the dynamic coefficient Φ2 and the
λmax : ΔσE2 = λ - Φ2 - Δσp with Δσp = | σ p,max
- σ p,min |.
The value λ is limited to 2 million load cycles.
related. The individual factors take into
account
the following effects:
λ1 ... Span coefficient (takes into account
the type of influence line and the
traffic on which the damage
calculation is based)
λ2 ... traffic intensity coefficient (adjustment
λ
the size of the traffic volume)
3 ... Service life coefficient (adaptation to
the period of use of the bridge)
λ
4 ... Takes into account the number of
tracks for railroad bridges and the
effects from the side lanes for road
bridges
Detailed information on the factors λ can
be found in [EN 1993-1-9, 2007]. In the
cross-sectional point under investigation,
the stresses are composed of "global" and
"local" parts, e.g. the sheet metal of a main
girder chord with
 8.3 Calculation of steel bridges
If the stresses of an orthotropic slab are
not superimposed, the stress difference
from the individual components on which
the fatigue analysis is based must be
superimposed:
ΔσE 2 = λloc - Φloc - Δσloc + λglo - Φglo - Δσglo . If
several points overlap at one point
If more than one of the notch cases
mentioned is used, the least favorable is
decisive and is taken into account alone.
The notch cases are related to nominal
stresses. The nominal stresses are to be
determined by an elastic calculation
according to the rules of elementary
strength theory and without taking into
account notch effects, but taking into
account cross-sections that do not remain
flat due to shear deformations,
z. e.g. by introducing "contributing
widths". If construction details are provided
that cannot be assigned to one of the
notch cases, the actual stresses in the
point assumed to be decisive for the crack
initiation must be used by applying stress
concentration factors K or directly as hot-
spot stresses. Hot-spot stresses can be
determined by means of elastic FE
calculation. Their application requires
appropriate special knowledge.
Since the fatigue analysis is carried out
using the appropriate notch group in a
fiber, the most highly stressed point (e.g.
the point with the maximum moment or
the maximum stress) does not necessarily
have to be decisive. Even within a cross-
section, smaller stresses (stress
differences) in areas of unfavorable notch
details can be decisive compared to larger
stresses in areas of more favorable notch
details. The choice of construction details
with high notch groups for high stresses
or the relocation of construction details
with low notch groups to areas of the
structure subject to low stresses is of
decisive economic importance.
577
This results in fatigue-proven design
details, all of which pursue the goal of
assigning more favorable notch details to
the more highly stressed fibers within a
cross-section or narrowly limited area or
placing less favorable notch details in
areas of lower stress.
8.3.2.5 Calculation of trusses:
If you calculate an ideal articulated truss in
which all loads act on the nodes
(Culmann truss), you only get normal
forces N. If, on the other hand, you
calculate a real truss with rigid nodes in
which all loads act on the nodes, you get
not only the normal forces N but also
bending moments M(1) and the resulting
shear forces
V(1). The bending moments M(1) arise
from the displacement of the node figure
as a result of the changes in length in the
bars. These are pure constraint moments,
i.e. not necessary for equilibrium, and are
all the greater the greater the bending
stiffness of the truss members. In standard
constructions, the bending stresses σM(1)
do not amount to more than approx. 10%
of the stresses σN due to the normal forces
and are neglected for the structural safety
verification (secondary stresses). For
reasons of equilibrium, the shear forces
V(1) result in changes to the normal forces
N, but these are negligibly small. The
neglect of bending moments and shear
forces is permissible according to the
static theorem of plasticity theory,
according to which only the equilibrium
conditions, but not the compatibility
conditions, must be fulfilled for the
(plastic) load-bearing capacity. On the
other hand, bending moments M(2) , which
result from a load acting between the
nodes (cross members of the track grid),
are necessary for the equilibrium and
578 8 Calculation

Table 8.3-1 Structural verifications for trusses

Proof System N M(1) M(2)

ULS N: FW 2 ϕ(FW) - 2 ϕ(DLT)

M: Frame or DLT
SLS (tiles) N: FW 2 ϕ(FW) 2 ϕ(FW) 2 ϕ(DLT)
M: Frame or DLT
FLS Frame 2 ϕ, λ1 (FW) 2 ϕ, λ1 (FW) 2 ϕ, λ1 (DLT)

therefore - as well as the resulting shear 8.3.2.6 Calculation of suspension bridges

forces V(2) - must be taken into account
when verifying the structural safety. The
moments M(2) and shear forces V(2)
correspond approximately to those of a
continuous beam with rigid supports at
the chord nodes. However, the bending
moments M(1) , which result from an
elastic calculation as a bending stiffness
frame, actually occur and must be taken
into account when verifying the fatigue
strength, as well as when verifying the
limitation of the stresses under service load
to the yield point σ Ed,ser ≤ fy /γ M,ser . The
correct application of the dynamic
coefficient ϕ2 or the span coefficient λ1
poses a particular problem here. ϕ2
depends on the decisive length Lϕ , λ1 on
the decisive length Lλ . For the
determination of N and M(1) , the span of
the truss must be assumed, for the
determination of M(2) and V(2) , however,
the mentioned continuous beam must be
assumed. Table 8.3-1 provides an
overview.
The system sketch of an anchored ("real")
suspension bridge is shown in Figure 8.3-
11.
When calculating a suspension bridge
of standard design, changes in length and
inclinations of the pylons and hangers can
always be neglected. The following actions
are of particular importance for the
calculation:
1. Permanent loads
2. Traffic loads
3. Temperature effects
For the purpose of economic design, the
internal forces of suspension bridges must
be determined taking into account the
system deformations (second-order
theory), see Figures 8.3-12 to 8.3-14.
The bending moments in the stiffening
beam due to a transverse load g (x) and
q(x) are calculated using the formula

Figure 8.3-11 Anchored suspension bridge

 8.3 Calculation of steel bridges 579

Figure 8.3-12 Undeformed

and deformed cable geometry

MII = M - H - z - H - ζ = MI - H - ζ with can be written to. This is a non-linear

q q q q
H = Hg + Hq + Ht . This means Second order differential equation with
variable coefficients. Difference by x twice
MIIg+q Moment according to theory II.
I yields the fourth-order differential
Mg+q Order
equation for the bending line
Moment according to first-order
theory (beam moment)
8 - f- (Hg + Hq ) - w″
H Horizontal component of the total -(Eq -- IH-qw″)″
- = 0.
cable force
Hg Horizontal component of the cable ( 7l2 )
force due to constant loads By comparison with the differential
Hq Horizontal component of the sliding of the tension rod loaded with the
cable force due to live loads transverse load q (x) (E - I - w″)″ - S - w″
Ht Horizontal component of the
- q (x)
cable force due to temperature
= 0, an analogy system is found if
changes
[Chwalla, 1959] is used:
The stiffening girder is usually mounted in 8-f
such a way that, as a result of constant S = Hg + Hq , q- = q - Hq - 7l2 .
loads
g remains moment-free. The cable then A shear load q
has the shape of a square parabola to an a part q- through the bending stiffness beam
excellent approximation. The
8-f
Differential equation E - I - w″ + M(II) = 0, and a part Hq - due to the tractive force
7
which can also be written in the form l2
E - I - w″ - H - w + (Mq - Hq - y) = 0 bridge
or
E - I - w″ - H - w + M(I) = 0

Figure 8.3-13 Transversely loaded tension rod

(analogy system)

Figure 8.3-14 Influence lines of a suspension

580 8 Calculation

and change in shape of the cable.

The corresponding replacement
system can be seen in Fig. 8.3-13.
The distribution of p is
determined by the compatibility
condition (deflection of the cable =
deflection of the beam for rigid
hangers). Due to the non-linearity
of the differential equation, the
superposition law does not initially
apply. However, it remains valid if
the force H is kept constant.
Therefore, the practical calculation
can be carried out by calculating the
internal forces for fixed forces H, e.g.
H1 = Hg and H2 = Hg + Hq , in the
conventional way using influence
lines. These lines of influence
naturally only apply to the specified
value H ("limited lines of
influence"). For the values H1 ≤ H ≤
H2 belonging to the load case under
consideration, the internal forces
8.3 Calculation of steel bridges
can be obtained by linear interpolation
between H1 and H2 . More precise values
can be obtained by inserting an additional
+ that is of practical interest and can be used
value for H, e.g. Hm = H1 H2,
02 3
by means of parabolic interpolation.
The differential equation of the tension
rod loaded with q can be solved - are laid down in [EN 1993-1-5]. For
analytically in special cases [Rubin/Vogel,
1982]. In the general case of a variable
moment of inertia, the solution using the
cable polygon equation is particularly
simple [Stüssi/Dubas, 1971]. During
cooling, the maximum tensile force is
generated in the cable and the largest
negative moments are generated in the
stiffening member. During heating, the
minimum tensile forces are generated in
the cable and the largest positive moments
in the stiffening support. Figure 8.3-14
shows the lines of influence for the
moment in the center of the span for the
360 m wide stiffening girder of a
suspension bridge.
8.3.2.7 Dents in rectangular panes
Introduction
In the thin-walled cross-sections often
used in bridge construction, which are
composed of slender plates, the elastic
limit load can often not be utilized due to
instability phenomena (buckling) or can
only be achieved by a corresponding
stiffener (Class 4 cross-sections according
to [EN 1993-1-1, 2007]). Compressive
stresses are always responsible for the
instability of the equal weight, which can
be caused by normal forces and bending
moments or by local stresses, but also by
shear stresses, which always occur in pairs
and cause principal stresses σ = ± | τ |. In
contrast to member buckling (lateral-
torsional buckling), in which the stress is
released when the stability limits are
reached.
581
If the load-bearing capacity is practically
exhausted due to oversized deformations,
there is a supercritical range for buckling
for the purposes of economic design. The
required design specifications and
verification formats for structural safety
theoretical background and application
examples of this standard, see [Johansson
et al., 1999]. The regulations of this
standard differ considerably from those of
older standards and are therefore briefly
described and explained in this section. In
order to adapt the design rules derived
from idealized models to the reliability
requirements of the Eurocode, taking into
account component imperfections and
including supercritical load-bearing reser-
ves, the results of the theoretical
derivations had to be calibrated in
component tests. Since the three different
types of action - longitudinal normal
stresses σx , transverse normal stresses σy
due to concentrated loads and shear
stresses τxy - are treated in different
mathematical models with regard to the
supercritical load-bearing reserves, these
effects are dealt with individually and
combined at the end by means of
interactive conditions. The following
sections of [EN 1993-1-5] are directly
relevant for the buckling check:
Section 4: Buckling due to longitudinal
stresses
Section 5: Shear buckling
Section 6: Load-bearing capacity for shear
loads
load Section 7:
Interaction
Section 9: Structural design
and calculation of longitudinal
and transverse stiffeners
582
Section 10: Proof of buckling using redu-
tional stresses
Appendix A: Buckling values
Appendix C: Notes on the calculation
with finite elements
The calculation is carried out in the same
way in all cases: From the fully plastic
cross-sectional resistance,
z. e.g. Npl , and the bifurcation value, e.g.
Ncr (Euler), the related slenderness λ is
- As a result of the membrane forces σx -
calculated and a reduction coefficient is
calculated from this, with which the fully
plastic value is multiplied to obtain the
component resistance.
As the [EN 1993-1-5, 2007] is not only
applicable to bridge construction, but also
in general
there is no information about the
requirements for suitability for use. These
are specified in other standards.
give. With regard to buckling, [EN 1993-
2, 2007] requires a limitation of the
slenderness of the slab in order to
counteract the risk of web galling.
Bumps as a phenomenon of balance
branching of the membrane state
Figure 8.3-15 Equilibrium of a rectangular plate when the stability limit is reached
8 Calculation
(linear buckling theory) and supercritical
load-bearing behavior of a rectangular
disk under compressive stresses
The phenomenon of buckling is shown
on a rectangular disk under the longitudinal
stresses σx . Figure 8.3-15 shows the
component in the deflected state, which
occurs when the stability limit is reached
and exists alongside the undeflected state
(bifurcation load).
t, output forces qa arise on the bending
surface w (x, y), which represent a
transverse load for the originally flat
surface structure. For a homogeneous,
isotropic, elastic plate with a constant
thickness t under the surface load q (x, y),
the differential load q (x, y) applies.
q E - t3
equation ∆∆w = with 3 N = 012 - (19- μ2)
N
(plate stiffness). If the output forces qa are
used for the shear load q (x, y) according
to Fig. 8.3.1-15, the buckling equation for
the linear buckling theory is obtained
⎛ ∂4w ∂2w
N
∂4w⋅ + 2⋅ ∂4w ⎞ ⋅ t⋅ = 0.
+ +σ
⎝⎜ ∂x4
∂y4 ⎟ ⎠
∂x2∂y2 x ∂x2
8.3 Calculation of steel bridges 583

The smallest non-zero voltage level at

which the differential equation is fulfilled
is of interest. A linear stress curve is
usually given at the edges b. The reference
value is the highest compressive stress σ1 ,
the stress at the other end is ψ - σ1 with 1
≥ ψ ≥ -∞. The critical buckling stress σcr is
calculated by multiplying the Euler
reference stress
E - π2
σE =
-( )
012 - (19- μ2) t 32 b with the Figure 8.3-16 Garland curve for an unbalanced

buckling value k
is obtained: σcr = kσ - σE . It corresponds to Stiff plate with ψ = 1
the stress that occurs at the moment of the
equilibrium bifurcation at the edge with
the higher load. The buckling value k ratio α of an unstiffened rectangular plate
depends on the boundary conditions, the under uniform compressive stresses (ψ =
stress ratio ψ and the side ratio α = a/b. 1). For each number m of half-waves
Non-displaceably supported sheet edges applied in the longitudinal direction, a
are usually assumed to be freely rotatable solution curve k (α) is obtained, resulting in
on the safe side. The buckling values can a garland curve. The minimum value is
be determined using a two-dimensional decisive for a given aspect ratio α. The
Fourier approach. For some special cases, "spandrels" between the individual curves
the buckling equation can be solved are normally ignored, i.e . for solution
directly (equilibrium method), in general curves with m ≥ 2, the minimum value of
cases (unstiffened or stiffened panes the curve is set to m = 1. For unstiffened
under general normal stress distributions panes, the minimum buckling values kσ for
or under shear stresses) the difference ψ = 1 (pure compression), ψ = 0 and ψ = -1
method or the energy method leads to the (pure bending) are 4.0, 7.81 and 23.9 in
goal. The energy method provides sequence. A Gir- landen curve is also
approximation solutions, the accuracy of obtained for the buckling values kσ (α) for
which can be increased to a level sufficient stiffened panes. The buckling value kσ is
for practical applications by applying a used to calculate the related panel
sufficiently high number of sine waves. slenderness λp , with which the
For fundamentals, preparation and reduction coefficient ρ results.
-
buckling value tables for rectangular The stress redistribution to the stiffer
panes supported on four sides, see edge areas and the membrane stresses σy
[Klöppel/Scheer, 1960] and that occur after the stability limit is
[Klöppel/Möller, 1968]. For special cases exceeded result in a practically usable,
of braced panes with one or two supercritical range without the
longitudinal stiffeners, [EN 1993-1-5] deformations increasing too much. Figure
gives approximate values for the buckling 8.3-17 shows stress distributions of a
values. When comparing with the above bulging rectangular disk in the
diagrams by Klöppel, it should be noted supercritical range, σx > σcr .
that the ratio value γ is defined differently.
Figure 8.3-16 shows the buckling values
determined by the side
584 8 Calculation

Figure 8.3-17 Stress redistribution in the supercritical range

Unstiffened and stiffened rectangular
disks under longitudinal stresses σx .
Plate-like and buckling bar-like
failure
The usual designations for stiffened sheet
metal panels are shown in Figure 8.3-18.
The calculation of unstiffened and
stiffened panes under longitudinal normal
stresses σx is dealt with in [EN 1993-1-5].
The basic procedure is shown in the
flowchart, Figure 8.3-19.
Unstiffened panes and individual fields of
stiffened panes
First, the buckling values kσ of the
individual panels are used to calculate the
related panel slenderness.
b 1
heities λp fy == ⋅
σ cr t 28.4 ⋅ ε ⋅ kσ
is determined. These values are used to
calculate the following from the modified
Winter formula [Winter, 1947]
λp - 0.055 ⋅ (3 +ψ )
ρ= 2
λp
Reduction factors ρp are determined. The
Winter formula takes into account
geome- trical and structural imperfections
as well as supercritical load-bearing
reserves. It is calibrated on tests. For pure
compression, the original Winter curve,
which also applies to member buckling, is
obtained. Figure 8.3-20 shows the
modified Winter curves for plates
supported on both sides.

Figure 8.3-18 Designations

for stiffened sheet metal
panels
8.3 Calculation of steel bridges 585

Figure 8.3-19 Buckling under longitudinal stresses σx [Johansson et al., 1999]

586
Figure 8.3-20 Modified winter curves
Buckling due to normal stresses
(compressive stresses) is described in [EN
1993-1-5, 2007] by introducing
Effective widths beff = ρ - b in the pressure
of the stiffened plate is taken into account.
The effective widths are defined in such a
way that the residual cross-section now
calculated according to cross-section class
3 (i.e. without buckling phenomena) has
the same resistance under the specified M-
N combination as the original cross-
section taking into account the buckling
phenomena. The use and calculation of
the factors ρ is regulated in the standard. If
a normal force N acts in addition to the
bending moment M, the additional
moment due to the displacement of the
line of gravity of the effective cross-section
compared to the original cross-section
must be taken into account, see Fig. 8.3-
21.
Stiffened panes
In the case of stiffened panes, in addition
to the individual panels, the total panel
must also be verified by calculation. The
buckling value kσ of the entire panel is
used to calculate the related slenderness of
the panel.
βA,c⋅
fy
σ cr,p
λ =
p This also yields
is determined. The reduction coefficient
βA,c = Ac, eff, results from the sum
loc
Ac
8 Calculation
of the individual sheets reduced with the
respective individual factors ρ (αp , ψp ) and
-
the total cross-section. Using λp , a
reduction factor ρ is determined from the
ori- ginal Winter formula, from which the
final reduction factor ρc is determined,
taking into account the buckling rod-like
behavior.
Plate-like and buckling bar-like
behavior
In contrast to the panes considered so far,
panes with a small aspect ratio α < 1.0 and
longitudinally stiffened panes exhibit a
more or less buckling bar-like behavior
during buckling. This is characterized by
the fact that in the buckled state, an almost
single-curved surface forms in a larger area
instead of a double-curved surface,
whereby the aforementioned stress
redistribution and the transverse tensile
stresses are lower or practically disappear
completely (Fig. 8.3-22).
The buckling bar-like behavior is
achieved by the related slenderness
βA,c⋅
fy
λc =
σ cr,c
is characterized. From this, the reduction
factor χc is determined by applying an
imperfection coefficient αe . The same
factor βA,c applies for the area as for the
plate-like stability failure. σ cr,c is the Euler
buckling stress of the disk (buckling bar)
with its full cross-section that is
unsupported at the longitudinal edges.
From the two factors ρ and χc , which
characterize the plate-like and buckling
bar-like behaviour of the overall field, the
factor ρc is obtained by means of
interpolation, which captures the overall
behaviour of the component and is
applied to the overall field in accordance
with the specifications of the standard.
As with the single field, an effective total cross-
section with the cross-sectional
8.3 Calculation of steel bridges
values Aeff , Ieff and Weff . These are used to
verify the cross-section for the elastic limit
load. With this approach, hybrid beams
(different yield strengths in the flanges
and in the web) can also be economically
verified on the basis of plastic cross-
sectional resistances.
Unstiffened and stiffened rectangular
panes under shear stress τxy
This case is dealt with in section 5 of [EN
1993-1-5]. The basic procedure is shown
in the flowchart in Fig. 8.3-23.
The denting of unstiffened panes
under pure shear loading is treated
according to the modified stress field
theory, which is applied in a large area.
Figure 8.3-22 Plate-like and buckling bar-like behavior
587
provides good results in the range of aspect
ratios α [Johansson et al., 1999]. The
critical buckling stress τcr is τcr = kτ - σE ,
analogous to the plate under normal
stresses. The buckling value kτ of the
unstiffened sheet depends on the aspect
ratio α = a/b. In order to describe the
bending surface with sufficient accuracy, a
Fourier approach with a relatively large
number of half-waves must be selected.
The buckling value kτ is made up of the
proportion kp of the plate and the
proportion kτsl of the stiffeners. For better
adaptation to test values, the proportion kτsl
is reduced to 1/3 of the theoretical value. kτ
is used for the calculation of the related
plate buckling.
f yw
slenderness λw = required. The
τ cr
Figure 8.3-21 Box girders with effective
widths beff
588 8 Calculation

Figure 8.3-23 Buckling under shear stress τxy [Johansson et al., 1999]
8.3 Calculation of steel bridges
Finally, the shear-stressed sheet metal is
verified using the reduction coefficient χw ,
which is applied to the fully plastic shear
resistance:
t ⋅ hw ⋅ fyw .
Vbw, Rd =
3 ⋅ γM1
The proportion χw reflects the
contribution of the web. It is also possible
to take into account the flanges, which
additionally stiffen the sheet metal.
However, this contribution is we
is not very significant and is therefore
sometimes neglected. The contribution of
rigid or deformable end stiffeners is also
important. Figure 8.3-24 shows the
reduction
factors χw as a function of the related
Slenderness λp , the determination of
which varies depending on the design of
the end transverse stiffeners.
different formulas apply.
Unstiffened and stiffened rectangular
panes under local normal stresses σy
This case is dealt with in section 6 of [EN
1993-1-5, 2007]. The basic procedure is
shown in the flowchart in Figure 8.3-25.
The resistance of an unstiffened or
stiffened plate to loading by local
compressive stresses was derived on the
basis of theoretical considerations and FE
calculations, which were calibrated in
tests.
589
Depending on the boundary conditions,
the standard distinguishes between three
cases (see Figure 8.3-25), for which
different values kF apply. By introducing
theoretical load application widths ly , a
fully plastic force Fy = fyw - tw - ly is
calculated. Based on the general definition
of the related slenderness with Fcr
according to Figure 8.3-25, the
Fy
related slenderness λF = determined
Fcr
and from this the reduction coefficient χF
-
(λp ), which results in the effective load
application widths Leff = χF - ly . This
finally gives the resistance of the
transversely loaded pane:
fyw ⋅t w ⋅ l ef f
FRd = γ M1
Unstiffened and stiffened rectangular panes
under combined stresses σx , τxy and σy
The entire calculation procedure for
combined loads is dealt with in Section 7
of [EN 1993-1-5]. The basic procedure is
shown in Figure 8.3-26.
The ratio values η1 , η2 and η3 are
determined from the external influences
and the respective resistances. A linear law
is given for the interaction of the voltages
σx and σy and a parabolic law for the
interaction of the voltages σx and τ .xy
Figure 8.3-24 Contribution of the
Bar at the thrust bearing capacity
590 8 Calculation

Figure 8.3-25 Buckling under local normal stresses [Johansson et al., 1999].
8.3 Calculation of steel bridges 591

Figure 8.3-26 Overall calculation sequence for class 4 cross-sections [Johansson et al., 1999].
590
Stiffness requirements and static
Verification of transverse and longitudinal
stiffeners Information on transverse and
longitudinal stiffeners can be found in
Section 9 of [EN 1993-1-5].
The simplified calculation rules given
assume that the transverse stiffeners are
stiff enough to provide a rigid support for
the longitudinal stiffeners (minimum
stiffness). There is a formula for
determining the required bending
stiffness, which also includes the load-
bearing capacity verification (stress
verification). Longitudinal stiffeners are to
be verified as buckling bars with the
transverse stiffener spacing as buckling
length. In order to avoid flexural-torsional
buckling of open stiffener cross-sections
(e.g. angled cross-sections or flat bars), a
stiffness condition is specified to achieve
the necessary torsional stiffness for the
stiffeners.
Proof of buckling through the
introduction of reduced stresses
Section 10 of [EN 1993-1-5, 2007]
provides formulas for the buckling
analysis of unstiffened and stiffened plates
based on stress reduction. In contrast to
the procedure according to Sections 4-7,
the total stress ratio, consisting of the
stresses σx,Ed , σz,Ed and τxz,Ed , is used to
-
determine the related plate slenderness λp .
With the factors α ult,k (distance of the v.
Mises equivalent stress in relation to the
yield point) and αcr (load increase factor
in relation to the branch load, usually only
calculable using EDP), the following is
obtained
the global value λp = and
αult, with
the reduction factors ρx ,k ρz and χw as
shown above. This finally αcr gives the
verification formula
2 2
( σx,E
ρx ⋅df y / γ
M1
)(
+ σz ,E
ρ z ⋅d f y / γ
M1
) -ρ
⋅
σx,E
x f y/ γ
M1
d
8 Calculation
2 2
(
ρz ⋅
σz,Ed
f y/ γ
) ( + 3⋅
τ Ed
)
χw⋅ f y / γ M1
M1
which corresponds to a comparative span in
its structure.
8.4 Selected verifications for
a composite bridge
ULRIKE KUHLMANN
and ANNETTE DETZEL
8.4.1 General information
In this design example, a tied-arch bridge
is examined.
For reasons of space, only the composite
load-bearing effect between the concrete
track slab and the steel structure will be
discussed. In this example, the end cross
beam is calculated as an example.
The verifications shown include the
cross-sectional verifications for the
composite beam and the verifications of
the composite joint in the ultimate limit
state. For further verifications that are
required, e.g. serviceability, fatigue, please
refer to further literature.
It is also shown how the stiffness of the
roadway can be determined for the main
load-bearing structure, taking into
account the formation of cracks.
The dimensioning of the composite construc
is carried out in accordance with [DIN-FB 104,
2003] including [ DIN-FB 101, 2003],
[DIN-FB 102, 2003] and [DIN-FB 103,
2003]. The verification is carried out using the
elastic-elastic measurement method.
8.4 Selected verifications for a composite bridge
Figure 8.4-1 Main load-bearing system: tied-arch bridge
Figure 8.4-2 Cross-section: External stiffening girders, concrete roadway oriented longitudinally
8.4.2 Stiffness of the track slab
The deck slab is friction-locked to the
main girders at the base of the arch and
therefore acts to absorb the tensile force in
the tension band. The proportion of the
normal force that is absorbed by the
concrete roadway depends on
the stiffness of the slab. The stiffness of the
concrete slab is in turn determined by the
The degree of cracking in the concrete is
determined. The occurring normal tensile
force (which leads to cracking) and the
stiffness of the concrete roadway are
therefore interdependent and must be
determined iteratively.
591
1) An expansion rigidity (EA)c of the plate
is selected. Adding this to the yield
strength of the steel profile of the
stiffening beam gives the yield strength
of the entire tension member (EA)V =
(EA)c + Ea - Aa and use this to calculate
the internal forces in the static system
(suitable starting point).
Ecm ⋅1/2 ⋅ A c
value: (EA)c = ).
n0
2) The determined normal force in the
tension band is distributed to the
concrete and steel cross-section
according to the stiffness ratios (EA)c
/E Aaa . The normal force in the
concrete provides information as to
whether the crack normal force has
been undercut (increase or decrease).
592
state I) or is exceeded and whether
there is already a closed crack pattern
(state III) or not (state II). Depending
on the existing condition, an associated
stiffness of the concrete pavement can
be determined. This will generally
deviate from the selected initial value.
3) The normal force in the concrete is
now determined iteratively with an
adjusted stiffness until the initial
stiffness matches the stiffness resulting
from the crack formation with sufficient
accuracy.
This obviously complex procedure can be
circumvented by an approximate
calculation of the effective stiffness of the
concrete pavement according to [DIN-FB
104, 2003]-II- 4.7.1(3). In this method, a
constant elongation stiffness (EA)c,eff
independent of the load condition is section in both the ultimate limit state and
determined.
(Es ⋅ As )
(EA) =
c,eff
(1 - 0.35) /(1 + ρs ⋅ n )o
with
Es Modulus of elasticity of the reinforcing
steel (according to [DIN- FB 104,
2003]-II-3.2(2) may be simplified for
Es = Ea = 210 000 N/mm²).
A be taken)
s Cross-sectional area of the longitudinal
stakes in the concrete roadway
ρs Degree of reinforcement ρs = 5As
Ac
n0 Reduction factor Ea /Ecm (note: this
factor is called the ratio factor in
concrete construction)
In this example, the effective expansion
stiffness of the concrete roadway (per
main girder) according to this
approximation is
(EA)c,eff = 8.541 - 109 N
The fictitious steel surface corresponding
to this stiffness is
8 Calculation
Ai, eff = (EA)c,eff /Ea
= 8.541 - 109 N/210 000 N/mm2
= 406.72 cm2
The cross-sectional area of the main beam
in this example is 604.1 cm2. Taking the load
transfer via the concrete slab into account
increases the stiffness of the tension
member by approx. 67%. The stiffness
determined using this approximation
method is generally lower than the stiffness
determined using the iterative method. The
proportion of the steel beam effect is
therefore overestimated, which leads to a
conservative design of the steel cross-
section. In order to estimate the normal
force in the concrete slab sufficiently
conservatively, a minimum normal force
must b e applied in the concrete cross-
the serviceability limit state, which must be
different from the normal force from the
steel cross-section.
determination of internal forces is independent.
min Ns =1.15 ⋅ Ac ⋅ fct,eff ⋅ (1+ ρs ⋅ n0
) min NSd =1.45 ⋅ Ac ⋅ fct,eff ⋅ (1 + ρs ⋅
n0 )
with fct,eff = 0.7 ⋅ fctm
The bridge under consideration here was
made of C30/37 concrete. The mean tensile
strength
strength for this concrete is 2.9 N/mm2.
This results in
fct,eff = 0.7 - 2.9 N/mm2 = 2.03 N/mm2
min Ns = 1.15 - 32.8 cm - 4.65 m
- 2.03 N/mm2 - (1 + 0.0157 - 6.58)
= 3928.4 kN
min NSd = 1.45 - 32.8 cm - 4.65 m
- 2.03 N/mm2 - (1 + 0.0157 - 6.58)
= 4953.2 kN
In this example, the standard force in the
concrete slab is only 4138 kN as a result of
permanent loads and traffic (limit state of
load-bearing capacity). The
8.4 Selected verifications for a composite bridge
The force relevant for calculating the
required reinforcement is therefore
almost 20% greater.
8.4.3 Composite load-bearing effect
In the following, the design of the end
cross member is used to show how the
elastic load-bearing capacity of the
composite cross-section is calculated for
the load cases of dead load, shrinkage,
creep and traffic. In addition, the required
number and arrangement of dowels in the
composite joint is determined.
Load-bearing width of the concrete top
chord according to [DIN-FB 104, 2003]-
II-4.2.2.2
beff = bo + 2 - bei
bo = distance between the outermost
dowels on the steel top chord (see
sketch).
bei = supporting width of the concrete
chord on both sides of the web.
For the field area, bei = Le /8 with Le =
distance between the zero points of the
moments applies approximately
bei = 0.85 - 5.225 m/8 = 0.555 m
beff = 0.160 m + 2 - 0.555 m = 1.27 m
Figure 8.4-3 Static system of the cross member
593
For the support area, the approximation
bei = Le /8 with Le = distance between the
moment zero points
bei = 0.25 - 2 - 5.225 m/8 = 0.327 m
beff = 0.160 m + 2 - 0.327 m = 0.813 m
The total cross-section values are
determined here for the field cross-section
as an example. The cross-sectional values
of the support cross-section are to be
determined accordingly with the
corresponding co-supporting width. The
effect of the concrete between the cracks is
neglected in the support area. The total
cross-section consists only of the
proportions of the structural and concrete
steel.
Figure 8.4-4 Concrete chord dimensions
594 8 Calculation

Concrete cross-section: Material

C30/37 beff = 1.27 m
hc = 32.8 cm
Ac = 4165.6 cm2
3
beff - h c
Ic = 012 2 = 373459.9 cm4
Figure 8.4-5 Dimensions of steel profile
9N
Ecm = 31900 mm2

The concrete area and the moment of

inertia are converted into equivalent steel
cross-section values:
N
Ea = 210000 9mm2

Ea
n0 = = 6,583
7Ecm

= Ac Figure 8.4-6 Dimensions of total steel cross-

Ac0 = 632.77 cm4
5 section
n0
Ic
Ic0 = = 56 730.3 cm4 nom c = 4.5 cm (= concrete cover
n0 according to [DIN-FB 102, 2003]-II-
4.1.3.3(114)P)
Steel cross-section: Material
S235 Rod diameter ds = 1.2 cm
zs1 = hc - nom c - ds = 11.3 cm
Aa = 338.14 cm2
2 2
za = 45.23 cm2 zs2 = - zs1 = - 11.3 cm
Ia = 377119 cm4 The total moment of inertia of the steel cross-
Reinforcing steel: section is
∅ 12/12.5 at the top and bottom ISt = 461807.12 cm4
respectively Overall composite cross-section:
cm2
a = 2 - 9.05
s
7m Time t = 0, no shrinkage and creep influences
cm2
As = as - beff = 22.99 Ai0 = ASt + Ac0 = 993.90 cm2
aSt = zSt = Distance center of gravity line
Total steel: concrete cross-section - total steel cross-section
ASt = Aa + As = 361.13 cm2
ASt⋅ aSt
z = z + hc = 61.63 cm z= = 20.97 cm
sa a i0
2 Ai0
zsa ⋅ A Si0 = Ac0 - zi0 = 13267.66 cm3
a
zSt = = 57.71 cm
ASt Ii0 = Ic0 + ISt + Si0 · aSt = 1 284 174.77 cm4
8.4 Selected verifications for a composite bridge 595

Influence of shrinkage and creep S Ψ= 0.55

a) Shrinkage strain ε cs∞ = ε cas∞ + ε cds∞
nS = n0 - (1 + ΨS - φ )1d
according to [DIN-FB 102, 2003]-II-
3.1.5.5(8) = 6,583 - (1 + 0,55 - 3,28) = 18,459
To calculate the shrinkage strain, the The reduction for creep acts on the
actual concrete area is taken into concrete cross-section:
account and not the effective concrete
width of the end cross beam. The Constant load over time:
center distance between the cross beams AcB = Ac = 223.04 cm2
is 4.05 m. The concrete slab has a nB
projection of 1.0 m at the end.
Effective thickness of the cross section: IcB = Ic = 19 996.6 cm4
nB
.05 m
b= 4 + 1.0 m = 302.5 cm Shrinkage:
2
AcS = Ac = 225.67 cm2
u = 2 - (b + hc ) = 670.6 cm nS
A c,vorh = b - hc = 9922 cm3 IcS = Ic = 20 231.93 cm4
2 ⋅ Ac,vorh
h0 = = 29,59 cm nS
u
Total cross-section values for t →∞
Shrinkage strain εcas∞ = -0.065 [DIN- Permanent load case
FB 102, 2003]-II-3.1.5.5 Figure 3.120
Drying shrinkage strain εcds∞ = -0.311 AiB = AcB + ASt = 584.17 cm2
[ DIN-FB 102, 2003]-II-3.1.5.5 ASt ⋅ a St
Figure 3.121 ziB = = 35.67 cm
AiB
Shrinkage strain ε cs∞ = -0.376‰
b) Final creep number φ according to
SiB = AcB - ziB = 7956.8 cm3
[DIN-FB 102, 2003]-II-3.1.5.5 Figure
3.119 IiB = IcB + ISt + SiB - aSt = 940 967.3 cm4
Humid ambient condition (outside:
Shrinkage load case
relative humidity = 80%) Start of load:
t0 = 1d
AiS = AcS + ASt = 586.80 cm2
φ1d = 3,28
⋅ aSt
Stripping and removal loads: Start of ziS = ASt = 35.51 cm
loading t = 50 d AiS

φ50d = 1.67 SiS = AcS - ziS = 8014.4 cm3

Creep coefficient for permanent loads IiS = IcS + ISt + SSB - aSt = 944 528.3 cm4
according to [DIN-FB 104, 2003]-II-
4.2.3(4)
8.4.4 Verifications in the ultimate
B Ψ= 1.10
limit state
nB = n0 - (1 + ΨB - φ )50d
= 6,583 - (1 + 1,1 - 1,67) = 18,676 In the ultimate limit state, the following
verifications, among others, must be
Creep coefficient for shrinkage performed for the composite beam:
according to [DIN-FB 104, 2003]-II-
4.2.3(4)
596
• Verification of the load-bearing
capacity of the cross-section for the
elements mild steel, reinforcing steel
and concrete (in this case, a design is
carried out using the elastic-elastic
method). Verification of the concrete
slab (e.g. cracking, minimum
reinforcement, local load trasnfer, are
not carried out here)
• Stability verifications (assembly
condition) (not carried out here)
• Verification of the bond joint: number
and distribution of dowels under load
Connection of the concrete chord
The following simplified loads on the end
cross member are based on load model 1
in accordance with [DIN-FB 101, 2003].
The partial safety factors for permanent
loads (γf = 1.35) and traffic (γf = 1.5) are
taken into account. In this example, no
temperature, wind or other loads
according to [DIN-FB 101, 2003] are
taken into account.
The internal forces are determined
using the principle of virtual forces. The
differences in stiffness between the
uncracked field cross-section and the
cracked support cross-section are taken
into account using special coupling tables.
The tables and examples for the
application can be found in the literature,
e.g. [Kuhlmann et al., 1999].
Figure 8.4-7 Load position SLW
8 Calculation
Internal forces
At time t = 0:
1) From dead load:
a) Load on steel girder Steel dead
load, concrete + formwork gd =
43.6 kN/m
b) Constant loads over time from
compensation and expansion
d ĝ= g (removal) - g (demolding)
= 11.9 kN/m
2) from traffic loads
a) Equal distance load on main track
and secondary track
qd = 18.3 kN/m
b) Uniform line load p only in the left
field
qd = 18.3 kN/m
c) SLW - Load: Load position
The bridge is the overpass of a service
road. Therefore, only 1 SLW is placed on
lane 1, no SLW on lane 2.
To simplify matters, the same load
position is assumed for the minimum
support moment and the maximum span
moment:
At the time t → ∞:
1) From constant loads:
a) Load on steel girder
as at time t = 0
b) Constant loads over time from
compensation and expansion
8.4 Selected verifications for a composite bridge 597

The influence of creep under ns = 18.46

constant loads is taken into account
Ea = 210 000 N/mm2
by reduced resistance values.
2) from traffic loads εcs,∞ = -0.376‰ = -0.000376
Ea
as at time t = 0 NSch = εcs,∞ ⋅ ⋅Ac = -0.000376 ⋅
3) Shrinkage ns
kN
Due to the shrinkage of the road surface 21000
This results in a normal tensile force in cm2
the concrete. For reasons of ⋅ ⋅ 4165.6 cm2 = 1781.9 kN
18.46
equilibrium, this shrinkage normal
force must be applied to the
cross-section act as a compressive
MSch = NSch - ziS = 1781.9 kN - 35.51 cm
force. The shrinkage moment MSch
= 632.8 kNm

Moment curves [kNm] Shear force curves [kN]

on half the system

Steel girder: Ma Steel girder: Va

Permanent loads: t = 0Permanent loads: t = 0

Permanent loads: t →∞Permanent loads: t →∞

Traffic: qSt Traffic: qSt

Figure 8.4-8 Internal forces on half the system

598 8 Calculation

Traffic: qF Traffic: qF

Traffic: QSLW Traffic: QSLW

Shrinkage: Shrinkage:

Shrinkage: Normal force [ kN ]

Figure 8.4-8 (continued)

Cross-section verifications for the must be absorbed by the total steel cross-
ultimate limit state: Support cross-section: section. The concreting load acts on the
t=0 pure structural steel cross-section.
A completely cracked concrete cross- ha = 817 m + 2 - 22 mm = 86.1 cm
section is assumed. The cutting forces
za = 45.23 cm

Ma ha + hc - z NSt
σ a,u = ⋅ (ha - za ) + (Mg,St + Mp,St + MP,St ) ⋅ 2 = -34,9 2
> fyd,a
Ia ISt mm
N
= -235
mm2

zSt + zs1 N N
σ = (M +M +M )⋅ = 30.41 <f = 435
s g,St p,St P,F ISt mm2 yd,s mm2
8.4 Selected verifications for a composite bridge 599

Field cross-section: t
=0 ha + hc - z Ni0 N
M
σ a,u
a
⋅ (ha - za ) + (Mg,F + Mp,F + MP,F ) ⋅ 2 = 32,4 < fyd,a = 235
= 2 2

Ia Ii0 mm mm

zi0 + h c N f N
σ c,o = (Mg,F + Mp,F + MP,F ) ⋅ ⋅ 2 = -1.63 > fcd = 0.85 ⋅ck = -17.0
mm2 2
Ii0 n0 γc mm

Support cross-section: t
→∞ ha + hc - z NSt
M
σ a,u a
⋅ (ha - za ) + (MB,St + Mp,St + MP,St + MS,St ) ⋅ 2 = -82,4 > fyd,a
= 2

Ia ISt mm
N
= -235
mm2

zSt + zs1 N N
σ = (M +M +M +M )⋅ = 107.3 <f = 435
s B,St p,St P,St S,St ISt mm2 yd,s mm2

Field cross-section: t →∞
Ma ha + hc - ziB ha + hc - zi0
σ a,u ⋅ (ha - za ) + MB,F ⋅ 2 + (Mp,F + MP,F ) ⋅ 2
=
Ia IiB Ii0

ha + hc - ziS N N N
+ MS,F ⋅ 2 S
-= 30.4 < fyd,a = 235
2 2
IiS AiS mm mm
hc
+ ziB hc
+ zi0 hc
+ z NiS
2 2 2 N
σc,o = MB,F ⋅ + (Mp,F + MP,F ) ⋅ + MS,F ⋅ - S
+ S

IiB ⋅ nB Ii0 ⋅ n0 IiS ⋅ AiS ⋅ n ASc

nS
N N
= -0.14 > fcd = 0.85 ⋅ fck = -17.0
mm2 γc mm2

γv = 1.25
Composite joint:
a) Resistance of the dowels
The concrete slab is connected to the steel
profile in a shear-resistant manner using ∅
7/8″ dowels. The design of the dowels is
carried out in accordance with [DIN-FB
104, 2003]- II-6.
Partial safety factor in the ultimate limit
state:
600 8 Calculation

Dimensions:
d = 22.2 mm Shank diameter
of the dowel
h = 12.5 cm Total height
of the bolt
dKopf = 35 mm diameter
of the dowel head
h/d = 5.6 ⇒ α = 1.0 for h/d > 4
fu = 360 N/mm²
 8.4 Selected verifications for a composite bridge 601

fck = 30 N/mm² Field 1 l1 = 1.27 m

Ecm = 31 900 N/mm² kN
194.4 ⋅1.271 m
The limit shear force of a head bolt dowel m
nin = = 2.77 ⇒ 3
results from the smaller value of the dowels 89.2 kN
ve
following equations [DIN-FB 104, 2003]- nt
II-6.3.2.1(1)): Field
ed 2 l2 = 1.17 m
kN
0.8 ⋅ fu ⋅ π ⋅ d2 154.9 ⋅1.17 m
a) PRd = 89.2 kN m
4 ⋅ γv nin = = 2.03 ⇒ 3
= dowels 89.2 kN
ve
1
fck ⋅ Ecm
nt
b) PRd = 0.25 ⋅α ⋅ d2 ⋅
γv Field
ed 3 l3 = 0.73 m
⋅
= 96.4 kN
kN
-122.1 m ⋅ 0.73 m
⇒ min PRd = 89.2 kN nerf = = 1.0 ⇒ 1 dowel
Proof for t = 0 89.2 kN
V(x) for t = 0
Field 4 l4 = 1.27 m
Shear flow to be absorbed in the bond
joint kN
S 161.7 m ⋅1.27 m
T (x) = V (x) ⋅ =V(x) ⋅ Si0 nerf = = 2,3 ⇒ 3 dowels
I Ii0 89.2 kN

T1 = 194.4 kN/m Field 5 l5 = 0.784 m

T2 = 154.9 kN/m kN
-399.2 ⋅ 0.784 m
T3 = 119.23 kN/m m
nin = = 3.5 ⇒ 4
T4 = -99.3 kN/m ve dowels 89.2 kN
nt
T5 = -122.1 kN/m Proof
ed for t →∞
T6 = -161.7 kN/m The shear force from shrinkage partially
T7 = -374.7 kN/m counteracts the shear force from traffic
T8 = -399.2 kN/m and permanent loads. The influence of
relief from permanent loads is neglected.
Number of dowels:
T ⋅
nerf = di
Proportion of unfavorable transverse force
li PRd from permanent loads and traffic:

Figure 8.4-10 Course of the shear forces

Figure 8.4-9 Course of the maximum shear relevant to the design
forces
602 8 Calculation

T5 = -122.1 kN/m Field 3 l3 = 0.73 m (To simplify matters,

T8 = -399.2 kN/m the values of t = 0 are used here for the
permanent load. The deviation at time t
According to [DIN-FB 104, 2003]-II- →∞ is less than 1%)
6.2.4(2)
kN
for shear stud dowels, the shear flow from -122.1 - 76.2 ⋅ 0.73m
m
shrinkage can be assumed to be constant nin = = 2,5
over the load application length beff ve 89.2 kN
(effective width of the concrete track). nt
-1781.9 kN ed ⇒ 3 dowels
kN
T = -NS = = -1403.1
N 1,27 m m
beff
Field 4: l3 = 1.27 m
kN
(1403.1 - 76.2) ⋅1.27 m
m
inn = =
ve 18.9 89.2 kN
nt
ed ⇒ 19 Dowels

Field 5: l3 = 0.784 m (To simplify the

calculation, the values of t = 0 are used
here for the permanent load. The
deviation at time t →∞ is less than 1%)
Figure 8.4-11 Shear flow on half the kN
system -399.2 - 76.2 ⋅ 0.784 m
m
nin = =
ve 3.5 89.2 kN
From shear force VS : nt
ed ⇒ 4 dowels

Arrangement of the dowels:

Maximum longitudinal distance:
Figure 8.4-12 Vs on half the system

e≤ { 6 ∙ h =80196.8
c
cm
cm
kN
TS = VS SiS = -76.2 ⇒ 80 cm is decisive
IiS m Minimum longitudinal spacing: e ≥ 5 d =
11.1 cm Dowels in bay 1 and 4 in 2 rows
Number of dowels:
of 11 each
Field 1 l1 = 1.27 m Distance e = 1.27 m/11 = 11.5 cm > 11.1
kN cm Selected distance in field 2 + 3:
-1403.1 - 76.2 m ⋅1.271 m e = 0.73/3 = 0.24 m
nerf = = 21,1
89.2 kN Selected distance in field 5:
⇒ 22 e = 0.784/4 = 0.20 m
Dowels
measurement
Field 2 l2 = 1.17 m
The time t = 0 is relevant for the
 8.4 Selected verifications for a composite bridge 603

Spacing in transverse direction:

Minimum edge distance eRand = 2 cm
604 8 Calculation

Section B-B becomes decisive, as both the

force to be transferred is greater and the
dowel outline area is smaller than the
chord contact area and less reinforcement
crosses it.
Figure 8.4-13 Number of dowels per Force to be transferred:
bay kN kN
Tmax = (1403.1 + 76.2) = 1479.3
m m
kN
vsd = Tmax ⋅ Ac -Ab-b = 1392.9
A mc
Load-bearing capacity according to [DIN-FB
104, 2003]-II-
6.5.1 and [DIN-FB 102, 2003]-II-4.3.2.4.4
⎧(As1 ⋅ f yd,s ) ⋅ 2 ⋅ cot θ
vRd = min ⎨ Ac v ⋅ 0.75 ⋅ fcd
Figure 8.4-14 Transverse reinforcement and ⎪ tan θ + cot θ
dowel surfaces
⎪⎩
with strut angle θ = 45°
Minimum dowel spacing emin = 2.5 - d
⎧ 31.42
mm2
/m ⋅ 435 N/mm2 ⋅ 2
= 2.5 - 22.2 cm = 5.55 cm ⎪
⎪
selected: 8 cm edge distance + 16 cm v = min = 2733.5 kN
2 2
dowel spacing
distance ⎨ 4450 cm /m ⋅1.0 ⋅ 0.75 ⋅17 N / m m
distance + 8 cm edge Rd

⎪
⇒ b = 32 cm ⎪ 2
⎩ = 2836.9 kN/m
Verification of the transverse reinforcement: vRd = 2733.5 kN/m > vsd = 1392.9 kN/m
Upper steel layer ∅ 16/10
⇒ as = 20.11 cm2/m
Lower steel layer ∅ 20/10 8.4.5 Fatigue verification
⇒ as = 31.42 cm2/m
According to the previous standardization
Ac,eff = 4165.6 cm2 Belt gating area valid in Germany, no fatigue verification
AA-A had to be carried out for road bridges.
= hc - (eDübel + dKopf ) - 1 m = 639.6 cm2
This has changed with the introduction of
Dowel outline area the DIN technical reports. The following
AB-B =
verifications must be carried out:
hdowel - (edowel + dhead) -1m
1. For structural, concrete and prestressing
= 243.8 cm2
steel: Verification of fatigue with
Chargeable concrete area damage-equivalent stress ranges [DIN-
AA-A = 2 - h /1 m = 6560 cm2/m FB 104, 2003]-II-4.9.6)
2. For concrete transverse
sections: Verifications according to [DIN-FB
102,
cv c
2003]-II-4.3.7.
AB-B
cv = (e dowel + dhead + 2 - hDowel)/1 m 3. For shear stud dowels: Proof of the first
= 4450 cm2/m fatigue, based on stress
8.4 Selected verifications for a composite bridge 605

oscillation widths [DIN-FB 104, 2003]- Δτc = 90 N/mm2, the reference value of the
II- 6.1.5). fatigue strength for ΔτR at Nc = 2 × 106
Re 1: load cycles
Δσ Rk (N *) If tensile stresses occur in the concrete
γ Ff ⋅ΔσE ≤ chord under the non-frequent load
γ Mf
combination, the following condition
wit must also be checked:
h
γ Ff ⋅ Δσ E
γFf Partial safety factor for fatigue ≤ 1.0 , and
γ loads Δσ c
Mf Partial safety factor for the
load-bearing capacity under γ Mf, a
fatigue
Δσ ding γ Ff ⋅ ΔσE γ Ff ⋅ Δτ2E
E damage equivalent chip + ≤ 1,3
swing width Δσc Δτ c
ΔσRk (N*) Characteristic value of the γ Mf, a γ Mf, v
fatigue resistance for the fatigue
resistance to be measured. wit
h
curve and the number of load γ Mf,a = γMf , partial safety factor for the
cycles load-bearing capacity under
Re 3: N* fatigue
γ ⋅ Δτ Δσc Reference value of the fatigue
Δτ c
Ff E2
≤ strength ΔσR for the relevant
γ Mf,v
notch class for Nc =
γFf Partial safety factor for fatigue loads 2 × 106 load changes
γMf,v =1.25, partial safety factor for As an example, the fatigue analysis for the
the load-bearing capacity of the shear stud dowels is carried out below.
composite under fatigue The internal forces must comply with the
ΔτE Shear span equivalent to damage fatigue load model 3 (ELM3) according to
[DIN FB 101, 2003].

Figure 8.4-15 Load position of the ELM3 according to DIN-FB 101

606 8 Calculation

The voltage difference between the and in field 5:

most unfavorable and the most favorable Si0
load position must be
of 4 axle loads in the amount of 120 kN Δv3 = -98.0 kN - = - 101.3 kN/m
can be determined. The partial safety factor 5Ii0

for fatigue loads must be selected as 1.0 in Δv3

accordance with [DIN FB 103, 2003]-II- Δτp3 =
9nDüb -9ADüb
9.3.
kN
The most unfavorable load position is -101.3
5
m
taken from the calculation in the ultimate
= 5 9
limit state. The SLW loads cannot be .01(D0üb/m) - 0π- (0.00222
applied outside the area defined by the m 8)2/4
The load position in the middle above the MN
= -52.2 7
center support results in a lower shear m
flow difference. The load position in the
The other areas are not relevant to the
middle above the central support results
assessment.
in a smaller shear flow difference than the
According to [DIN-FB 104, 2003]-II-
load position in the middle of the second
6.1.5(4) (4), the damage-equivalent shear
bay. The shear flow difference is the
span width Δτ2E results in
difference between the maximum value
from the maximum load position and the Δτ2E = λv - Ф - Δτp
maximum load position in the second
with
field.
0. The internal forces can thus be Ф = Ф2 = 1.0 for road bridges, according to
determined via the ratio of the loads to be
applied:
Load from the ultimate limit state: P
k,SLW = 240 kN
120 [DIN-FB 103, 2003]-II-9.4.1(5)
Q1,ELM3 = 118.7 kN ⋅ = 39.6 kN
1,5 ⋅ 240 λv = λv1 - λv2 - λv3 - λv4 ≤ λmax

λv1 takes into account the span, λv2 the

Q2,ELM = -87.7 kN ⋅ 120 = -29.2 kN
traffic volume, λv3 the planned utilization
1,5 ⋅ 240 time and λv4 the encounter frequency for
120 heavy traffic on both lanes.
3 = -293.9 kN ⋅ = -98.0 kN λv1 = 1.55 according to [DIN-FB 104, 2003]-
1,5 ⋅ 240 II-
6.1.5(3) for road bridges up to 100 m
Q3,ELM

3
This results in the maximum shear flow Span
difference and the stress range in span 2: 1
⎛ Nobs ⎞8
λv2 = ⋅
Qm1

Si0 ⎜ ⎝ ⎟ ⎠
Δv1 = 39.6 kN - 5I= 40.1 kN/m Q0 N0
i0

Δv1
Δτp1 =
= 9nDüb -9ADüb
 8.4 Selected verifications for a composite bridge 607
kN with Q0 = 480 kN
40.1
m and N0 =5 0.5 - 106 as
94.1(Dü0b/m) tensile values [DIN-
FB 103, 2003]-II-
- π0- 9.5.2(4),
(0.02022 Exponent according
to [DIN-FB 104,
m)62/4 2003]-II- 6.1.5(3)
• Qm1 is the
average total
weight of
the heavy
goods
vehicles. For
the service
road in
question,
the
N Average weight assumed at Qm1 = 200
= 25,3 9mm2
kN.
608 8 Calculation

• For local roads with a low proportion of 8.4.6 Verification in the

HGVs, Nobs = 0.05 - 106. serviceability limit state
1
200 kN ⎛ 0.05 ⋅106 ⎞8 In the serviceability limit state
λ= ⋅ = 0.312 The following evidence, among others,
v2
480 kN ⎜ 0.5
⎝ ⋅106 ⎟ ⎠
must be provided to prove the
λv3 = 1. 0according to [DIN-FB 1. Crack width limitation in concrete
103, 2003]- 2. Stress limitation in the elements mild
II-9.5.2(5) for a planned steel, reinforcing steel and concrete
useful life of 100 years. 3. Limitation of deformation under
λv4 = 1. 0This coefficient takes into service load (for road bridges, suitable
account the limit values must be agreed with the
The mutual interference of project owner).
several heavy-duty lanes is 4. Verification of the bond joint: number
a problem. This service and distribution of dowels under
road is only used in one service load
lane.
λmax = 2.5/1.8 for the field area/support Re 1: The verification of the crack width
area limitation is carried out analogously
range, according to [DIN- to the verification for concrete
FB 103, 2003]-II-9.5.2(6) bridges in accordance with [DIN FB
102, 2003]. This problem is dealt
λv = 1.5 - 0.312 - 1.0 - 1.0 = 0.484 with in this book in sections 8.5.6
The damage-equivalent shear span in bays and 8.5.7.
2 and 5 is hereby calculated Re 2: Proof of the voltage rating
N as N
Δτ = 0.484 ⋅1.0 ⋅ 25.3 = 12.2 boundary and the deformation
2E2 The proof of strength is provided by
mm2 mm2
an elastic calculation under service
and load. The procedure corresponds to
N N
Δτ2E5 = 0.484 ⋅1.0 ⋅ 52.2 = 25.3 the calculation in the load case. On
mm2 mm2 Therefore, no explanation is given
here.
Area 5 is decisive. The proof reads: Re 3: Verification of the bond joint:
In the serviceability limit state
Δτ c the design value of the longitudinal
γ Ff ⋅ Δτ2E ≤ shear load-bearing capacity is 60%
γ Mf,v
of the characteristic limit load.
90,0 shear force PRk of the composite
1,0 ⋅ 25,3 ≤ = 72,0
material.
1,25
0.6 - PRk = 0.6 - PRd - γv = 0.6 - 89.2 kN - 1.25
with
= 66.9 kN
Δτc = 90.0 N/mm2 according to [DIN-FB
104, 2003]-II-6.1.5(4). The verification is performed analogously
to the verification in the ultimate limit state.
Obviously, the verification in the
serviceability limit state is decisive for the
number of anchors, as the load component
from shrinkage with γFser = γFult =
1.0 remains the same.
 8.4 Selected verifications for a composite bridge
8.5 Concrete bridges
GERHARD MEHLHORN
and THOMAS JAHN
8.5.1 Pre-tensioning of concrete bridges
Today, concrete bridges with larger spans
are usually prestressed. The basic idea of
pre-tensioning is to superimpose a
desired, counteracting stress state on the
stresses resulting from loads.
Concrete only has a relatively low
tensile strength. It is around 1/20 to 1/10
of its compressive strength and is usually
not available for carrying loads because it
is partially or completely used up by
unavoidable internal stresses (due to
uneven drying and/or temperature
differences). Therefore, with the
development of reinforced concrete, it
was obvious to apply the idea of
prestressing to this material. Pre-
tensioning is intended to influence the
stress state in the concrete structure in the
service condition in such a way that no
cracks or only cracks with very small
crack widths occur in the concrete. This
can be achieved by pre-stretched and thus
prestressed bars bearing against the
concrete and thus exerting compressive
forces on the concrete. As the pre-
tensioning of a slab or a beam cannot take
place without deformation, additional
constrained internal forces occur on the
statically indeterminate structure due to
the deformation restraint. These must be
taken into account in the determination of
internal forces and in the verifications in
the limit states. The tensile stresses arising
in the structure as a result of external load
and restraint are suppressed by the pre-
tension.
The pre-tension can be applied in
different ways. In most cases
609
it is created by prestressing tendons made
of steel or fiber composite materials and
connecting them to the concrete in a
stressed state. However, pre-tensioning
can also be achieved by an appropriate
choice of construction process, e.g. by pre-
loading, by planned lowering of supports
for continuous beams or by press-fitting,
which exert compressive forces on the
prestressing component from abutments.
Another possibility is the electrothermal
prestressing of steel tendons. Here, only
the generation of pre-tension using
tendons made of high-strength steel
(prestressing steel) will be considered.
Tensioning methods differ in terms of
the arrangement of the tendons, the time
at which prestressing is generated and the
type of bond.
1. Depending on the compound effect:
1.1 Pre-tensioning without bond:
external pre-tensioning:
The tendons are located outside
the concrete cross-section and
transfer the prestressing forces into
the component at the deflection and
anchorage points.
internal pre-tension:
The tendons lie within the concrete
cross-section. Wires, bars or
strands are guided in a corrosion
protection sheathing (the
prestressing steel can move freely
in the longitudinal direction and is
only firmly connected to the
supporting structure at the
anchorage points).
1.2 Pre-tension with immediate
bonding:
After pre-tensioning, the tendons
are embedded in the concrete in
such a way that a bond is created
between the two materials at the
same time as the concrete hardens
(smooth
8.5 Concrete
bridges
Single wires are unsuitable for this
purpose and are therefore not
permitted).
1.3 Pre-tensioning with subsequent
bonding:
The concrete is initially prestressed
without a bonding effect between
the prestressing elements and the
concrete.
2. Depending on the type of event:
2.1 End anchorages with special
anchor bodies,
2.2 End anchoring through the bond
between prestressing steel and
concrete (anchoring through
adhesion, friction and shear bond).
3. Depending on the time of pre-
tensioning of the tendons:
3.1 Tensioning before the concrete
hardens,
3.2 Tensioning after the concrete has
hardened.
Figure 8.5-1 Principle of pre-tensioning with immediate bonding
607
When pre-tensioning before the concrete
hardens, the so-called prestressing bed
pre-tensioning, Figure 8.5-1, the pre-
tensioning with immediate bond, the
prestressing steel is pre-tensioned in the
"prestressing bed" before concreting.
The prestressing steel is anchored at
the ends in stationary blocks. As the
concrete placed in the formwork hardens,
the bond between the prestressing steel and
the concrete becomes effective. Once the
concrete has hardened sufficiently, the
anchoring of the prestressing steel at the
ends is released. Due to the bonding
effect, the prestressing steel cannot shorten
to the original length it had before
prestressing. With an ideal (perfect) bond
between prestressing steel and concrete,
the prestressing steel and the concrete
must shorten by the same amount. The
remaining tensile force in the prestressing
steel and the compressive force in the
concrete are equal. This method is only
used for
608
used in the production of concrete
components in precast plants. By
wrapping the tendons with plastic
sheathing (stripping) in certain areas, the
bond is prevented in these areas, which
means that the pre-tensioning force
applied can be varied over the length of
the component when pre-tensioning in the
prestressing bed.
In post-tensioning methods with
subsequent bonding, prestressing steels are
laid untensioned in ducts (plastic or steel
ducts) inside the formwork (Fig. 8.5-2a).
The prestressing steels, which consist of
wires, rods or strands, remain movable in
the longitudinal direction within the ducts
and are tensioned and anchored against
the hardened concrete using special
tensioning devices (Fig. 8.5-2b). Then, to
create the bonding effect and to protect
the prestressing steel from corrosion, the
air space still present in the cladding tubes
is filled with
a) Tendon untensioned in the duct
b) Pre-tensioning
c) Prestressed tendon anchored and
cladding tube filled with grout
-P
Figure 8.5-2 Principle of pre-tensioning with subsequent bonding
8 Calculation
filled with grout (Figure 8.5-2c).
A key feature of post-tensioning
methods with subsequent bonding is that
the tendons can largely be positioned as
required. Only the curvature radii to be
adhered to restrict the course of the
tendons. It is also possible to have the
tendons end at any point within the
structure. This allows the size, position
and direction of the required prestressing
forces and the time at which they are
applied to be adapted to the requirements
for specific locations. However, the
tensioning points must be accessible for
the tensioning process.
With external pre-tensioning, Figure
8.5-3, the tendons are arranged outside
the concrete cross-section. Pre-tensioning
is carried out against the concrete
component, whereby the pre-tensioning
forces are transferred into the component
at the anchorage and deflection points.
This type of prestressing
-P
8.5 Concrete
bridges
is designed without a bond, with the
advantages of post-tensioning and
interchangeability of the prestressing
steel.
The use of external and internal
tendons leads to the so-called mixed
construction method, which is generally
more economical than purely external
pre-tensioning. Especially in the case of
bridges built using the cantilever method
and bridges with a strongly curved plan, it
is almost impossible to dispense with the
mixed construction method when using
external tendons. The use of purely
external pre-tensioning can also lead to
design difficulties for bridges built using
the incremental launching method and
for very slender bridges.
In the case of mixed construction, a
distinction must be made as to whether the
internal tendons are bonded or unbonded.
The internal tendons without bond, which
must have a double sheathing (inner and
outer duct) for interchangeability, can be
checked, replaced and restressed in the
same way as the external tendons. The
prestressing steel must be replaceable
together with the inner duct and the
corrosion protection grease. It goes
without saying that net cross-section
values must be used for the mathematical
verifications, see section 8.5.2.1.
According to [DIN-FB 102, 2009]-III,
Section 3.2, if the mixed construction
method for the longitudinal pre-
tensioning of the bridge is a combination
of external tendons with bonded tendons,
the proportion of tendons with external
pre-tensioning must be
Figure 8.5-3 Principle of external pre-tensioning
609
applied pre-tensioning force must be at
least 20% of the total required pre-
tensioning force. In addition, increased
requirements for retrofitting measures for
maintenance and possible subsequent
reinforcement must be observed [DIN- FB
102, 2009]-III, Section 3.4 (1) P.
8.5.2 Internal forces due to pre-tension
The internal forces (stresses, forces and
deformations) are determined on beams
in sections perpendicular to the beam
axis. For tendons curved or inclined
against the beam axis, the vertical
component of the prestressing force P -
sin (α) can be neglected due to the very
low inclination α of the tendon axis (for
generally slender prestressed slabs and
beams, does not apply to cross girder
plates). PH ≈ P can be used as a good
approximation for the entire length of the
structure.
8.5.2.1 Cross-section values
For calculations on prestressed load-
bearing structures, no cross-sectional
components may be neglected, as
otherwise incorrect internal forces will be
determined. For compression plates of
plate girder and box cross-sections, the
actual effective plate width, e.g. according to
[Bren- del, 1959], must be taken into
account.
For the structural analysis of structural
components that are to be installed before
the concrete hardens.
610 8 Calculation

prestressed concrete, ideal cross-sectional For prestressed concrete components

values are required because there is already with internal tendons without bond, the
a bond between the prestressing steel and prestressing forces act on the net concrete
the concrete before the prestressing force cross-section. Due to the lack of bonding,
is applied. The ideal cross-section values are ideal cross-section values must not be
also decisive for determining stresses on used. The tendon is considered as a
components that are prestressed with a frictionless tension band in the duct,
subsequent bond for the loads applied whose stress changes under load result
after the bond has been created. from the total distortion of the concrete
For cross-sections that are prestressed fiber at the level of the tendon axis.
after the concrete has hardened, concrete Equations for determining the cross-
gross cross-section values can be used to sectional values of the concrete cross-
determine the stresses occurring before the section, the prestressing steel cross-section
composite is produced, i.e. also for stresses and the composite cross-section are given
resulting from the pre-tensioning, if the below.
prestressing and reinforcing steel cross-
section is generally small in relation to the a) Prestressing steel - cross section
concrete cross-section of the tension zone. values (index p):
For large prestressing steel reinforcement The total cross-sectional area of the
or for more precise, material-saving prestressing steels is determined from the
calculations, the following is required sum of the individual areas of the
In addition to the ideal cross-sectional prestressing steels:
values A = mA (8.5-1)
the cross-sectional values of the concrete p ∑ p,j
j=1
cross-section, in which the cross-sectional
areas
of the tendons' sheathing tubes (concrete Ap,j ... Area of the individual tendon
net cross-section values). The steel cross- m ... Number of tendons
section is not taken into account here.
These cross-section values are decisive for
determining the stresses from the dead loads
and the prestressing forces. Concrete net
cross-section values should be used in
particular for verifications of cross-
sections with tendon couplings
(consideration of all voids present before
grouting). When determining the ideal
cross-section values on the composite
cross-section, only the (αp - 1)-fold cross-
sectional areas of the steel (αp = Ep /Ec )
should be applied to the concrete gross cross-
section values, as the cavities in the ducts
filled with grout are treated
approximately as concrete cross-sections,
see
z. e.g. Eq. (8.5-25). Ideal cross-section
values apply to all loads that are applied
after the composite cross-section has been Figure 8.5-4 Prestressed concrete cross-section,
produced. designations
8.5 Concrete 611
bridges
The distances y-pand z- of
p the geometric The distances between the axes of gravity of
the breeding -
Centerlines of the total prestressing steel to cross-section from the global y - or
cross section related to the global y--z-- z-axis:
coordinate system result in: 1m
1 m yb = A ⋅ ∑ yj ⋅ Acb,j (8.5-7)
yp = ⋅ ∑ yp,j ⋅ Ap,j (8.5-2) cb
j=1
Ap j=1 1 m
z= ⋅ z⋅ A (8.5-8)
1 m ∑ j cb,j
zp = A ⋅ ∑ zp,j ⋅ (8.5-3) b
Acb j=1
Ap,j
p j=1 y- y--coordinate of the center of gravity
j
- Distance of the center of gravity of the of the partial cross-section
y p, j tendon from the z-axis z- z--Coordinate of the center of gravity
j
- Distance of the center of gravity of the
z p, j of the partial cross-section
tendon from the y-axis
The following applies to the 2nd degree
For the moments of inertia of the total moments of area (moments of inertia)
prestressing steel surface with respect to with respect to the global axes:
the center of gravity
m
axis coordinate system follows: Iycb = ∑ I ycb,j + zj2⋅ A cb (8.5-9)
I = m I + A ⋅ (z - z )
2 (8.5-4) j=1
yp ∑ yp,j p,j p p,j
j=1 m
I zcb = ∑ I zcb,j + y2j ⋅ A cb (8.5-10)
I= m I + A⋅ (y- y) 2
(8.5-5) j=1
zp ∑ zp,j p,j p p,j
j=1
I ycb,j 2nd degree moment of area of
the
I yp,j , I zp,j Self-inertia moments of the j-th partial cross-section with regard
j-th tendon to the
y-axis of gravity
The moments of inertia of the tendons are
I zcb,j 2nd degree moment of area of the
generally neglected in Eqs. (8.5-4) and
jth partial cross-section with
(8.5-5) are generally neglected because
respect to the z axis of gravity
they are orders of magnitude smaller than
the Steiner components. The indicated gli The 2nd degree moments of area with
respect to the centroidal axes of the gross
cross-section are:
The calculations also apply to reinforcing
Iycb = Iycb - z 2 ⋅b Ab (8.5-11)
steel cross-sections (index s) and to the
cross-sectional areas of cladding pipes Izcb = I zcb - y 2 b⋅ Ab (8.5-12)
(index h).
b) Concrete - gross cross-section According to [Fleßner, 1962], the gross
values (index cb): cross-section values of polygonal cross-
For the cross-section shown in Figure 8.5- sections with polygonal edges, which are
4, the gross cross-sectional area of the mainly found in bridge superstructures,
concrete can be determined from the sum can be easily determined using the corner
of the partial cross-sectional areas. point coordinates of the edge (see Figure
8.5-5) and
A= m A Gln. (8.5-13 to -19). For the specified
cb ∑ j=1 cb,j (8.5-6)
612 8 Calculation

directions of t e coordinate of the cross-section must be bypassed in this

h axes, the edge way,
A cb,j Partial cross-sectional area that the cross-sectional area is always to the
m Number of partial cross-sectional right of the edge. So that the polygon course
areas is
 8.5 Concrete 613
bridges 1 k
I = ⋅ (z y ⋅ -y ⋅ z)
∑ j j+1 j+1 j
ycb 12 j=1

⋅ (zj2 k+ zj ⋅ zj+1+ z2 j+1) (8.5-18)

1
I = ⋅ z( y ⋅ -y ⋅ z )
∑ j j+1 j+1 j
zcb 12 j=1
⋅ ( y2j + yj ⋅ yj+1 + yj+2 ) (8.5-19)
1

Iy -cb , I-zcb2-degree moments of area of

the cross-section in relation
to the global axes
The moments of inertia with respect to
the center of gravity coordinate system
can be determined according to Eqs. (8.5-
Fig. 8.5-5 Node numbering and direction of 11) and (8.5-12). [Käuffier, 1989] gives
the coordinate axes equations that can be used to determine
the cross-section values of polygonal
bounded cross-sections with circular
is closed, the last corner point corresponds boundary sections.
to the first. This method is particularly
suitable for the computer-aided c) Concrete net cross-section values
calculation of cross-section values. (index cn):
The information contained in eqs. (8.5-20) to (8.5-
1 k 24) are contained in Eqs.
A= ⋅ y⋅ z -y ⋅z (8.5-13) The values A , y- and
p p
y- can
p be used for

cb ∑ j j+1 j+1 j calculations on concrete cross-sections

2 j=1
with ungrouted cladding pipes through
the cladding
y-,z- Global pipe cross-section Ah or the global coor-
corner coordinates of the
jj
points, j = 1, 2, ... , k dinates y- hand z- h be replaced.
k Number of corner points
Acn = Acb - Ap
(8.5-20)
1 k+ 1
S = ⋅ z( y ⋅ - y ⋅ z ) ⋅ (z + z ) 1
ycb
6
∑ j j+1 j+1 j j j+1 yn =⋅ (A ⋅ y -Ap ⋅ y )p (8.5-21)
j=1 cb b
1 k (8.5-14) Acn
S = ⋅ (y⋅ -y ⋅ z)⋅ (y+ y) 1
z
∑ j j+1 j+1 j j j+1 zn =
6 j=1 Acn ⋅ (Acb ⋅ zb - Ap ⋅ z )p (8.5-22)
zcb
(8.5-15)
Iycn = Iycb + Acb ⋅ (zb -zn)
Sy , static moments of the cross- 2
-cb S-zcb
section in relation to the - (Iyp + Ap ⋅ (zp - zn )2 ) (8.5-23)
global axes
Izcn = Izcb + Acb ⋅ ( yb - yn)2
(8.5-16)
yb = Szcb Acb - (Iyp + Ap ⋅ ( yp - yn )2 ) (8.5-24)
zb = Sycb (8.5-17)
Acb
d) Ideal cross-sectional values (index ci):
-- global coordinates of The ideal cross-section values apply to the
y b, zb
the center of gravity composite cross-section. Using the bending
614 8 Calculation

The equivalent concrete surface is used to superimpose bending tensile

characteristics are determined from the stresses, the governing equations for
prestressing steel surface characteristics determining the internal forces due to
and added to the cross-sectional values of pre-tension on the bending beam are
the actual concrete surface. The specified given. Detailed derivations of the
slopes only apply under the assumption of determination equations for internal
linear elastic material behavior in the area forces on cross-sections prestressed with
of the investigated internal forces. immediate bracing can be found in
[Mehlhorn, 1998] and [Mehlhorn et al,
Aci = Acb + (αp - 1) ⋅ Ap (8.5-25) 2002] included.
Equations for the internal forces on
with: centrally prestressed cross-sections are
αp = Ep /Ec obtained by multiplying the distance
between the clamping
The position of the link relative to the
The other cross-sectional values are center of gravity zcp is set to zero.
calculated analogously. The following After applying the prestressing bed
applies to the global coordinates of the pretensioning force P(0), the following value
ideal center of gravity: results
the elongation of the prestressing steel ε(0)
(pre-deh-
1
yi = (A ⋅ y + (αp - 1) ⋅ Ap ⋅ y )p in the fitted bed): p, p
cb b
Aci
(8.5-26)
δ (0) σ,p(0) P(0)
1 εp,p
(0) = ,p
p =p = (8.5-30)
zi = A (Acb ⋅ zb + (αp - 1) ⋅ Ap ⋅ z )p lp E Ep p ⋅ Ap
ci (8.5-27)
In Eq. (8.5-30) means:
The moments of inertia with respect to (0)
the ideal axes of gravity result from: ε p, p Tensioning bed elongation of the
prestressing steel,
Iyci = Iycb + Acb ⋅ (zi - zb)
2 (0)
δ p, p Extension of the prestressing steel
+ (αp -1) ⋅ (Iyp + Ap ⋅ (zi - zp )2 ) as a result of the prestressing force
(8.5-28) applied to the steel in the
prestressing bed
P(0),
Izci = Izcb + Acb ⋅
( yi - yb)2 lp Length of the prestressing steel in
+ (αp - 1) ⋅ (Izp + Ap ⋅ ( yi - yp )2 ) the unloaded state,
(0)
σ p, p Tensioning bed tension in the
(8.5-29)
tensioning steel,
construction is primarily
8.5.2.2 Internal forces on the statically
determinate supported structure

8.5.2.2.1 Tensioning before the concrete hardens

The prestressing steel is tensioned in the

prestressing bed. Immediately after the
concrete has been placed, the bond
between the concrete and the prestressed
steel forms as the concrete hardens. As
pre-tensioning in concrete bridge
 8.5 Concrete 615
bridges
P(0) Prestressing force applied to the
prestressing steel in the
prestressing bed via the
prestressing jack,
Ep Modulus of elasticity of the
prestressing steel,
Ap Cross-sectional area of the prestressing
steel.
After releasing the prestressing bed anchorage,
see Figure 8.5.1 c), the prestressing force
acts on the component at the tendon
location. The beam shortens and, due to the
eccentric tendon position, it is also bent. The
remaining
616 8 Calculation

Internal forces of the concrete and the The remaining steel elongation after
prestressing steel are indicated with a loosening the anchorage results in
horizontal line.
hen. The dead load caused by the lifting εp,p = ε(0) + ε = ε(0) + Δε . (8.5-31)
p,p cp,p p,p p,p
of the beam from the formwork as a result
of curvature, the equations for determining The voltages correspond to these distortions:
the bending force according to the
remaining after the pre-tension is released σp,p = σ(0) + α ⋅σ (8.5-32)
p,p p cp,p .
preload force is initially not taken into
account. A pure residual stress condition is - Tension remaining in the
σ p, p
thus present due to pre-tension. To prestressing steel after releasing
determine the actual internal forces, the the anchorage,
(0)
dead load must be applied to the σ p, p Tensioning bed tension in the
composite cross-section. - tensioning steel,
Before and after the release of the σ cp,p Stress in the concrete after
prestressing bed anchorage, the following loosening the anchorage.
forces act in the element with the The pre-tensioning force remaining in the
infinitesimal length dx = 1 of the prestressing steel is:
composite cross-section as shown in
Figure 8.5-6
Internal forces. P-
Under the condition of perfect = Ap - σ-
p, p .
between concrete and steel is the Working in concrete:
N- - P - -P-
Compatibility condition: M- = and = -z.

-ε = ∆-ε c, p c, p cp
cp, p p, p There is a relationship between the forces
-εcp,p caused by loosening the in the prestressing steel before and after
anchorage of the prestressing steel the prestressing bed connection is
caused by released:
loading ⎞⎤
at the height of the clamping ⎡ Ep ⋅ Ap + Ac ⋅ z2
P(0)
⎛ = P ⎢1 ⋅⎜1
⋅ +
steel fiber, E⋅ A I cp ⎟⎥
- ⎝ ⎠⎥⎦
∆ε p,p Change in prestressing steel ⎢⎣ cc c

elongation due to loosening of the (8.5-33)

anchorage.

Tensioning bed force applied

(0)
P(0) εp,p P(0)

dx = 1

Releasing the tensioning bed anchorage

Mc,p Mc,p

Nc,p
Nc,
p P P
�ε��,p ε�,p -Δεεp,p
 8.5 Concrete 617
bridges
Figure 8.5-6 Infinitesimal element with length dx = 1; internal forces and distortions from pre-
tensioning when applying the prestressing bed prestressing force P(0) and after releasing the
prestressing bed anchorage
618 8 Calculation

⎡ E ⋅ Ap ⎛ -1 a) Prestressed concrete without bond:

P = P(0) ⋅ ⎢1 +p ⋅ 1 + Ac ⋅ z2
⎥⎞⎤ The tendons are located at the end of the
⎜ cp
⎣⎢ Ec ⋅ Ac ⎝ Ic ⎠⎟⎥⎦ neither outside the concrete (external
(8.5-34) pre-tensioning) nor are they
longitudinally
are slidably guided in plastic sheaths
Ac , Ic and zcp represent net concrete cross-
filled with grease inside the concrete.
sectional values according to Eqs. (8.5-
b) Prestressed concrete with subsequent
20), (8.5-22) and (8.5-23).
shoring:
In the case of prestressed concrete
The tendons are guided in ducts. After
components in which the tendons are
pre-tensioning, the ducts are grouted
prestressed before the concrete hardens,
with cement mortar.
all external loads - including the dead load
that becomes effective simultaneously
In the above-mentioned cases, tensioning
when the prestressing force is applied - act
only takes place when the concrete has
on the composite cross-section.
hardened sufficiently and against the
To determine the stress distribution in
hardened concrete.
the cross-section, perfect bonding between
When tensioning after the concrete has
concrete and steel and the Bernoulli
hardened, the stress from the dead load
hypothesis that the cross-sections remain
usually becomes effective at the same time
flat are assumed.
as the pre-tension is applied.
The assumption of perfect bonding
The pre-tension is usually applied
requires that the distortions resulting
using clamping presses that are supported
from external loads (G + Q) at the level of
against the component to be pre-
the steel fiber in the concrete and in the
tensioned. The applied preload force is
steel are the same.
read on the pressure gage of the press. The
εp, g + q = εcp, g + q clamping travel is also measured for
The stress distribution in the beam due to control purposes. It should be noted here
external loads can thus be determined for that only the values from pre-tension and
state I according to the generally valid the simultaneously acting dead load can
relationships for non-prestressed and be read together, both on the pressure
prestressed reinforced concrete. The stresses gage and when measuring the clamping
in the composite cross-section due to travel. For this reason, the preload and dead
external loads Ng+q and Mg+q result in load are used for the following
are closing: considerations.
Ng+q Mg+q
σ c,g+q = + ⋅ zci
Aci Ici
(8.5-35) clamping force P is defined as the force
applied to the
End of the clamping process on the pressure
gage
σ = ⎛ ⎞ of the clamping press and the
α ⋅
Ng+q
+
Mg+q
⋅z
p, ip ⎟
Aci at any point of the tendon with the aid of
g+q
Ici ⎠
p⎜ . the law of friction from the
⎝
8.5.2.2.2 Tensioning after the concrete bond:
has hardened

When tensioning after the concrete has

hardened, a distinction is made between
two processes depending on the type of
 8.5 Concrete 619
bridges
prestressing force can be determined.
Internal forces that become effective
during the tensioning process must be
related to the pure concrete cross-section,
i.e. to the statically determined main
system consisting of the concrete
supporting structure and the tension band.
620 8 Calculation

standing, internally statically indeterminate Amount of the applied clamping force P0

system. In prestressed concrete with and the distribution of P (x) over the
subsequent bonding, the cladding tubes tendon length l.
are grouted after prestressing. The loads For subsequent checking of the force
subsequently applied to the component present in the prestressing bed, it is
(removal loads, live loads) act on the possible to deflect the tendon within a
composite cross-section; accordingly, ideal defined length in the transverse direction
cross-section values must be used when in the case of pre-tensioning without a
calculating these internal forces. bond and to deduce the existing
Thus, the stresses in the concrete due prestressing force from the force required
to P and the dead load that becomes for a certain deflection.
effective at the same time as tensioning In the case of very long tendons lying
can be written down: in the concrete, the prestressing steel deh-
P P ⋅ zcp or the clamping distance at intermediate points.
Mg1
σ = ⋅ z- - ⋅ z. (windows) can be checked.
c,g1+p c
I Ac c c Ic It is assumed here that the distribution of
(8.5-36) the clamping force P (x) (clamping force at
The stress in the prestressing steel results from: the prestressing point P0 = P (x = 0) and the
P The influence of friction (see section
σ p,g1+p = . (8.5-37) 8.5.2.2.3)) as well as the cutting parameters
Ap Nc,p (x), Mc,p (x) and Mc,g1 (x) acting during
clamping.
Ac ,Ic andzc are net concrete cross-section were calculated. Fig. 8.5-7 shows the
values. Note: Concrete gross cross-section qualitative distribution of the internal
values are used for preliminary design, as forces for the prestressed single-span
the prestressing steel cross-section must beam with one tendon.
first be determined. The tensioning path δSp at the
Eq. (8.5-35) applies to the tensioning point of the tendon is
determination of the stresses due to loads essentially made up of two parts (slip
that are applied in the case of pre- neglected):
tensioning with subsequent bond after the δ proportion from prestressing
p,p
bond has been produced. steel elongation, δcp, p+g1
The concrete stresses due to
proportion from concrete compression at the
prestressing have a reasonable order of level of the tendon.
magnitude if their amounts correspond
approximately to the magnitude of the For single-strand pre-tensioning, the
stresses due to external loads. tensioning path results in:
It is therefore particularly important to δSp = δp,p - δ cp,p+g1 . (8.5-38)
carefully control the preload forces applied
during the clamping process. Two options The "slip values" (misleading term)
are available for this purpose: specified in the individual general
technical approvals of the prestressing
1. Read off the clamping force P0 at the
methods are generally made up of two
clamping point (pressure gage),
components. One part is the result of
2. Checking the calculated clamping
prestressing by pressing the anchorage
paths.
into the concrete under the pressing force.
Both control options together result in an The second part is defined as a release
assessment standard for the path specific to the respective tensioning
method.
8.5 Concrete 621
bridges

Figure 8.5-7 Internal forces due to pre-tension in a beam pre-tensioned from one side

and takes into account, for example, the This will:

wedge slip for wedge anchorages (for lP lP
Threaded anchors according to the (x) (x)
δSp=∫ dx + dx
displacement from the thread play) and Ep ⋅ Ap Ec ∫ Ac
0 0
the deformation of the anchoring parts
when the preload force is transferred from
l
P(x) ⋅ zcp (x) - Mg1 (x)
+∫ ⋅ (x)dx .
cp
the press to the anchoring. To calculate 0 Ec ⋅ Ic
the effects of slip on the anchoring parts z (8.5-40)
For the course of the preload force, see e.g.
[Mehlhorn et al., 2002]. It should be noted here that in most
The two span distance components applications occurring in construction
according to Eq. (8.5-38) result in: practice, the last integral in Eqs. (8.5-
39.40) in relation to the other integrals.
δ = εl
lP
(x) ⎫
=∫ Ep ⋅ Adxp
(x)dx tegrals is negligibly small, because the
p,p ∫ p,p ⎪ Minuend and the subtrahend in the numerator
of the
0 0 ⎪ integrals have the same order of magnitude.
ll P
(x) ⎪ Approximate solutions of the integrals
Eqn.
δcp,p+g1 = ∫ εcp,p+g1(x)dx = -∫ dx ⎬ (8.5-39, 40) for calculating the deformations.
⎪
00 Ec ⋅ Ac
l ⎪ can be obtained, for example,with Simpson's
-P(x) ⋅ zcp (x) + Mg1 (x) (x) dx ⎪ rule. For this purpose, the area under the
+ ⋅z
∫ Ec ⋅ Ic cp
⎪⎭ integrating function into an even number
0 n of strips of equal width parallel to the y-
(8.5-39) axis (see Figure 8.5-8).
622 8 Calculation

Figure 8.5-8 Subdivision of the required area under the function to be integrated

The definite integral results This reduces the pretensioning force

approximately to : applied at the clamping point. Even with
Δ tendons that are straight as planned,
A≈ ⋅ ( y0 + 4 ⋅ y1 + 2 ⋅ y2 + 4 ⋅ y3 frictional obstructions occur during pre-
3 tensioning due to the unavoidable deviation
+ ... + 2 ⋅ yn−2 + 4 ⋅ yn−1 + yn ) . (8.5- of the tendons from the nominal position
41) (deviation from the theoretically assumed
With multi-strand pre-tensioning, the straight line). The determination of the
prestressing forces are applied to the amount of prestressing force P (x)
individual tendons one after the other. It occurring due to friction at any point x in
must be taken into account that the initial relation to the force P0
pre-tensioning force (initial force P(i)) of results according to Eq. (8.5-43):
the previously tensioned tendons P(x) = P0 ⋅ e-μ⋅ϑ(x) . (8.5-43)
decreases as a result of concrete shortening
when the subsequent tendons are pre- with:
tensioned. ϑ(x) = Θges + k - x Total deflection angle,
In general, the following applies to the deflection angle in radians [rad],
prestressing path or the initial force to be ges ΘScheduled total deflection angle,
applied to the jth tendon of a total of n
tendons during pre-tensioning:
n-1
δSpj = δpj,pj - δcpj,pj - ∑ δcpj,p( j+1),
j=1
P(i) = P - Ep ⋅ Apj n-1
k-x unplanned deflection angle.
⋅ ∑δ .
0 j,p 0 j,pj cpj,p( j+1)
l j=1 The scheduled deflection angles for
(8.5-42) tendon guidance systems with counter
bends are between adjacent
8.5.2.2.3 Influence of frictional resistance points and the absolute values of the angles
during pre-tensioning must be added up to the point under
consideration. Some books state that when
With all types of pre-tensioning after the determining the deflection angle ϑ, only
concrete has hardened, obstructions occur the larger of the two proportions, either Θ
during the prestressing process due to
friction.
8.5 Concrete 623
bridges
or k-x need to be taken into account. In the prestressing forces deform the
the opinion of the authors, this statement supporting structure. With statically
is incorrect. It is obvious that the planned determinate support, these deformations
geometric deflection angle Θ must always are freely possible; they are therefore not
be taken into account. The unplanned hindered by the support and do not
deflection angle should cover unavoidable change the support forces. On structures
deflections (e.g. horizontal deviations of a with statically indeterminate support, the
tendon curved in the vertical plane, deformations cannot occur unhindered.
sagging between the tendon supports). It Constraints are imposed on the structure
is usually assumed that the coefficient of by the fixed supports, which in turn cause
friction μ remains constant along the constraining forces and support reactions.
tendon. However, this assumption only Various methods are available for
applies approximately. The coefficient of calculating the constraining forces. In the
friction varies depending on the local following, the force quantity method
conditions. This is due to the locally known from structural engineering and
different properties of the materials the method using deflection forces for
sliding against each other. When checking curved tendons will be explained.
the clamping paths, deviations between the
target and actual values sometimes occur, a) The force magnitude method
which are also due to the assumed In the r-fold statically indeterminate system,
approximation. If un r constraining forces Xr are generated. The
following applies:
P* = P (8.5-44)
deviations that a r e explainably large, are N * = N0 + r X⋅ N (8.5-45)
it is essential to determine the causes. c,p c,p ∑ i,p ci
i=1
For clamping systems curved in two
planes
the relevant deflection points are M* = M0 +
r X⋅ M (8.5-46)
angle can be determined vectorially. Values c,p c,p ∑ i,p ci
i=1
for μ
and k are attached to the approval notices
of the
of the respective clamping method. Q* = Q0 +
r X⋅ Q (8.5-47)
To compensate for friction losses c,p c,p ∑ i,p ci
i=1
During pre-tensioning, the pre-tensioning
forces can be temporarily increased Xi,p are the static surplus.
during tensioning (section 8.7.2). The preload force P, taking into account the
(2) of [DIN 1045-1, 2008]). Subsequently law of friction according to equation (8.5-43)
0 0
is carried out before anchoring the is known, and N0 c,p , M c,p , Q c,p - so the
tendons.
a decrease in the clamping force. Please structures
refer to [Mehlhorn et al., 2002] for the
calculation of the curve of the clamping
force remaining after the clamping
process has been completed.

8.5.2.3 Internal forces on static

indeterminately supported beam structures
As already established for the pre-
tensioning of statically determinate beam
624 8 Calculation

Internal forces of the residual stress state on

the statically determinate main system - can
be easily calculated from this. The variables
Nci , Mci and Qci are the internal forces on
the statically determinate principal system
due to the statically surplus Xi = 1. The
constraining forces Xi,p follow from the
continuity requirements for closing the
gaps occurring in the statically determinate
principal system as a result of the pre-
tension load case (Figure 8.5-9).
 8.5 Concrete
bridges
Figure 8.5-9 Procedure for determining the constrained internal forces due to pre-tension
b) Approach of the deflection forces
Most prestressed structures are slender
beams subjected to bending, e.g.
continuous beams or slabs. A significant
simplification for the mathematical
treatment of the pre-tension load case on
the statically indeterminate system is
offered here by assuming that the
deflection forces acting on the concrete
from the tendon are approximately
perpendicular.
The deflection forces u, can be
approximately determined as follows:
u ≈ P(x) ⋅ zc ′′p (x)
If the tendon is parabolic, the uniformly
distributed deflection force is
approximated:
8⋅ f
u≈ P⋅
l2 (8.5-49)
with:
f Parabolic stitch
l Distance between the
turning points.
When determining the course of the
tendon position and thus the bending
moment M *c,p on the statically
indeterminate system from the deflection
forces, you can now use flux lines, which
are generally required for determining the
bending moments from the other load
cases anyway. If the end anchorages of the
prestressing
625
If the end anchoring points of the end
anchoring elements lie in the center of
gravity axis, this immediately gives M*c,p in
total. If the end anchorages are not in the
beam's center of gravity, the resulting end
moments must be taken into account
separately.
Figure 8.5-10 shows a beam with
cantilever passing through several bays and
the deflection forces and end moments to
be applied to determine the course of the
prestressing moment M*c,p . The system
can be calculated using the known
methods of beam statics. This will not be
discussed in detail here.
In the tendon guides normally found in
construction practice, the tendons are not
laid according to a mathematical form.
The
Integrals for the calculation of
deformations on the statically determinate
main system can therefore generally not
be solved with the help of integral tables,
but an approximation method must be
used. For this we recommend
especially Simpson's method (see pages
547/548) for numerical integration.
The purpose of pre-tensioning the
beams is to overpress the concrete in such
a way that no or only low tensile stresses
occur under the overall effects. This results
in a surface
626 8 Calculation

Figure 8.5-10 Approach of the deflection and anchorage forces to determine the internal forces due
to pre-tension on the continuous beam

At first glance, it appears to be a simple z1 = 0

and self-evident solution for tendon
z
guidance:
1. The tendons must be arranged on the A B
bending tension side resulting from the l
external load. z
2. The tendons must be guided in such a
way that the deflection forces from pre- Figure 8.5-11 Beam articulated at one end,
tensioning counteract the external shear clamped at the other end with straight tendon
load so that the shear force from pre- guide and eccentric position of the tendon at
tensioning counteracts the shear force the clamped end.
from external loading.
3. The level of the preload force is limited
at the top and bottom so that no Case 1: straight tendon with an
excessive tensile and compressive eccentricity at the clamping point
stresses occur overall. (Fig. 8.5-11)
The fulfillment of the three requirements The result is:
the beam is supported on two columns as 1
shown in Figure 8.5-2. With statically Ec ⋅ Ic ⋅ =- ⋅ P ⋅ z 2 ⋅ l ⋅1 , zB < 0
δ10 3
indeterminate support
However, the conditions are not so simple 1
Ec ⋅ Ic ⋅ δ11 = ⋅ l
due to the additional constraining stresses ⋅12
that occur. In order to get a feeling for the
constraint moments resulting from pre- 3
Xp = 1
tension, some tendon guides are
considered for beams clamped on one side
and hinged on the other. For
simplification -P ⋅ z2
M0 (x)
c,p
These basic considerations neglect the
influence of friction.
M (x) Xp = 1
c,1
 8.5 Concrete 627
bridges
The signs of the eccentricities z are set
according to the direction of the z2
coordinate axis. 1

Forced torque:
Xp = -δ10 /δ11 = P - z2
Mc *,p (x) = M0 (x) + M (x) ⋅ X = 0
c,p
The value of the moment due to
prestressing is zero. This results in a centric
pre-tension for the entire beam.
A B
l
z
c,1 p
Figure 8.5-12 Hinged at one end
beam clamped at the other end with straight
tendon guidance and eccentric position of the
tendon on the articulated support

Case 2: straight tendon with an B

f1
eccentricity at the hinged bearing
(Fig. 8.5-12) f2
A
1
Ec ⋅ Ic ⋅ δ10 =- ⋅ P ⋅ z1 ⋅ l ⋅1 , z1 > 0 u2
6
1

1
Ec ⋅ Ic ⋅ δ11 = ⋅ l ⋅12
3 l1 l2
l
1
Xp = ⋅ P ⋅ z1 z
2
M* (x) =- P ⋅ z ⋅ ⎛1 - ⋅ ⎞
3 x
E
A A1 2 d
c, p1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 l⎠ Influence line for M * at the clamping point
B,p

M A*,p = -P ⋅ z M1 B *,p = P ⋅ z 21 Figure 8.5-13 Beam hinged at one end,

clamped at the other end with curved tendon
Xp = guide
1
It can be seen that an increase in the
M0 (x) positive preload torque at B
-P ⋅ z
c,p 1 is achieved if the eccentricity at A is
increased or if area 2 is reduced and area 1
Mc,1 (x) is increased. Increasing the eccentricity at
Xp =
B, on the other hand, has no direct
1
influence on the
Preload torque M* c,p (indirectly, however,
Case 3: curved tendon path (Fig. 8.5-13) through corresponding changes in
Mc *,p (x = l) = u1 ⋅ A1 - u2 ⋅ A2 curvature).
Finally, two polygonal
M* (x = l) > 0, if A⋅ u> A⋅ u tendon layers, such as those used in prestressing
c, p1 1 2 2 tendons, and the associated moments on
Mc *,p (x = ll) < 0, if A1 ⋅ u1 < A2 ⋅ the statically determinate main system, the
u2 moments of the tendons, and the moments
of the tendons.
Other tendon guides can be traced back to The load capacity due to the unit load as
cases 1-3. well as the size of the statically surplus are
specified.
628 8 Calculation

1
= P⋅
z2 2 ⋅ l2
⋅ ⎣⎡z1 ⋅ l21 + z 1⋅ l ⋅(l + l ) + z 13⋅ 2l ⋅ (2 ⋅ l +1 l )
A B + 3 ⋅ (z3 + z4 ) ⋅ l ⋅ ll3 + (z3 + 2 ⋅ z4 )3 ⋅⎦l 2 ⎤
l1 l2
M0 =
l -P ⋅ z M1 A,1 =0
A,p
z 0 = -P ⋅ z
M 1,p 2 M1,1 = 1 l ⋅ l1
Figure 8.5-14.1 Beam hinged a t one end and M0 = -P ⋅ z M2,1 = 1 l ⋅ (ll1 + l2 )
2,
p 3
clamped at the other end
MB ,1 = 1
0
with polygonal tendon guidance and eccentric MB,p = -P ⋅ z4
position of the tendon on the articulated
Support and at the clamping point
Each continuous tendon position can b e
1
X p= P ⋅ approximated as precisely as required by
2 ⋅ l2 polygonal tensioners, see Fig.
2⎡⎣2 8.5-15.
Analogous to the previous clamping
⋅(z2 +z3 )⋅l1 ⋅l2 The statically excess number of tendons
⎦⎤ for a beam with a polygonal tendon layer
1 with any number of corners can be
= P ⋅ l2
2⋅ determined.
⋅ ⎡⎣z ⋅l 2 + z ⋅ l ⋅ (l + l1 ) + z ⋅) l ⋅ (2 ⋅ l + l the points and the points outlined in Figure
⎤⎦ 8.5.15.
11 2 32 1 Support conditions determined as follows
M0
= -P ⋅ z1 M A,1 = 0 become:
A,p  n-
0
M 1,p = -P ⋅ z2 M1,1 = 1 l ⋅ Xp = -δ /δ = P ċ -� � ċ i+ + z )i
M B,p = -P ⋅ z3
0
l1 MB ,1 = 1 �ċl
 �z( i=
i-
- li +  ċ (zi+ + zi ) ċ li ċ � ċlj � .
j=

z2 z3 The distances l1 , l2 , ... , ln between the or-

dinates do not need to be equidistant. The
A B equation can be easily evaluated using
l1 l2 l3 Excel, for example.
l

Figure 8.5-14.2 Beam hinged at one end and

clamped at the other end with polygonal zi zi+1 zn-1
z2 z3
tendon guidance and eccentric position of the
tendon at the hinged support and at the
clamping point A B
l1 l l2 3 li li+1 ln-1

1 l
X p= P ⋅
2⋅ l2
z xi
(z1 + 2 - z2 ) -1 l2 +
Figure 8.5-15 Beam hinged at one end and
- (z2 + 2 - z3 ) 2- l2 + 3 -(z2 + z3 ) - l1 - l +2
clamped at the other end with any polygonal
(z3 + 2 - z4 ) -3 l 2 + 3 -(z3 + z4 ) - (l1 + l2 tendon guide
) - l3
 8.5 Concrete
bridges
For the moment due to the pre-tension P
on the statically determined main system,
the following applies at the point xi :
M0 (x ) = -P - z
i,1 i i
and for the magnitude of the moment due
to the unit load at the point xi can be
written:
Mi,1 (xi ) = 1/l - xi
It should also be noted that in addition to
the constraining moments and support
forces, the pre-tensioning of statically
indeterminate systems generally also
generates additional transverse force
components in addition to the statically
determined components resulting from
the tendon guidance (inclination and
curvature of the tendon guidance).
8.5.3 Introduction of concentrated forces
8.5.3.1 General considerations
At points where concentrated forces or
loads are transferred into structures, e.g.
transfer and transmission of support
forces A, B or concentrated loads F (see
Fig. 8.5-16), high local stresses occur in the
transfer areas. These areas particularly
include the points where prestressing
forces P are applied.
The internal forces at the points of con-
centered load application cannot be
calculated on the basis of the simplified
technical data.
Figure 8.5-16 Examples of the entry of
concentrated forces
629
The stresses can be determined using
elastic bending theory, as they are
generally three-dimensional stress states.
The stresses are determined according to
the theory of elasticity.
ory. Even under the agreed
Due to the assumption of ideal elastic
material behavior (Hooke's material), it is
difficult to determine the stress state for
general cases and has only been made
possible by the development of suitable
numerical methods (finite element
method and boundary element method).
The tensile forces determined from the
calculations to be made must be absorbed
by reinforcement, which must be designed
in such a way that a sufficient crack
distribution with correspondingly small
crack widths is created. It is therefore
advisable to arrange evenly distributed
reinforcement with good bonding
properties in these areas. When
dimensioning, it is recommended that the
usual steel stresses for concrete steels are
not utilized.
It should also be noted that the spread
of the concentrated anchor force takes
place in the so-called St. Venant's
interference zone, the length of which
corresponds approximately to the beam
height or width in the case of single
anchorages and, in the case of several
anchorages between them, also
approximately to the distances between
the center distances of adjacent anchor
forces.
In the following chapters, some findings
from disk theory for the entry of
concentrated forces [Girk- mann, 1963],
[Mang, 1995], [Mehlhorn,
1998].
8.5.3.2 Introduction of anchor forces
at the edge of the beam
When determining the stresses of
concentrated loads, e.g. pre-tension forces,
at the end faces of beam ends
630
Figure 8.5-17 Component edge loaded by a) a
concentrated load or b) a partial line load
(view)
usually involves components that have a
three-sided edge in relation to the load
application point. In most cases, the edge
opposite the load application point can be
considered to be infinitely far away. The
stresses σz directed normal to the line of
action of the load are of particular interest
for the application of a concentrated load
in the center or a partial line load opposite
the infinitely distant edge (Figure 8.5-17).
Sections parallel to the direction of
application of the load provide a clear
insight into the distribution of the
compressive and tensile stresses in the
respective section. Figure 8.5-18 shows an
example of the qualitative progression of
the σz stresses in the section z = 0 as a result
of a partial section load. The resulting
compressive or tensile force is obtained by
integrating over this curve in certain areas.
The tensile force acting transverse to the
load direction is called transverse tensile
force or
Splitting tensile force.
Figure 8.5-18 shows that the tensile
stresses in the gap between the
8 Calculation
Figure 8.5-18 σz curve from partial line load in
section z = 0
stand h from the loaded edge almost
disappear.
Figures 8.5-19 a) and b) show the
results given by [Guyon, 1960] and
[Iyengar, 1960] for central load
application for the resulting splitting
tensile force Z, the course of the
transverse tensile stresses σz , the positions
of the points resulting for z = 0 in which
the stresses max σz and σz = 0 occur. σ0 are
the normal stresses due to P.
Very simple equivalent models (Figures
8.5-20 and 8.5-21) can be developed on
the basis of calculated and experimentally
determined principal stresses for the
centrally or edge-acting beam loads, with
which the resulting splitting tensile force
can be determined in a simple manner.
Figure 5.5-20 shows a line load applied
centrally at the end of the beam:
Z = ⋅ ⎛1 - ⎞
P a
(8.5-50)
⎜ ⎟
4⎝ h⎠
 8.5 Concrete 631
bridges

Figure 8.5-19 a) Course of the transverse tensile stresses σz , b) Resulting splitting tensile force Z
and layers for max σz and σz = 0

Figure 8.5-20 a) Substitute model for central partial section load at the end of the beam, b)
Reinforcement arrangement with centric load application

P⋅ a ⎞⎤
Above and below the anchor plate σ o =- ⎡1 + 3 ⋅ ⎛1 -
h ⋅ b ⎢⎣ ⎜ ⎟⎥
tensile stresses also occur at the loaded x
⎝ h ⎠⎦
edge [Mehlhorn et al., 2002], which are
caused by P⋅ a ⎞⎤
reinforcement must be covered. The σ u =- ⎡1 - 3 ⋅ ⎛1 -
reinforcement
h ⋅ b ⎢⎣ ⎜ ⎟⎥
The stake should therefore be designed as x
⎝ h ⎠⎦
shown in Figure 8.5-20.
z = ⋅ ⎛1 - ⎞
h a
For the eccentrically mounted
concentrated load is the course of the o ⎜ ⎟
6⎝ h⎠
normal stresses at the end of the
interference zone
linear. The moment on the center line The maximum bending moment in the
results from the external load: equivalent beam proposed by [Mehmel,
1957] is given by :
M = P ⋅ (h - a) 2 P ⋅ h⎛ a ⎞3 ⎛ ⎞2
This results in the edge stresses max M =- ⋅ ⎜2 - 3 ⋅ ⎟ ⎜1 - a⎟
54 ⎝ h ⎠ ⎝ h ⎠
and the position of the voltage zero line:
632 8 Calculation

The lever arm of the other forces can be
assumed to be h/2 for the disk. This gives
the splitting tensile force:
P a ⎞3 a ⎞2
Z =- ⋅⎛2 - 3 ⋅ ⎛1 - (8.5-51)
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ If the concentrated load is applied
27 ⎝ h⎠ ⎝ h⎠
The reinforcement shown in Figure 8.5-21
is recommended, taking into account the
course of the stresses.
When determining the reinforcement
required to absorb the splitting tensile
forces due to centric or eccentric
application of the prestressing forces, the
steel thickness should be taken into
account to limit the crack widths.
The reinforcement must be limited to εs ≤
1 ‰. Ensure that the reinforcement is well
anchored! These recommendations also
apply to the reinforcement considered
below.
cases.
eccentrically, i.e. it is located between the
two
extreme positions just discussed, the
splitting tensile forces that occur can be
determined as a function of e/h according
to the following model concepts proposed
by [Guyon, 1960] (Fig. 8.5-22). Instead of
the ratio a/h, in this case a/h' is to be set in
Eq. (8.5-50).

Fig. 8.5-21 a) Substitute model for a beam end loaded eccentrically at the edge according to
[Mehmel, 1957]; b) Reinforcement arrangement with eccentric edge load

Figure 8.5-22 Substitute models according to Guyon for a) e/h < 0.3, b) e/h > 0.3
 8.5 Concrete 633
bridges
For tendons inclined against the beam
axis, the bracings are also arranged with a
corresponding inclination. Studies on
stress distribution for estimating the
required reinforcement are given in
[Sargious, 1960]. If several tendons are Figure 8.5-23 Transverse prestressing with
anchored at the end of the beam, the internal tendon anchorage
solutions known for sheaves supported on
two or more columns can be used to
estimate the resultant tensile forces.
Reference is made here to the relevant
publications by [Bay, 1960], [Theimer,
1958] and [Thon, 1958].

Figure 8.5-24 Longitudinal prestressing with

8.5.3.3 Introduction of forces inside a internal tendon anchorage
component

Tendons are often arranged inside a

component to better adapt the moment
curves from the pre-tension to those from
the external action and to save
prestressing steel. Examples of this are
tendons for the transverse prestressing of
slabs in plate girders (Fig. 8.5-23) and
non-continuous tendons for the
longitudinal prestressing of continuous
beams (Fig. 8.5-24).
First, the stresses σx of an internally
anchored tendon resulting from the
theory of elasticity are considered, as
determined by [Haberland, 1968] for the
washer strip.
Figure 8.5-25 shows the stress curve as a
function of x/h, with the left panel edge
supported (corresponds to the clamping
point) and the right one free. The
concentrated force applied inside the
component is evenly distributed at a
distance h from the point of application.
For the case of the reaction to P in x → -∞
which corresponds to the problem of
anchoring a tendon in the interior, the
principal stresses are also given in Figure
8.5-26.
It can be seen from the stress curve that,
if the theory of elasticity is fully valid, half
the anchor force is initially applied in the
force application area as

Figure 8.5-25 Stresses σx due to a load P at the point x = 0, y = 0 with the reaction at x → -∞
according to [Haberland, 1968]
634
Figure 8.5-26 Principal stresses for internal anchoring with reaction P at x → -∞
traction force to the rear. However, this
force component decays very quickly.
Figure 8.5-26 shows the force progression
very clearly. It is therefore easy to design
the reinforcement appropriately.
If prestressed concrete components are
produced in individual consecutive
construction sections, the pre-tensioning
of each completed section is carried out at
the construction section boundary. The
post-tensioned tendons are then extended
using couplers and post-tensioned at the
other end of the tendon once the next
construction section has been completed.
The anchorages originally arranged in the
previous construction joint ("coupling
joint") are largely relieved; the tendon
force is transferred via the coupling
element. Stakes for the distribution of
stresses in the coupling joint are given in
section 5.2.
Reference is made to further literature
on the problem of coupling individual
construction sections by pre-tensioning
[Baur/Göhler, 1972], [Hoshino, 1974],
[Kordina, 1979], [Mehlhorn/Hoshino,
1974], [Mehlhorn et al., 1983], and [Pfohl,
1973].
8 Calculation
8.5.4 Loss of prestressing force due to
creep and shrinkage of the concrete
and the relaxation of the prestressing steel
As a result of the creep and shrinkage of
the concrete, it is known that under long-
term loading, a plastic, load-dependent
deformation component also occurs in
addition to the elastic one, the size of
which depends, among other things, on the
time of load application and the duration
of the load effect and only approaches a
final value after a long time. At the same
time, but independently of the load effects,
the concrete shrinks. Both time-
dependent concrete shortenings result in a
shortening of the prestressing steel and
thus a reduction in the size of the
prestressing force. These relationships are
discussed in detail in [Kupfer, 1984],
[Mehlhorn, 1998], [Mehlhorn et al,
2002], [Rüsch/Jungwirth, 1976], [Trost,
1967], [Wolff/Mainz, 1972] and [Zerna/
Stangenberg, 1987].
 8.5 Concrete
bridges
8.5.4.1 Prestressed externally statically
determinate load-bearing structures
without bond
For pre-tensioning without bond, e.g. for
external tendons, for bond-free transverse
post-tensioning of roadway slabs and for
structures with subsequent bonding with
tendons that have not yet been grouted,
the smaller cross-sectional resistance
compared to the final state must be taken
into account in the ultimate limit state
design. This is particularly important for
bridges to be built on launching structures,
cantilever bridges and incremental
launching. The main difference between
pre-tensioning with and without bond is
that in the case of pre-tensioning with
bond, the change in stress in the
prestressing steel in the cross-section
under consideration results from the
change in the distortion state, whereas in
the case of pre-tensioning without bond,
the change in stress in the prestressing
steel, which is approximately constant over
the length if friction is neglected, results
from the changes in length of the concrete
fibers at the height of the tendon over the
entire length.
length of the tendon between the
anchorages. With the constructive
For prestressed load-bearing structures
without bond, the tendons should
therefore always be arranged in such a
way that even small beam deformations
can cause a
zA
x zcp (x
) X
A B
l
z
Figure 8.5-27 System of the under-tensioned beam, shown as an open system
635
significant increase in stress in the tendon.
It does not make sense to allow external
tendons to run continuously over several
fields.
For bridges with external pre-
tensioning, as already mentioned, the
prestressing force distribution is almost
constant over the entire tendon length
between the anchorages if the friction at
the deflection points is neglected. For the
internally simply statically indeterminate
single-span beam shown in Fig. 8.5-27
with one strand of external tendons (the
statically determinate main system results,
as shown, from cutting open the tendon),
the tendon forces from the actions from
external loads, pre-tensioning and from
creep and shrinkage of the concrete as
well as the relation of the prestressing steel
are given as examples.
Only the creep-generating, permanently
acting loads g and the initial prestressing
force Pm0 applied at time t = t0 are to be
considered as external influences here.
This force is constant over the entire
length of the prestressing strand if friction
is neglected. The section sizes in the
concrete structure are as follows:
Nc,P 0 (t = t0 ) ≈ - (8.5-53)
Pm0
Mc,P 0 (x,t = t0 ) ≈ -Pm0 ⋅ zcp (x). (8.5-54)
The internal forces resulting from the
effects of external loads are obtained from
zB
Heavy axle
1
636 8 Calculation

is obtained from a statically indeterminate It is always less than 1. As a rule, the value
calculation using the force magnitude α is less than 0.1. The load from external
method, assuming linear elastic behavior of actions is therefore carried by the concrete
the load-bearing structure. The internal beam by more than 90% in normally
forces on the statically determinate main designed load-bearing structures, and the
system are given the pointer 0. The tendon only participates in the transfer of
displacement values for permanently the loads from the external actions to the
acting loads g from the shrinkage of the order of 10% due to the suspension effect.
concrete εs (note: εs < 0, which is why Ps < The increase in force in the tendon from
≈ 1 the permanent load g
0) result in: δp1,1 ⋅l results at the time t = t0 :
(8.5-55)
Ep ⋅ Ap l 2
l z (x)
δc1,1 ≈ + cp dx (8.5-56) δc1,g (8.5-61)
∫ =-
Ecm ⋅ Ac 0 Ecm ⋅ Ic
Pg
δ11
l l z cp(x)
l 2
δ≈ + + With the internal forces from the
dx
11 0∫ The stresses and distortions in the
Ep ⋅ Ap Ecm ⋅ Ac Ecm ⋅ Ic
(8. 5-57) concrete can be caused by the
permanently acting load and the tendon
l N force.
0
≈- - l M0
z ⋅
(x) (x) structure and in the tendon to the time
δc1 c,g c ,g cp dx
point of load application t = t according to the
,g ∫ dx ∫
0 Ecm ⋅ Ac Ecm ⋅ Ic
0
0
can be determined using the usual
(8.5-58) calculation methods. The time-dependent
clamping force
δc1,s = -εs ⋅ l (8.5-59) losses in the tendon are then calculated
taking into account the mean values of the
The displacement values from the concrete distortions and the concrete
displacement load result analogously if stresses over the length of the tendon
the foot pointer g is replaced by q in according to equation (8.5-62):
equation (8.5-58), which is not discussed
further here. In the equation (8.5-62) means:
The stiffness coefficient α
∆σ p,c+ s + r (t, t0 ) Change in voltage in the
introduced: Tendon made of creep and
δc1 δc1,1 (8.5-60) Shrinkage of the concrete and
α =,1 =
δp1,1+ δc1,1 from the relaxation of the
prestressing steel at time t
δ1,
1
The stiffness coefficient α indicates how αp = Ep /Ecm Ratio of the elasticity moduli
much the tendon contributes to the of the prestressing steel Ep
overall load-bearing effect of the under- and the concrete Ecm
tensioned

⎛1 l 1 l dx⎞
α ⋅φ(t,t ) σ (x,z )dx + ⋅ σ (x,z ) + (t,t ) ⋅
E + Δσ
ε
p0 ⋅ ⎜ ⋅ ∫ c,g l ∫0 c,P cpm0
cp ⎟ c,s 0 p p,r
⎝ l0 ⎠
Δσ p,c+s+r (t,t0) ≈
8.5 Concrete 637
bridges ⎛ l dx⎞
⋅ ⎡1 + χ ⋅φ (t,t )⎤
Ap
1+ α ⋅ ⋅ + Ac ⋅ z2 (x)

p ⎜1 ∫ cp ⎟⎣ 0 ⎦
Ac ⎝ Ic 0 ⎠ (8.5-62)
638
Ecm Mean value as the secant
modulus of the concrete stress
function from the coordinate
origin to the
11 Concrete stress σc = 0.4 - fc
l2 - ∫ σ c,g (x, zcp ) dx Mean value of the
0 tonal stresses from the
permanent actions at the level
of the tendon. The mean value
is to be calculated from the
values over the entire length of
the tendon.
11 determine.
l2 - ∫ σ c,p0 (x, zcp ) dx Mean value of the
0 The mean value is to be
determined from the values
over the entire length of the
tendon. The codetermination is to
be determined from the values
over the entire length of the
tendon.
εs (t, t0 ) Estimated shrinkage of the
concrete at the time t since the
concrete was poured.
∆σ load start t0
p,r Voltage change in the clamping
from the relaxation of the
prestressing steel, depending
on the prestressing steel tension
Ap , Ac Cross-sectional areas of the
tendon and the concrete
Ic 2nd degree moment of area of the
concrete cross-section
zcp (x) Distance between the centers of
gravity of the concrete cross-
section and the
tendon in cross-section at the
point x
χ Relaxation parameter (may
generally be set to 0.8)
Because ∆Pr = Ap - ∆σp,r depends on the
magnitude of the final pre-tension, an
initial value must first be estimated for
∆Pr , which must be improved by an
iterative calculation until Eq. (8.5-62) is
fulfilled with the value for the relaxation
loss resulting for the final pre-tension.
The change in stress ∆σp,r is dependent on
8 Calculation
σp0 due to permanently acting loads and
pre-tension to the general building
inspectorate approval of the prestressing
steel
can be taken. Reference values are shown in the
image
8.5-28 is specified. According to [DIN-FB 102,
2009] Section 4.2.3.5.5 (8) may be
assumed for the determination of ∆σp,r as
the output stress σp0 for the ratio of the
output stress to the characteristic tensile
strength: σp0 ≈ σp,g0
- 0.3 - �∆σ p,c + s + r �, where σ p,g0 is the
initial stress in the prestressing elements is
the result of permanent external
influences g and prestressing.
According to Eurocode 2, T. 1-1, a
product approach from the product of the
basic value φ0 and the time function βc (t -
t0 ) is selected for the creep deformation of
the concrete over time:
φ
)0 (t,t0 ) = φ0 ⋅ βc (t - t (8.5-63)
The shrinkage deformation εcs (t - ts ) of a
concrete at an age t, which could dry out
from an age ts , results from the product of
the basic value of the shrinkage εcs0 and
the time function βs (t - ts ) when applying
the product approach according to
Eurocode 2, T. 1-1:
εcs (t - ts ) = εcs0 ⋅ βs (t - ts ) (8.5-64)
the magnitude of the prestressing steel stress
 8.5 Concrete 639
bridges
The basic values φ0 , εcs0 and the
time functions βc (t - t0 ) and βs (t -
ts ) for the creep and shrinkage of
concrete are defined in Eurocode 2,
T. 1-1 [DIN V ENV 1992-
2], in the [[DIN 1045-1, 2008] and in the
[DIN-FB 102, 2009] and explained
with the decisive influences for their
determination, to which reference is
made here.
According to [DIN-FB 102,
2009], the final creep coefficients φ∞
= φ (∞, t0 ) and the shrinkage
strains εcs∞ may be determined for
normal concretes in a simplified
manner according to Figures 8.5-29
to 8.5-31. The indicated
640 8 Calculation

Figure 8.5-28 Estimated values for the relaxation loss as a function of the degree of prestressing

Figure 8.5-29 Final creep coefficient φ (∞, t0 ) for normal concrete and high-strength concrete in dry
ambient conditions (relative humidity RH = 50%), according to [DIN Technical Report 102, 2009]
 8.5 Concrete 641
bridges

Figure 8.5-30 Final creep coefficient φ (∞, t0 ) for normal concrete and high-performance
concrete in humid environmental conditions (relative humidity RH = 80%, usually decisive for
bridges), according to [DIN-FB 102, 2009].

Figure 8.5-31 Shrinkage distortion ε cas∞ at time t → ∞ for normal concrete, according to [DIN-
FB 102, 2009]

The values given apply to creep-inducing ambient conditions with an average

concrete compressive stresses of not more
than 45% of the existing characteristic
cylindrical compressive strength at the
time of application of the creep-inducing
stress and to components that meet the
usual
relative humidity between 40% and 100%
and average temperatures between 10°C
and 30°C. The creep distortion of the
concrete εc,c (∞, t0 ) at time t →∞ may
then, with time-
642
can be calculated according to equation
(8.5-65) with constant creep-generating
stress.
σc
εc,c (∞,t0 ) = φ(∞,t0 ) ⋅ (8.5-65)
Ec0
In equation (8.5-65) means:
φ (∞, t0 ) Final creep number for average
relative humidities of 80%
according to Figure 8.5-30 or
between 50% and 80% by linear
extrapolation using Figures 8.5-29
and 8.5-30. The application
of concrete strength classes
C55/67 to C100/115 is currently
not provided for in Germany
according to [DIN FB 102, 2009].
The application
The use of these strength classes in
Germany therefore requires
approval in individual cases.
Ec0 Modulus of elasticity of the concrete as
the slope of the tangent at the
origin
Figure 8.5-32 Drying shrinkage distortion εcds∞ at time t → ∞ for normal concrete, according to
[DIN-FB 102, 2009]
8 Calculation
of the stress-compression line after 28
days
σc constant over the time under
consideration
creep-generating concrete chip
t0 Concrete age at start of loading in
days
According to the approach chosen in
[DIN 1045-1, 2008], the shrinkage
distortion of the concrete εcs∞ at time t →∞
is calculated by adding the shrinkage
distortion and the drying shrinkage
distortion:
εcs∞ = εcas∞ + εcds∞ (8.5-66)
In equation (8.5-66) means:
εcas∞ Shrinkage distortion at time point t
→∞ according to Figure 8.5-31
εcas∞ Drying shrinkage distortion at time t
→∞ according to Figure 8.5-32
 8.5 Concrete
bridges
8.5.4.2 Determination of clamping force
losses with pre-tensioning with bond
In the case of pre-tensioning with bond,
the stress losses from creep and shrinkage
of the concrete and the relaxation of the
prestressing steel are also determined in
the same way as before. The difference,
however, is that the calculation is carried
out cross-section by cross-section and the
respective stress and distortion states are
decisive for the calculation. The
calculation is carried out
according to the equation (8.5-67):
αp ⋅φ(t,t0 ) ⋅ (σc,g + σc,pm0 ) + εc,s (t,t0 ) ⋅ Ep + Δσ p,,r
Δσ p,c+s+r (t,t 0) ≈ A⎛
1 + αp ⋅ p ⋅ 1 + c ⋅ z2 ⋅ ⎡1 + χ ⋅φ (t,t )⎤
⎜ cp ⎟ ⎣
Ac ⎝
8.5.5 Redistribution of internal forces for
system changes and sectional construction
It is known that the shrinkage of the
concrete during internal or external
statically indeterminate system due to
restraint of the deformations. If the
restraint of the shrinkage deformations by
the reinforcement is neglected, the
internal forces of prestressed continuous
beams are not changed due to the
shrinkage of the concrete, provided that
properly movable bearings are installed
and their reactions to the shrinkage
shortening due to bearing friction can be
regarded as negligible.
In the case of frames, arches and other
supporting structures with non-
displaceable supports, restraint of the
shrinkage deformations of the concrete
results in forced internal forces, which can
be calculated in the same way as those
resulting from temperature changes and
are therefore not discussed here.
However, it should be noted here that
these internal forces can change over time.
643
and are therefore already partially
degraded by the creep of the concrete
during their formation. This phenomenon
is called "shrinkage creep". Only the changes
in internal forces in the event of system
changes due to the hindrance of the creep
deformations of the concrete are
considered here. If the shrinkage of the
concrete is neglected and the modulus of
elasticity is assumed to be constant (not
time-dependent), the difference due to
[Di- schinger, 1939] is simplified.
A ⎞ (8.5-67)
0⎦
Ic ⎠
rential equation for the creep and shrinkage of
concrete:
dεc 1 ⋅ ⎡dσc (φ) ⎤
= + σc (φ)⎥
⎣⎢ (8.5-68)
dφ Ec ⎢ dφ ⎦⎥
This equation, a time-dependent σc -εc
relationship due to creep of the concrete,
is assumed in the following observations
and in all cases the minor influence of the
hindrance to deformation by the steel
inserts is also approximately neglected.
It should be noted:
Without changing the load or the
system, no additional forces arise due to
creep of the concrete.
However, as the pre-tensioning force P
decreases due to creep and shrinkage of
the concrete (change in load), all internal
forces resulting from the pre-tension (e.g.
Mc,p , Vc,p , Tc,p ) change. Since this
decrease in P is different in each section
and the statically surplus is influenced by
P, an exact determination of the change in
Mc,p and Vc,p is tedious and only possible
by iterative means.
644
In practice, the loss of prestressing
force due to creep and shrinkage of the
concrete is determined for the decisive
sections and all internal forces resulting
from the prestressing are changed
proportionally to the loss of prestressing
force due to creep and shrinkage in the
section under consideration.
Redistribution of internal forces due to
restraint of creep distortions when
joining two identical precast beams to
form a double beam
In bridge construction, prefabricated
girders are often clamped together to
form continuous girders. This is done, for
example, to avoid joints, to transfer the
loads to the statically indeterminate
system, which enables a more economical
dimensioning compared to statically
determinate beams, to reduce
maintenance costs or, above all, to achieve
a continuous bending line without
buckling points. Fig. 8.5-33 shows two in
Figure 8.5-33 Unconnected single-span beams (undeformed and deformed)
Figure 8.5-34 Temporal change in the course of the bending moments My (x, t)
8 Calculation
field beams and their deformations.
If the two beams are not connected at
support B, both beams can deform
independently of each other;
i.e. the deformations existing at the time t
= 0 would increase due to creep of the
concrete. These creep deformations could
be almost unrestrained because the
restraint of the creep deformations by the
reinforcement within the two individual
systems and by the bearing friction is
negligible. This means that the concrete
would creep unhindered. Above the
column, there would be an increase in the
gaping, which would only approach a final
value after a longer period of time.
If continuity is established above
column B by arranging a continuity
reinforcement in the tensile area and in-
situ grouting, which also ensures the
transmission of the compressive forces,
the creep deformations of the concrete are
reduced.
 8.5 Concrete
bridges
is prevented. A support moment X1 must
therefore build up over the support (Fig.
8.5-34), which generates tension at the top
and pressure at the bottom of the beam.
The bending moments at time t are
given by :
My (x,t) = My,0 (x) + My,1 (x) ⋅ X1 (t)
(8.5-69)
It means:
My,0 (x) Bending moment at time t=0, i.e.
immediately after establishing
the continuous system (if no
constraining moment from
pre-tension at
Creating continuity
My,0 (x) is identical to the state
before the continuity was
established) Bending moment
My, 1 (x) due to the static excess X1 = 1
X1 (t Time-dependentforced cut size
The time-dependent constrained internal
forces X1 (t) must be determined. For the
derivation, please refer to [Mehlhorn,
1998 and Mehlhorn et al., 2002]. With
1 Table 8.5-1.
δ10 = ⋅ ∫ M1 ⋅ M0 dx ,
Ecm ⋅ Ic x
=1
δ11 ⋅ M2 dx
1 and
∫ always produces slightly larger values for
Ecm ⋅ Ic x
X1 =- δ10
δ11
results in the solution:
X1 = X1 ⋅ (1 - e-φ ) (8.5-70)
- is
X 1
the ideal internal force that results
from the
the system would have been produced
immediately as a continuous beam.
Equation (8.5-70) represents the solution to
the problem according to Dischinger's
theory.
645
The solution according to Trost's
theory is now given. For this purpose, the
two-span beam is separated into two
single-span beams and the column
moment is introduced as a static excess. In
the statically determinate basic system,
creep of the concrete results in the mutual
gaping of the two cut banks:
δ *10 = δ10 - φ
It has to be protected by the gradually
The support moment can be canceled
(provided that the support moment can
be absorbed in state I).
δ* = δ - (1 + χ - φ)
11 11
This results in the following for the support
system:
X =- δ1*0
1
δ1*1
⋅ φ
X1= X1 (8.5-71)
1 + χ ⋅φ
The two solutions (8.5-70) and (8.5-71) to
the problem are compared numerically in
The creep coefficients for the time
point →∞ from φ∞ = 0 to φ∞ = 3.0
varies. The relaxation parameter is
simplified to χ = 0.8, as is generally
assumed.
It can be seen that Dischinger's theory
the force redistributions than Trost's more
realistic solution.
Redistribution of internal forces for sectional
construction
In the case of bridges with large concrete
requirements, it is often difficult from a
concrete technology or labor
For technical or economic reasons, it is
not possible to concrete the bridge in one
go. In these cases, the bridge is therefore
built in sections.
646 8 Calculation

Table 8.51 Comparison of the development of Of course, the construction section

the column moment due to the creep of the boundaries are not placed over the
concrete according to the theories of supports, but a cantilever with a length
Dischinger and Trost. Development of e-φ corresponding to about 1/5 to 1/4 of the
1 - e-φ∞ φ∞ e-φ∞ span width is concreted in the adjoining
φ∞
19+ χ 8. φ∞ bay. This ensures that a bending moment
is already created above the support in the
Gl. Gl. Gl. construction stage, the magnitude of
(8.5-70) (8.5-71) (8.5-75) which is as close as possible to that of the
Dischinger Consolatio final moment and the concreting joint is
n in the area of the moment zero point of
0,0 0,000 0,000 1,000 the final system. The conditions for a two-
span beam constructed in sections as
0,5 0,393 0,357 0,607 shown in Fig. 8.5-35 are considered.
1,0 0,632 0,556 0,368 The differential equation and its
solution are as follows:
1,5 0,777 0,682 0,223
dX1
+ X= X (8.5-72)
2,0 0,865 0,769 0,135 1 1
dφ
2,5 0,918 0,833 0,082
X1 = X1 + C ⋅ e-φ . (8.5-73)
3,0 0,950 0,882 0,050

Figure 8.5-35 Bending moments at the times t = 0 and t → ∞ during the production of a two-
section beam
 8.5 Concrete
bridges
With the boundary condition φ = 0:
X1 = X1 + C ⋅1 = X1B → C = X1B - X1
and from this follows:
X1 = X1 - (X1 -X1B ) ⋅ e−φ (8.5-
74)
This results in the following:
M = ML - (ML - MB ) ⋅ e-φ (8.5-75)
The differences between the "falsework
state" ML (bending moment that would
have arisen if the structure had been built
on a falsework in a concreting process and
if the falsework had been lowered evenly)
and the construction state MB are reduced
over time, i.e. the internal forces of the
structure built in sections approach those
that would have arisen if the structure had
been built immediately in "one pour". It
therefore makes sense to select the
construction section boundaries from the
outset in such a way that the
redistribution of internal forces is
minimized. The values e-φ are given in
Table 8.5-1. It is usually justifiable to
classify the structure produced in sections
according to the two limit states:
"Scaffolding condition" and construction
condition
measures.
8.5.6 Basis for calculation
For the design, i.e. the determination of
the cross-sectional dimensions, the need
for prestressing and reinforcing steel, their
position, distribution and strength classes,
the investigations in the serviceability limit
states are primarily decisive. Of course, the
verifications in the ultimate limit states
must then be carried out.
The effects on bridges are discussed in
Section 8.1. The temperature stresses,
vibration pro-
647
and earthquake loads are discussed in
Section 8.7.
For the ultimate limit states, the
verifications relating to stability must be
carried out. This includes verifying that
the structure or parts thereof do not fail
due to fracture, critical deformations or
fatigue. This also includes verifying that
failure without prior notice and loss of
positional stability are excluded. The
design rules for load-bearing capacity
verifications in accordance with [DIN-FB
102, 2009] are practically identical to the
corresponding verifications in accordance
with [DIN 1045-1, 2008], which is why
they are not discussed in detail here.
Reference is made to [Mehlhorn et al.,
2002].
Serviceability is of particular importance
for the design and construction of bridges,
which is why it is discussed in detail here
and some essential design conditions are
mentioned. In order to ensure with
sufficient reliability that the structure can
be expected to behave in a serviceable
manner for the intended purpose over the
long term, the concrete compressive
stresses, the reinforcing and prestressing
steel stresses, the crack widths and the
structural deformations must be limited by
the verifications in the serviceability limit
states. For prestressed bridges and their
components, compliance with the
decompression limit state must also be
verified. The requirements for the
structural design resulting from the
environmental conditions must be taken
into account at the design stage in order
to be able to take the necessary
precautions to protect the building
materials, e.g. against corrosion, in good
time to ensure durability.
Depending on the environmental
influences to which a building is exposed,
which are not caused by the mechanic
648 8 Calculation

Table 8.5-2 Exposure classes for reinforcement corrosion and concrete attack as well as minimum
requirements for the concrete strength classes according to [DIN-FB 100, 2005], Tables 1, F2.1 and
F2.2 a
Class Description of Examples for the assignment of Minimum
the surroundings exposure classes requirements for the
concrete strength
classes and the
water/cement ratio
w/c
1. reinforcement corrosion caused by carbonationb

XC1 – Dry or – Concrete that is constantly C16/20

and constantly under water w/c ≤ 0.75
XC2 wet – Foundation components in
– Wet and rarely contact with the ground that
dry are not close to the ground
surface
XC3 Moderate humidity Ventilated interior areas of C20/25
components with hollow cross- w/c ≤ 0.65
sections,
z. e.g. from box girders
XC4 Alternating wet and – Exterior components in C25/30
dry contact with air (exposed to w/c ≤ 0.60
sprinkling), e.g.
Bridge superstructures and piers
– Foundation components in
contact with the ground near
the ground surface (up to 50
cm below the ground surface)
2. reinforcement corrosion caused by chlorides from de-icing agents
XD1 Moderate humidity Components in the spray mist area, C30/37
z. e.g. for superstructures w/c ≤ 0.55
XD2 Wet and rarely Vertical surfaces in the splash C35/45
dry water area where the splash water w/c ≤ 0.50
is drained off, e.g. abutments and
piers
XD3 Alternating wet and Horizontal surfaces in the spray C35/45
dry water area of traffic surfaces treated w/c ≤ 0.45
with de-icing agents, e.g. road
surfaces, caps
3. reinforcement corrosion caused by chlorides from seawater
XS1 Salty air All components near the coast C30/37
w/c ≤ 0.55

XS2 Under water Components that are permanently C35/45

submerged in sea water w/c ≤ 0.50
 8.5 Concrete 649
bridges
Table 8.5-2 (continued)

Class Description of Examples for the assignment of Minimum

the surroundings exposure classes requirements for the
concrete strength
classes and the
water/cement ratio
w/c
3. reinforcement corrosion caused by chlorides from seawater
XS3 In splash water Components in the spray mist and C35/45
and spray mist splash water area resulting from w/c ≤ 0.45
areas storms
4. concrete attack by frost with and without de-icing agents
XF1 - Moderate water Exterior concrete parts C25/30
saturation w/c ≤ 0.60
without de-
icing agent
XF2 - Moderate water – Components in the spray C35/45
saturation with mist or splash water area of w/c ≤ 0.50
de-icing agent dew-treated traffic areas
– Components in the spray mist
area of seawater

XF3 - High water – Vertical surfaces in the C35/45

saturation splash water area where the w/c ≤ 0.50
without dew splash water is drained off,
z. e.g. for abutments and piers
– Components in the water
exchange zone of fresh water

XF4 High water saturation – Horizontal surfaces C30/37 LP concrete a

with de-icing agent treated with de-icing w/c ≤ 0.50
agents, e.g. caps,
– Components in the water
exchange zone of seawater
5. concrete attack of foundations by chemical components
XA1 Chemically weakly Substructures in soils that attack C25/30
corrosive c concrete w/c ≤ 0.60

XA2 Chemically – Substructures in concrete C35/45

and moderately or access floors w/c ≤ 0.45
XA3 strongly – Substructures that come into
corrosive c contact with seawater
a According to [DIN-FB 100, 2005], only normal concrete is to be used.
b
4% minimum air content with a maximum grain size of 32 mm and a consistency of C1
c Limit values for the attack for classification in the exposure classes XA can be found in Table 8.5-

3.
650 8 Calculation

(i.e. by internal forces), but are caused by
physical and chemical attacks, are
classified according to [DIN 1045-1 and -2,
2008] and [DIN-
FB 100, 2005] differentiate between the
exposure classes listed in Table 8.5-2.
For the production of concrete, [DIN
1045-1, 2008] and [ DIN-FB 100,
2005] defines minimum concrete strength
classes depending on the exposure classes
(see Tables 8.5-2 and -3). The minimum
concrete strength classes specified in
[DIN EN 206-1, 2001] and [DIN 1045-2,
2008] to ensure durability, in particular
the limit values with regard to the
minimum cement content, the maximum
permissible water/cement ratio w/c and, if
applicable, the minimum air content and
other requirements.
The definition of the exposure classes
also serves to define the minimum
requirements for the concrete cover with
regard to protection against corrosion.
The minimum concrete cover also has the
The task is to ensure the safe transfer of
composite forces. Any structural
reinforcement arranged in components
that are otherwise to be regarded as
unreinforced must also meet the
requirements of Tables 8.5-4 if this
reinforcement is not taken into account in
verifications in the ultimate limit states or
serviceability limit states. The concrete
cover c (c: cover → cover, protect) is the
distance between the outer surface of the
reinforcement and the nearest concrete
surface. A minimum concrete cover must
be provided to ensure the transfer of bond
forces, the prevention of spalling of the
concrete surface, corrosion protection and
adequate fire protection.
The reinforcement is protected against
corrosion by the alkaline environment
present in the concrete, which can only be
permanently maintained in the area of the
reinforcement by sufficient concrete cover.
In addition, sufficient curing of the
concrete, which has a high

Table 8.5-3 Limit values of the chemical components in the soil and water for the concrete attack
for classification in the exposure classes XA according to [DIN-FB 100, 2005], Table 2
Concrete attack by Exposure class XA1 Exposure classes XA2
and XA3
SO2-
in mg/l in water ≥ 200 and ≤ 600 > 600 and ≤ 6000
4
SO2- soila
in mg/kg in ≥ 2000 and ≤ 3000 b > 3000 b and ≤ 24000
4

pH value ≥ 5.5 and ≤ 6.5 ≥ 4.0 and < 505

CO2 in mg/l calcifying in water ≥ 15 and ≤ 40 > 40
NH+
in mg/l in water ≥ 15 and ≤ 30 > 30 and ≤ 100
4

Mg2+ in ≥ 300 and ≤ 1000 > 1000

mg/l in water
a Clay soils with a permeability below 10-5 m/s may be classified in a lower class.
b If there is a risk of accumulation of sulphate ions in the concrete due to alternating drying and
soaking or capillary suction, the upper limit value of 3000 mg/kg must be reduced to 2000
mg/kg.
 8.5 Concrete 651
bridges
quality and impermeability. The required axis of the outermost bending tensile
concrete cover depends on the reinforcement, in accordance with DIN
environmental conditions and the 4102,
concrete strength. As it is not possible to ds1 Diameter of the longitudinal
build ideally without deviations from the reinforcement (bending tensile
target values, these unavoidable deviations reinforcement),
must be taken into account in the dSW Diameter of the transverse
structural design by means of provision reinforcement (stirrup).
dimensions in order to guarantee the
prescribed minimum concrete cover of the The values cv must be used as a basis for
reinforcement. The anchorage dimensions the design of the structural components
depend on the type of component, the when determining the effective structural
construction method, the structural design height and must be specified in the
(reinforcement layout) and the quality reinforcement drawings. The minimum
management. The values in accordance concrete cover cmin must not be less than
with [DIN 1045-1, 2008] for pre-stressing the corresponding value according to Tables
dimensions are given in Tables 8.5-4. The 8.5-4, depending on the relevant exposure
nominal dimension of the concrete cover class according to Table 8.5-2. The values
cv is made up of the minimum dimension cmin must be guaranteed during
cmin and an additional pre-retained construction even after concreting.
dimension Δc: The values for the retention dimension
may be reduced by 5 mm if this is justified
cnom = cmin + ∆c
by a corresponding quality control during
The installation dimension cv of the planning, design, manufacture and
reinforcement results from the construction.
requirement that the necessary nominal The bond forces that can be absorbed
dimension of the concrete cover must be between steel and concrete depend not
maintained for each individual only on the concrete strength and the steel
reinforcement element. strength but also on the reinforcement
diameter. In order to safely transfer
for panels: sufficient bond forces and ensure good
concrete compaction
to ensure that the minimum concrete
r
� c + ∆c
� min cover of the reinforcing bars must
cv � � ds� + ∆
c therefore not be less than:
�t u - ds�/�
• the bar diameter ds of the reinforcing
for beams: steel reinforcement or the comparative
diameter of a bar bundle dsV , (the
� cmin + ∆c
r comparative diameter results in: dsV =
� dSW + ∆c
cv ���d + ∆c - d ds - √ 3 n s , with ns : Number of reinforcement
rods of a rod bundle),
s SW
t
u - ds / - dSW • 2.5 times the nominal diameter dp of a
stranded wire or 3 times the nominal
with: diameter dp of a ribbed wire in
cmin Minimum dimension of the prestressed concrete components with
concrete cover, Δc Retention immediate bonding,
dimension, • the outer sheath diameter of a tendon
u Distance of the heat-stressed with a subsequent bond.
concrete surface from the center
of gravity
652 8 Calculation

For prestressed concrete components with DIN-FB 102, 2009] specifies

internal tendons without bond, the
specifications in the general building
authority approvals apply for the
minimum concrete cover in the
anchorage areas and in the area of the free
length of the sheathed tendon.
Surface reinforcements and
reinforcements in components that are
otherwise to be regarded as unreinforced
must meet the requirements for the
concrete cover, even if the reinforcement
is not used for the verifications in the
ultimate and serviceability limit states.
Further regulations on concrete cover
with regard to components made of
lightweight concrete and components
subject to wear can be found in [DIN
1045-1, 2008], Section 6.3.
requirements with regard to the limitation
of stresses and crack width as well as
decompression. The structures and
components must be assigned to an
exposure class in accordance with [DIN-
FB 100, 2005] (Table 8.5-2). In [ARS
11/2003], requirement classes are
specified for concrete superstructures,
Table 8.5-5. In [DIN 1045-1, 2008], the
minimum requirement classes specified in
Table 8.5-6 are compiled as a function of
the exposure class. According to [DIN-FB
102, 2009], the client must determine the
requirement category for the design and
construction of the bridge. This can be
considered fulfilled if the classification is
made according to Tables 8.5-6 and -7.
The following applies to the construction
and final state

Table 8.5-4 a Minimum values for the concrete cover according to Table 4 from [DIN 1045-1, 2008].
Exposure class Minimum concrete cover cmin [mm] Retention
dimension Δc
Reinforcing steel Tendons in the so [mm]
fortified and in the so
nach träglichen bond c
XC1 10 20 10
XC2 and XC3 a, b 20 30 15
XC4 a, b 25 35

XD1 to XD3 a, b, d 40 50
XS1 to XS3 a, b
a The values may be reduced by 5 mm for components made of normal concrete whose concrete
strength is 2 strength classes higher than the minimum required according to Table 8.5-2. This
reduction is not permitted for components of exposure class XC1.
b If site-cast concrete is friction-locked to a precast element, the values at the edges facing the

joint may be reduced to 5 mm in the precast element and to 10 mm in the site-cast concrete.
However, the conditions for ensuring the bond must be complied with if the reinforcement is
utilized in the construction stage. The pre-stressing dimension may be dispensed with on both
sides of the bond joint.
c The minimum concrete cover for tendons with subsequent bonding refers to the

Surface of the cladding tube.

d In individual cases, XD3 may require special measures to protect the reinforcement against

corrosion.
 8.5 Concrete 653
bridges
Table 8.5-4 b Minimum values for the concrete cover in accordance with Section 4.1.3.3 and
Table 4.101 of [DIN-FB 102, 2009]-II
Component Minimum concrete cover cmin [mm] Retention
dimension
Reinforcing prestressing steel Δc [mm]
steel
Superstructure made of 40 n.∅ 5a
prestressed reinforced ∅: Nominal diameter of
concrete with immediate the prestressing wire
bond n = 2: for strands
n = 3: in the case of ribbed wires,
tendons lying under the surface of
the deck slab or the cover plate of
footbridges, must be
cmin ≥ 100 mm for longitudinal
tendons and
cmin ≥ 80 mm for transverse
tensioning elements

Superstructure made of A ∅and ≥ 50 mm

pre-stressed reinforced
concrete with subsequent
bonding
A Outer diameter of the
cladding tube
If tendons are under the surface of
the deck slab or the deck slab of
footbridges, they must be
cmin ≥ 100 mm
for longitudinal tendons and
cmin ≥ 80 mm for transverse
tendons.

Caps and the like and on 40 -

surfaces not in contact
with concrete on road
bridges
Caps and the like and on 30 -
surfaces not in contact
with concrete on rail
bridges
Caps and the like and 20 -
on surfaces in contact
with concrete on road
and railroad bridges
On surfaces of 40 -
substructures not in
contact with the ground
On surfaces of 50 -
substructures in contact
with the ground
654 8 Calculation

Table 8.5-4 b (continued)

Component Minimum concrete cover cmin [mm] Retention

dimension
Reinforcing prestressing steel Δc [mm]
steel
Poured concrete against 40 - 5a

textured formwork or on
prepared substrate against
uneven surfaces

Concrete poured directly 75 -

against the ground
If the concrete surface is exposed to aggressive effects due to chemical influences, e.g. de-icing
agents in the splash or spray area, or seawater, the minimum concrete cover must be cmin = 50
mm [DIN-FB 102, 2009]-II, Section 4.1.3.3 (114) P. Additional protective measures must be
taken to prevent direct contact with chemically aggressive substances in chemically aggressive
environments.
To ensure the bond and the required compaction of the concrete, the concrete cover must not
be smaller than:
– the bar diameter of the reinforcing steel, the comparative diameter of a bar bundle (bar bundles
may only be used with the consent of the project owner)
– the nominal value of the maximum grain diameter of the surcharge
– the value of the bar diameter of the reinforcing steel, the comparative diameter of a bar
bundle or the outer diameter of the tendon sheath increased by 5 mm if the maximum grain
diameter of the aggregate is more than 32 mm
a The pre-retaining dimension of Δc = 15 mm required according to [DIN 1045-1, 2008] is not
required according to [DIN-FB 102, 2009]. It is therefore essential to ensure particularly careful
quality control during design and construction! Otherwise, and this is recommended by the
authors, the larger pre-staying dimension in accordance with [DIN 1045-1, 2008] should be
observed for the bottom reinforcement in bridge superstructures.

the same requirement category. In special
cases, an individual decision may be
appropriate, which must be agreed
between the structural engineer and the
project owner. The minimum
requirement class D applies to
foundations and substructures made of
reinforced concrete. Requirement class E
has no significance in bridge construction.
Table 8.5-7 shows the verification
conditions to be complied with in [DIN FB
102, 2009] for the limit state of
decompression and the limitation of crack
widths. The requirements correspond
approximately to those previously
specified as pre-tensioning
degree (full, limited, partial and non-
prestressed concrete). The decompression
check is of primary importance for
prestressed bridges. This verification
minimizes the probability of cracks
occurring, but isolated cracks cannot be
prevented. Even with very highly
prestressed structures, isolated cracks
cannot be prevented with certainty. It is
therefore advisable not to prestress too
high, but to arrange sufficient reinforcing
steel to limit the crack widths [Leonhardt,
1979], [Menn, 1986].
 8.5 Concrete 655
bridges
Table 8.5-5 Minimum requirement classes for concrete superstructures according to [ARS 11/2003].
Longitudinal system, type of Requirement categories
pre-tensioning
For the For the transverse For the transverse
longitudinal d i r e c t i o n , if direction, when
direction no preload is pretensioning in the
applied in the transverse direction
a
transverse
direction
Reinforced concrete D D Db
superstructure: not
prestressed in longitudinal
direction
Prestressed concrete Cc D B
superstructure with
composite or mixed tendons
Box girders with external Cd D Db
tendons only
a According to [DIN-FB 102, 2009]-III, 3.3 (1) P, only replaceable, internal tendons without bond
may be used for the transverse prestressing of roadway slabs. The anchor bodies of the
transverse tendons must be arranged at the slab edges in such a way that subsequent post-
tensioning is possible on both sides. Parts of the anchorages must not be embedded in the cap
concrete [ZTV-ING-3, 2003], 2.3.2 (5).
b The limitation of the concrete edge tensile stresses in the bridge deck specified in Table 8.5-10 is not

applicable.
transverse direction must be complied with. In addition, the crack width limitation in the
transverse direction of the bridge must be verified under the same conditions as in the
longitudinal direction of the bridge.
c For statically determinate longitudinal support systems, requirement category B instead of C

must be selected for prestressed reinforced concrete with bonded tendons or for mixed
construction.
d The minimum requirement class D may be selected for prestressed concrete box girder bridges if

the proof of decompression for the action combination with the coefficient ψ2 = 0.3 for all
actions from traffic is carried out to determine the pre-tension. The effects of temperature and
structural settlements do not need to be taken into account.

Table 8.5-6 Minimum requirement classes depending on the exposure class according to Table
19 of [DIN 1045-1, 2008].
Exposure class Minimum requirement classes for the pretensioning Reinforced
types concrete
Pre-tensioning Pre-tension with Pre-tension construction
with immediate without bond parts
subsequent bonding
bonding
XC1 D D F F
XC2-XC4 C a C E E
XD1, XD2, Ca B E E
XD3 b, XS1-
3
656 8 Calculation
a If corrosion protection is ensured by other means, requirement category D may be used (see

general building authority approvals for tensioning methods).

b In individual cases, additional special measures for corrosion protection may be necessary.
8.5 Concrete 657
bridges
Table 8.5-7 Requirements in the serviceability limit states for the limitation of crack widths and
decompression according to Table 4.118 of [DIN-FB 102, 2009]-II
Requirement Exposure combination for the verification of the Calculated value of
class the characteristic
Decompression Crack width limitation crack width wk
[mm]
A not often rare 0,2
B frequently not often
C quasi constantly frequently
D - frequently
E - quasi constantly 0,3

Cracking is practically unavoidable in Tables 8.5-11 and 8.5-12 are summarized

concrete structures under tensile stress,
bending, shear force, torsion and
constraint due to the relatively low tensile
strength of the concrete and is therefore
not a defect if the crack widths and depths
are limited in such a way that the
serviceability, durability and appearance
of the structure are not unduly impaired
as a result of the cracking. This requires
that the bond between concrete and steel
is guaranteed and that corrosion
protection is ensured. Instead of a few
wide and deep cracks with large crack
spacings, many cracks with small crack
spacings and small crack widths and
depths should form. For the
decompression limit state, no concrete
tensile stresses may occur at the edge
closest to the tendon in requirement
categories A to C under the decisive
action combination. The requirements for
the durability and appearance of a
structural component are deemed to be
fulfilled if the requirements specified in
Tables 8.5.6 to 8.5-12 are met. The
limitation of the concrete stresses in
accordance with [DIN-FB 102, 2009] is
specified in Tables 8.5-8 to 8.5-10 and that
of the concrete and prestressing steel
stresses in Tables 8.5-12.
in compact form. The tables contain some
explanations and justifications.
If a bridge prestressed in the
longitudinal direction is not prestressed in
the transverse direction, the concrete
tensile stresses to be determined in state I
at the edge of the cross-section in the
transverse direction of the bridge under
the rare combination of actions must be
limited to the values given in Table 8.5-10.
This limitation of the tensile stresses does
not serve the necessary limitation of the
crack widths. Instead, the verification of
the crack width limitation in the
transverse direction of the bridge is to be
performed under the same verification
conditions as in the longitudinal direction
of the bridge.
The mechanical principles of the
interaction of concrete and steel before
and after crack formation in concrete and
the derivation of the equations for
calculating the crack widths and spacings
are presented in corresponding textbooks,
e.g. [Mehl- horn et al., 2002]. According
to these textbooks, the crack widths and
spacings for both the single crack and the
closed crack formation in [DIN 1045-1,
2008] and in [DIN-FB 102, 2009]-II,
Section 4.4.2.4, are calculated taking into
account long-lasting action.
given equations for determining
658 8 Calculation

Table 8.5-8 Limitation of concrete compressive stresses for the serviceability limit state according to
[DIN-FB 102, 2009]-II, Section 4.4.1.2
If the tensile stresses calculated in the uncracked state under the rare load Rule
combination exceed the value fctm (fctm according to Table 3.1 in [DIN-FB 102,
2009]-II), the stresses for the cracked state must be determined. Based on the
cracked concrete cross-section, it can be assumed that the concrete behaves
elastically but cannot absorb tensile stresses. The stiffening influence of the
concrete between the cracks can be neglected under these assumptions when
calculating the stress limitation.

Stress permissible σc Exceptions, additional

c o n d i t i o n s and notes
For non-frequent ≥ -0,6 . fck This limit must be adhered to in 4.4.1.2,
action combination order to avoid excessive (103) P
and mean value of pre- microcrack formation and
tension. longitudinal cracks in the
concrete.
If the compression zone is strapped
with ρ ≥ 1.0%, the absolute values of
the compressive stresses may be
exceeded by 10%. ρ is the amount of
strapping reinforcement related to
the cross-sectional area of the
compression zone.
With quasi- ≥ -0.6 . fc (t) a In the manufacture of precast 4.4.1.2,
permanent action elements, the value -0.6 . fc (t) may (103) P
combination and with be undercut by 10% (i.e. 10% higher
entry of the mean permissible compressive stress) in
value of the pre- the case of strict, independent
tension at time t. checks of the temporal development
of the concrete compressive
strength and the pre-tensioning
losses during construction. fc (t) is
the mean value of the concrete
compressive strength at the time t of
entry of the pre-tension.
With quasi- ≥ -0.6 . fc (t) a If the amount of concrete 4.4.1.2,
permanent action compressive stress exceeds the value (102) P
combination and with 0.45 . fc (t), the non-linearity of
entry of the mean the creep must be taken into
value of the pre- account. fc (t) is the mean value of
tension at time t. the concrete compressive strength
(absolute value) at time t of the
entry of the prestressing force.
8.5 Concrete 659
bridges
Table 8.5-8 (continued)
If the tensile stresses calculated in the uncracked state under the rare load Rule
combination exceed the value fctm (fctm according to Table 3.1 in [DIN-FB 102,
2009]-II), the stresses for the cracked state must be determined. If the cracked
concrete cross-section is used as a basis, it can be assumed that the concrete
behaves in a linear elastic manner but cannot absorb any tensile stresses. The
stiffening influence of the concrete between the cracks can be neglected under
these assumptions when calculating the stress limitation.

Stress permissible σc Exceptions, additional

c o n d i t i o n s and notes
For quasi-permanent ≥ -0,45 . fck This limitation is intended to 4.4.1.2,
action combinations prevent disproportionate creep (104)* P
and the mean value of deformation.
the pre-tension, if the
serviceability, the load-
bearing capacity or the
durability of the
structure is significantly
influenced by the creep.

For rare combinations of < -1.0 N/mm2
effects and the decisive
characteristic values of
the pre-tension.
a For prestressed precast elements with immediate bond, the stress limit may be raised to 0.7 . fct if
this is justified by tests or experience [DIN-FB 102, 2009]-IV, 4.4.1.2 (102) P.
In these areas, the minimum 4.4.2.2,
reinforcement for crack width (3)* and
limitation is not required for [ARS
components with pre-tensioning 11/2003]
with bond. However, this does not (14)
apply to the areas at construction
joints, where minimum
reinforcement is always required.
This results from
Eq. (8.5-81). Parallel to the
construction joint, this
reinforcement must b e
determined with kc = 1 and
arranged over a length
corresponding to the superstructure
height, but not more than 2 m.
Perpendicular to the construction
joint, the minimum reinforcement
must be arranged on both sides of
the construction joint over a length
equal to the superstructure height
plus the anchorage length, but not
more than 4 m.
If the construction joint is a
coupling joint, the mean value of
the prestressing force must be
reduced to 75%. This reduction also
applies to the verification of the
limitation of crack widths.
660 8 Calculation

Table 8.5-9 Permissible concrete tensile stresses in the serviceability limit states according to
[DIN-FB 102, 2009]-II, Sections 4.4.1.1 and 4.4.2.1
Location and load permissible σc Notes Rule
In the tension and ≤ fctm If fctm is exceeded, a 4.4.1.1,
compression zone a under rare cracked condition (5)
action combination and the (condition II) is to be
mean value of the pre-tension expected. fctm is listed in
with the calculation in the Table 3.1 of [DIN-FB 102,
uncracked state (state I). 2009]-II
indicated.
Under the decisive action ≤0 For the decompression 4.4.2.1,
combination, according to limit state, if for (106) P
Table 8.5-7, [DIN-FB 102, requirement categories A,
2009]-II and the characteristic B and C according to the
value of prestressing for t h e table
decompression limit state at 4.118 of [DIN-FB 102,
the edge closest to the tendon, 2009]-II (Table 8.5-7)
for requirement classes A, B or is measured.
C.

Tensile stresses at the lower edge ≤ 0.85 . fctk; 0.05 f ctk;0,05 is listed in Table 3.1 of 4.4.2.1,
of roads, footbridges and cycle [DIN-FB 102, 2009]-II (107) P
bridges under the decisive indicated.
combination of actions and the
characteristic value of
prestressing b.

a The tensile and compression zones are the areas in which tensile or compressive stresses arise
from external influences.
b The possible scatter of the prestressing force must be taken into account by an upper and lower

characteristic value of the prestressing force (factors rsup , rinf see [DIN-FB 102, 2009]-II,
Sections 2.5.4.2 (4) and for the construction stage 4.4.2.1 (107) P).

Table 8.5-10 Permissible concrete edge tensile stresses a in the transverse direction of the bridge
according to table
4.118 a) of [DIN-FB 102, 2009]-II for bridges prestressed in the longitudinal direction without
prestressing in the transverse direction
Concrete strength class C 30/37 C35/45 C40/50 C45/55 C50/60
permissible σc [N/mm2] 4,0 5,0 5,5 6,0 6,5
a under rare action combination and the mean value of the pre-tension, determined in state I.
8.5 Concrete 661
bridges
Table 8.5-11 Reinforcing steel stresses in the serviceability limit state according to [DIN-
FB 102, 2009]-II, Sections 4.4.1.3 and 3.2.2
Stress permissib Notes Rules
le σc
Under non-frequent action ≤ 0,8 . fyk No non-elastic expansions may 4.4.1.3, (1) P and
combination and the occur in the reinforcing steel. (105) and
characteristic value of the Only concrete steel with high 3.2.2, (109)P
pre-tension a ductility may be used.

a Thepossible scatter of the prestressing force must be taken into account by an upper and lower
characteristic value of the prestressing force (additional safety elements rsup , rinf as factors, see
[DIN-FB 102, 2009]).

of the calculated value of the crack width the strength class at which the
and the crack spacing: occurrence of cracks is to be
expected is decisive.
is to be expected. If the time of
wk = sr,max ⋅ (εsm - εcm ) (8.5-76)
the expected crack formation
with: cannot be determined with
certainty within the
fct,eff ⋅
σ II - 0.4 ⋅ ⎡1 + α ⋅ ρ ⎤ the first 28 days
s ⎣ E eff ⎦ a tensile strength of at least 3 N/mm2
εsm - εcm =
ρeff
must be assumed.
Es ρeff the effective reinforcement ratio un-
σ
≥ 0.6 ⋅ s (8.5-77) taking into account the different
Es bonding behavior of the concrete
ds σs ⋅ d s and prestressing steel results in
sr,max =
≤ (8.5-78) itself:
3.6 ⋅ ρ eff 3,6 ⋅ ct,eff A As + ξ 2 ⋅Ap
f
1
ρeff =
s
=
It means: Ac,eff
Ac,eff
(8.5-79)
wk the calculated value of the crack with:
width
sr,max the largest crack spacing with a ξ1 =
closed crack pattern ds
ξ⋅
εsm the mean value of the strain of dp
the reinforcement when taking
into account
of the concrete between the As and Ap are the cross-sectional areas of
cracks the reinforcing steel or the prestressing
εcm is the mean value of the steel in the bond within the effective area.
elongation of the
Concrete between the cracks Ac,eff . ξ1 is the ratio ξ of the average bond
σsII the stress in the reinforcing steel strengths of prestressing steel and
in the considered cracked reinforcing steel (Table 8.5-13), taking
transverse section into account the different diameters. Ac,eff
It
αE = ratio of the elasticity kenn-
E7cm modules
662
fct, effis the effective tensile strength
a t t h e time under
consideration. This is
8 Calculation
indicates the effective range in which the
reinforcement influences the crack widths
in the same way as for a reinforced concrete
tension rod with uniformly distributed
longitudinal reinforcement.
8.5 Table
Concrete
8.5-12 Prestressing steel stresses in the serviceability limit state in accordance with [DIN-FB 102, 2009]-II, Section 4.4.1.4 and [DIN 1045-1, 2008]
bridges
and during the prestressing process (including any overstressing to compensate for losses in prestressing force) in accordance with [DIN-FB 102, 2009]-II,
Section 4.2.3.5.4
Stress
Under quasi-permanent action
combination with the mean value of
the pre-tension after deduction of the
tension force losses t →∞ in each
transverse section (the cross-sections
subject to the highest stress in the span
and above the supports are decisive).
1. Tension σ0,max during pre-
tensioning on the stressing anchor
during the pre-tensioning process
under the applied maximum force
(press force) including
overstressing.
2. Under rare action combination at any
time t.
Reduced stress σ0,max for tendons with
subsequent bonding below the planned
maximum force on the stressing
anchor during the prestressing process
(prestressing dimension), so that even
in the event of necessary overstressing
of the tendons due to unforeseen
increased friction losses, the desired
prestressing can be achieved over the
component length and the permissible
stress is not exceeded.
663
654
permissible σp Exceptions, explanations Rule
≤ 0,65 . fpk This limitation does not apply to external and 4.4.1.4, (1)*P
replaceable internal tendons without bond, if their
replaceability is undoubtedly ensured.
The limit σp ≤ 0.65 . fpk under
The purpose of the quasi-permanent action
combination is to counter the risk of stress corrosion
cracking.
⎧0,8 ⋅ fpk The lower value is decisive in each case. Clamping bed To 1. according to
≤⎨ force P(0) or clamping
max force (press force) 4.2.3.5.4, (2)*P
⎩0.9 ⋅ fp0.1k on the stressing anchor P0,max .
Overtensioning is only permitted if the tensioning jack
ensures a measuring accuracy of the applied pretensioning
force of ± 5% in relation to the final value of the To 2. according to
pretensioning force. [DIN 1045-1,
2008], 11.1.4 (2)
⎧0.8 ⋅ fpk ⋅ e-μ ⋅ γ ⋅(κ -1) The lower value is decisive. 4.2.3.5.4, (2)*P
≤ ⎨0 μ ... Coefficient of friction
e-μ ⋅γ ⋅(κ -1)
⎩ .9 ⋅ fp0.1k ⋅ k ... unintentional deflection angle per unit length
μ and k according to the general technical approval of
the tensioning method γ = Θ + k . x where Θ a is the sum
of the scheduled deflection angles up to length x. x is the
tendon length measured from the stressing anchor over
8 Calculation
which the friction acts to minimize the stressing force
during initial tensioning.
 bridges
8.5 Concrete
κ ... Reserve capacity for securing the overvoltage reserve
– for tendons without bond: κ = 1.0
– if the tendons are unprotected in the duct (observe
the construction sequence!):
κ = 1.5 up to 3 weeks unprotected
κ = 2.0 more than 3 weeks unprotected
The pre-stressing dimension should not be dispensed
with in the case of pre-stressed steel cladding with
subsequent bonding. If this is dispensed with, design
measures must be agreed with the client.

Average value of the tendon stress σpm,0 ⎧0,75 ⋅ fpk The lower value is decisive. 4.2.3.5.4, (3)*P
at time t = 0, immediately after the ≤ ⎨0,85 ⋅ fp0,1k Pre-tensioning must be carefully checked and recorded
prestressing force has been applied to ⎩ under supervision.
the concrete. In order to utilize the permissible σp = 0.65 . fpk for pre-
tensioning with subsequent bonding in the relevant cross-
sections, overstressing with release (possibly several times)
during pre-tensioning is recommended. This means that
this stricter limitation compared to the above can usually
be avoided.
a Fortendons curved in two planes, the decisive deflection angles must be determined vectorially. The sum of the planar deflection angles up to the cross-
section under consideration results from the vertical and horizontal deflection angles for spatially curved tendons

Θvert. and Θhor. : → Θ = ∑Θ2vert. + Θ2hor.

655
656 8 Calculation

Table 8.5-13 Ratio ξ of the bond strength of the prestressing steel to that of the ribbed rebars
according to [DIN-FB 102, 2009]-II, Table 4.115 a
Tendons with immediate Tendons with subsequent
bond bonding
Smooth bars - 0,3
Strands 0,6 0,5
Profiled wires 0,7 0,6
Ribbed rods 0,8 0,7
Significantly different heights of concrete and prestressing steel must be taken into account.

The effective area Ac,eff may be
determined according to Figure 8.5-36
using 2.5 times the distance of the edge
tension fiber from the center of gravity of
the reinforcement.
The verification of the limitation of the
crack width can also be performed
indirectly, without direct calculation of
the crack width, by limiting the diameter
and the mutual spacing of the reinforcing
bars. The steel stresses σII for the cracked
cross-section unders consideration (state
II) must first be determined under the
decisive action combination and, in the
case of pre-tensioned components, with
the decisive characteristic values of the pre-
tension. The limit diameter ds * and the
permissible spacing of the reinforcing bars
result from the determined steel stress σII
from
Table 8.5-14 and are to be converted
s
as a function of the effective concrete
tensile strength fct,eff and the component
height h as follows:
σs ⋅ As fct,eff
d = d*⋅ ≥ d* ⋅
s s
4 ⋅ (h - d) ⋅ b ⋅ fct,0 s fct,0
(8.5-80)
In Eq. (8.5-80) means:
ds Converted limit diameter
d*s the limit diameter according to
Table 8.5-14
σII
the reinforcing steel stress in
s addition II, for components with
tendons in the bond σII is to be
determined according to Eq. (8.5-
81)
s
As the cross-sectional area of the
concrete steel in the tensile zone
h the component height
d the static effective height
b the width of the draft zone
fct,0 the tensile strength of the concrete to
which the values in Table 8.8-14
are related is fct,0 = 3.0 N/ mm2
fct,eff is the effective tensile strength at the
time under consideration, as in
Eq. (8.5-78)
The equations given for determining the
crack widths and spacing only apply to
areas that are sufficiently close to the
reinforcement in the bond, i.e. within the
effective bond tension zone. Outside these
areas, larger cracks can occur if these areas
are subjected to tensile stress. Des-
All concrete parts in the vicinity of all external
surfaces must be sufficiently reinforced.
In bridge construction, only ribbed
reinforcing steel bars with a bar diameter
of at least 10 mm may be used, and the
mutual spacing of the reinforcing steel
bars must not exceed
not be greater than 20 cm. The clear distance
between parallel bars must be
8.5 Concrete 657
bridges

Figure 8.5-36 Definitions of the effective tensile zones of concrete Ac,eff to determine the effective
reinforcement ratio ρeff

Table 8.5-14 Limit diameter d*s and maximum bar spacing for reinforcing bars according to
[DIN FB 102, 2009]-II, Tables 4.120 and 4.121
Steel chip Calculation value of the Calculation value of the crack
removal σII crack width to be width to be maintained: wk =
in s maintained: wk = 0.3 mm 0.2 mm
N/mm2
Limit Maximum values Limit Maximum values
diameter of for the diameter of for the
the permissible bar the permissible bar
reinforcing spacing reinforcing spacing
steel in mm in mm steel in mm in mm
160 42 300 28 200
200 28 250 18 150
240 19 200 13 100
280 14 150 9 50
320 11 100 7 -
360 8 50 6 -

In bridge construction, ribbed reinforcing bars with a diameter of at least 10 mm must be used.
Their mutual spacing must not be greater than 20 cm, [DIN-FB 102, 2009]-II, Section 5.1, (4) P
and (5).

be at least 20 mm. The horizontal and high concentrations of reinforcement,

vertical clear spacing of the reinforcing
bars must be at least as large as the largest
diameter of the bars and at least 5 mm
more than the maximum grain diameter
of the aggregate. For the structural design
especially with intersecting reinforcement,
care must be taken when determining the
mutual spacing of the reinforcing bars to
ensure that the diameters of the
reinforcing bars deviate from their
nominal values. The heights of the
diagonal and
658
Longitudinal ribs mean that the
reinforcing steel requires more space than
the nominal diameter. In these cases, it
should be noted that the outer cross-
sectional dimensions, expressed by dmax ,
including the ribs, can be 20% larger than
the nominal diameter ds (dmax ≈ 1.2 - ds ).
For reinforcement arrangements in
several horizontal layers, the bars of the
individual layers should match vertically.
lie on top of each other. Sufficient
concreting gaps must be provided in the
reinforcement arrangement.
If the design does not result in higher
values, [DIN-FB 102, 2009], Section 4.4.2.2
requires a minimum reinforcement
(exception see Table 8.5-8) to avoid wide
single cracks from restraint or residual
stresses:
A ct
As ≥ kc ⋅ k ⋅ ⋅ (8.5-81)
σs
fct,eff
σII is the permissible stress in the
s residual stresses due to the non-linear
reinforcing steel
as a function of the limit diameter d*s
according to Table 8.5-14. fct,eff is to be
determined as in Eq. (8.5-78). Act is the
cross-sectional area that is under tensile
stress before the first crack is formed. The
coefficient kc takes into account the
influence of the stress distribution within
the tensile zone Act before the first crack is
formed.
⎛ σ c ⎞
kc = 0.4 ⋅ ⎜1 + ⎟≤1
⎜ k1 ⋅ fct,eff ⎟
⎝ ⎠
σc is the concrete stress in the uncracked
state (negative in longitudinal
compression) in the fiber of the gravity
axis of the cross-section or partial cross-
section (for slabs and beams usually the
concrete stress from the longitudinal force
component of the pre-tension, with
increasing pre-tension kc becomes
smaller) under the action combination that
8 Calculation
tensile zone Act only applies to the
relevant reinforcement layer. For
e x a m p l e , in the case of chord slabs
subject to tension, kc should therefore
only be related to the outer reinforcement
layer and only half the chord slab
thickness should be taken into account
when determining A .ct
The longitudinal force influence is
taken into account with the coefficient k1 .
As a rule, the longitudinal force in pre-
stressed structures is a compressive force.
The following applies:
1,5 - h
k1 = 1
9h′
with:
h Height of the cross-section or partial
cross-section
h′ = h for h < 1 m
h′ = 1 mfor h ≥ 1 m.
With the coefficient k, the influence
of the non-linear course of the concrete
tensile stresses. Bridges are external
components. Therefore, as a rule
temperature fields. This is due to
constraints caused in the component itself
(e.g. dissipation of hydration heat) for:
k = 0. 8for h ≤ 300 mm
k = 0. 5for h ≥ 800 mm
to be set. Intermediate values may be
linearly terpolated.
In the case of a leak from outside the component
called coercion (e.g. in the case of support sen-
k = 1.0 must be set.
For an area of activity in a
leads to initial cracking in the overall cross-
section. It should be noted that the coefficient kc
and the area of the concrete
 8.5 Concrete 659
bridges
square with a side length of 300
mm around the axis of the
tendon, the prestressing steel in
the bond may be taken into
account when determining the
required reinforcement, whereby
the different bond behavior must
be taken into account (see above).
In the case of profiled cross-
sections (plate girders, box
girders), the minimum
reinforcement must be
determined for each partial cross-
section (stakes and chords). For
pre-tensioned constructions with
pre-tension in the bracing
660 8 Calculation

The minimum reinforcement according

to [ DIN-FB 102, 2009] is not required in
the areas in which concrete compressive
stresses above -1 N/mm2 are present under
the rare combination of actions. However,
the constructive minimum reinforcement
in accordance with [DIN 1045-1, 2008],
Tables 29 and 30, must always be present.
The tensile strength of concrete in
construction joints is significantly lower
than in undisturbed areas. Different
conditions therefore apply there. A
minimum reinforcement is always
required at construction joints. This is
given by Eq. (8.5-81). Parallel to the
construction joint, this reinforcement
must be determined with kc = 1 and
arranged over a length that corresponds to
the superstructure height, but not more
than 2 m. Perpendicular to the
construction joint, the minimum
reinforcement must be arranged on both
sides of the construction joint over a
length equal to the superstructure height
plus the anchorage length, but not more
than 4 m.
If the construction joint is also a
coupling joint, the required reinforcement
must be determined by examining the
stress conditions more closely. It should
also be noted that the prestressing force is
reduced at the coupling joint. The mean
value of the prestressing force must be
reduced to 75% there. This reduction also
applies to the verification of the limitation
of the crack widths. The minimum
reinforcement required for construction
joints parallel and perpendicular to the
joint (see above) is decisive.
Box girders are large articulated cross-
sections. They are therefore subject to
high residual stresses. The concrete tensile
strength is often exceeded due to the Figure 8.5-37 Geometry of the superstructure
superposition of the residual and restraint
stresses in the base plate, in which a
centric tensile stress occurs in practice.
For box girders with external pre-tension,
the required minimum reinforcement
should therefore be determined in all cases
according to equation (8.5-81).
 8.5 Concrete
bridges
The horizontal and vertical clear spacing
of the tendons with subsequent bond must
be greater than 80% of the outer duct
diameter, but must not be less than 40 mm
in the vertical direction and 50 mm in the
horizontal direction. In the case of pre-
tensioning with immediate bond, the
horizontal clearance between the strands
must be at least as large as the diameter of
the strands, but it must not be less than 20
mm and must be at least 5 mm more than
the maximum grain size of the aggregate.
The vertical clearance must be at least as
large as the diameter of the strands and must
be at least 10 mm and as large as the
maximum grain size of the aggregate.
8.5.7 Calculation example, continuous
prestressed slab bridge over three spans
8.5.7.1 Introduction
The continuous slab of the calculation
example should be prestressed in the
longitudinal direction. An average
construction height of h = 0.80 m is
selected for the superstructure. Selected
verifications in the ultimate and
serviceability limit states are carried out as
examples for bending with longitudinal
force.
8.5.7.1.1 Further assumptions
Requirement category C was selected in
the longitudinal direction of the bridge and
requirement category D in the transverse
direction (Table 8.5-5). With regard to the
durability requirements, the reinforced
concrete superstructure is assigned to
exposure class XD 3 and XF 2 (Table 8.5-
2).
661
8.5.7.1.2 Concrete cover and static height
According to [DIN-FB 102, 2009], the
pre-stressing dimension of 0.5 cm must be
taken into account. The authors consider
this value to be too small for the
reinforcing steel below in bridge
construction. Due to installation-related
walking on reinforcement that has already
been laid, permanent deformations occur
that can exceed 0.5 cm. For this reason,
the pre-stressing dimension for the lower
reinforcement layer is set at 1.5 cm in
accordance with [DIN 1045-1, 2008]
(Table 8.5-4b, footnote).
• for the reinforcing steel at the top:
min cs = 4.0 cm, nom cs = 4.5 cm
This results in the statically usable height of
the reinforcing steel:
dslo = h - nom c - ∅sq - ∅sl /2
= 80 - 4.5 - 1.4 -1.4/2 = 73.4 cm
≈ 73.0 cm
Distance of the geometric center of gravity
of the superstructure from that of the
reinforcing steel:
zcso = dslo - zco = 0.730 - 0.368
= 0,362 m
• for the reinforcing steel at the bottom:
dslu = 80 - 5.5 - 1.4 -1.4/2 = 72.4 cm
≈ 72.0 cm
zcsu = dslu - zcu = 0.720 -0.432 = 0.288 m
• for the sheaths of the tendons at
the top:
For reasons of protecting the tendons
from corrosion (Table 8.5-4b), the
concrete cover of the ducts must be
below the roadway:
min cH ≥ 10.0 cm, nom cH = 10.5 cm
The duct used in this example has an
external diameter of 7.2 cm (see section
8.5.7.3.3). The following applies to the
statically usable height of the tendons:
662 8 Calculation

dpo = h - nom cH - ∅H /2 + e

105

129
= 80,0 - 10,5 - 7,2/2 + 1,2
= 67.1 cm � 0.671 m

368
239
72
zcpo = dpo - zcu = 0.671 - 0.432

12
Heavy axle
= 0,239 m

80
• for the sheaths of the tendons below:

301
min cH ≥ ∅H = 7.2 cm

432
12
nom cH = 7.7 cm < nomc + ∅sq + ∅sl
= 5.5 + 1.4 + 1.4 = 8.3 cm

selected: min cV = 8.3 cm
dpu = h - cV - ∅H /2 - e
= 80,0 - 8,3 - 7,2/2 - 1,2
≈ 67.0 cm � 0.670 m
zcpu = dpu - zco = 0.670 - 0.368
= 0,302 m
sq , ∅∅sl , ∅H Diameter of the transverse,
Longitudinal reinforcement,
cladding tube outer diameter
e Eccentricity of the clamping
link axis to the cladding tube
axis (here 1.2 cm)
dsl Static height of the reinforcing
steel
dpu , dpo static height of the lower
or upper tendons
zcsu , zcso Distance of the center of gravity
axis of the
superstructure from the heavy
axis of the reinforcing steel
below or above
zcpu , zcpo Distance of the center of gravity
axis of the
superstructure from the heavy
axis of the prestressing steel
below or above
8.5.7.1.3 Cross-section values of the superstructure
slab
131
83
Figure 8.5-38 Concrete coverings of the ducts
and tendon layers
However, the prestressing steel cross-
section to be installed is still unknown at
the preliminary design stage. For the
determination of internal forces in this
planning phase, it is sufficient to calculate
with the gross cross-section values of the
superstructure (Table 8.5-15). The gross
cross-section values were determined
according to the equations given in Section
8.5.2.1. (8.5-6 to -12).
8.5.7.2 Characteristic values of
the effects
The basis for determining the effects is
[DIN-FB 101, 2009].
8.5.7.2.1 Permanent effects
Dead load superstructure g1
The dead load of the superstructure is
determined in the FE program.
The weight of the reinforced concrete
is 25 kN/m3.

Expansion loads g2
Net and ideal cross-section values
Dead load of the road surface (thickness 8
(composite cross-section values) are
cm) and gradient compensation (0.5
required to determine internal forces on kN/m2)
the prestressed cross-section after the
concrete has hardened, depending on the gBel = 24 - 0.08 + 0.5 = 2.4 kN/m2
degree of production. At the time of
 8.5 Concrete 663
bridges
Table 8.5-15 Gross cross-sectional values of the superstructure
Cross-section values Gross cross-sectional values
Position Fields 1/2 Supports B/C
Concrete surface A ac [m2] 8,60 8,60
Distance SA upper edge zco [m] -0,368 -0,368
Distance SA lower edge zcu [m] 0,432 0,432
z-coord. Top prestressing steel [m] - -0,239
zcpo
z-coord. Bottom prestressing [m] 0,301 -
steel zcpu
Moment of inertia I ayc [m4] 0,450 0,450
Moment of resistance Wco [m3] -1,222 -1,222
Moment of resistance Wcpo [m3] - -1,882
Moment of resistance Wcpu [m3] 1,466 -
Moment of resistance Wcu [m3] 1,042 1,042
a The index b (corresponding to eqn. 8.5-6 or 8-5-12) has been omitted here.

Dead load of the cap

gKap = 25 - 0.23 = 5.75 kN/m2
Loads from the cap projection
-
ACape = 0,205 m2
g- = 25 - 0.205 = 5.12 kN/m
Cap
me- 1 - 1
Cap
= 0.176 - 5.12 = 0.903 kNm/m
e Figure 8.5-39 Cap geometry
Load from the railing
gGel = 0.5 kN/m
Loads due to support lowering Δs
m 1–1
Gel = 0.15 - 0.5 = 0.075 kNm/m The bridge piers are founded on rock.
Line load and moment from the cap Forced internal forces due to support
overhang refer to the cantilever end, subsidence are therefore not expected.
section 1-1, (Figure 8.5-39).
Pre-tension P
Load from the crash barriers The superstructure is prestressed with
gLsp = 0.8 kN/m subsequent bracing. To reduce the effect of
friction, the tendons are tensioned on both
The removal loads from the road surface, sides.
caps, railings and crash barriers only take The approximate determination of the
effect after the prestressing force has been required preload force is shown in section
applied and the ducts have been grouted. 8.5.7.3.3.
664
8.5.7.2.2 Variable effects
Live loads qUDL , qTS
Load model 1 (section 8.1.4.1) is used as
the basis for determining the stresses from
traffic loads. Sidewalks are provided on
both sides of the roadway.
The roadway is designed according to [DIN-
FB 101, 2009] as the part of the total
road surface defined between the
The width of the kerb must be at least 7
cm above the road surface. This results in
a carriageway width of 7.50 m in this
example.
With two calculated lane widths of 3.00
m, the width of the remaining area is 1.50
m.
The load model consists of two parts. A
double axle vehicle (tandem system, TS)
with a characteristic axle load of Qik = αQi -
Qi and a uniformly distributed
characteristic load (Uniform Distributed
Load, UDL) of qik = αqi - qi .
The dynamic increase factor is already
included in Qk and q .k
A live load of 2.5 kN/m2 is assumed for
the walkways on the caps. When
determining the internal forces, two load
positions are examined in the transverse
direction, see Figures 8.5-40 and 8.5-41.
ΔTM = -8.0 - 1.00 = -8.0 K
Warmer at the bottom than at the top
Track 1: αQ1 = 0.8 Q1 = 300 kN/axis
αq1 = 1.0 q1 = 9.0 kN/m2
Track 2: αQ2 = 0.8 Q2 = 200 kN/axis
kN/m2
αq2 = 1.0 q2 = 2.5
Equivalent surface loads for wheel loads
The wheel loads of the double-axle
vehicles act on a contact area of 40 cm
× 40 cm. The load distribution angle
through the road construction to the
center line of the
8 Calculation
concrete slab is assumed to be 45°. The
load distribution areas and uniformly
distributed surface loads are calculated as
shown in Figure 8.5-42.
To simplify the load input in the FE
calculation, the bridge span under
investigation is loaded with a basic load of
2.5 kN/m2 . In lane 1 this results in
for the uniform residual surface
last UDL: q-1k= 9.0 - 2.5 = 6.5 kN/m2. The
The axle loads of the standard vehicles act
in addition to the UDL loads.
Brake and approach loads do not need
to be taken into account for verifications
on the constraint-free superstructure.
Temperature effects ΔT
The superstructure is positioned in such a
way that no design-relevant constrained
internal forces arise for the constant
temperature component ΔT .N
The characteristic values of the linearly
variable temperature components ΔTM
follow, taking into account the possible
reduction according to [DIN-FB 101,
2009]-V, Table 6.2 due to the 8 cm thick
covering:
ΔTM = 15.0 - 0.82 = 12.3 K
Warmer at the top than at the bottom
Q1k = 0.8 - 300 = 240 kN/axis
q1k = 1.0 - 9.0 = 9.0 kN/m2
Q2k = 0.8 - 200 = 160 kN/axis
q2k = 1.0 - 2.5 = 2.5 kN/m2
Wind loads w
Wind loads are not taken into account in
the verifications of the superstructure
provided here.
 8.5 Concrete 665
bridges

Figure 8.5-40 Load position 1, TS and UDL loads are arranged centrally in the transverse direction

Figure 8.5-41 Load position 2, the wheels of the double-axle vehicle (TS) and the UDL load of
lane 1 are located on the scuff plate

Figure 8.5-42 Equivalent surface loads of adjacent wheels in transverse direction

666
8.5.7.3 Determination of internal forces
8.5.7.3.1 FE model
The superstructure was discretized using
isoparametric, combined plate and slice
elements according to the theory of
Reissner/Mindlin (shear-compliant plate,
shear distortions approximately taken
into account). The approach functions for
the deflections and rotations are extended
bilinearly with a symmetric quadratic (i.e.
non-conformal) approach according to
Wilson/Taylor and Bathe/Dvorkin
[Hartmann/Katz, 2002]. The element has
four Gaussian points.
The geometric progression of the
tendons is described by spline functions.
The pre-tension is taken into account as
pre-tension stiffness in the stiffness
matrix.
The material properties on which the
FE material models are based correspond
to [DIN 1045-1, 2008] and [EN 10138],
2000]:
Concrete: C 35/45 (with cement of
strength class 42.5R)
fck = 35 MN/m2,
fcd = 0.85 - 35/1.5 ≈ 19.8 MN/m2,
fctm = 3.2 MN/m2,
f ctk;0,05 = 2.2 MN/m2,
f ctk;0,95 = 4.2 MN/m2 ,
Ecm = 33.3 - 103 MN/m2 .
Reinforcing steel: BST 500 S (high
ductility)
fyk = 500 MN/m2,
fyd = 500/1.15 = 435 MN/m2,
Es = 200 - 103 MN/m2.
Prestressing steel: St 1770
fpk = 1770 MN/m2 ,
fp0,1k = 1522 MN/m2,
8 Calculation
fpd = 1522/1.15 = 1323 MN/m2
Ep = 195 - 103 MN/m2 .
8.5.7.3.2 Internal forces of the individual load cases
Figures 8.5-44 to 8.5-49 show the curves
of the moments in the slab due to the
individual load cases at the decisive points
as a result of the FE calculation. Simpson's
rule is used to determine the resulting
moments over the transverse section half.
The index x i n d i c a t e s that the
moment (rotating around the y-axis)
causes normal stresses in the x-direction.
8.5.7.3.3 Determination of the required
preload force
The determination of the required
prestressing force is based on the
verification of decompression. This
verification requires that no concrete
tensile stresses (permissible σc ≤ 0) may
occur at the edge closest to the tendon
under the decisive action combination at
time t → ∞ (Table 8.5-9).
For requirement category C (in the
longitudinal direction of the bridge), this
verification must be carried out under the
quasi-permanent action combination
(Tables 8.5-7 and 8.5-27). The
combination coefficients for the quasi-
permanent values of variable actions are
given in Table 8.5-28. The prestressing
force is to be applied with the
characteristic values Pk,sup/inf = rsup/inf - P m,t .
For pre-tensioning with subsequent
bonding, the following applies: rsup = 1.10
and rinf = 0.90, [DIN-FB 102, 2009], Ab-
section 2.5.4.2 (4).
The determination of the relevant
Internal forces due to traffic loads a r e
calculated by adding the load of the
standard vehicles
is "driven" over the FE model step by step in
the longitudinal direction of the bridge. The
UDL
 8.5 Concrete 667
bridges

Figure 8.5-43 Element arrangement of the superstructure in longitudinal and transverse direction

Figure 8.5-44 Dimensioning moments mx,g1 and resulting moments M x,g 1 in the slab due to dead
loads g1
668 8 Calculation

Fig. 8.5-45 Dimensioning moments mx,g2 and resulting moments M ,xg2 in the slab due to removal
loads g2

Figure 8.5-46 Specified moments mx,UDL and resulting moments Mx,UDL in the slab as a result of
UDL traffic loads qUDL

Figure 8.5-47 Specified moments mx,TS and resulting moments Mx,TS in the slab due to TS traffic
loads qTS
 8.5 Concrete 669
bridges

Fig. 8.5-48 Dimensioning moments mx,T+ and resulting moments Mx,T+ in the slab due to linear
temperature difference (top of slab 12.3 K warmer than bottom of slab)

Fig. 8.5-49 Dimensioning moments mx,T– and resulting moments Mx,T– in the panel due to linear
temperature difference (bottom side of panel 8.0 K warmer than top side of panel)

Loads are arranged bay by bay according
to the decisive internal forces to be
calculated. The governing, resulting
moments of one half of the superstructure
due to dead and live loads are given in
Table 8.5-16. For the moments due to live
loads, only the half of the superstructure
in the transverse direction on which the
largest TS loads act (load position 2,
Figure 8.5-41). The limit moment lines
due to live loads (UDL+TS) in the
longitudinal direction of the bridge are
shown in Fig. 8.5-50.
The magnitude of the required pre-
tensioning force depends on the selected
tendon configuration, see section
8.5.2.3. In a first approximation
(preliminary design), the required pre-
tensioning force can be determined using
equation (8.5-82):
670 8 Calculation
⎛
1 MF,G+∑ψ ⋅Q W cu - MS,G+∑ψ ⋅Q Wco - permissible σco ⎞
permissible σ
cu
erf Pt→∞ ≈ 1.30 ⋅ ⋅ ⎜ +⎟ (8.5-82)
2⎜ 1 Ac + zcpF Wcu 1 Ac + zcpS Wco ⎟
⎝ ⎠
with
:
MF, G+∑ψ-QMoment in field 1 Based on the assumptions made, Eq. (8.5-
due to 82) can be written in a simpler form:
quasi-permanent
combin
ation of effects
MS, G+∑ψ-QMoment above the
column in-
sequence of quasi-
permanent single-action
combinations

⎛ 2 2
1 MF,G + ∑ψ 2i ⋅ MF,Qi MB,G + ∑ψ 2i ⋅ MB,Qi
inve ≈ 1,30 ⋅ ⋅ i=1 i=1
nted
P +
t→∞ Wco Ac + zcpB
2 ⎝ Wcu Ac + zcpF

1 ⎛ 2,101 + 0,2 ⋅1,777 + 0,5 ⋅ 0,450 ,101 + 0,2 ⋅1,701 + 0,5 ⋅ 0,936 ⎞
= 1,30 ⋅ ⋅ +4
2⎝⎜ 1,042 8,,6 + 0,307 1,222 8,6 + 0,239 ⎟
⎠
= 12.44 MN
Table 8.5-16 Specified, resulting moments for one half of the cross-section due to dead loads, live
loads (UDL + TS) and temperature
Position Resulting moments
Mx,g 1 [MNm] Mx,q [MNm] Mx,T [MNm]
Field 1 (x = 5.6 m) 2,102 1,777 0,450/-0,293 2
Column B (x = 16.0 m) -4,100 -1,701 1,348/-0,936
Field 2 (x = 26.0 m) 1,995 1,875 1,230/-0,800
1 The index x indicates that the torque (rotating around the y-axis) causes normal stresses in the
x-direction.
2
Top of panel warmer ∆T = 12.3 K or bottom of panel warmer ∆T = -8.0 K.
8.5 Concrete 671
bridges

Figure 8.5-50 Limit moments due to live loads (UDL + TS)

672
A tendon type is selected for the rest of the
calculations.
elected:
BBV L 9 (150 mm2/strand, bbv strand
tensioning method), Apl = 13.5 cm2/
tendon, characteristic values of the strand
according to the general building
authority approval, approval notice [Z-
13.1-77, 2004]:
Cladding tube ∅Hi /∅Ha : 65/72 mm
Unintentional deflection angle: k =
0.30°/m Coefficient of friction: μ = 0.20
Slip on the stressing anchor: Δssl = 3 mm
Due to the expected losses due to friction
of approx. 7% (see Table 8.5-17)
Table 8.5-17 Determining the friction losses in
axis 20 (support B)
x Θ k-x ϑ e-μ - ϑ
[m] [rad] [wheel] [wheel] [-]
16,0 0,280 0,084 0,364 0,93
Θplanned deflection angle of the
clamping
member from the clamping point to the
ϑ point under consideration
= Θ + k - x, sum of the scheduled and
unplanned deflection angle
Figure 8.5-51 x-, z-coordinates of the tendon course in the superstructure
8 Calculation
and due to slip of approx. 3%, the value of
the clamping force for the entire
superstructure at the clamping point is
selected as ges P (x = 0)t→∞ = 2 -
12.44/(0.93 - 0.97) = 27.60 MN.
The coordinates of the selected tendon
course are shown in Fig. 8.5-51. In order
to favorably influence the column moment
due to permanent loads by the pre-
tensioning, the tendon is placed
eccentrically to the axis of gravity at the
tensioning point (see Section 8.5.2.3). In
the spans, the tendon curve is given a
"bulbous" shape corresponding to the
limiting moment curve.
As part of the preliminary design, the
constraining moment resulting from the
course of the prestressed tendon, taking
friction into account, was determined
using Simpson's rule, slip (8.5-41). The
static surplus results from the sliding
( 8 . 5-83). The total moment due to pre-
tension is determined according to
equation (8.5-48).
-δ10 ⋅ δ22 + δ20 ⋅ δ12
X1 = δ⋅δ-δ2
11 22 12
(8.5-83)
-δ20 ⋅ δ11 + δ10 ⋅ δ12
X2 = δ⋅δ-δ2
11 22 12
8.5 Concrete 673
bridges
Table 8.5-18 Moments due to preload force P (0)t→∞ ("manual calculation" without slip) and
maximum stresses due to quasi-permanent SFC (FE calculation)

Position Moment due to pre- Concrete stresses [MN/m2], t → ∞

tension
MN/m2 σco, g + p + 0.2 - q + 0.5 - T σcu, g + p + 0.2 - q + 0.5 -
Mcp, t → ∞ [ ] T

Field 1 (x = 5.6 m) -7,232 -0,30 -4,93

Column B (x = 16.0 m) 9,158 -2,44 -0,59
Field 2 (x = 26.0 m) -4,398 -2,88 -1,30

The values determined under a quasi- permissible σ 0.max

permanent combination of effects (no ⎧0.80 ⋅ fpk = 0,80 ⋅1770
≤ e-μ⋅γ ⋅(κ -1) ⋅
consideration of the
slip) occurring at the decisive points are ⎩
⎨0 .90 ⋅ fp0,1k = 0.90 ⋅1522
given in Table 8.5-18.
⎧1416 MN m2
= e-μ⋅γ ⋅(κ -1) ⋅ ⎨1370
⎩ MN m2 (8.5-85)

8.5.7.3.4 Determination of the required It is assumed that the prestressing steel

prestressing steel cross-section remains unpressed (unprotected) in the
cladding tube for a maximum of three
The maximum stress in the prestressing weeks → κ = 1.5. The value x for
steel that may be applied to the concrete determining the total deflection angle γ (x)
immediately after prestressing (Table 8.5- = Θ(x) + k - x corresponds to the distance
12) is over which the pre-tensioning force is
applied on both sides during the first
pretensioning operation.
tension decreases due to friction.
⎧0,75 ⋅ fpk = 0,75 ⋅1770
⎪ Table 8.5-19 shows the permissible
per
σ
miss
ible ⎪ = 1327 MN m2 Prestressing steel stress specified. -μ - k - (κ- 1)
≤
pm,0 ⎨
⎪0.85 ⋅ = 0,85 ⋅1522 The overvoltage
is approx. 6% in thisreserve (1 - e
example. )
fp0.1k
⎪ = 1294 MN m2
⎩ Assuming a 10% margin
loss of force due to creep, shrinkage and
The tension σ0,max during pre-tensioning
relaxation follows for the value of the
on the stressing anchor during the pre-
initial prestressing force:
tensioning process under the applied
maximum force (press force) must not erf Pt→0 (0) = 27.60/0.9 = 30.7 MΝ
exceed the smaller of the two values: σ0,max and for the required prestressing steel
≤ (0.80 - fpk ; 0.90 - fp0,1k ), including cross-section on the overall
overtensioning. superstructure:
So that even in the event of a necessary, Pm,0 30.7 ⋅104
erf A = = = 239.5 cm2
unplanned overstressing of the tendons in i
p n 1282
v
the event of increased friction losses, the permissi e
n
desired pre-tension can be achieved via t
239,5
ble σpm,0 e
d
the structural elements.
A
p
674 8 Calculation

(8.5-86)
If the prestressing steel tension can be erf n = = = 17,7 (8.5-87)
Ap1
achieved with a partial length, the 13,5
prestressing steel tension must also be
deducted (Table 8.5-12):
 8.5 Concrete 675
bridges
Table 8.5-19 Permissible prestressing steel stress
x [m] Θ [rad] k - x [rad] γ [rad] e-μ - γ - (κ - 1) [-] permissible σ0,max
[MN/m2]
26,0 0,528 0,134 0,662 0,936 1282

Figure 8.5-52 View of stressing anchor

elected: 8.5.7.3.5 Course of the preload force

18 strand tendons, BBV L 9 (150 mm2/
strand, bbv strand tensioning method), Pre-tensioning is carried out via stressing
anchors arranged on both sides at the ends
Ap1 = 13.5 cm2/ tendon, before
of the superstructure. The calculated
Ap = 18 - 13.5 = 243.0 cm2
course of the tensioning forces after slip
Tensioning force per tendon: occurs is shown in Fig. 8.5-53.
30.7/18 = 1.706 MN

The arrangement of the tendons in the 8.5.7.3.6 Moments due to pre-tension

bridge cross-section is shown in Fig. 8.5-
52. Shown in Figure 8.5-54.

Fig. 8.5-53 Clamping force curve after conversion of the press force at time t = 0, taking into account
the slip of ∆s = 3 mm (FE calculation)
676 8 Calculation

Fig. 8.5-54 Moments m x,p in the slab due to pre-tensioning (FE calculation) and resulting
moments Mx,p (determined using Simpson's rule)

8.5.7.3.7 Loss of elasticity due to creep, shrinkage

and relaxation
The concrete stresses at the level of the
tendon axis under the quasi-permanent
action combination are decisive for
determining the prestressing force losses.
To determine the concrete stresses
under the quasi-permanent combination
of effects for determining the creep losses,
it is sufficient to use gross cross-section
values.

σ cp = σ cp,g + 0.2 ⋅σ cp,q + 0.5 ⋅σ cp,T + σ cp,p

≈ (Mcp,g1 + Mcp,g2 + 0.2 ⋅ Mcp,q + 0.5 ⋅ Mcp,T ) Wcp + (Mcp,p Wcp +Nc,p A )c
= 2 ⋅ (1.653 + 0.448 - 0.2 ⋅ (0.169 + 0.209) - 0.5 ⋅ 0.293) 1.466
- 2 ⋅ (3.355 1.466 + 14.382 8.60) = -5.36 MN m2 (8.5-88)

Table 8.5-20 Concrete stresses of individual load cases and under quasi-permanent action combination
at the level of the tendon axis, at time t = 0

Position Wcp σcp,g1 σcp,g2 σcp,p σcp,q σcp,T σcp

x [MN/m2]
[m] [MNm] [MNm] [MN] [MNm] [MNm]
[m]
5,6 1,466 2,26 0,61 -7,92 -0,52 -0,40 -5,36
16,0 -1,882 3,41 0,95 -8,24 -0,27 -1,53 -4,70
26,0 1,466 2,15 0,57 -6,07 -0,60 -1,09 -4,01
 8.5 Concrete 677
bridges
The concrete stresses at the time t = 0 at εcs,∞ = ε cas∞ + ε cds∞ Final shrinkage
the level of the tendon axis are shown in measure
Table 8.5-20. = -0.07‰ - 0.30‰ (Figures 8.5-31
The losses in prestressing force due to �-0,00037 and 8.5-32)
creep, shrinkage and relaxation at time t
→ ∞ are calculated using equation (8.5- Ap = 243.0 cm2,
67), see Section 8.5.4.2. αp = Ep /Ec = 195/33.3 = 5.86

αp ⋅φ(∞,t0 ) ⋅ (σc,g + σc,pm0 ) + εc,s (∞,t0 ) ⋅ Ep + Δσ (8.5-89)

Δσ
p,,r (∞,t ) ≈
p,c+s+r 0 A⎛ A ⎞
1 + αp ⋅ p ⋅ 1 + c ⋅ z2 ⋅ ⎡1 + χ ⋅φ(∞,t )⎤
⎜ cp ⎟ ⎣ 0⎦
Ac ⎝ Ic ⎠

The prestressing force is applied and the
shoring is lowered at the same time after t0
= 10 days. At this time, the mean value of
the cylindrical compressive strength of the
superstructure concrete must be at least
34 N/mm2 [DIN-FB 102, 2009],
Section 4.2.3.5.2, Table 4.102. A cement of
strength class 42.5 R is used for the
concrete of the superstructure. The value
of the relative humidity is RH = 80%.
Furthermore is given:
m2
Ac = 8.6
uc = 2 - (12.5 + 8.0) = 26.6 m
prestressing steel due to creep, shrinkage and
h0 = 2 - Ac /uc = 2 - 8.6/26.6
= 0.647 m � 64.7 cm
φ (∞, t0 ) = 1.7 Final creep number
(Figure 8.5-30)
The stress change in the prestressing steel
∆σp,r due to relaxation is determined on
the basis of the equation σpm0 ≈ σp,g+pm0 -
0.3 - |∆σp , c+s+r| and the image
8.5-28 iterative.
During tensioning, the simultaneous
lowering of the falsework ensures that the
dead load component of the slab becomes
effective. The existing tension in the
tendon is calculated as follows:
σp, g + pm0 = Pt = 0/Ap
For the design point in span 1, x = 5.6 m, the
determination of the stress losses in the
relaxation is given as an example. For the
existing stress in the prestressing
member (field 1) results:
σp,g+pm0 = 2 - 14.38/243 - 104 = 1184 MN/m2

Table 8.5-21 Stress losses in prestressing steel due to creep, shrinkage and relaxation
Position σp, g + pm0 ∆σp, r ∆σp, c + s + r σp, g + pm, ∞ Loss of
[MN/m2] [MN/m2] [MN/m2] [MN/m2] clamping
force [%]
Field 1 (x = 5.6 m) 1184 -19 -131 1053 11,0
Column B (x = 16.0 m) 1162 -17 -126 1036 10,8
Field 2 (x = 26.0 m) 1101 -12 -112 989 10,1
678
The value for the stress losses is estimated
as ∆σp,c+s+r = -131 MN/m2.
If the value for ∆σp,c+s+r finally
calculated using equation (8.5-89) does
not match the estimated value, the value
for ∆σp ,c+s+r must be adjusted iteratively.
σp0 ≈ 1184 - 0.3 - 131 = 1145 MN/m2
Using Figure 8.5-28, the value ∆σpr / σp0 ≈
0.017 is obtained for σp0 /fpk = 1145/1770 =
0.65 and thus the relaxation loss to ∆σpr =
-19 MN/m2.
, 86 ⋅1,7 ⋅ (2,48 - 7,77) - 0,00037 ⋅195000 - 19
Δσp,c+s+r (∞,t 0) ≈ 5 243 ⋅10-4 ⎛ 8,6
1 + 5,86 ⋅ ⋅ ⎜1 +
8,6 ⎝ 0,45
The calculated maximum losses of
prestressing force due to K + S + R (Table
8.5-21) are in the order of magnitude of
the assumed value (10%) on which the
calculation of the required prestressing
force and the required prestressing steel
cross-section was based. Therefore, the
determination of internal forces does not
need to be corrected.
8.5.7.4 Cross-section values of the superstructure
slab
taking into account the cladding tubes
and the tendons in the composite
The calculation of the cross-sectional
values is carried out in accordance with
the
In field 1:
MEd = γg1 - Mc,gk1 =1
+ γg2 - Mc,gk2 =1
+ γq1 - Mc,qk1 =1
+ γ∆TM - ψ0 - Mc,∆Tk = 1.50 - 0.80 - 0.450 =0
MEd =
8 Calculation
given equations (8.5.20-29). When
determining the net cross-sectional
values, the outer diameter of the ducts is
used for the calculation. It must also be
taken into account that the tendons nestle
against the wall of the duct in the
curvature area. The net and ideal cross-
section values of the examined sections are
given as examples in Table 8.5-22.
Table 8.5-24 shows the characteristic
values of the vertical support reactions.
⎞ = -131 MN m2
⋅ 0,3072 ⎟ ⋅ ⎡⎣1 + 0,8 ⋅1,7⎤⎦
⎠
8.5.7.5 Verifications for bending with
longitudinal force in the ultimate limit state
8.5.7.5.1 Determination of the decisive
design moments
The verification in the ultimate limit state
for bending is carried out for the
permanent and temporary design
situation.
∑γ Gj ⋅ Gkj " + " γp ⋅Pk
j=2
" +" γQ1 ⋅ Qk1 " + " ∑γQi ⋅ψ0,i ⋅ Qki (8.5-90)
i=1
The decisive design values of the moments
due to external actions are as follows:
.35 - 1.653 =2 .232 MNm
.35 - 0.448 =0 .605 MNm
.50 - (0.593 + 1.184) =2 .666 MNm
.540 MNm
0429MNm2
96.
 8.5 Concrete 679
bridges
Above the support:
MEd = γg1 - Mc,gk1 =1 .35 - (-3.211) =-4 .335 MNm
+ γg2 - Mc,gk2 =1 .35 - (-0.890) =-1 .202 MNm
+ γq1 - Mc,qk1 =1 .50 - (-0.968 - 0.733) = -2.552 MNm
+ γ∆TM - ψ0 - Mc,∆Tk = 1.50 - 0.80 - 0.450 =-1 .123 MNm
-
9
MEd = ,2119MN4m

Table 8.5-22 Net and ideal cross-section values of the superstructure

Cross-section values Net cross-sectional values Ideal cross-section values
Position Fields 1/2 Supports B/C Fields 1/2 Support B/C
Concrete area Ac [m2] 8,53 8,53 8,72 8,72
Distance SA upper -0,365 -0,370 -0,372 -0,365
Edge zco [m]
Distance SA lower 0,435 0,430 0,428 0,435
Edge zcu [m]
z-coord. Prestressing steel - -0,253 - -0,236
top zcpo [m]
z-coord. Prestressing steel 0,322 - 0,303 -
bottom zcpu [m]
Moment of inertia Iyc [m4] 0,442 0,445 0,461 0,457
Resistance -1,211 -1,202 -1,238 -1,251
moment Wco [m3]
Resistance - -1,758 - -1,936
moment Wcpo [m3]
Resistance 1,375 - 1,522 -
moment Wcpu [m3]
Resistance 1,018 1,036 1,078 1,049
moment Wcu [m3]
680 8 Calculation

Table 8.5-23 Internal forces of the single load cases for one half of the cross-section at the
locations of the investigated sections as characteristic values
Position Fields 1/2 Supports B/C Field 2
Influence x = 5.60 m x = 16.00 m x = 26.00 m
Dead load Construction Mc,g1k [MNm] 1,653 a -3,211 1,580
Expansion loads Mc,g2k [MNm] 0,448 -0,890 0,415

Preload force t=0 [MN] -14,382 -14,121 -13,374

Nc, pk
t →∞ -12,814 -12,610 -12,023
Moment from pre- t=0 [MNm] -3,355 4,667 -2,170
tension Mc,pk
t →∞ -2,989 4,168 -1,951

UDL min [MNm] -0,169 -0,968 -0,246

Mc, qk, UDL
max 0,593 -0,101 0,652

TS min [MNm] -0,209 -0,733 -0,193

Mc, qk, TS
max 1,184 0,151 1,223
Temperature ΔTM, neg, -8.0 [MNm] -0,293 -0,936 -0,800
ΔTM, pos, +12.3 0,450 1,439 1,230
a positive moments generate tension on the underside of the panel in the x-direction.

Table 8.5-24 Vertical support reactions under the characteristic values of the effects

Position Axis Axis Axis Axis

Influence 10 20 30 40
Dead load Construction g1 [MN] -0,683 a -2,157 -2,157 -0,683
Expansion loads g2 [MN] -0,176 -0,601 -0,601 -0,176
Preload force Pm t=0 [MN] -0,105 0,105 0,105 -0,105
t →∞ -0,095 0,095 0,095 -0,095
UDL qUDL min MB,C [MN] - -0,683 -0,683 -
max M1,3 -0,234 - - -0,234

TS qTS min MB,C [MN] - -0,426 -0,426 -

max M1,3 -0,309 - - -0,309

Temperature ΔTM, neg, -8.0 [MN] 0,056 -0,056 -0,056 0,056
ΔTM, pos, +12.3 -0,086 0,086 0,086 -0,086
a positive in the direction of the z-axis.
 8.5 Concrete 681
bridges
The column moment is reduced by the amount ΔMEd [DIN-FB 102, 2009], section
2.5.3.3:

ΔMEd = FEd,sup ⋅ bsup 8 (8.5-91)

are included:
FEd, supDesign value of the associated support reaction
bsup Support width
The support width bsup may be calculated at a load spread angle of 45° at the height of
the center of gravity of the superstructure slab. With a bearing width of 0.40 m, this
results in bsup = 0.40 + 0.80 = 1.20 m.
The support force FEd,sup results in:

F Ed,sup = γg1 - Fc,gk1 =1 .35 - 2.157 =2 .912 MN

+ γg2 - Fc,gk2 =1 .35 - 0.601 =0 .811 MN
+ γq1 - Fc,qk1 =1 .50 - 1.110 =1 .665 MN
+ γ∆TM - ψ0 - Fc,∆Tk = 1.50 - 0.80 - 0.056 =0 .067 MN
2
FEd, 95.4559MN
sup=

∆MEd = 5.445 - 1.20/8 = 0.818 ( rounded column moment)

MEd = -9.211 + 0.818 = -8.393 MNm

In the field 2:
MEd = γg1 - Mc,gk1 =1 .35 - 1.580 =2 .133 MNm
+ γg2 - Mc,gk2 =1 .35 - 0.415 =0 .560 MNm
+ γq1 - Mc,qk1 =1 .50 - (0.652 + 1.223) = 2.813 MNm
+ γ∆TM - ψ0 - Mc,∆Tk = 1.50 - 0.80 - 1.230 =1 .476 MNm
9829MNm2
MEd = 96.

8.5.7.5.2 Determining the elongation of the ∆εp1 = εs1 = 14.0‰

Prestressing steel in the ultimate limit state
ζ = 0,92
in field 1, at the point x = 5.6 m
The elongation of the prestressing steel at the start
(underside of panel):
of yield in the ultimate limit state is as follows
MEd,p 6,042 ability:
μ = = = 0,149
Ed,p bf ⋅ d2
⋅ 4,5 ⋅ 0,6752 ⋅19,8 ε = f /E = 1323/195 - 10-3
p cd pdpd p

(8.5-92) = 6,78 - 10-3�6,78‰ . (8.5-93)

The elongation of the prestressing steel in The determined steel elongation ∆εp1 due
the ultimate limit state can be derived to external stress exceeds the yield
from the general design diagram. elongation εpd . In the ultimate limit state,
the prestressing steel already flows un-
682 8 Calculation

under the sole effect of the external design Above the column and in bay 2, the
load. The pre-expansion therefore does not tensile force due to the moment in the
need to be determined. ultimate limit state is also determined by
the
1 MEd,p existing prestressing steel cross-section.
erf Ap1 = ⋅ In the event that the prestressing steel cross
σp1d z (8.5-94)
If the cut is not sufficient, additional
1 6 ,042
⋅ ⋅10 4= 73.5 cm2 reinforcing steel must be inserted. Both
1323 0,92 ⋅ the prestressing steel and the reinforcing
0,675 steel must be
< 121.5 cm2 = 243 2 = vorh Ap1 then depends on the load trasnfer. The
determination of the required reinforcing
In span 1, no concrete reinforcement is steel cross-section is given, for example, in
required at the point of greatest bending [Mehlhorn et al., 2002].
stress. The prestressing steel cross-section
has sufficient reserves to absorb the
design loads. 8.5.7.6 Minimum reinforcement
above the support (top of the panel): To ensure the durability and external
8,393 appearance of the concrete superstructure,
μEd,p = = 0,209 a minimum reinforcement must be
4,5 ⋅ 0,6712 ⋅19,8 provided. This prevents
∆εp1 = 8.5‰ > 6.78‰ = εpd wide individual cracks form as a result of
constraints not taken into account in the
(Prestressing steel flows in calculation, residual stresses or deviations
the GZT) of the pre-tension from the assumed value
ζ = 0,88
1⋅ 393 ⋅104 [DIN-FB 102, 2009], Section 4.4.2.2.
erf A = 8. = 107.4 cm2
p1 1323 0,88 ⋅ 0,671
< 121.5 cm2 = vorh Ap1 8.5.7.6.1 constructive minimum reinforcement

Maximum bar spacing smax = 200 mm

���
s a = 3.93 cm2/m (8.5-95)
Reinforcement diameter ds ≥ 10
mm
in field 2, at the point x = 26.0 m 8.5.7.6.2 Minimum reinforcement to
(underside of panel): p r e v e n t failure without prior notice
6,982
μ = = 0,172 When a crack occurs, there must be at
Ed,p
4,5 ⋅ 0,6752 ⋅19,8 least enough reinforcing steel in the
transverse section (robustness
∆εp1 = 11.4‰ > 6.78‰ = εpd reinforcement) to absorb the tensile force
(Prestressing steel flows in the GZT) previously present in the concrete [DIN-FB
ζ = 0,90 102, 2009], Section 4.3.1.3. This is
intended to prevent brittle failure without
1 ⋅ 6.982 ⋅104
erf Ap1 = prior notice during initial crack
formation. The
1323 0,90 ⋅ 0,675 Cracking moment is calculated under the
assumption,
8.5 Concrete 683
bridges
= 86.9 cm2 < 121.5 cm2 = vorh Ap1 that the pre-tension in the considered
684 8 Calculation

Table 8.5-25 Minimum reinforcement to prevent failure without notice

Position Wc Mr,eq ds as elected
[m3 [cm2/m
] [kNm] [m] ]
Field 1 (x = 5.6 m) 1,042 2292 0,72 7,9 ∅ 14/15
Support B (x = 16.0 m) 1,222 2688 0,73 9,1 ∅ 14/15
Field 2 (x = 26.0 m) 1,042 2292 0,72 7,9 ∅ 14/15

cross-section has completely failed is < 1.0 N/mm2 , a minimum reinforcement

covered by reinforcing steel using the according to equation 8.5-81 must be
characteristic value of the yield strength of inserted. The prestressing steel, which is
the reinforcing steel (safety factor of 1.0). arranged in a maximum area of 300 mm
Mr,e p around the reinforcement made of
reinforcing steel, may be taken into
account. On the safe side
as = with zs ≈ 0.9 - d
The prestressing steel surfaces are not included
f yk⋅ z ⋅ in this calculation example. Determination of
bs ,
the minimum reinforcement for
Mr, ep = Wc - fctk; 0.05 (8.5-96) Crack width limitation:
- in field 1 at the point x = 5.60 m:
1,042 ⋅ 2,2 ⋅104
as = = 7.9cm2 m
500 ⋅ 0,9 ⋅ 0,72 ⋅ Pk,inf,t→∞ = 0.9 - (-12.814) = -11.533 MN
9,0
Ac = 8.6/2 = 4.3 m2
According to [DIN-FB 102, 2009], Ab-
In accordance with section 4.3.1.3 (107) σc = -11.533/4.3 = -2.68 N/mm2
and (108), the minimum reinforcement
h' = h = 0.80 m
must be distributed evenly over the width
and proportionally over the height of the k1 = 1.5
tension zone. The lower minimum fct,eff = fctm = 3.2 N/mm2
reinforcement required in the field must ⎡ 2,68 ⎤
k = 0,4 = 0,18
be distributed evenly over the width and
⋅ -
proportionally over the height of the
tension zone to improve ductility,
regardless of
the regulations on tractive force coverage
between
width c
between the supports. limitatio 1,5 ⋅ ⎢1
In column areas, the upper minimum n ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
reinforcement according to equation (8.5-
96) should be arranged in the areas in k
In areas =
which tensile stresses occur in the in which
concrete under the non-frequent action 0
the rare
combination. For this verification, the ,
statically determinate effect of the 5
prestressing should not be considered, but
the statically indeterminate effect should be
considered.

8.5.7.6.3 Minimum reinforcement for crack

 8.5 Concrete 685
bridges
2⎥
3,
Combination of actions Concrete tensile Fig. 8.5-55 Stress distribution in the concrete cross-
stresses or concrete compressive stresses section immediately before the initial crack formation
|σ |c
686 8 Calculation

σc2 = z2 ⋅ (σc -σc1 ) + σc The diameter of the reinforcement is calculated

z1 with
ds = 14 mm was selected.
σ This results in the limit diameter:
ht = z1 ⋅ c1 fct,0 3,0
σ c1- σ c ds * = ds ⋅ = 14 ⋅ = 13,1 mm
3,2 fct,eff 3,2
= 0,432 ⋅ = 0,235 m
3,2 + 2,68
and the permissible reinforcing steel stress
Act = 1.0 - 0.235 = 0.235 m2/m from Table 8.5-14 for the calculated value
The permissible stress σII ins the reinforcing of the crack width wk = 0.2 mm:
steel to ensure the permissible crack width σs = 239 N/mm2 .
depends on the diameter of the
reinforcement. The values in Table 8.5-14 The cross-section of the minimum
are based on the concrete tensile strength reinforcement for crack width limitation
of fct,0 = 3.0 N/mm2. The permissible follows from Figure 8.5-81:
diameter must therefore be calculated 0.235
as = 0.18 ⋅ 0.5 ⋅ 3.2 ⋅
according to equation (8.5-97) ([DIN-FB 239
102, 2009], section
4.4.2.2 (6)*) must be adapted: = 2.8 ⋅10-4 � 3.0 cm2 m
The cross-sections
reinforcement of the minimum
kc ⋅ k ⋅ ht fct,eff fct,eff
d s= ds *⋅ ⋅ ≥ d *⋅
4 ⋅ (h - d ) fct, s fct,0 above the supports (axes 20/30) and in
0
(8.5-97) bay 2 are summarized in Table 8.5-26.
with:
ds * Limit diameter of the reinforcement
according to Table 8.5-14
8.5.7.7 Limit states of fitness for use
h Component height
d Static effective height
8.5.7.7.1 Design values of the actions in the
ht Height of the concrete tension zone
serviceability limit state
immediately before first crack
(longitudinal direction)
formation

fct 0.18 ⋅ 0.5 ⋅ 0.235 fct,eff

d= ,eff d * ⋅ ⋅ ≥ d *⋅
s s
4 ⋅ (0,80 - 0,72) fct, s
The verifications in the limit state of
0 fct,
0

fct,ef fct,eff Serviceability ensures that the specified

ds = 0.07 f ≥ ds requirements for the conditions of use of a
⋅ *⋅ fct,0 building are computationally fulfilled.
fct,0

Table 8.5-26 Minimum reinforcement for crack width limitation

Position Pk, inf,t → ∞ σc2 σc kc hf as
[MN/m2] [MN/m2 [cm2/m
[MN] ] [m] ]
Field 1 (x = 5.6 m) -11,533 -7,69 -2,68 0,18 0,235 2,8
Column B (x = 16.0 m) -11,349 -9,49 -2,64 0,18 0,202 2,4
Field 2 (x = 26.0 m) -10,821 -8,07 -2,52 0,19 0,242 3,1
 8.5 Concrete 687
bridges
Table 8.5-27 Action combinations for the serviceability limit states according to [DIN-FB 101,
2009]-II, Section 9.5.2 (2)

Combination of effects Education regulation

Characteristic (rare) ∑ Gkj " + " Pk " + " Qk1 " + " ∑ψ0,i ⋅ Qki
j≥1 i>1

non-frequent ∑ Gkj " + " Pk " + "ψ1 ′,1 ⋅ Qk1 " + " ∑ψ1,i ⋅ Qki
j≥1 i>1

frequent ∑ Gkj " + " Pk " + "ψ1,1 ⋅ Qk1 " + " ∑ψ2,i ⋅ Qki
j≥1 i>1

quasi-permanent ∑ Gkj " + " Pk " + " ∑ ψ2,i ⋅ Qki

j≥1 i ≥1

Note: " + " means in combination with.

Table 8.5-28 ψ-Factors for road bridges As an example, the moment demand is
according to [DIN-FB 101, 2009]-IV, Table determined for the rare combination of
C.2 actions in span 1 (x = 5.60 m). The
Influence Traffic load Tempera internal forces due to pre-tension are not
tur included, as either their characteristic
values Pk,sup/inf = rsup/inf ∙ Pm,t (according to
Designation TS UDL Tk [DIN-FB 102, 2009], section 2.5.4.2) or
the mean value Pm,t must be taken into
ψ0 0,75 0,40 0,80 a account for the various verifications.
All stress verifications for the cross-
ψ1 0,75 0,40 0,60 section above the internal column are
ψ2 0,20 0,20 0,50 carried out with the rounded column
moment (see Table 8.5-29). The authors
1 ψ′ 0,80 0,80 0,80 recommend that the column moment
a inthe serviceability limit state is relevant for from the action g1 should always be
verification. rounded out for the action combination g1
+ p, because if the moment Mg1 (without
rounding out) on the underside of the
The combinations of actions specified structure is too large, this action
in Table 8.5-27 are differentiated for the combination would result in apparently
serviceability limit states. The required ψ- too high compressive stresses due to g1 +
factors are given in Table 8.5-28. p, which do not act at all in reality. At least
this should
always be checked.

ME, rare = Mc, gk1 =1 .653 MNm

+ Mc,gk2 =0 .448 MNm
+ Mc,qk1 =0 .593 + 1.184 =1 .777 MNm
+ ψ0 ∙ Mc,∆Tk =0 .80 ∙ 0.450 =0 .360 MNm
2389MNm2
ME, rare = 94.
688 8 Calculation

Table 8.5-29 Moments at the detection points due to the combination of actions
Position Combination of effects

rare non-frequent frequent quasi-

ME [MNm] ME [MNm] ME [MNm] permanent
ME [MNm]
Field 1 (x = 5.6 m) 4,238 3,793 3,245 2,682
Column B ( x = 16.0 m) -6,551/-5,964 a -6,023/-5,471 -5,588/-5,067 -4,909/-4,458
Field 2 (x = 26.0 m) 4,854 4,233 3,588 2,985
a non-rounded out moment/rounded out moment.

8.5.7.7.2 Verifications in the serviceability limit
states in the longitudinal direction of the bridge
8.5.7.7.2.1 Limiting the voltages
Verification of the cracked or uncracked
cross-section
The stresses are determined on the cracked
(condition II) or uncracked (condition I)
cross-section, depending on the load [DIN-
FB 102, 2009], Section 4.4.1.1. In general,
the cracked condition should be assumed if
the tensile stresses calculated in the
uncracked condition are too high.
stresses under the rare combination of
effects exceed the value fctm . The following
applies to the concrete used: fctm = 3.2
N/mm2. If the cross-section is in state I, the
stresses due to dead load g1 and
prestressing force P m,t= 0 are calculated
using the net cross-sections (see Table 8.5-
22). The calculation of the stresses due to
the effects that are applied after the bond
between prestressing steel and concrete has
been created is carried out using ideal
cross-section values. As can be seen in Fig.
8.5-56, the cross-section in the middle of
span 2

Figure 8.5-56 Maximum cross-sectional edge stresses σc [N/mm2] due to rare combinations of actions and
characteristic prestressing forces P kt→ ∞
 8.5 Concrete 689
bridges

Fig. 8.5-57 Minimum cross-sectional edge stresses σc [N/mm2] due to non-frequent and quasi-
permanent action combination and the mean prestressing force P m,t = 0 immediately after the
prestressing force is applied to the component

Fig. 8.5-58 Minimum cross-sectional boundary stresses σc [N/mm2] due to non-frequent and quasi-
permanent action combination and the mean prestressing force P m,t → ∞ after the prestressing
force losses have occurred

(from x = 24.8 to 26.0 m) to state II.
Verification of the permissible
concrete compressive stresses
For prestressed concrete components, the
concrete compressive stresses must be
limited under the non-frequent as well as
under the quasi-permanent action
combination and the mean value of the
pre-tension P .m,t
0.6 ∙ fck = 0.6 ∙ 35 = 21 N/mm2 ( 8.5-98)
(for non-frequent exposure
combination)
0.45 ∙ fck = 0.45 ∙ 35
= 15 N/mm2 (8.5-99)
(for quasi-permanent action
combination)
Figures 8.5-57, 58 show that the amounts
of the concrete edge stresses at approach
690 8 Calculation

of the mean value of the pre-tension at no εs1 , εs2 Distortions of the reinforcing
time, neither under the non-frequent nor steel as a result of external
under the quasi-permanent effect influences
combination, exceeds the permissible ∆εp Elongation of the prestressing
stress values. steel due to external influences
exceed the limits. ε (0)
p,p Pre-expansion of the prestressing steel
x Height of the concrete pressure zone
Verification of the permissible h- xheight of the concrete
reinforcing steel stresses
To prevent non-elastic strains in the tension zone Resulting forces:
reinforcing steel, the tensile stresses in the Fs1 = εs1 ∙ Es ∙ As1 (8.5-101)
steel should not exceed the value 0.8 ∙ fyk
Fs2 = -εs2 ∙ Es ∙ As2 (8.5-102)
under the non-frequent action
combination and the characteristic values (0)
Fp = (∆εp + εp,p ) ∙ Ep ∙ Ap (8.5-103)
of the pre-tension, taking into account the
time-dependent prestressing force losses Fc = -εc2 ∙ Ec ∙ x/2 ∙ b (8.5-104)
(Table 8.5-11).
Fct = -εc1 ∙ Ec ∙ (h - x)/2 ∙ b (8.5-105)
σs ≤ 0.8 ∙ fyk = 0.8 ∙ 500 = 400 N/mm2
m it:
(8.5-100)
x = εc2 ∙ ds1 /(εc2 - εs1 )(8.5-
The reinforcing steel stresses are verified
106)
in the cracked cross-section. The material
εc1 = ε + h/d ∙ (ε - ε ) (8.5-107)
behavior of both the concrete and the c2 s1 s1 c2

reinforcing steel is assumed to be linearly
elastic. Furthermore, it is assumed that the
deformed cross-section remains flat and
that there is a perfect bond between the
prestressing steel or reinforcing steel and
the concrete. The forces acting in the
transverse section, Figure 8.5-59, and the
equations for calculating the resulting steel
forces are given below.
It means:
σc1 , σc2 Concrete stresses at the drawn or
pressed edge
Fct , Fc Resulting tensile force or
compressive force in the concrete
Fs1 , Fs2 Resulting tensile force or
compressive force in the
reinforcing steel
Fp Resulting tensile force in
prestressing steel
ME Moment due to external
influences
M*c,p Statically indeterminate
component of the moment from
pre-tensioning
εc1 , εc2 Distortions of the concrete at the
drawn or pressed edge
εs2 = εc2 + ds2 /ds1 ∙ (εs1 - ε )c2 (8.5-108)
∆εp = εc2 + dp /ds1 ∙ (εs1 - εc2 )(8.5-109)
Equilibrium conditions:
∑ F = 0 = Fs1 + Fp + Fct - Fc - Fs2
(8.5-110)
∑ M = 0 = Fs1 ∙ (ds1 - d )p
+ Fct ∙ ((2 ∙ h + x )/3 - d )p
+ Fc ∙ (dp - x/3)
+ Fs2 ∙ (dp - ds2 ) - ME - M*c,p
(8.5-111)
Depending on whether the calculations are
carried out on the uncracked or cracked
cross-section, the concrete tensile stresses
Eq. (8.5-105) must be taken into account or
not. The statically indeterminate
component of the moment due to pre-
tension can be determined from the total
moment as follows:
M*c,p = Mc,p - zcp ∙ P (8.5-112)
By calculating the distortion pair
εs1 and εc2 , in which the equilibrium
 8.5 Concrete 691
bridges

Figure 8.5-59 Concrete stresses, resulting forces and distortions on the prestressed transverse section

conditions are met at the cross-section, statically indeterminate portion of the

the resulting forces are obtained. The moment from pre-tension:
reinforcing steel stress follows from:
0.9 ∙ M*c,p = 0.9 ∙ 1.742/4.5
σs1 = Fs1 /As1 = εs1 ∙ Es (8.5- = 0.348 MNm/m
113)
preload force:
Figure 8.5-60 shows that the verification of
the reinforcing steel stresses only has to be 0.9 ∙ Pm,t→∞ = 0.9 ∙ 12.037/4.5
carried out in the middle of span 2. = 2.407 MN/m
Maximum moment due to non-frequent Static height of reinforcing steel: ds1 =
action combination:
0.720 m Static height of prestressing steel:
ME = 4.233/4.5 = 0.941 MNm/m
dp = 0.675 m

Figure 8.5-60 Maximum cross-sectional boundary stresses σcu [N/mm2] due to non-frequent
combination of effects and characteristic prestressing force 0.9 ∙ P k,t → ∞
692
Cross-sectional area of
prestressing steel: As1 = 10.26 ∙
10-4 cm2/m Cross-sectional area
of prestressing steel:
Ap = 243.0/ 9.0 = 27.0 cm2/m
Solution of the system of equations Eqs.
(8.5-110, 8.5-111):
Reinforcing steel elongation: εs1 = 0.153‰
Concrete compression: εc2 = -0.312‰
Total elongation of the prestressing steel:
εp = ε(0)
p,p+ ∆εp = 4.57 + 0.12 = 4.69‰
Concrete edge stress: σc2 = -10.4 N/mm2
Reinforcing steel stress:
σs1 = 31 N/mm2 < 400 N/mm2
Prestressing steel stress: σp = 916 N/mm
The stress in the reinforcing steel is
considerably lower than the permissible
value.
It is easier to determine the reinforcing
steel stresses at the uncracked cross-
section if it is assumed that the reinforcing
steel fiber undergoes the same distortion
under load as the adjacent concrete fiber:
εcs1 = εs1 .
The concrete distortions result from
at any point on the cross-section for pre-
tensioning with subsequent bracing:
σc σ⎛ Nc,p Mc,g1+Mc,p Nc,E Mc,g2 +Mc,q +Mc,T ⎞
ε= = + + +
c ⎜ Wcn Aci
Ec ⎝ Acn
The stress in the reinforcing steel follows
from equation (8.5-113).
Verification of the permissible
prestressing steel stresses
The tensile stresses in the prestressing
steel in each cross-section are equal to the
mean value of the pre-tension Pm,t→∞
under the quasi
8 Calculation
constant action combination after
deduction of the clamping force losses to a
value of 0.65 ∙ fpk (Table 8.5-12).
σp ≤ 0.65 ⋅ fpk = 0.65 ⋅1770 = 1150 N mm2
(8.5-115)
The system of equations given above, Eqn.
(8.5-109, -110), can also be used to
determine the prestressing steel stresses in
the cracked cross-section.
In this example, calculated tensile
stresses only occur under the decisive
action combination at the lower edge of
the component immediately to the right
and left of the support (axis 20 or axis 30)
(Fig. 8.5-61). The maximum tensile stress is
max σcu = 0.37 N/mm2.
The tendon is located in this area
above the center of gravity of the component, i.e.
in the compression zone. Therefore, no
significant increase in prestressing steel
stresses is to be expected.
8.5.7.7.2.2 Limit states of decompression and
crack formation
Proof of decompression
For bridge superstructures, no concrete
tensile stresses may occur at the edge
closest to the tendon under the governing
action combination (Table 8.5-9).
(8.5-114)
E
⎟ c
Wci ⎠
In this calculation example, the
requirement of decompression was used
as the basis for determining the tendon
position and the magnitude of the
required prestressing force, see Section
8.5.7.3.3.
 8.5 Concrete 693
bridges

Figure 8.5-61 Maximum cross-sectional boundary stresses σc [N/mm2] due to quasi-permanent action
combination and the mean prestressing force P m,t → ∞ after the loss of prestressing force has occurred

In this case, decompression is the quasi-
permanent decompression. The preload
force must be set at the characteristic
values. Tightening
In addition, it must be demonstrated for
road bridges that under the decisive
impact combination at the lower edge of
the component
no tensile stresses occur that exceed the
value 0.85 ∙ fctk;0.05 (Table 8.5-9). The
following applies to this example:
σc ≤ 0.85 ⋅ fck = 0.85 ⋅ 2.2 = 1.8 N mm2
(8.5-116)

Fig. 8.5-62 a) Tendon position in longitudinal section, b) maximum cross-sectional edge stresses
σc [N/mm2] due to quasi-permanent action combination and characteristic pre-tensioning force Pk,
t →∞
694 8 Calculation

Figure 8.5-62 shows the position of the Maximum torque as a result of frequent
tendon in longitudinal section and the combinations of actions:
maximum cross-sectional edge stresses. It
can be seen that concrete tensile stresses ME = 3.588/4.5 = 0.797 MNm/m
always occur at the edge of the component statically indeterminate portion of the
that has the greater distance to the tendon. moment from pre-tension:
Furthermore, the concrete tensile stresses
at the lower edge do not exceed the 0.9 ∙ M*c,p = 0.9 ∙ 1.742/4.5
permissible value of σc = 1.8 N/mm2. = 0.348 MNm/m
preload force:
Verification of the limitation of the
crack width in the longitudinal 0.9 ∙ Pm,t→∞ = 0.9 ∙ 12.037/4.5
direction = 2.407 MN/m
In order to demonstrate the calculation
process, the limitation of the crack width Static height of reinforcing steel: ds1 =
is also verified by a direct calculation. The
0.720 m Static height of prestressing steel:
calculated value of the crack width wk ≤
0.2 mm must be verified. dp = 0.675 m Cross-sectional area of
reinforcing steel:
Calculation of the crack width in field 1
an As1 = 10.26 cm2/m
the point x = 5.60 m:
Cross-sectional area of prestressing
1 ξ= ξ ⋅ ds dp
steel:
Ap = 243.0/9.0 = 27.0 cm2/m
dp = 1.6 ⋅ Ap1 = 1,6 13,5 = 5.88 cm
⋅ For comparison, the internal forces on the
cross-section in states I and II are
ds = 1.4 cm
determined, see Table 8.5-30.
0.5 (forstrands in subsequent
bonding [DIN-FB 102, 2009], Ac,eff = 4.5 ⋅ 0.07 = 0.315 m2
Table 4.115 a)
As1 = 4.5 ⋅10.26 = 46.17cm /m2
1 ξ= 0,5 ⋅ 1,4 = 0,35
5,88 Ap = 4.5 ∙ 243.0/9.0 = 121.5 cm2/m
Effective range of the
reinforcement: 2.5 ∙ d1 = 2.5 ∙ (5.5 As1 + ξ1 2 ⋅ A
p
eff ρ =
Ac,eff
+ 1.4 + 1.4/2)
= 19 cm � 0.19 m

h- x 80 - 67 46,17 ⋅10-4 + 0,352 ⋅121,5 ⋅10-4

= = = 0,019
≈ 7 cm � 0.07 m < 0.19 0,315
2 2
m
The height of the concrete compression o rence of the
c tension force ρtot
zone x is calculated at the cracked cross-
section according to requirement category c losses using Eq.
C under the f r e q u e n t combination of u (8.5-105).
actions and with 0.9 ∙ P m,t → ∞ after the r
 8.5 Concrete 695
bridges
As1 + Ap
=
Ac,eff

46,17 ⋅10-4 + 121,5 ⋅10-4

= = 0,053
0,315
net. σs2 = 0.0088 10.26 ⋅104 = 8.6 MN m2
696 8 Calculation

Table 8.5-30 Internal forces at the cross-section at point x = 26.0 m under frequent action combination
and Pm,t→∞ in states I and II
Internal forces Cross section in
Condition I Condition II
Concrete compression εc2 [‰] -0,2263 -0,2389
Elongation at the drawn edge εc1 [‰] 0,0452 0,0741
Reinforcing steel elongation εs1 [‰] 0,0180 0,0428
Elongation of the prestressing steel εp [‰] 4,5752 4,5976
Height of the concrete pressure zone [m] 0,667 0,611
x
resulting concrete compressive force [MN/m] 2,5127 2,4294
Fc
resulting concrete tensile force Fct [MN/m] 0,1001 0
resulting force in the reinforcing steel [MN/m] 0,0037 0,0088
Fs1
resulting force in the prestressing [MN/m] 2,4089 2,4206
steel Fp

⎛ 1 1⎞ Verification of the limitation of the

σs = σs2 + 0,4 ⋅ ct,eff ⋅ ⎜ρρ
efftot-⎟ crack width in the transverse direction
f
⎝ ⎠ The following applies to the transverse direction of
⎛the1 bridge
- 1⎞
= 8,6 + 0,4 ⋅ 3,2 ⋅ requirement class D. The verification of the crack
⎜ 0,019 width limitation must therefore be carried
⎝ ⎠
053 out under the frequent combination of
0, effects (Table 8.5-5).
⎟
= 52 MN m2

αe = 195/33.3 = 5.86 The superposition of the moments my

of the individual load cases, taking into
εsm - εcm = (σs - 0.4 ∙ fct,eff /eff ρ account the corresponding combination
∙ (1 + αs ∙ eff ))/Es factors (Table 8.5-28), results in the
decisive moments given in Table 8.5-31.
= (52 - 0,4 ∙ 3,2/0,019 The verification of the limitation of the
∙ (1 + 5,86 ∙ 0,019))/200000 crack width is carried out with the
= -0,11 ∙ 10-3 < 0,16 ∙ 10-3 maximum moment in the slab above the
column without direct calculation.
= 0.6 ∙ 52/200000 = 0.6 ∙ σs /Es The values resulting from the combination of
ds 1,4 The resulting steel stress is measured at the
smax = =
3.6 ⋅ eff ρ3.6 ⋅ 0.007 wk = sr,max ∙ (εsm - εcm ) = 60 ∙ 0.16 ∙ 10-3
52 ⋅1.4 σ s ⋅ d s = 0.01 mm < 0.2 mm
= 56 cm > 6 cm = =
3,6 ⋅ 3,2 3,,6 ⋅ fct,eff
 8.5 Concrete 697
bridges
cracked cross-section via the
force and moment equilibrium
Eqn. (8.5-110, 8.5-111).

Maximum torque as a result of

frequent combinations of
actions:
my = 0.167 MNm/m
698 8 Calculation

Table 8.5-31 Governing moments due to frequent combinations of actions

Influence ψ my [kNm/m]

Fields 1/3 Supports B/C Field 2

max min max min max min

Dead load g1 1,00 -97,5 6,4 -123,0 -124,3 16,4 9,7

Expansion load g2 1,00 -30,5 -30,0 -32,3 -38,8 -32,8 -32,7

Preload force 1,00 168,0 -94,0 183,5 176,8 -74,8 -84,3

Pm, t →∞

UDL qUDL 0,40 -5,7 -4,6 4,1 3,9 6,0 -2,3

TS qTS 0,75 11,3 -6,1 6,0 5,9 52,9 0,0

ΔTM 0,50 240,2 -52,2 265,1 -143,2 51,9 -41,2

Frequent EWK 166,3 -150,2 166,9 -94,8 -23,2 -128,8

static height of reinforcing steel: resulting concrete compressive force:

dsq1 = 0.730 m Fc = -0.237 MN/m
Cross-sectional area of reinforcing steel, ∅ Concrete edge stress: σc2 = -5.3 N/ mm2 Force
14/15:
in the reinforcing steel: Fs1 = 0.237 MN/m
asq1 = 10.26 cm2/m
Reinforcing steel stress: σsq1 = 231 N/mm2
Solution of the system of equations (8.5-
The crack width is limited to permissible
110, 8.5-111):
values if the diameter or the spacing of the
Reinforcing steel elongation: εs1 = reinforcing bars is limited depending on
the stress. The diameter of the existing
1.155‰ Concrete compression: εc2 = -
reinforcement in the transverse direction
0.160‰ Height of the concrete (∅ 14/15) is checked here. To apply Table
8.5-14, the limit diameter d*s is calculated
compression zone:
from the condition Eq. (8.5-80).
x = 0.089 m
Lever arm of the internal forces:
zs1 = 0.700 m
averaged.
⎧ * fct,eff * 3,2 * ⎫
⎪⎪ds ⋅ fct = ds ⋅ = ds ⎪
d≥ , 3.0 ⎪ ⇒ ds * = 1.4 1.07
0 ⋅1.07
s⎨ 231⋅10,26 ⋅10-4 ⎬
σ sII ⋅ As
⎪ds *⋅ = ds = ds *⋅ = 1.3 cm
*⋅ 0.28⎪
⎪⎩ 4 ⋅ (h - d) ⋅ b ⋅ fct,0 4⋅(0.80 - 0.73) ⋅1.0 ⋅ 3.0 ⎪⎭
 8.5 Concrete
bridges
For the determined limit diameter, taking
into account the assumed calculated value
of the crack width wk = 0.2 mm, the
admissible concrete-steel stress follows
from Table 8.5-14:
permissible σs = 240 N/mm2 > 231 N/mm2
= present σsq1
The crack width has been verified. For the
other values my under frequent
combinations of actions according to
Table 8.5-31, verification is not required.
8.6 Calculation of substructures
URSULA FREUNDT
8.6.1 Introduction
Once the design and thus the construction
of the substructures are available, proof
must be provided that the building
structure can be placed under the
external influences always has a stable
equilibrium and the strengths of the
materials used are not exceeded. The
proof of equilibrium is provided by
comparing the stabilizing and destabilizing
forces and the proof of strength is
provided by comparing the absorbable
stresses and the stresses due to external
actions. The external actions and the load-
bearing capacity of the subsoil must be
known for both verification groups. For the
strength verification, a suitable model
must be selected to determine the internal
forces.
The determination of internal forces
and the verification of substructures
requires sufficient knowledge of the
fundamentals of actions, structural design,
concrete construction and foundation
engineering. In the same way, design
principles of the above-mentioned
disciplines are required. A compilation of
the current regulations is
699
Table 8.6.1-1. It lists the European
regulations and the current status for
bridge and foundation construction in
Germany. At present, the definitions of the
individual specialist areas at the interfaces
do not yet appear to be entirely consistent,
which is why transitional regulations have
been made in some cases. However, the
verification concept of calculating in
boundary conditions is the universal basis.
8.6.2 Calculation of abutments
8.6.2.1 Actions on abutments
Regardless of the design of the abutments,
the main actions are:
• Permanent effects
– Dead loads of the abutment itself
– Dead loads of the superstructure
including its removal loads
– Loads from earth pressure
• variable effects
– vertical and horizontal traffic loads
on the superstructure and the
– Caps in the wing area
– Earth pressure from the traffic load
on the backfill
– Forces resulting from deformations
in the bearing joint
• Exceptional effects
– Impact loads on safety barriers and
guards
The basic action arrangement for a simple
abutment wall with attached splitting of
trains is shown in the example under
8.6.2.3 shown.
The actions are described in [DIN EN
1991-2, 2004] and [DIN-FB 101, 2009].
written.
For road bridges, the characteristic
loads of the load models of the
superstructure apply to the traffic load on
the backfill. To simplify matters, the loads
of the double axis can be determined by a
uniformly distributed
8.6 Calculation of substructures 693

Table 8.6.1-1 Overview of current regulations

European standards German standards
1. fundamentals of structural engineering and actions on structures
DIN EN 1990 DIN Technical Report 101 Actions on
Eurocode: Fundamentals of structural bridges
engineering
DIN EN 1991-1
Eurocode 1: Actions on structures
- Parts 1 to 7: General actions
DIN EN 1991-2
Eurocode 1: Actions on structures -
Part 2: Traffic loads on bridges
2. material and construction
DIN EN 1992
Eurocode 2: Design and construction of DIN Technical Report 102 Concrete bridges
Reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete
structures
3. fundamentals and effects from the subsoil, regulations for foundations
DIN EN 1997 DIN 1054
Eurocode 7: Design, calculation and Subsoil - safety certificates for earthworks
dimensioning and foundation engineering
solution in geotechnics
DIN 4017
Building ground - Calculation of the ground
failure
resistance of shallow foundations
DIN V 4019-100
Soil - Settlement calculations - Part 100:
Calculation according to the concept with
partial safety factor
health coefficients
DIN 4085
Soil - Calculation of the earth pressure
4. construction
DIN EN 1992-2
Eurocode 2: Design and construction of
DIN Technical Report 102 Concrete bridges
reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete
structures -
Part 2: Concrete bridges
DIN EN 1993-2
Eurocode 3: Design and construction of DIN Technical Report 103 Steel bridges
Steel structures - Part 2: Steel bridges
DIN EN 1994-2
Eurocode 4: Design and construction of
composite steel and concrete structures - DIN Technical Report 104 Composite bridges
Part 2: General design rules and
Application rules for bridges
DIN EN 1995-2
Eurocode 5: Design and construction of
Timber structures - Part 2: Bridges
694
load on a load area of 3.0 m (transverse
direction) by 5.0 m (longitudinal direction).
The load spread may be assumed to be at
an angle of 30° to the vertical.
In the case of railroad bridges, the
ultimate loads for calculating the earth
pressures under the tracks may be
assumed to be evenly distributed over a
width of 3.00 m at a depth of 0.7 m below
the top edge of the track, whereby
dynamic effects are not taken into
account.
The magnitude of the earth pressure
depends not only on the properties of the
backfill, but also on the stiffness of the
structure and the subsoil.
A description of the earth pressure
calculation is beyond the scope of this
chapter. The leaflet on the influence of
backfill on structures [Ar- beitsausschuss:
Einfluss der Hinterfüllung auf Bauwerke,
1994] recommends regulations based on
economic considerations. According to this,
in the case of structures whose movement
in the direction of earth pressure does not
have to be restricted:
• compliant foundation for the verification
of stable equilibrium and the active
earth pressure for the strength
verifications
• In the case of unyielding foundations,
the active earth pressure must be taken
into account for the verification of the
stable equilibrium and the earth
pressure for the strength verifications.
Figure 8.6.2-1 Load-bearing model for simple abutment wall
8 Calculation
For components where movement in the
direction of earth pressure is not possible,
the earth pressure should be used for both
verification groups, irrespective of the
foundation.
8.6.2.2 Determination of internal
forces of abutments
A suitable load-bearing model is required to
determine the internal forces. Abutments
are spatially acting structures consisting of
three surface support systems. The available
computing technology and software allows
modeling by means of volume elements,
the consideration of suitable soil models
and the approach of physically non-linear
working lines and thus a realistic
calculation. In practice, calculation results
and effort must be in an acceptable ratio.
According to our current experience,
abutments are stable and have a low
susceptibility to damage. The complex load-
bearing behavior has therefore also been
well recorded to date. Therefore, a brief
outline of the calculation methods and a
recommendation for the current
calculation follow.
The literature on the problem of
calculating abutments is not extensive. A
self-contained treatise [Eibl et al., 1973-2]
on the calculation of abutments was
published in 1973
8.6 Calculation of substructures
and supplemented in the 1979 and 1988
editions [Eibl et al., 1988].
For the abutment wall with cantilevered
splitting of trains, [Eibl et al., 1988]
assumes that the slab and plate effects can
be treated separately. The corresponding
load-bearing model is a slab restrained in
the foundation plane, as shown in Figure
8.6.2-1. The loads on the cantilever wings
are treated as edge load cases of the
restrained slab. Moment tables are
available for the common load cases and
geometries. Kirchhoff's plate theory has
been applied.
For the box abutment, the
preconditions mentioned in [Eibl et al.,
1988], separate treatment of disk and plate
action and the validity of Kirchhoff's plate
theory, are retained. A plate clamped on
two sides is selected as the load-bearing
model for the splitting of trains and a
plate clamped on three sides for the
abutment wall, see Figure 8.6.2-2. A
moment compensation is proposed
between the clamping moments of the
splitting of trains and the abutment wall.
The elastic restraint of the abutment wall
and the splitting of trains in the
foundation is taken into account by
reducing the rigid restraint moments
depending on the foundation and soil
stiffness. For the chamber wall, an
infinitely long half strip clamped on two
sides is selected as the load-bearing model.
Moment tables are also available for
practical application.
Figure 8.6.2-2 Support model for box abutments
695
In 1990 [Holst, 1990-2] and 1993 [Holst,
1993], Holst also published a self-
contained work on determining the
internal forces of abutments. A folded
structure is chosen as the load-bearing
model for the box abutment. Folded
structures are composed of flat surfaces
that act as plates and/or disks depending
on their load-bearing capacity. As the
thickness of the abutment walls can no
longer be considered small in relation to
their length and width, the extended plate
theory according to Mindlin/Reissner is
applied. This means the approximate
consideration of the shear deformations of
the slab. Rigid clamping is assumed in the
foundation plane. For the practical
determination of the moments and shear
forces due to centric and eccentric loads,
table values are provided in graphical
form depending on the geometry of the
abutment wall and splitting of trains.
Linear-elastic material behavior is
assumed. In [Holst, 1993] and in [Holst,
1990-2] calculation tables for the internal
forces of abutments are published. Thus,
tools are available in the literature that
allow an economic calculation.
The load-bearing behavior of box-type
abutments is therefore well captured with
the load-bearing model of the thick-walled
folded structure, since:
• the interactive plate and disk effect of
the individual flat surfaces such as wing
wall and abutment wall is taken into
account
696
• the external actions are differentiated
with regard to their load application
• the theory of thick plates takes into
account the real measurements and thus
reflects the deformation state well
A "realistic" model for determining the
internal forces is therefore a thick-walled
folded structure that is clamped in a
foundation beam, which in turn is
elastically supported.
Practical engineers usually model the
box-shaped abutment as a folded
structure, but on the basis of Kirchhoff's
plate theory. This corresponds to the
widely used commercial software.
With the introduction of the
calculation according to limit states, the
effect of the consideration of non-linear
material behavior on the one hand and the
influence of different model assumptions
for the determination of internal forces on
the other hand become interesting.
In [Lerchner/Hartl, 2001], the
following are described for rectangular
box abutments with simplified load
approaches
Figure 8.6.2-3 Consideration of the clamping ratios according to [Lerchner/Hartl, 2001].
8 Calculation
comparative calculations are presented.
The following key results can be derived
from the assumptions made:
Consideration of the shear distortion of
the plates (theory of thick plates) If the
shear distortion of the plates is not taken
into account, the deformation
compatibility at the common edges of the
abutment wall and splitting of trains is not
given. As a result, the clamping moment at
the joint increases significantly.
By neglecting the shear distortions, the
moments are thus locally overestimated in
the abutment wall-splitting of trains near the
foundation. However, the magnitude is not
relevant for the reinforcement calculation.
Consideration of foundation and floor
rigidity
The rigid bearing of the foundation results
in a high degree of restraint between the
abutment wall and the foundation. In
reality, only a moderate clamping of the
abutment wall in the foundation is
achieved.
8.6 Calculation of substructures
Figure 8.6.2-3 shows the basic ratios for
different assumptions.
Internal forces with assumption
of non-linear material behavior
In [Lerchner/Hartl, 2001], a castellated
abutment with external dimensions of the
abutment wall of 9 m and the splitting of
trains of 4.5 m was loaded from the inside
with dead load and a uniform earth
pressure of 0.05 MN/m² and calculated
assuming non-linear material behavior.
The result is that the resulting
compressive stresses remain small and the
tensile stresses do not lead to cracking. This
corresponds to our own experience and the
known fact that abutments rarely receive
more than the minimum reinforcement
and usually only in the case of skewed
designs. It has already been pointed out in
Chapter 7 that the geometry is often
determined by the design of the
superstructure and the bearings.
Furthermore, it is shown that the wing
deformations from the load stress alone
due to creep and shrinkage of the concrete
i n c r e a s e threefold compared to linear
elastic behavior due to the non-linear
behavior of the material without cracking
occurring. There is therefore a small
transfer of internal forces from the splitting
of trains to the abutment wall, and the
moments of restraint in the func
dament increase slightly.
It can be concluded that a physically
non-linear load-bearing behavior of
abutments in the ultimate limit state does
not have to be taken into account for
practical calculations.
As a structural model, the folding
structure provides sufficiently accurate
design internal forces using Kirchhoff's
theory and taking into account the
foundation and soil stiffness. The results
of the edge restraint moments between the
abutment wall and the wing can be
applied to the restraint moment of the
697
The center area of the abutment wall can
be reduced.
For abutments with attached, not
independently founded wing walls, the
same statements apply to the modeling for
determining the internal forces. Since the
splitting of trains and the abutment wall
are not connected over the entire height,
the interactions are smaller and therefore
the internal forces are not so strongly
influenced by the modeling.
The modeling shown is applicable for
determining the internal forces of the final
state and the construction stages. A typical
construction stage is the partial backfilling
of the abutments or the falsework support
for the superstructure on the foundation
projection. The model components allow
this illustration.
When new bridges are built as part of
new roads, the entire bridge is often
completed and the backfilling is only
carried out during the earthworks of the
route. The supporting structure is already
in place and the roadway crossings have
also been installed. In these cases, the
deformations of the abutment due to
backfilling must be taken into account.
The concreting of the abutment wall on
the already hardened foundation is another
construction stage that must be taken into
account. The decaying hydration heat
leads to shortening of the abutment wall,
which is hindered by the foundation. This
results in rising cracks in the wall.
Although the model shown is in principle
suitable for capturing this situation, it
requires the foundation to be modeled. A
model of coupled disks is simpler.
As a rule, design rules [ZTV-ING] are
available to take this problem into account.
This means that a calculation is only
required for deviating geometries.
Up to now, the presentation of the
structural models was oriented towards
the determination of the global internal
forces.
698 8 Calculation

orthogonal directions to each other as a

plane problem according to disk theory.
This allows the stresses to be determined
in a straightforward manner. Results
obtained experimentally are still the best
basis for comparison, taking into account
the boundary conditions on which the test
is based. Figure 8.6.2-4 compares measured
and calculated splitting tensile stresses
and splitting tensile forces from [Mildner,
1984]. The quantitatively and qualitatively
good recording via the disk theory
becomes clear.

8.6.2.3 Calculation example -

verification for abutments

The internal forces are used for the

Figure 8.6.2-4 Comparison of splitting tensile
stresses/forces
Local effects must also be taken into
account.
The upper end of the abutment wall is
designed as a bearing bench for
superstructures supported by bearings.
The bearing loads of the superstructure
applied via the bearing surface generate
transverse tensile stresses, also known as
splitting tensile stresses, in the bearing
bench, which are caused by the
propagating compressive stresses. If the
partial area load in the component can
spread evenly, a spatial stress state with
transverse tensile stresses in all directions
is created. To simplify matters, the
determination can be divided into two
verification of the abutment. The
designations and symbols used in the
following correspond to [DIN-FB 101,
2009] and [DIN-FB 102, 2009].
The verifications for the foundation and for
the abutment body must be carried out.
The verifications of the foundation and
thus also the stability of the abutment are
dealt with in Section 8.6.4. In this section,
the strength verifications of the abutment
and splitting of trains walls as well as the
chamber wall are dealt with using the
example of a simple abutment wall with
attached splitting of trains.
1. Impacts
In addition, different effects must be taken
into account depending on the structure,
manufacturing process and construction
progress.

Table 8.6.2-1 Soil parameters for backfill and foundation of the calculation example
Soil layer Weights γ Weights γ′ Friction angle Stiffness
[kN/m3
] [kN/m3
] φ′ modulus
Esk [MN/m2]
Backfill 19 9 34°
Foundation 19 9 30° 80
8.6 Calculation of substructures 699

Figure 8.6.2-5 Geometry of the calculation example

Table 8.6.2-2 Material characteristics for the loads from the construction stages, such
abutment as loads from the shoring and the
Concrete C 25/30 fck = 25 N/mm2 formwork for the superstructure, partial
backfilling of the root store before the
Ecm = 26 700 N/mm2 superstructure is stored and traffic loads
resulting from the technical construction
Reinforcing fyk = 500 N/mm2
steel BSt 500 process (compaction earth pressure,
Es = 200 000 N/mm2 construction vehicles, intermediate storage
S
of building materials).
700 8 Calculation

Table 8.6.2-3 Calculation example - Permanent actions

8.6 Calculation of substructures 701

Table 8.6.2-3 continued

Earth pressure and vertical surcharge from backfill (Eo)

With /k - 19 kN/m*, Qk" "- 34° UK WL wall UK e 1 - - 3 5 .2 kN/m2

kg --1-sin 34° - - 0 .441 foundation UK e 2 - - 4 5 .2 kN/m*
the earth pressure at the relevant points rear UK splitting eos - - 1 1 .5 kN/m*
results in of trains UK front eo4 - - 2 7 .5 kN/m*

eo1
eo2

e 3
e4
702 8 Calculation

Table 8.6.2-4 Calculation example - Variable actions

8.6 Calculation of substructures 703

Table 8.6.2-4 continued

Earth pressure from live load on backfill (Q 1 backfill)
Load from traffic: from FS 1: TSFS1 "- 32.0+9.0 - 41.0 kN/m*
from FS 2: T S F S 2 - - 2 1 .3+2.5 -- 23.8 kN/m*

Load distribution areas: Fig-- 6.0 * 5.0 - - 3 0 .0 m*

OK Backfill: Aoz-- 3.0 * 5.0 - - 1 5 .0 m*
A 1 1 - (6+2*2.77)*(5+2.77)-- 89.7 m*
OK Foundation (load spread Aj2--(3+2"2, 77)*(5+2, 77)-- 66.4 m
below 30°)

Earth pressure distribution: Base load: eop1,o 0t441*23.8 - - 1 0 .5 kN/m*

eQp1,u 10 5*(30/89.7) - 3.5 kN/m'

Overload (FS1) eorz"--0.441*17.2 - - 7 .6 kN/m eQp2,u-7

6*(15/66.4) - - 1 .72 kN/m*

0p

eop1,u
eop2,u
704 8 Calculation

Table 8.6.2-4 continued

8.6 Calculation of substructures 705

Table 8.6.2-5 Calculation example - Exceptional actions

The loads must be taken into account
after careful coordination with the
construction company.
2. Determination of internal forces
The decisive points for determining the
required reinforcement in the
limit state of the load-bearing capacity are
shown in Figure 8.6.2-6.
Additional calculation locations are
useful for greater wall heights in order to
scale the reinforcement. In the area of the
splitting of trains at the edge of the
abutment wall, the main moments and -
normal

Fig. 8.6.2-6 Authoritative points for determining internal forces

706 8 Calculation

forces are not orthogonal to the edges.
The design internal forces for the
reinforcement must be converted from
the main internal forces to the direction of
reinforcement. The determination of
- EWK (action combination) 1: Traffic load
on backfill (traffic load group gr1, Table
8.6.2-6)
MSd, gr1 = γG1*MG1 + γG2*MG2

internal forces for the calculation example + γE,G* ME,G + γQ*MQgr1, H

is modeled as a folded structure in
NSd, gr1 = γG1*NG1 + γG2*NG2
accordance with the recommendation in
Section 8.6.2.2 using Kirchhoff's theory + γE,G* NE,G + γQ*NQgr1, H
and taking into account the foundation - EWK 2: Traffic load on superstructure
and soil stiffness. The internal forces of the (traffic load group gr2, Table 8.6.2-7)
individual actions are not shown here.
MSd, gr2 = γG1*MG1 + γG2*MG2 + γE,G* ME,G
3. Verification of the abutment The + γQ*[MQlk + ψ1, TS*MQ, TS
verifications for the ultimate limit state + ψ1,UDL*MQ, UDL]
and the serviceability limit state must be
performed. NSd,gr2 = γG1*NG1 + γG2*NG2 + γE,G* NE,G
+ γQ*[NQlk + ψ1,TS*NQ,TS
Verification for bending with
+ ψ1,UDL*NQ,UDL]
longitudinal force The verifications for
bending with longitudinal force in the The following verification combinations
ultimate limit state are carried out for the are to be investigated for the sash
permanent and temporary design clamping (location 3/5):
situation as well as the exceptional design
situation (impact on a slab) in the - EWK 3: Live load on backfill (live load
respective decisive design sections. group gr1, Table 8.6.2-8)
For the clamping point (location 2/4) MSd, gr1 = γG1*MG1 + γG2*MG2
of the abutment wall in the foundation + γE,G* ME,G + γQ*MQgr1,H
NSd, gr1 = γG1*NG1 + γG2*NG2
The following possible combinations of +γ *M + γ *N
effects
ons are decisive: E,G E,G Q Qgr1,H

Table 8.6.2-6 Calculation example - design internal forces, EWK 1

mx my mxy nx ny nxy
[kNm/m] [kNm/m] [kNm/m] [kNm/m] [kNm/m] [kNm/m]
∑ Location 51,09 291,79 2,43 -44,71 -213,88 -0,92
2
∑ Location 29,94 406,19 46,24 -11,81 -602,89 36,54
4

Table 8.6.2-7 Calculation example - design internal forces, EWK 2

mx my mxy nx ny nxy
[kNm/m] [kNm/m] [kNm/m] [kNm/m] [kNm/m] [kNm/m]
∑ Location 42,69 241,3 24,85 -47,72 -222,39 -0,9
2
∑ Location 11,76 185,82 -25,19 -10,14 -500,56 30,15
4
8.6 Calculation of substructures 707

- EWK 4: Impact on scuff plate at the EWK 3 with:

splitting of trains (Table 8.6.2-9) γG1 = 1.35 for dead load of the abutment
MSd,A = γG1*MG1 + γG2*MG2 γG2 = 1.35 for dead load of the superstructure
+ γE,G* ME,G + MAd γE,G = 1.35 for earth pressure from backfill
γQ = 1.5 for traffic on backfill (eccentric load
NSd,A = γG1*NG1 + γG2*NG2
position)
+ γE,G* NE,G + NAd
EWK (exceptional combination) 4 with:
EWK 1 with:
γG1 = 1.00 for dead load of the abutment
γ G1,inf = 1.0 for dead load of the abutment
γG2 = 1.00 for dead load of the superstructure
γ G2,inf = 1.0 for dead load of the
γG3 = 1.00 for earth pressure from backfill
superstructure γ G,E,sup = 1.35 for earth
γQ = 1.00 for side joint on splitting of trains
pressure from behind
filling Taking into account the design section
γQ = 1.5 for traffic on the rear foot sizes, the statically required reinforcement
(centric load position) in the ultimate limit state is given in Table
EWK 2 with: 8.6.2-10 for the decisive design cross-
sections.
γ G1,inf = 1.0 for dead load of the resistor
warehouses Verification for shear force
γ G2,inf = 1.0 for dead load of the VSd < VRd1 or VRd,ct (component without shear
superstructure force)
γ E,G,sup = 1.35 for earth pressure from reinforcement)
behind VSd < V Rd,sy (component with shear
filling reinforcement)
γQ = 1.5 for braking load on VSd < V Rd,max (Highest design value
Superstructure gr2 the shear force that can be
1 = ψ0.4 for associated vertical load absorbed without displacing
from traffic for braking load the compression struts)
(UDL)
1 = ψ0.75 for associated vertical load
from
Traffic for braking load (TS)

Table 8.6.2-8 Calculation example - design internal forces, EWK 3

mx my mxy nx ny nxy
[kNm/m] [kNm/m] [kNm/m] [kNm/m] [kNm/m] [kNm/m]
∑ Location 244,28 -1,04 23,14 229,03 9,05 -20,31
3
∑ Location 177,03 27,57 59,34 131,34 -15,69 -14,33
5

Table 8.6.2-9 Calculation example - design internal forces, EWK 4

mx my mxy nx ny nxy
[kNm/m] [kNm/m] [kNm/m] [kNm/m] [kNm/m] [kNm/m]
708 8 Calculation

∑ Location 226,15 -10,29 14,74 148,7 28,07 -7,96

3
∑ Location 164,26 28,84 56,84 154,41 16,13 0,89
5
 8.6 Calculation of substructures 709

Table 8.6.2-10 Calculation example - bending reinforcement

Airside Earth side
Location as,x [cm2/m] as,y [cm2/m] as,x [cm2/m] as,y [cm2/m]
1
2 - - 1,64 (1) 4,56 (1)
3
4 0,89 (2) - 2,16 (1) 4,47 (1)
5

The decisive points for the verification of tensile reinforcement is approximated for
the shear force are the foundation the section plane under consideration as
connection of the abutment wall and the shown in Figure 8.6.2-8:
connection of the wing walls to the
abutment wall.
Z = 0.25 ⋅ F ⎡ - dc0 ⎤
Proof of torsion
SdSd ⎥
⎢1 dc1 ⎦
Proof of torsion can be provided for
⎣
standard
abutment dimensions are generally not This results in the required splitting tensile
required. reinforcement:
ZSd
Proof of concentrated load As,Z = fyk /γ s
introduction
In the area of the support bench under the
la-
proof of the concentrated load application Proof of fatigue
must be provided. The absorbable partial The verification for fatigue is generally not
area load can be determined as follows: required for abutments of road bridges that
are not connected to the superstructure in
FRdu = Ac0 ⋅ fcd ⋅ Ac1 ≤ 3.0 fcd ⋅ Ac0 bending stiffness and cannot be walked on.
Ac0 For railroad bridges, the verification for
fatigue must be carried out.

with fcd = 0.85 ∙ γ

6 and Acl or Ac0 to
fck
c
Figure 8.6.2-7 bench must be absorbed by reinforcement in the
The following must be taken into form of helixes or stirrups. The existing splitting
account for the corresponding exposure tensile force and the required splitting tensile force
combination: must be
– Permanent loads on the superstructure
– Variable loads from the superstructure
FSd = 1.35 FG + 1.5 FQgr1

The splitting tensile forces in the support

 710 8 Calculation

Figure 8.6.2-7 Surfaces for determining

the a b s o r b a b l e partial surface load
8.6 Calculation of substructures
Figure 8.6.2-8 Splitting tensile reinforcement
in the support bench
In the serviceability limit state, stress
limitations and the limitation of crack
widths must be verified.
Voltage limitations
The concrete stresses are to be limited to
0.6 fck under the non-frequent combination.
The tensile stress in the concrete-steel
reinforcement must be limited to 0.8 fyk
for the non-frequent action combination.
Verification of the limitation
of crack widths
The formation of cracks in the abutment
components must be limited in such a way
that proper use and appearance are not
impaired. For reinforced concrete
structures, the design value of the crack
width is 0.2 mm, unless further
requirements apply.
Two verifications are required to limit
the crack width:
• Proof of minimum reinforcement
• the verification of the limitation of the
crack width either by a diameter and
distance limitation of the
711
The crack width can be calculated as a
function of the steel stress or by directly
calculating the crack width.
To avoid wide individual cracks, a
minimum amount of reinforcement must
be provided in the areas of the bearing
cross-section close to the surface.
kc⋅ k ⋅ fct,eff
ρ=
s
σs
ρs of the drawn cross-section part Act of
the cross-section under
consideration
As
related reinforcement content
6Act
kc Coefficient to take into account the
stress distribution in the cross-
section
σS Permissible stress in the concrete
reinforcement to limit the crack
width as a function of the limit
diameter
fct,eff - for cracking in young concrete,
z. e.g. hydration, equal to 0.5 fctm
- if cracks form after 28 days:
fctm � 3 N/mm2
k depends on the type of constraint
(internal, external) and the
component dimensions, the value is
between 1 and 0.5.
The limitation of the crack width of the
reinforcement determined in this way may
be verified by limiting the bar diameter.
The abutment is constructed by
concreting the foundation, abutment walls
and splitting of trains one after the other.
During the cooling process of the walls,
they are always subject to constraints, as
the foundation beam has already
hardened. For this reason, a defined
structural reinforcement [DIN-FB 102,
2009], 5.4.7.3 is required for the
substructures that are concreted onto
existing components.
required.
In addition to the listed determination
of internal forces and verification
procedures for abutment walls and wing
walls, the
712
chamber wall. The chamber wall is
elastically clamped into the abutment wall
and the wing wall. It withstands the effects
of earth pressure from backfill, earth
pressure from traffic on the backfill or from
a braking load in the longitudinal
direction with a simultaneous vertical axle
load and restoring forces from the
roadway transition.
8.6.3 Calculation of pillars and columns
8.6.3.1 Effects on pillars and columns
Supports and pillars are subjected to
stresses as a result of:
• permanent effects
– Support reaction due to dead load of
the superstructure
– Support reaction due to pre-tension
– Dead load of column/pillar
• variable effects
– Support reaction due to traffic
(vertical, horizontal)
– Support reaction due to wind on the
superstructure (horizontal)
– Support reaction due to linear
temperature difference in the
superstructure
– Support reaction due to changes in
the length of the superstructure
– Wind on support/pillar
– linear temperature difference in the
Arrow shaft
• extraordinary effects
– Support reaction due to impact
situation on superstructure
– Direct impact on support/pillar
8.6.3.2 Determination of internal
forces and verifications of pillars and
columns
A suitable load-bearing system is required
to determine the internal forces. In
Chapters 6 (Section 6.2) and 8 (Section
8 Calculation
Section 8.2) lists the facts and assessment
criteria that require a determination of
internal forces on the overall system.
For the purpose of calculation,
structures and structural components are
classified as displaceable or non-
displaceable (better according to
[Kordina/Quast, 2003] deformation-
influenced or deformation-uninfluenced).
In general:
Structures for which the influence of
pier head displacements on the internal
forces can be neglected are considered
to be non-displaceable.
Columns and piers are also components
that are primarily subjected to
compression and whose load-bearing
capacity (even in a separate system) can
be influenced by their horizontal
deformations along the pier axis (effects of
second-order theory). For the purposes of
the calculation, the individual
components are divided into displaceable
or non-displaceable and slender and non-
slender individual components. The
following also applies here:
If the influence of the deformations on
the internal forces can be neglected,
then the effects of the second-order
theory need not be considered. order
need not be taken into account.
For practical handling, a quantification of
"negligible"
and "lean" is desirable. This is regulated in
[DIN FB 102, 2009]. According to this, the
effects according to the II. order must be
taken into account if they reduce the load-
bearing capacity by more than 10%.
Single compression members are
considered slender if they meet the
following slenderness limits λ
λmax = 25 for |vEd | > 0.41
λmax = 16/ √ 3 | v E d 1 | for |vEd | < 0.41
8.6 Calculation of substructures 713

and must then be verified taking into Deformations due to linear temperature
account the effects according to Th. II. differences across the pier cross-section
order. caused by thermal influences may be
considered as an additional initial
with λ = l0 /i
imperfection. Non-displaceable load-
l0 Replacement length of the vertical bearing structures or individual
component 31 compression members that are not
i Surface radius of gyration: i = √I/A considered slender do not need to be
vEd Related longitudinal force of the checked according to the second-order
component theory. order need not be verified.
NEd the. The verification of the internal forces
vEd = 9Ac ∙ f according to first-order theory is carried
2cd out
NEd Design value of the mean longitudinal then e.g. according to [DIN FB102, 2009, 4.3.1].
force of the individual compression In general, the effects of the II. order
member are to be determined by means of physical
Ac Cross-sectional area of the and geometrically non-linear
compression member determination of internal forces.
fcd Design value of the concrete Simplified assumptions for the stiffening
compressive strength influence from the effect of the concrete
on tension between the cracks and for the
The use of the equivalent length l0 is still moment-curvature relationship are given
reminiscent of the buckling problem with in Annex II of [DIN-FB 102, 2009].
equilibrium branching, although the For the determination of the effects of
verification in concrete construction is the II. order on the overall system can be
consistently designed as a deformation- found in Section 8.2 and in [DAfStb 525,
influenced ultimate load test. It would be 2003].
more obvious to determine equivalent For slender columns or piers that can be
lengths not according to equal buckling modeled as a single load-bearing system,
loads, but according to equal the effects according to theory
deformations. Corresponding comments II order can be determined using the model
can be found in [Quast/ Pfeiffer, 2003]. support method if the cross-section is
When determining the equivalent length l0 rectangular or circular and the design load
, the interactions between the structure and eccentricity according to theory
the ground and the bearing conditions at I. order e0 is at least h/10. As this situation
the base and head of the column must affects 80% of bridges in design practice,
again be taken into account. For the the model support method is explained
determination of internal forces, here.
uncertainties regarding the position and
direction of the longitudinal forces must Model support method
be taken into account by applying geome- Detailed explanations of the basic
trical equivalent imperfections. principles of the model support method
For single compression members, the can be found in [Kordina/Quast, 2003].
geometric equivalent imperfection may be The model support method described in
introduced by increasing the existing load [DIN-FB 102, 2009] transfers the
eccentricity of the longitudinal forces e0 verifications
by an additional eccentricity ea , acting in
an unfavorable direction.
1 l according to theory II. order into a transverse
e a= ⋅ 0
l
with 100 ⋅ 2
714 8 Calculation

s i design. The equivalent length l0 is only

e o used to calculate the additional load
c n eccentricity from deformations according
t to
l Total height of the supporting Theory II. Order.
structure in m
 8.6 Calculation of substructures
The model column is defined as a
cantilever column clamped at the base,
which has a single-curved deformation
figure under the external actions, with the
maximum moment occurring at the
column base. The smaller the H load and
the related additional eccentricity e2 /h,
the greater the H load, the more the real
curvature approaches the rectangular
shape and the larger the related additional
eccentricity, the more parabolic it
becomes. For large slendernesses with a
large additional eccentricity,
approximately parabolic curvature curve
results, so that this curve is used as a basis.
The second simplification of the model
support method consists in the fact that, in
principle, with the flow state belonging to
the flow state
the curvature is calculated.
This results approximately in:
1 2 ∙ ∙ Kφ ∙ εyd
K
4 2 = -
r 0,9 ∙ d
according to Eq. (4.69) [DIN-FB 102,
2009] with
εyd Design value of the strain of the
reinforcement at the yield strength
d Effective height of the cross-section in
the direction of stability failure
Within the equation, the coefficient K2
takes into account the decrease in
curvature with a simultaneous increase in
longitudinal forces.
Nud - NEd
K2 =
N ud - Nbal
with
Nud Design value of the ultimate limit state
of the load-bearing capacity of the
centric pressure
cross-section
N Design valueEd of the to be
applied
longitudinal force
Nbal Absorbable longitudinal compressive
force at maximum moment load
capacity of the cross-section
715
If creep must be taken into account, this
may be done by increasing the curvature
by the factor Kφ.
Kφ = 1 + β ∙ φeff ≥ 1
Here is
φeff the effective creep coefficient
φeff - φ(∞,t0) ∙ M1,perm/M1,Ed
M1,perm = Moment in the GZG due to
the quasi-permanent EWK
an M1,Ed = Rated torque in the CCT
β = 0.35 + fck /200 - λ/150 ≥ 0
If creep does not have to be taken into account,
Kφ = 1.0 applies.
The additional e2 is calculated depending on the
1
of the curvature of the am
3r
most stretched cross-section (in
clamping point):
1
e2 = K ⋅ l2 ⋅
r
In this formulation, K is the coefficient for
the curvature. For the assumed parabolic
shape, this is approx. 4/10 in relation to l or
1/10 in relation to l0 . In addition, a factor
K1 is introduced, which regulates the
transition between the pure cross-
sectional load-bearing capacity up to λ =
25 and the decisive support load-bearing
capacity from λ = 35. This results in
the additional funds e2 :
4 l 2 l 21
e2 ≈ K ⋅ ⋅ = K ⋅ ⋅ 0
1 1 10
10 r r
with
λ
K1 = 4 - 2.5 for 25 ≤ λ ≤ 35
10
= 1for λ > 35
For further information, please refer to
[Kordina/ Quast, 2003].
716
The essential boundary conditions of
the model column method consist of the
exact determination of the curvature and
the deformation figure. The deformations
are thus approximately independent of the
type of loading and in particular of the as
yet unknown reinforcement. It should be
noted that due to the basic assumption of
the curvature belonging to the yield state,
the addition e2 is not the column
deformation actually occurring at the
ultimate limit state. See also
[Kordina/Quast, 2003]. Consequently, the
determined column deformation cannot
be used to assess bearing conditions.
The total moment acting on the model
support is made up of the moment
component M1 according to first-order
theory and the moment component M2
according to first-order theory.
II. order together.
M = M1 + M2 = M1 + N ∙ etot
The total amount etot is made up of the
three shares e0 , ea and e2 :
etot = e0 + ea + e2
with
e0 = Load eccentricity according to theory
I. order
ea = Additional eccentricity due to
geometric replacement imperfection
e2 = Load eccentricity according to Th. II.
order
This means that the total bending
moment in the deformed state is known.
The reinforcement ratio can then be
determined with the aid of interaction
diagrams, e.g. according to [DAfStb 525,
2003].
In principle, the approaches of the
model support method can also be
transferred to compression members with
biaxial load eccentricity, but additional
parameters such as the aspect ratios of the
cross-section, the course of the related load
eccentricity, and the load distribution
remain.
8 Calculation
and the storage conditions in both main
levels, which do not allow simplified
procedures to be applied.
As the load eccentricity decreases and
the slenderness increases, the deviations of
the model column method from reality
increase. Corresponding comparative
considerations are contained in [Kordina/
Quast, 2003]. According to this, minor
deviations are only to be expected with a
pronounced bending of the moment or
curvature line in the area of the yield
point, i.e. with high degrees of
reinforcement and reinforcement close to
the edge. Generalizable investigations
with regard to the deviations of the model
support method have not yet been carried
out. The realism of the solution found
using the model column method can be
improved by correcting the peak
deflection as a function of the acting loads
and taking into account the pier dead load
and the foundation stiffness, thus
improving the moment component M .2
Application of non-linear methods for
determining internal forces
Non-linear methods must be used for
system considerations and in particular if
the associated deformations must be
known for the assessment of bearing
paths. When using non-linear methods,
the deformations and the resulting
internal forces must be calculated on the
basis of the stress-distortion lines for
concrete and concrete steel. For a realistic
deformation calculation, mean values of
the building material should be used, as
the deformation as an integral variable is
only slightly dependent on local weak
points. Since the cross-sectional load-
bearing capacity is verified using
measured values, this results in an
iterative procedure.
In [DIN-FB 102, 2009] the so-called
"calculation value method" is included.
 8.6 Calculation of substructures
ments. Calculated mean values of the
material strengths for concrete and steel
are defined, which then enable the
application of a uniform partial safety
factor of γR = 1.3.
Calculated mean values of the building
material strengths:
fyR = 1.1 ∙ fyk
(yield strength of the reinforcing steel)
ftR = 1.08 ∙ fyR
(tensile strength of the reinforcing steel)
fcR = 0.85 ∙ α ∙ fck = 0.852 ∙ fck
(concrete compressive strength)
The ultimate limit state is considered to be
reached if in any transverse section
• the critical steel elongation of εsu =
0.025 or
• the critical concrete compression of εc1u
= -0.0035 or
• the critical state of indifferent
equilibrium in the entire system or parts
thereof
is reached.
Quast explains in [Quast, 2000] that
this method is unsuitable for the correct
calculation, as it unnecessarily reduces the
modulus of elasticity of the concrete steel
and can therefore lead to uneconomical
results. For example, using the
In special cases, the "calculation value
method" can result in reductions in the
permissible support loads of up to 70%
compared to the use of divided partial
safety factors. The user should be aware of
the deviations of the calculation value
method.
The stiffening influence from the effect of
the concrete on tension between the
cracks (tension stiffening) must be taken
into account. It may be neglected if this is
on the safe side. A suitable method must be
selected to take this into account.
717
select. According to [DIN-FB 102, 2009],
Annex 2, the stiffening influence of the effect
of the concrete on tension between the cracks
may be taken into account by applying an
effective mean stress-strain curve for the
steel in the composite, assuming a cracked
concrete tension zone.
The foundation stiffnesses can be taken
into account using spring models.
Information on spring models for
different foundation variants and the
determination of the respective spring
stiffnesses can be found, for example, in
[Klöker, 1997].
Minimum reinforcement
Regardless of the method of determining
the section size and verification, a
constructive minimum reinforcement
must be provided. The following criteria
must be observed for the minimum
reinforcement to be inserted:
• The minimum longitudinal
reinforcement of the entire cross-
sectional area results in:
0,15 NEd
As,min = ≥ 0,003Ac
f yd
≤ ∅ 16 mm, s = 150
fyk
mm with fyd =
8γS
• The reinforcement cross-section must
not exceed 9% of the area of the
concrete cross-section, even in the area
of reinforcement joints. The diameter
of the transverse reinforcement must
be at least 25% of the maximum
diameter of the longitudinal
reinforcement and at least 10 mm.
Proof against impact:
Supports that are exposed to the effects of
vehicle impact must either be regarded as
failing components or must have
sufficient resistance to absorb the kinetic
energy.
718
In the following cases, proof of impact is
not required for hazards caused by road
traffic:
• Full rectangular reinforced concrete
cross-sections with a length l of at least
1.6 m in the direction of travel and a
width b transverse to the direction of
travel of b = 1.6 - 0.2 ∙ l ≥ 0.9 m
• for reinforced concrete hollow piers
with a
Minimum wall thickness of 0.60 m.
If the supporting component is
considered as a failing component, the
resulting deformations under the frequent
combination of effects must be verified to
ensure the clearance limits.
The absorption of the impact loads must
be verified by the elastic load-bearing
capacity of the column, whereby the
failure of a crushing layer must be taken
into account. Furthermore, the shear cover
must be verified, whereby a reduced
amount of reinforcement can be inserted
if the longitudinal reinforcement from the
impact area to the clamping point is in
two layers.
Figure 8.6.3-1 Pillar geometry
8 Calculation
Design reinforcement specifications are
contained in [DIN-FB 102, 2009]. The
following combinations of effects are
decisive for the verification:
Sd = 1.0 ∙ Gk + 1.0 ∙ Pk + Ad
+ 1.0 ∙ (0.75 ∙ Ql,TS + 0.4 ∙ Q )l,UDL
or
Sd = 1.0 ∙ Gk + 1.0 ∙ Pk + Ad
+ 1,0 ∙ 0,3 ∙ Q
Fw
or
Sd = 1.0 ∙ Gk + 1.0 ∙ Pk + Ad
Pillars and columns at risk of impact that
are subject to mandatory verification must
b e secured by special measures outside
built-up areas and on subordinate roads.
These include continuous protective
devices with a minimum distance of 1 m
in front of the structure to be protected or
concrete bases with a minimum height of
80 cm, which project at least 2 m in the
direction of travel and 0.5 m transverse to
the outer edge of the structure to be
protected.
 8.6 Calculation of substructures 719

and comparatively by means of a non-

Figure 8.6.3-2 Pillar cross-section
Introduction of the column forces
into the foundation
When shallow foundations are
constructed, the pier/column forces are
generally transferred to the foundation
slab without additional footing
reinforcement and transferred to bending.
Regulations on the verification of the
foundation are contained in section 8.6.4.
8.6.3.3 Calculation example -
Verification for slender pillar
Using the example of a slender bridge
pier, the verification is carried out in the
ultimate limit state taking into account the
deformations on the one hand on the basis
of the model column method
linear determination of internal forces. The
effects on the column were determined in
advance taking into account the system
load-bearing behavior, the consideration
of the column as a single compression
member in the sense of the verification is
permissible.
Building material characteristics,
system and dimensions Building
material characteristics:
Concrete: C30/37 with
fcd = 0.85 ∙ 30000/1.5 = 17 000 kN/m2
Steel: BSt 500 S with
fyd = 500000/1.15 = 434800 kN/m2
ftd = 525 000/1.15 = 456 500 kN/m2
Support length:
L = 25.0 m
Cross-sectional dimensions:
b/dy /dy1 = 5.0/4.92/0.08 m
h/d /dxx1 = 1.5/1.42/0.08 m

characteristic values of the actions:

1 Support force due to permanent actions BV, G = 10 595 kN
2 Support force due to pre-tension BV, P = 180 kN
3.1 Support force due to traffic (gr1) BV, gr1 = 3260 kN
3.2 Support force due to traffic (axle load TS) BV, TS = 800 kN
3.3 Support force due to traffic (area load UDL) BV, UDL = 2460 kN
4 Horizontal force due to braking/starting BH, lk = 514 kN
5 Horizontal force from wind impact on bridge BH, W1 = 296 kN
(without
superstructure
6 Horizontal force from wind impact on bridge BH, W2 = 541 kN
traffic) (with
superstructure
7 from wind attack on support w = 1.2 kN/m
traffic)
720 8 Calculation

Table 8.6.3-1 Calculation example - Additional moments due to ea and e2

Assumptions: Column base rigidly clamped Kφ = 1 + β ∙ φeff ≥ 1

Support head freely movable β = 0.35 + fck /200 - λ/150
l0 = 2 * L
βx = 0.35 + 30/200 - 115.5/150 = -0.27 < 0
βy = 0.35 + 30/200 - 34.6/150 = 0.27 > 0
Kφ,x = 1
Kφ,y = 1 + 0.27. φeff
The creep effects only need to be
considered for the verification around the
strong axis of the cross-section. This
Unintentional ea due to imperfection influence is not taken into account in this
example.
1 l 25
e= ⋅ l0 = = = 0.05 m as the load is applied in the direction of the
is not decisive for the verification.
a
100 ⋅ l 2 100 100
Determination of the relevant exposure
additional load e2 due to effects according combinations:
to theory II. order
a) Stress in longitudinal direction:
φ EWK (impact combination) 1 - traffic
φ load group gr1 as lead impact
Ed = 1.35 ∙ G + 1.0 ∙ P + 1.5 ∙ Qgr1
= 1.35 ∙ LF1 + 1.0 ∙ LF2 + 1.5 ∙ LF3.1
NSd = -1.35 ∙ 10595 - 1.0 ∙ 180
- 1,5 ∙ 3260
= -19 373 kN
 8.6 Calculation of substructures 721

MSd,y = 1.35 ∙ 9541 + 1.0 ∙ 162 + 1.5 ∙ 2936 Dimensionless design value of the
= 17 446 kNm maximum longitudinal force:

EWK 2 - traffic load group gr2 as lead Ac ∙ fcd = 1.5 ∙ 5.0 ∙ 0.85 ∙ 30 000/1.5
action = -127500 kN
Ed = 1.35 ∙ G + 1.0 ∙ P + 1.5 ∙ Qgr2 νEd = -19 373/-127500 = 0.152 < 0.5
= 1.35 ∙ LF1 + 1.0 ∙ LF2 → In all combinations, the load is in the
+ 1.5 ∙ (LF4 + 0.75 ∙ LF3.2 tensile fracture range, the measurement is
+ 0.40 ∙ LF3.3) therefore simplified according to
[Kordina/Quast, 2003]
NSd = -1.35 ∙ 10 595 - 1.0 ∙ 180
- 1,5 ∙ (0,75 ∙ 800 + 0,40 ∙ 2460) Noc = -Ac ∙ fcd = -127500 kN
= -16 859 kN
Determination of the required reinforcement:
MSd,y = 1.35 ∙ 9541 + 1.0 ∙ 162 + 1.5
∙ (12 850 + 0,75 ∙ 720 + 0,40 ∙ EWK 2 → decisive for stress in
2215) longitudinal direction
= 34 457.0 kNm h ⋅⎛ ⎞
Mc = NSd ⋅2 ⎜ NNSd -
b) Stress in transverse direction ⎝ 0c ⎠
1
EWK 3 - traffic load group gr1 as ⎟ 1,5 ⋅ ⎛ 16859 1⎞
Conductive
effect = -16859 ⋅ - = 10972,5
⎜ ⎟⎠
Ed = 1.35 ∙ G + 1.0 ∙ P + 1.5 ∙ Qgr1 2 ⎝127500
+ 1.5 ∙ 0.3 ∙ (QW2 + Q )w
= 1.35 ∙ LF1 + 1.0 ∙ LF2 + 1.5 ∙ LF3.1 MSd,II - Mc
As, erf =
+ 0.45 (LF6 + LF7) zs1 ⋅ fyd

NSd = -1.35 ∙ 10595 - 1.0 ∙ 180 34457.0 - 10972.5

- 1,5 ∙ 3260 = = 806.2 cm2
0,67 ⋅ 43,5
= -19 373 kN
MSd,x = 1.35 ∙ 3131 + 1.0 ∙ 53 + 1.5 ∙ 963 EWK 4 → decisive for load in
+ 0,45 ∙ (18375 + 938) transverse direction
= 14 415 kNm h ⎛ NSd ⎞
=
EW K 4 - Wind as a guiding Mc NSd ⋅ ⋅ ⎜ - 1⎟
2 ⎝ N 0c ⎠
influence 5,0 ⎛ 10775 1⎞
Ed = 1.0 ∙ G + 1.0 ∙ P + 1.5 ∙ QW1 = -10775,0 ⋅ ⋅ -
⎝ ⎠
⎜ ⎟
= 1.0 ∙ LF1 + 1.0 ∙ LF2 + 1.5 2 127500
∙ (LF5 + LF7) = 24661 kNm
NSd = -1.0 ∙ 10595 - 1.0 ∙ 180
= -10 775 kN MSd,II - Mc
As,erf =
MSd,x = 1.0 ∙ 3131 + 1.0 ∙ 53 + 1.5 zs1 ⋅ fyd
∙ (13750 + 938)
25215,0 - 24661
= 25 215 kNm = = 5.3 cm2
2,42 ⋅ 43,5
Minimum reinforcement decisive
722 8 Calculation

Determining the minimum reinforcement If the pier dead load is taken into account,
the design value of the normal force
As,min = 0.15 ∙ 19373.3/43.5 = 66.8 cm2
increases to:
> 0.003 ∙ 500 ∙ 150 = 225 cm2
NSd = -23 187 kN.
< ∅ 16/15 : 84 ∅ 16 = 168.9 cm2 With reinforcement variant a), the design
moment MSd = 29826 kNm increases. As a
Using the model column method results in
result of the greater normal force, the
a required reinforcement cross-section of
required reinforcement is reduced to 630
806 cm² for the pier cross-section in the
restraint area, i.e. a reinforcement ratio of cm² (� 93.7%).
≈ 1.1% of the concrete cross-section. The In the case of reinforcement variant b),
design moment at the clamping point in the design moment increases to MSd =
the decisive verification combination 2 is 31,880 kNm. The required reinforcement
as follows increases to 840.6 cm2 (� 97.1%).
≈ 34500 kNm. The following is a
comparison with the results of a non- This example shows that the non-linear
linear calculation based on the calculation calculation results in a lower
value concept according to [DIN-FB 102, reinforcement ratio in the column (630
2009]. cm² compared to 806 cm², corresponding
to
Results of the non-linear calculation For
comparison with the results of the model
column method, the non-linear
calculation is initially performed without
taking the dead load of the column into
account.
a) constant reinforcement over
the pier height:
For the decisive action combination 2,
the required reinforcement cross-
section is 672 cm2. The design moment
at the clamping point is Msd = 28206
kNm.
b) stepped reinforcement over
the pier height:
For the decisive action combination 2,
this results in a required reinforcement
cross-section of 865 cm² at the
clamping point. The required
reinforcement is based on the
minimum reinforcement for a pier
height of approx. 15 m. The design
moment is Msd = 30 350 kNm.
Figure 8.6.3-3 Required pier reinforcement in
With the existing pier geometry, the case a) and b)
influence of the pier dead load cannot
simply be neglected. Under consideration
 8.6 Calculation of substructures
Table 8.6.4-1 Causes of failure and limit states when verifying the load-bearing capacity
i.e. only 78%). If the required
reinforcement in the cross-section is
consistently taken into account with the
minimum reinforcement as the lower
limit, a 4.2% higher required
reinforcement is shown at the column
base compared to the model column
method. This is insignificant in practice,
as the reinforcement at the base of the
column is always routed over a certain
height, which was not taken into account
in the non-linear calculation.
8.6.4 Calculation of foundations
8.6.4.1 Introduction
The basis of the verification for the rising
concrete components of the substructures
is the sufficient stability of the foundation
body. The safety philosophies of structural
engineering and foundation engineering
meet in the foundation area. A detailed
problem description for the
determination of internal forces and
verification is not the subject of Section
8.6.4 for the reasons mentioned. For this,
reference is made to the extensive
literature on foundation engineering such
as [Simmer, 1999], [Smoltczyk, 2001] or
[Möller, 2003]. The main problems are
therefore listed below and the standard
tasks are shown. According to the causes of
failure
723
the ultimate limit state is subdivided.
As a rule, the following evidence must
be provided:
• Proof of compliance with the
permissible eccentricity of the base
pressure results instead of the proof of
tilt safety (GZ 1A)
• Proof of sliding safety (GZ 1B)
• Proof of ground failure safety (GZ 1B)
• Verification of the permissible position
of the base pressure resultant (GZ 2)
In simple cases, proof of the permissible
base pressures may be provided as a
substitute for proof of base failure safety.
When using shallow foundations, pier,
column or wall loads are generally
transferred without footing reinforcement.
The forces are then transferred to the
subsoil via planar bending. The
foundation must be verified for bending
and punching shear in the ultimate limit
state.
8.6.4.2 Determination of internal forces
When determining the internal forces of
foundations, the mutual influence of
deformations of the soil and the structure
must be taken into account.
724
Shallow foundations
The soil-structure interaction describes the
effect of the relative settlement differences
due to the acting loads on the internal forces
of the load-bearing system and vice versa. If
the superstructure is very elastic or the
foundation or subsoil can be assumed to
be very stiff, the relative settlements are
negligible. The loads transferred from the
superstructure to the foundation are not
changed. In all other cases, the interaction
must be taken into account by means of an
iterative calculation.
In accordance with [DIN EN 1992-1-1,
2005], a distinction is made between the
following degrees of accuracy when
determining internal forces for
verification purposes:
Grade 0: In this level, a linear distribution
of the base compression can be assumed if
the base compression does not exceed the
design values in the ultimate limit state
and the serviceability limit state. In
addition, settlements at the serviceability
limit state must not be significant and the
structural system must have sufficient
plastic deformation reserves at the
ultimate limit state.
Grade 1: The base compressions can be
determined by evaluating the relative
stiffness of the foundation and the soil
and the resulting deformations. To assess
whether they are within acceptable limits,
sufficient empirical values must be
available to ensure that the serviceability
is not influenced by soil deformation and
that the structural system exhibits
sufficiently ductile load-bearing behavior
in the ultimate limit state.
Grade 2: The influence of subsoil
deformation on the superstructure is taken
into account.
8 Calculation
is calculated. The supporting structure is
calculated under the applied foundation
deformations.
Level 3: This is a completely interactive
approach in which the entire load-bearing
system is taken into account.
The joint modeling of superstructure and
foundation and the program-supported
iterative calculation of stage 3 is now the
standard procedure.
Pile foundations
When determining the internal forces and
verifying pile foundations, the interaction
of the piles must be taken into account in
particular. The interaction depends
mainly on the mutual spacing of the piles,
the ratio of length to diameter of the piles,
the stiffness of the piles in relation to the
surrounding soil and the changing soil
stiffness as a function of depth. Further
details can be found in [Smoltczyk, 2001].
For combined pile-slab foundations,
please refer to [Hanisch, 2002] or
[Baesmann/Rizkalla, 2000].
8.6.4.3 Calculation examples for start-ups
8.6.4.3.1 Verification for a shallow
foundation
For the calculation example of the
abutment from 8.6.3.2, the verification is
carried out for the shallow foundation and
thus the verification of the load-bearing
capacity of the abutment. The geometry and
dimensions can be found in Section
8.6.2.3. The designations and symbols used
in the following correspond to [DIN-FB
101, 2009],
[DIN-FB 102, 2009] and [DIN 1054, 2005].
 8.6 Calculation of substructures 725

Table 8.6.4-2 Case formation of simultaneously occurring actions

Table 8.6.4-3 Sum of the internal forces in the floor joint due to the characteristic actions according
to Table 8.6.4-2

Together with the braking loads, only

the frequent shares of the vertical live
loads from load model 1 are to be taken
into account within load group 2.
The verification of the bearing capacity
of the abutment includes the verification
of the permissible position of the resultant
and the permissible eccentricity of the
base compression re-sultant, the sliding
safety verification and the base failure Figure 8.6.4-1 Foundation layout with two-
safety verification or, in simple cases, the axis load eccentricity
verification of the permissible base
compression.
726 8 Calculation

The verifications of the permissible
position of the resulting and the
permissible soil pressures must be carried
out taking into account the characteristic
values under permanent and variable
actions for the permanent and temporary
design situation.
Verification of the permissible position
of the foundation dimensions resulting
from the base pressure:
a = 16.4 m; b = 3.0 m
Requirement under total load: Eccentricity
is within the 2nd core width
⎛ xe ⎞ + ⎛ ye ⎞ ≤ 1
2 2
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝a⎠ ⎝b⎠ 9
Verification of sliding safety (GZ 1B) The
active earth pressure is taken into account
instead of the earth pressure. No relieving
earth pressure Eptd on the air side of the
abutment is taken into account in the rule.
Detection format: Td < Rtd + E p,d
Design values of the action in the
direction of sliding
The active earth pressure is taken into
account for the sliding safety verification.
The internal forces from the earth pressure
are reduced in the ratio η = ka,h / k0 = 0.64.
EWK (Case 1)
Td = TGd = γG ∙ η ∙ Eagh
= 1.35 ∙ 0.64 ∙ 1034.9 kN = 894.2 kN

EWK (case 6) ye = 0.39; xe = 0.20 EWK (case 6)

⎞2 ⎞2 Td = TGd + TQd1 = 894.2 + 1.5 ∙ 0.64
⎛ 0,39 ⎛ 0,20 1
⎟ + ⎜16 ⎟= 0,017 ≤ = 0,11
⎜ 3,0 ,4 9
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ∙ (1730,9 - 1034,9)
= 1562.4 kN
EWK (case 7) ye = 0.19; xe = 0.43
⎛ 0.19 ⎞2 ⎛ 0.43 ⎞ 12 Design value of the sliding resistance
0,11 ⎟ + ⎜16 ⎟ = 0,0047 ≤ =
⎜ 3,0 ,4 9 favorably acting variable influences
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ effects are not to be taken into account

EWK (case 9) ye = 0.33; xe = 0.30 Rtd = Rtk /γGl γGl = 1.1

1 Rtk = Nd ∙ tan δsk δsk = φk ′ for site-cast
⎛ 0,33 + ⎛ 0,30 = 0,012 ≤ = 0,11 concrete
⎞ 2
⎞2
Nd = Nk ∙ γγG = 1.0 for permanent
⎝ ⎠
⎜⎝ 3,0 ⎠ ⎜16,4 ⎟
⎟ 9 Impacts
NW fulfilled Nd = 1.0 ∙ 7278.7 kN = 7278.7 kN
Rtd = Nd ∙ tan δsk /γGl
Rtd = 7278.7 kN ∙ tan 34°/1.1
= 4463.2 kN
Proof:
Rtd > Td = 4463.2 kN > 1562.4 kN
NW fulfilled
Figure 8.6.4-2 Proof of sliding safety
 8.6 Calculation of substructures 727

Verification of the permissible base EWK (Case 1)

pressures (GZ 2) Fx = 1034.9 kN; Fz = 7278.7 kN
as a substitute for ground failure detection
tan δs = 1034.9/7278. 7= 0.142 <
Applicability check for relevant 0.2
combinations
Application possible
Condition: tan δs = Fx,y /Fz ≤ 0.2
EWK (case 6)
Fx = 1730.9 kN; Fz = 7573.7 kN
tan δs = 1730.9/7573. 7= 0.229 >
0.2
Application not possible
EWK (case 7)
Fx = 1138.4 kN; Fz = 8547.8 kN
tan δs = 1138.4/8547. 7= 0.133 <
0.2
Application possible
EWK (case 9)
Fx = 1401.9 kN; Fz = 8093.8 kN
tan δs =1401.9/8093. 8= 0.173 <
0.2
Application possible

Determination of the reduced foundation

dimensions bx ′ and by ′ due to eccentricity
b′ = b - 2 ∙ eb = 3.0 m - 2 ∙ eb
a′ = a - 2 ∙ ea = 16.4 m - 2 ∙
Figure 8.6.4-3 Calculated base area ea σvorh = Fz /(a′ ∙ b′)

Comparison with permissible base

compressions EWK (case 1)
σzul, ground break = 700 ∙ (1 - 0.142)2
= 515 kN/m²

Table 8.6.4-4 Calculation example - existing base compressions

728 8 Calculation
8.6 Calculation of substructures
Figure 8.6.4-4 Verification of ground failure safety
EWK (case 7)
σzul, ground break = 700 ∙ (1 - 0.133)2
= 526 kN/m2
EWK (case 9)
σzul,ground break = 700 ∙ (1 - 0.173)2
= 478 kN/m2
Permissible base compressions are
complied with → NW fulfilled
Proof of ground failure safety (GZ
1B)
For case 6, the verification of the ground
failure safety is carried out, as the share of
the horizontal force is more than 20% of
the acting vertical force and therefore the
verification of the permissible soil
pressures is not applicable.
729
Detection format: Nd ≤ Rnd with
Nd Design value of the component of the
resultant directed at right angles to
the bottom surface
Rnd = RN,k /γGr Design value of the base
pressure resistance, determined from
the characteristic ground failure
resistance RN,k /γ according to [DIN
4017, 2006]
Nd = 1.35 ∙ 7278.7 kN + 1.5
∙ (7573.7 - 7278.7) = 10268.6 kN
Fxd = 1.35 ∙ 1034.9 + 1.5
∙ (1730.9 - 1034.9) = 2441.1 kN
tan δd = 2441.1/10268.6 = 0.238
(design values)
tan δ =1730.9/7573.7 = 0.229
(characteristic values)
730 8 Calculation

Rn,k = a' ∙ b' ∙ σn,k By complying with the relevant

verifications, the stability of the abutment
σn,k = (c ∙ Nc + γ1 ∙ d ∙ Nd + γ2 ∙ b' ∙ N )b is guaranteed. The foundation is
dimensioned below.

}
}
Cohesion
}Foundation Founding
percentage Verification for bending
share depth share
The verification for bending at the
with ultimate limit state is performed for the
γ1 Weight of the soil above the foundation permanent and temporary design
base situation in the respective decisive design
γ2 Weight of the soil below the foundation sections.
base
Existing base compressions for dimensioning
d shallowest foundation depth below
the foundation
ground surface
Myd
Nd = Nd0 ∙ νd ∙ κd ∙ λd ∙ ξd σ = Fzd + Mxd +
avail
able A Wx Wy
Nb = Nb0 ∙ νb ∙ κb ∙ λb ∙ ξb Fzd eb ⋅Vd ea ⋅Vd
= + +
Nd0 = 18.0; Nb0 = 10.0 (φ′ = 30°) A W Wx y
b 2.22
vd = 1 + ' ⋅ sinφ' = 1 + ⋅ sin 30° = Foundation values:
1.07
a' 16,0
A = 3,0 ∙ 16,4 = 49,2 m2
b' 2.22
vb = 1 - 0.3 ⋅ = 1 - 0.3 ⋅ = 0.958 Ix = 3,0 ∙ 16,43/12 = 1102,74 m4
a' 16,0
Iy = 16,4 ∙ 3,03/12 = 36,9 m4
kd = (1 - 0.7 ⋅ tanδ )3
Wx = 134,48 m3
= (1 - 0,7 ⋅ 0,229)3 = 0,592
Wy = 24,6 m3
kb = (1 - tanδ )3 = (1 - 0.229)3 = 0.458

λd = λb = 1.0; ξ d = ξb = 1.0
The cohesion component is not taken into
account.
σN,k = 618.4 kN/m2
RN,k = a′ ∙ b′ ∙ σN,k = 2.22 ∙ 16.0 ∙ 618.4
= 21964.5 kN

Gr

Proof fulfilled

The settlements are not determined in this

example. Figure 8.6.4-5 Foundation floor plan
8.6 Calculation of substructures 731

EWK (case 7) 1,22 (231 - 175) ⋅1,22

(authoritative) m = 175 ⋅ +
B-B
Fzd = 1.35 ∙ 7279 + 1.5 ∙ (8548 - 7279) 2 3
= 11 729.9 kN = 152.9 kNm/m
Mxd = 1.35 ∙ 1237.4 + 1.5 ∙ (0.19 - 0.17) → decisive
∙ (8548 - 7279) = 1708.6 kNm (231 - 175) ⋅1,2
qB - B= 175 ⋅1,2 +
Myd = 1.5 ∙ 0.43 ∙ (8548 - 7279) 2
= 818.6 kNm = 243.6 kN/m
σd,1 = 238.4 + 6.1 + 69.5 = 314 kN/m2 → decisive

σ d,2 = 238.4 + 6.1 - 69.5 = 175 kN/m2 fck = 25 MN/m2

25
σ d,3 = 238.4 - 6.1 + 69.5 = 302 kN/m2 f = α ⋅ fck = 0.85 ⋅ = 14.16 MN/m2
cd
σd, 4 = 238.4 - 6.1 - 69.5 = 163 kN/m2 γ 1,5
c
kN/m2
σd1A = 277 c = 5.5 cm
σd2B = 231 kN/m2 (Concrete cover in contact with the ground)
d = 1.2 - 0.055 - 0.05 = 1.1 m
Determination of the required (reinforcing bar ∅ 10)
reinforcement Design internal forces for
96,5
section A - A or B - B from LFK 7 μsds = = 0,00563 ≈ 0,01
1,0 ⋅1, ⋅14166
12
0,82 (314 - 277) ⋅ 0,82
mA−A = 277.0 ⋅ +
2 3 ω1 = 0.01
= 96.5 kNm/m σSd = 457 MN/m2

0,8 (314 - 277) ⋅ b ⋅ d ⋅ fcd

q A -A = 277,0 ⋅ 0,8 + A s,erf = ω1 ⋅
2 σ sd
= 236.4 kN/m
1,0 ⋅1,1⋅14166
= = 3.4 cm2 /m
0,01⋅ 457000

The bending reinforcement required for

the underside of the foundation in the
longitudinal direction and for the top of
the foundation is slightly lower.

Minimum reinforcement according to [DIN-

FB 102, 2009] Crosswise reinforcement
with 0.06% of Ac , but at least with ∅ 10, s
= 20 cm
(1.1 + 1.2)
As,min = 0.06 ⋅ = 6.9 cm2/m
2
Figure 8.6.4-6 Assumption of linearly Minimum reinforcement for limiting the
distributed soil pressures crack width according to [DIN-FB 102,
2009].
732 8 Calculation

A ct fcd = 0.85 ∙ 30000/1.5 = 17000 kN/m2

As,min = kc ⋅ k ⋅ fct, ⋅ wit
eff σS h Steel: BSt 500 S with
fct,eff = 1.3 N/mm2
fyd = 500 000/1.15 = 434800 kN/m2
kc = 0.4 ; k = 0.5 ;
ftd = 525 000/1.15 = 456500 kN/m2
m2 ;
Act ≈ 0.5 ∙ 1.15 = 0.58
Bored pile length:
σS = 240 N/mm2
L = 14.0 m
0.58
As,min = 0.4 ⋅ 0.5 ⋅ 1.3 ⋅ = 9.4 cm2/m Component cross-
161 sections: Pillars:
selected for all longitudinal and transverse Rectangular cross-section 5.0 m ∙
boundary surfaces: ∅ 12, s = 10.0 cm 1.50 m Pile head plate: d = 1.50 m
Shear reinforcement is not required.
The verification of punching shear is not Bored piles: ∅ = 1.20 m
decisive and is not carried out in this
example. Lateral bedding of the bored piles -
consideration of the group effect

8.6.4.3.2 Verification for a deep foundation Determining the reduction factors αi : Pile
A: αi = αL ∙ αQA = 0.5 ∙ 0.90 = 0.45 Pile B: αi
For the calculation example of the slender
pier from 8.6.3.3, the verification of the = αL ∙ αQZ = 0.5 ∙ 0.75 = 0.375 Pile C: αi =
foundation, which is carried out as a deep αQA = 0.90
foundation using 8 bored piles, is used as
an example. The pier is connected to the Pole D: αi = αQZ = 0.75
bored piles via a solid pile head plate; the
load-bearing capacity of the pile head Elastic length of the single pile L
plate is not taken into account in the
foundation design. The modeling of the EPfahl ⋅ IPfahl
=
pier and the foundation is carried out in a 4
ksE ⋅ D
suitable manner as a single coordinated
model. r 4⋅ π 0.64 ⋅ π
On the single coordinated model of pillar I = = = 0.10179
and green
The results for the pillar from 8.6.3.3 are Stake
4 4
also checked in the
limit state of the load-bearing capacity, ksE = 10 MN/m2 Subgrade reaction modulus
taking into account the deformations, Single pile at
since an ideal clamping of the pier was depth z = D
assumed for simplification.
30500 ⋅
Building material L = 0,10179 = 4,01 m
characteristics, system and 4
10 ⋅1,2
dimensions l 14,0
Concrete: C 25/30 with = = 3,49
L 4,01
Ecm = 26 700 N/mm2
8.6 Calculation of substructures 733

For example, taking into account the pier

dead load, the measurement is carried out
comparatively on the overall system of
pier and foundation.

Results of the design for the pillar

a) Constant reinforcement over the
height of the pillar
For the decisive action combination 2,
this results in a required reinforcement
Figure 8.6.4-7 Bored pile arrangement cross-section of 664 cm2 (630 cm2 ; +
5%). The reinforcement
The maximum measuring torque at the
clamping steel in the pile head plate is
Msd = 30 697 kNm (29826 kNm; + 3%).
b) stepped reinforcement over the height
of the pillar:
For the decisive action combination 2,
this results in a required reinforcement
cross-section of 1010 cm2 (840.6 cm2;
+20%) at the clamping web in the pile
head plate. At a height of approx. 15 m,
Figure 8.6.4-8 Position of the bored piles the minimum reinforcement is
within the pile group decisive. The design moment is Msd =
29 642 kNm (31 880
kNm; -7% ).
Taking the deep foundation into account
Determination of the track modulus ksi of the increases the required reinforcement for
pile in the group the pier in both cases. The
l Changed curvature figure due to
≥ 4 k k= α1.33 ⋅
si i sE of the elastic restraint in case b) leads to a
L
slightly lower dimensioning.
l
≤2 k = α ⋅ k → intermediate moment.
values
si i sE
L are to be Verification of the load-bearing capacity of the
interpolated bored piles
linearly (GZ 1B)

Ultimate limit state considering the d = 1,20 m

deformations
The verification for the pier in the
calculation example in 8.6.3.3 was
simplified for the assumption of ideal base
restraint of the pier.
For the decisive action combination 2
(see 8.6.3.3) of the calculation method
u = 3,77 m
AFuß = 1.13 m² Bored pile
length = 14.0 m
The information contained in Table 8.6.4-
6 is available from the subsoil expertise.
734 8 Calculation

Table 8.6.4-5 Calculation example -

Compilation of the subgrade reaction moduli

Compilation of the subgrade reaction

moduli
Pile - Location ksx
[MN/m2]

A 3,72
B 2,95
C 8,77 Figure 8.6.4-9 Arrangement of the minimum
D 6,99 stake

Table 8.6.4-6 Calculation example - Pile skin friction

Layer depth Layer thickness Probing resistance Cohesion of the Pile casing
h′ [m] h [m] qck [MN /m2] undrained soil cuk friction
[MN/m2] qsk [MN/m2]
0 -1,0 1 0 0 0
1,0 -1,5 0,5 0,025 0,025
1,5 - 6,0 4,5 0,1 0,04
6,0 - 6,5 0,5 7,5 0,06
6,5 - 7,0 0,5 0,1 0,04
7,0 -14,0 7 ≥ 15,0 0,12

Table 8.6.4-7 Calculation example - Pile resistance from pile skin friction
Thick layer Nominal value of charact. Value of the pile Pile resistance from pile
h [m] the pile shell area Asi sheath friction stress qsik skin friction in layer i RSki
= u * h [m2] [MN/m2] = Asi * qsik [MN]

1,0 3,77 0,0 0,0

0,5 1,885 0,025 0,047

4,5 16,970 0,040 0,680

0,5 1,885 0,060 0,113

0,5 1,885 0,040 0,075

7,0 26,389 0,120 3,167

RSk = ∑ RSki 4,08

Table 8.6.4-8 Calculation example - Pile resistance from pile tip pressure
Settlement ratio s/D charact. Value of pile tip Pile resistance from pile
compressive stress tip pressure
qbk [MNm2] Rbk = AFuß * qbk [MN]
0,1 4 4,52
 8.7 Special problems 731

Characteristic axial pile resistance: Rk = Rbk 8.7 Special problems

+ Rsk = 4.08 + 4.52 = 8.60 MN
8.7.1 Temperature stress
E1d = -6.04 MN Rated value of the
decisive pile (EWK 2, INGBERT MANGERIG and ULF LICHTE
LF1)
Rk 8.7.1.1 Introduction
Rd =
γP The constant change in climatic influences
causes transient, non-linearly limited
with
temperature distributions in buildings.
γP = 1.4 Partial safety factor for pile tions. These temperature developments
resistance to compression and are accompanied by thermal expansions
tension based on empirical that occur in statically determined bearing
values supports.
8.60
R= =
R1k = 6.15 MN deformations and in the case of statically un
1d certain storage additionally cause forced
γ 1,4 stresses. As the tem
P
temperature distributions are non-linearly
E1d = 6.04 MN < R1d = 6.15 MN
limited, but the Bernoulli hypothesis
→ Proof fulfilled assumes plane distortions in the partial
cross-sections, residual stresses occur
Verification for bending regardless of the position of the
The verification for bending in the supporting structures. In addition to the
ultimate limit state for the bored piles change in temperature due to the change in
does not result in any reinforcement climatic conditions, the effects of the
beyond the dimension of the inserted dissipation of hydration heat in concrete
minimum reinforcement according to and composite structures and the
[ZTV-ING]. installation of the road surface in all
bridge structures, regardless of the choice
selected: 22 ∅ 20 of material, are among the stresses caused
d′ = 120 - 2 ∙ 7.5 cm = 105 cm by heat, the effects of which must be
monitored. This concerns the sufficient
u′ = 1.05 ∙ π = 329 cm bar dimensioning of the bearing paths to
spacing compensate for seasonal heating and
cooling in the case of constraint-free
= 329/22 = 15 cm < szul = 20.0 cm
bearing of the supporting structures and
Helical reinforcement the reliable determination of the resulting
constraint and residual stresses in the case
= ∅ 10/15 cm
of construction methods that cause
Further explanation of the verification constraints. In the broadest sense,
procedure for the pile cap slab is omitted temperature effects also include the
in this calculation example. introduction of heat during welder- ing.
Particular attention must be paid to the
effect of heat after accidents involving fire
caused by fuel spillage or heat damage to
bridge structures caused by van- dalism.
732
For practical application, the complex
heating and cooling processes are reduced
to representative, idealized temperature
distributions. In the regulations, the
temperature influences, which are subject
to large fluctuations, are listed as time-
varying effects. They contain information
on the consideration of climatic
influences, while the heat input due to the
pavement installation, the effects of
possible fire effects or the dissipation of
hydration heat sometimes require a more
in-depth examination of the issue.
8.7.1.2 Temperature effects on
bridge structures
As already mentioned at the beginning,
thermal effects of various origins occur
during the assembly and use of a bridge
structure. Due to the spatially and
temporally uneven processes of heating
and cooling, residual stresses,
deformations and constraint stresses are
the result. During the hydration of young
concrete [Mehlhorn et al., 1980], [Zeitler,
1983], [Hellmich, 1984], [Pamp, 1991],
residual stresses are to be expected from
the hardening process in the material
structure. The hot paving of road
pavements poses a particular challenge for
the pavement slab.
Figure 8.7.1-1 Temperature effects on bridge structures
8 Calculation
represents a considerable temperature
stress, which is accompanied by high local
concentrated loads from the paving
machinery. This short-term load
condition occurs both during new bridge
construction and during pavement
renewal in existing bridges. During the
utilization phase, operation-related
temperature effects are possible due to
heating of the carriageway to protect the
structure [Zichner, 1976], [SERSO, 1994]. It
should also be borne in mind that
accidents, but also vandalism, can cause
considerable localized heat input from the
burning of spilled fuel. These heat effects,
which occur for a limited period of time,
are superimposed by weather-related
climatic effects, which in themselves can
cause stresses on bridges on a scale
comparable to the traffic load. Although
the extreme structural reactions can be
derived from long-term stress time series
for the dimensioning of bridge structures,
shorter time periods up to detailed
knowledge of a temperature development
based on the time of day are also
important for the limited periods of the
construction phase and possible upgrading
work. Examples include determining the
time for adjusting the bridge bearings or
installing the stay cables for cable-stayed
bridges.
8.7 Special problems
Figure 8.7.1-2 Meteorological boundary
conditions
The temperature distributions that
occur in the building result from the
interplay of climatic effects, heat exchange,
heat conduction and heat storage. Short-
wave radiation emanates from the sun,
which is partially reflected when it hits the
atmosphere and is scattered and filtered as
it passes through the atmosphere, so that
only a weakened proportion reaches the
earth's surface as direct solar radiation.
The portion scattered in the atmosphere
tri@ the earth's surface as diffuse solar
radiation. The fluctuations in air
temperature are caused by convection
over a large area on the earth's surface and
cooling during the night. At the building
surface
Figure 8.7.1-3 Time-dependent temperature development in a railroad bridge cross-section in
prestressed concrete construction
733
heat exchange with the environment takes
place via convection and radiation. The
heat supplied or extracted in the
component is distributed via heat
conduction and thus influences the
temperature development in the
supporting structures. Due to the time-
varying effects of the climate, the resulting
temperature distributions are also
transient and non-linear, while their
absolute level depends on the prevailing
weather, the time of year, the building
geometry and the thermophysical material
properties. Indirect influencing factors are
the geographic location of the structure,
its orientation and the cross-section
geometry. Based on the surface
temperatures of the building element
under consideration
734 8 Calculation

and taking into account the sum of the

heat flows acting from outside, an energy
balance results which either initiates a
heat supply and thus a surface heating or a
heat dissipation with a subsequent
cooling. The resulting potential gradient
triggers a heat flow in the cross-section
with an accompanying temperature
change. Figure 8.7.1-3 shows an example
of the time-dependent temperature
temperature development
of a railroad bridge cross-section in
prestressed concrete construction during
one day. With regard to the climatic
effects, it can be seen that they are
permanent, exhibit daily and seasonal
fluctuations, follow regional differences
due to regional weather conditions and are
present as a random process. These
characteristics are familiar from daily
experience. Consequently, they are also
reflected in the temperature reactions of
bridge structures. As the mechanical
effects resulting from extreme heating
conditions are of great importance for
structural engineering, the following points
must be taken into account:
distortions/deformations and
stresses/forces are important for structural
design, practical relationships must be
established between the temperature
developments analyzed using the methods
of thermophysics and the structural
reactions calculated according to the laws
of mechanics.
become.

Figure 8.7.1-4 Seasonal fluctuations in the

climatic temperature effects of a steel bridge 8.7.1.3 Building reactions

Temperature-related structural reactions

result from the thermal expansion
properties of the materials. In construction
practice, these can be regarded as
proportional to temperature. For steel, the
coefficient of thermal expansion is 1.2 - 10-
5/K. The thermal expansion behavior of

concrete, on the other hand, varies

depending on the composition, the
moisture content and the temperature.
8.7 Special problems 735

content and age in the range αT = 0.6 - 10-
5/K to 1.4 - 10-5/K [Weigler, 1989]. The
average value usually used for reinforced
concrete is 1 - 10-5/K. In DIN Technical
Report 101, the normative basis for the
determination of actions on bridges, linear
temperature expansion coefficients are
given for some common materials. They
are listed in Table 8.7.1-1.
Using the example of climatic effects,
Figure 8.7.1-5 schematically illustrates the
basic procedure from the effect to the
impact. Of interest for structural
engineering are
ultimately only the two right-hand blocks.
Since the extreme temperature
distributions to be expected in the bridge
cross-section are used as action variables
instead of the natural heating sources,
temperature effects are also referred to as
indirect action.
As already mentioned, any external and
internal temperature influences lead to
temperature distributions that are
unevenly distributed across the cross-
section and change over time (Fig. 8.7.1-
6a). Affine strains would occur in addition
to these non-linear temperature
distributions if the expansion possibilities
of the

Table 8.7.1-1 Linear expansion coefficients of common materials, from [DIN-FB 101, 2003].
Material αT (∙ 10-5/K)
1 Aluminum, aluminum alloys 2,4
2 Stainless steel 1,8
3 Mild steel, wrought or cast iron 1,0
4 Concrete, with the exception of lines 5 and 6 1,0
5 Concrete with limestone aggregate 0,9
6 Concrete with lightweight aggregate 0,7
9 Wood, in fiber direction 0,5
10 Wood, across the grain 3,0 - 7,0 a
a Specialinformation should be requested for other materials. The above values should be used to
determine the temperature effects if no lower values are available from experiments or more
detailed investigations.

Figure 8.7.1-5 Effect and impact of climatic temperature stresses

736 8 Calculation

Fig. 8.7.1-6 a) Non-uniform temperature distribution in a plate beam, b) Part of the temperature
distribution causing internal stresses

individual fibers in the cross-sections are In bridge construction, residual stresses

independent of each other. However, due
to the assumption of Bernoulli's
hypothesis that the cross-sections remain
flat, a linearly limited strain distribution
occurs within the partial cross-sections.
The deviations of the "non-uniform
temperature strains" from the strain
distributions strictly according to
mechanic laws prove the existence of
residual stresses. In the
due to climatic temperature influences
can be neglected (Figure 8.7.1-6b),
although residual stresses that occur
during hot paving of the road surface or as
a result of the effects of fire must be
investigated in detail.
In relation to the total cross-section,
the temperature effects on a completely
constraint-free supporting structure result
in the

Figure 8.7.1-7 Structural reactions of bridge cross-sections due to non-linear temperature

distributions
8.7 Special problems 737

a b
Fig. 8.7.1-8 Temperature deformation of the partial cross-sections of bridge structures. a) One-
sided solar radiation of the bottom chord of a plate girder, b) Temperature deformation of the
bearing cross girder of a channel bridge

primary structural reactions: Length of a plate girder cross-section due to solar

changes of the bridge superstructure,
curvature in vertical and horizontal
direction, torsion as well as cross-sectional
warping and profile deformation. If, as
with statically indeterminate systems, the
aforementioned deformations are
impeded, constraint stresses occur in the
structure. Forced stresses are understood
to be equilibrium bearing reactions and
forced internal forces.
Secondary movements of individual
cross-section parts are superimposed on
the primary temperature deformations of
the overall cross-sections. Figure 8.7.1-8a
shows an example of the lateral deflection
of the bottom flange
radiation on one side. The obstruction of
this flange curvature causes restraint
stresses in the case of regularly existing
transverse bulkheads. Figure 8.7.1-8b on
the right shows, using the model of the
bearing cross girder of a canal bridge, that
in addition to the temperature-induced
curvature in the longitudinal direction of
the bridge, temperature curvature in the
transverse direction can also have a
considerable effect on the bearing forces
and consequently also on the stresses of the
overall structure.
In addition to the structural reactions
of the bridge superstructure, the

Figure 8.7.1-9 Interaction of the bridge superstructure and the piers

738
other structural elements of the overall
structure by the effects of the climate.
influenced. This can be observed in detail
in the case of cable-stayed bridges, where
The superstructure, pylons and supporting
cables do not react synchronously to the
effects of the weather, but with a time lag
due to different dimensions and
influenced by the sun's diurnal cycle.
However, even with simple beam bridges,
the coupling of the deformations between
the stiffening girder and the piers results
in constraints due to climatic effects,
Figure 8.7.1-9.
8.7.1.4 Equivalent temperature distributions
When calculating road, path and railroad
bridges, temperature effects are taken into
account by linear equivalent temperature
fields. As a substitute for the temperature
distributions that actually occur, a
temperature distribution that is constant
over the entire cross-section and linearly
variable over the cross-section height or
width is used. The constant temperature
distribution ∆TN represents the effects in
the longitudinal direction of the bridge
(change in length), the linearly varying
temperature distributions ∆TM represent
the stresses in the vertical and horizontal
planes (curvature).
To derive the equivalent temperature
distributions from real, non-linear
temperature fields, a model can be used
with the bar clamped in both directions.
Equivalent idealized equivalent
temperature distributions generating the
same constraints can be derived from the
constrained internal forces determined on
this model.
N = ∫ σ ∙ dA = ∫ ε ∙ E ∙ dA
A A
= ∫ (αT ∙ ∆TN ) ∙ E ∙ dA = EA ∙ αT ∙ ∆TN
A stability.
8 Calculation
MZ = ∫ σx ∙ (y - ys ) ∙
dA T -T
A
∆T
below top
= EIZ ∙ αT 9 MY
1= EIZ∙ α ∙T 96h 7
∙ h
In this context, reference should be made
to the index designation of linear
temperature differences used in the
regulations. Based on the European
regulations of the Eurocodes, a
temperature difference ∆TMY causes a
member curvature affine to a bending
moment load MZ . Furthermore, a positive
vertical temperature difference of a single-
span beam causes a negative vertical
deflection.
For temperature-induced twisting, there
is a relationship between the warping
coordinate ω, the warping moment Mω
and the warping resistance Iω :
Mω = ∫ σx ∙ ω ∙ dA = ∫ (αT ∙ ∆T (y, z))
A A
∙ ω (y, z) ∙ E ∙ dA = EIω ∙ αT ∙ ∆TMω
Further idealizations of temperature
conditions are shown in Fig. 8.7.1-11.
These are based more closely on an
"actual" temperature profile, although they
are only focused on the vertical plane and
ignore other temperature reactions. In
contrast to the linear equivalent
temperature distributions, these
temperature approaches can also be used
to approximate the effects in the track slab
and the web and bottom chord areas. A
calculation rule for extracting the idealized
temperature components (Figure 8.7.1-10)
from non-linear temperature distributions
is given in [ENV 1991- 2-5, 1997]. In
addition, [Lichte, 2004] describes a further
decomposition method which is also
suitable for equivalent temperature
distributions based on Figure 8.7.1-11.
In contrast to road and railroad bridges,
canal bridges are exclusively trough-
shaped and have a very high level of
8.7 Special problems 739

Figure 8.7.1-10 Idealized equivalent temperature distributions [DIN-FB 101, 2003].

Figure 8.7.1-11 Equivalent temperature distributions derived from temperature profiles

Fig. 8.7.1-12 Definition of thermally similar cross-sectional areas of a duct bridge

[Mangerig/Lichte, 2002].

cross-section and, due to the required of this building was used in

water depth, almost always considerable
structural dimensions. An approach of
classical equivalent temperature
distributions for the overall cross-section
is not possible with this cross-section
contour. Figure 8.7.1-12 shows for a canal
bridge with inclined trough walls a
summary of surface areas with almost the
same temperature load, as used for an
idealized description of the temperature
effects.
[Mangerig/Lichte, 2002].
While the use of finite element methods
is required for the accurate calculation of
the structural reactions of a duct bridge,
even when using idealized temperature
profiles, the known solution methods of
mechanics can be used for the approach of
the classical equivalent temperature
distributions according to Figure 8.7.1-10.
740
8.7.1.5 Random character of the
temperature effects
As the climatic effects have a stochastic
character, the temperature level of the
bridge structures - or rather the sum of
the idealized equivalent temperature
components - is also subject to chance.
However, the temperature conditions of
interest for structural design are those that
represent the exceeding of the structural
response with a specified frequency of
occurrence.
The basic prerequisite for specifying
these representative temperature states is
sufficient knowledge of daily load-bearing
reactions. Figure 8.7.1-13 shows, by way
of example, the time-of-day-dependent
curves of the equivalent temperature
distributions of the center of gravity
temperature TN and the vertical
temperature difference ∆TMZ . A
significant influence of the shape of the
cross-section and the
Figure 8.7.1-13 Mean daily profiles of the equivalent temperature distributions TN and ΔTMZ of a
slab/beam cross-section in steel, composite and concrete construction
8 Calculation
of the material selection during the course
of the day and the extreme values of the
temperature stresses.
The course of the vertical temperature
differences of the lattice cross-section
compared to those of the steel and concrete
bridge should be emphasized. The change
in the temperature curve results from the
material properties and the material
volume of the steel and concrete materials
used. The solid deck slab has a
significantly higher heat storage capacity
compared to the steel webs, so that the
webs are warmer than the deck slab
during the day and colder at night. In the
case of the constraint-free single-span
beam, this causes the structure to sag
during the day, although it is supplied
with heat via the deck slab, and to bulge
during the night.
The extreme values of variable impacts
are referred to as representative values in
accordance with the applicable regulations.
8.7 Special problems
The central impact variable is the
characteristic value. By definition, this
value is reached or exceeded once every 50
years on average. The daily maximum
values (Figure 8.7.1-13) derived from the
diurnal variation of the equivalent
temperature distributions serve as the
basis for the extreme value analysis for
temperature stresses.
Due to the seasonal influences, a
distinction must be made between
seasonal extremes and extreme events that
span an entire year. The latter are decisive
for structural engineering; however, for
questions relating to a limited period of
time in the context of building assembly
or maintenance, seasonal statements of the
expected temperature stresses are of
interest. The regulations do not provide
any reference values for this, which is why
the only remaining options are an
estimate, the performance of temperature
measurements on the structure or the
model-based determination of seasonal
stresses ([Mangerig/Lichte, 2002], [Lichte,
2004]).
The cross-sectional dimensions of
bridges are usually aligned with the course
of the
Figure 8.7.1-14 Seasonal fluctuation of temperature effects
741
loads. In the case of steel and composite
bridges, this is achieved by changing the
structural height and varying the bottom
chord and web dimensions. Different
temperature fluctuations and temperature
differences occur in the longitudinal
direction of the bridge in accordance with
the cross-sectional dimensions. Since the
practical application of temperature effects
for bridge structures should aim for a
uniform load application, the different
temperature reactions are combined into a
uniform value by weighting. Figure 8.7.1-
15 shows the standardization of the
temperature differences ∆TMY,1 and ∆TMY,2
for a two-span beam reinforced in the
central support area over the length ξ - L to
the value
∆TMY . The specified weighting is
formulated in such a way that the
standardized share
∆TMY causes the same support moment as
the individual temperature differences
∆TMY,1 and ∆TMY,2 . The proportional
factor a2 applies under the simplified
assumption that the cross-sectional height
and thermal expansion coefficient are
constant in the longitudinal direction.
742 8 Calculation

Figure 8.7.1-15 Weighting of the vertical temperature difference with single-stage variation of the
cross-section

8.7.1.6 Temperature effects in the In the field of railroad bridge

regulations
The basis for calculation of temperature
effects on road and pedestrian bridges and
railroad bridges is DIN Technical Report
101 "Actions on bridges" [DIN-FB 101,
2009]. Its content is congruent with DIN
1055-7
"Actions on structures - temperature
actions" [DIN 1055-7, 2002] and only
editorially adapted to the concept of the
DIN technical reports. The reference for
both sets of rules is always DIN 1991-2-5,
2002 together with the associated NAD.
construction, the [Guideline 804, 2003]
"Railway bridges and other engineering
structures" should be mentioned. It
contains specific regulations for planning
and maintenance. In principle, it refers to
DIN technical reports 101 to 104, but
contains some supplementary regulations.
For hydraulic steel structures, [DIN
19704-1, 1998] "Hydraulic steel structures
- Calculation principles" also contains
information on the consideration of
temperature effects for special issues
relating to these structures. With regard to
the regulations for bridge bearings, the
following also apply

Table 8.7.1-2 Design values of variable actions for use with combinations of actions [DIN-FB 101,
2003].
Share of independent variable actions in the combination rule
Load safety Suitability for use
Previous Other Previous Other
ly ly

γQ1 ⋅ Qk1 γQ1 ⋅ ψ0i ⋅ Qki ψ0i ⋅ Qki

Permanent/ Characteristic Qk1

temporary
Exceptional ψ11 ⋅ Qk1 ψ2i ⋅ Qki Frequently ψ11 ⋅ Qk1 ψ2i ⋅ Qki

Earthquake ψ21 ⋅ Qk1 ψ2i ⋅ Qki Quasi-permanent ψ21 ⋅ Qk1 ψ2i ⋅ Qki

Not often a 1 ψ′ ⋅ Qk1 ψ1i ⋅ Qki

a For the serviceability limit state, the non-frequent combination should be verified.
8.7 Special problems 743

Table 8.7.1-3 ψ Coefficients for considering the temperature stress in bridge structures, according to
[DIN-FB 101, 2003] and [DIN 1055-100, 2001]
ψFactors for the effects of temperature ψ0 ψ1 ψ2 1 ψ′ a

Road bridges 0c 0,6 0,5 0,8

Pedestrian and cycle bridges (DIN FB 101)
Railway bridges b
Supporting structures (not fire) (DIN 1055-100) 0,6 0,5 0,0
aψ
1 ′ is a ψ-factor for determining the non-frequent loads.
b Guideline 804 requires that forced internal forces due to temperature must always be taken into
account when verifying the load-bearing safety; neglecting them is not permissible.
c
If relevant for detection, ψ0 = 0.8 should be set.

in addition [DIN 4141, 1984], [DIN EN the applicable regulations, the

1337]
and Annex A to [DIN V ENV 1993-2,
2001].
In accordance with the applicable
safety philosophy, limit states of
serviceability and load-bearing capacity
must be examined when designing
structures. In the context of these
regulations, the temperature effects are
included in the action combinations via
combination coefficients [DIN-FB 101,
2009]. The combination coefficients for the
respective design situations are compared
in Table 8.7.1-2 for the proportion of
variable actions.
Temperature stresses are variable
effects. Accordingly
Table 8.7.1-4 Grouping of thermally similar
bridge cross-sections [DIN-FB 101, 2003].
Group Cross-section type
1 Steel superstructures as box, truss
or plate girder
2 Composite superstructure:
concrete slab on a steel box,
truss or steel plate girder
3 Concrete roadway slabs or
superstructures on concrete
beams or concrete boxes
characteristic impact value Tk (= Qk ) is set
so that it is reached or exceeded on average
every 50 years. By multiplication with the
coefficients ψ0 , ψ1 and ψ2 (Table 8.7.1-3),
temperature stresses of different return
periods are taken into account. The partial
safety factor is defined as γQ = 1.5 for the
case of an unfavorable effect in permanent
and temporary design situations.
The linearized temperature
components described above are used to
describe the temperature effects in
accordance with Fig. 8.7.1-10. Typical
bridge cross-sections are divided into
three groups (Table 8.7.1-4) so that the
different heating behavior of frequently
used bridge cross-sections resulting from
the cross-section geometry and the
material used can be taken into account.
According to the classification,
characteristic values for the uniform
heating condition Te and the vertical and
horizontal temperature difference ∆TMY
and ∆TMZ are given. Characteristic values
taken from DIN Technical Report 101
[DIN-FB 101, 2003], which apply to a
covering thickness of 50 mm, are
summarized and compared in Figure
8.7.1-16.
744
Figure 8.7.1-16 Compilation of the characteristic values of the temperature effects for typical bridge
structures in Germany
The total temperature fluctuation
∆TN of the superstructure results from the
difference
∆TN = ∆TN, pos - ∆TN, neg
= (∆Te,max - T0 ) - (∆Te,min - T )0
8 Calculation
T0 is the "constant temperature
component of the building components
on completion", i.e. the reference
temperature of the building design. When
considering the constant temperature
component, the following effects should
be taken into account [DIN FB 101, 2003]:
8.7 Special problems 745

• Limitation of component-specific by means of which these simultaneous

expansion and shortening (e.g. for
frames, bends, elastomer bearings)
• Friction in roller and plain bearings
• Non-linear geometric influences (2nd
order theory)
• In the case of railroad bridges, the
alternating effect between the track and
the bridge can cause additional
horizontal forces in the bearings and in
the rails due to a temperature difference
between the superstructure and the rail.
The vertical temperature differences
shown in Figure 8.7.1-16 apply to a
pavement thickness of 50 mm [Frenzel et
al., 1996]. Due to the shielding effect of the
road pavement, the vertical temperature
difference in the bridge cross-section is
noticeably influenced by the thickness of
the pavement. Therefore, the
characteristic values of the vertical
temperature difference ∆TMY must be
multiplied by a thickness-dependent
factor KSur if the pavement thickness
differs.
As the named temperature
components together represent an overall
temperature field, they also have a
simultaneous effect on the bridge
structure. They therefore cause a
combined structural reaction. In order to
take this into account in the structural
design, a combination rule is specified in
the regulations.
effects of ∆TMY and ∆TN can be taken into
account. It is also shown in Figure 8.7.1-
16. Irrespective of the combination factors
specified in the standard, analytical
calculations in [Lichte, 2004] have shown
that the factors specified in the standard
to take into account the simultaneous
occurrence of temperature fluctuation and
vertical temperature difference sometimes
provide uncertain results.
To determine movement fluctuations,
as required for the design of bearings and
expansion joints, the installation
temperature is added to the reference
temperature T0 as a further temperature
component. It must be taken into account
when fixing the bearings or designing the
expansion joints. It deviates from the
selected reference temperature and can
usually only be determined as an
approximate value by measurement.
Consequently, when determining
movement fluctuations in accordance with
[DIN FB 101, 2009], the specified
temperature fluctuation ∆TN must be
increased by an allowance to compensate
for uncertainties when determining the
installation temperature.
A distinction is made between the cases
listed in Table 8.7.1-5.
Case 3 listed in Table 8.7.1-5 is only
described in [Guideline 804, 2003].

Table 8.7.1-5 Enlargement of the temperature components to be applied to determine movement

fluctuations [DIN-FB 101, 2003].
Case Installing the bearings and Maximum temperature
forming the expansion joints fluctuations to be applied
1 Average building temperature when making the (ΔTN,pos + 10) K and
connection is known (measurement) (ΔTN,neg - 10 K) a
2 Average building temperature when making the (ΔTN,pos + 20) K and
connection is not known (ΔTN,neg - 20 K)
3 Concreting on the bearings without subsequent No explicit regulation
position correction
a± 10 K is a "can" rule, otherwise ± 20 K should always be used.
746
Figure 8.7.1-17 Characteristic values of
temperature differences for bridge piers
(railroad bridges), but may in principle
apply to all concrete bridges. If the bridge
superstructure is erected on layers that are
already fixed in the substructure, the
displacements resulting from the
dissipation of the setting heat must be
taken into account. The background to this
recommendation is discussed in more
detail in section 8.7.1.8.
As shown above in Fig. 8.7.1-9, the
simultaneous temperature reaction of the
bridge superstructure and bridge piers is
characterized by a simultaneous
displacement of the superstructure and
pier head when exposed to lateral
sunlight. In principle, the total
temperature stresses of bridge piers should
also be considered if these lead to
constraining forces or movements in the
neighboring components. According to
[DIN-FB 101, 2009], the characteristic
value of the linear temperature difference
between opposing outer surfaces should
be 5 K for concrete piers with a hollow or
solid cross-section if there are no
indications of higher values.
With regard to the stresses in the cross-
sectional profile of bridge piers, a
temperature difference of 15 K across the
wall thickness is to be expected.
8 Calculation
For structures with independently
tempered components (e.g. for cable-
stayed bridges: hanger/sloping cable,
superstructure, pylon), differences in the
constant temperature components can lead
to unfavorable stresses. In this case, a
difference in the average component
temperature of 15 K should be assumed
between the components concerned,
although this is a great simplification of
the conditions that actually occur and
should be questioned in the case of
exposed structures.
8.7.1.7 Determination of temperature
effects
The limit values to be applied for the
temperature effects are specified in the
standards for most of the bridge cross-
sections that occur. However, this
information cannot be transferred to
bridge cross-sections with special,
individual cross-section designs. For these
cases, possible extreme effects must be
sensibly estimated or determined and
specified by other means. As a rule, a
metrological solution in the form of a
continuous measurement on a
comparable bridge cross-section or a
prototype is unrealistic and
uneconomical, if only for reasons of the
very long measurement duration required.
In recent years, numerical methods for
determining the temperature effects have
emerged as an alternative, which, due to
developments in EDP, enable the
computational simulation of the
temperature behaviour of bridge cross-
sections under the application of idealized
or real measured climate data [Zichner,
1976], [Fouad, 1998],
[Mangerig, 1986], [Lichte, 2004]. The use
of real measured climate data collectives
enables regionally based statements and
also the use of statistical extrapolation
methods for
8.7 Special problems 747

Figure 8.7.1-18 Model calculation of the temperature behavior of bridge structures

748
Determination of representative extreme
values. This also makes it possible to form
combination rules for the different
temperature reactions.
The calculation models mainly
represent stiffening girders as two-
dimensional, prismatic cross-sections,
which generally assume a uniform
temperature distribution in the longitudinal
direction of the bridge. For variable
superstructure heights, sufficiently reliable
statements can be achieved by weighting
the calculation results of cross-sections
with constant construction heights in
some areas.
The advantage of a computer-based
determination of temperature effects is
that the approximate assumptions of
temperature effects used in the planning
stage are replaced by concrete model
calculations tailored to the respective
project. This makes it possible to carry out
parameter studies to assess and evaluate
specific framework conditions. However,
due to the complexity of these
scientifically oriented methods, the
application of these procedures will
remain limited to exposed structures.
8.7.1.8 Bridge installation temperature
The temperature effects on a building lie
within certain extreme values (see Fig.
8.7.1-16). As temperature reactions always
result from a change in the heating state,
the installation temperature of a structure
must also be taken into account in
addition to the extreme values of the
temperature effects.
To simplify matters, a bridge structure
is always assumed to have a given length,
alignment, longitudinal and transverse
inclination, position and shape. In reality,
the structure is subject to constant change -
even during assembly - due to the daily
effects of the weather. In order to
minimize the effects of these changes
8 Calculation
changes can be described with sufficient
certainty, it makes sense to define a
reference temperature in relation to
which, by definition, the effects of the
temperature change become zero. The
frequently used approach of a reference
temperature of 10 °C corresponds
approximately to the average air
temperature in Germany.
It is obvious that a bridge is not built
under constant temperature conditions.
Climatic temperature influences or effects
from the welding process are already
imprinted in the structure during assembly,
the effects of which must be estimated
during the planning process [Schleicher,
2001]. The difference between the actual
installation temperature and the reference
condition must be taken into account,
particularly during bearing installation, in
order to exclude unplanned overloading,
lifting bearing reactions or bearing travel
overruns.
Temperature reactions are always
characterized by their effect in both
directions: shortening/stiffening, positive
curvature/negative curvature,
compression/tension, etc. Therefore, any
assessment of the installation temperature
that deviates from the actual state will
inevitably lead to an increase in the load on
the structure in one of the two directions. To
determine movement fluctuations, the
temperature fluctuation of the bridge
superstructure must therefore be increased
by the allowance of ± 10 K or ± 20 K
specified in Table 8.7.1-5.
The same mechanism is also valid for
temperature-induced vertical structural
curvature. For illustration purposes,
Figure 8.7.1-19 shows the situation of a
two-span composite bridge when adjusting
the height of the center bearing. If the
bearing height is set solely on the basis of
target support loads from the dead load,
different constraint states are "frozen"
depending on the season, weather and time
of day, which has consequences for the
level of all vertical supports.
8.7 Special problems 749

Figure 8.7.1-19 "Frozen" constraint state of a composite bridge, resulting from the temperature state
during bearing adjustment

Table 8.7.1-6 Estimation of the average building temperature from measurement of the surface
temperature, from [DIN EN 1337-11, 1998].
Plates Measurements of the temperatures on the top and bottom side in the
middle of the bridge and determination of the average structure
temperature from the mean value of these two temperatures
Plate beam Measurement of the temperatures on the top and bottom of the deck slab
in the middle of the bridge and calculation of the average value.
Measurement of the temperatures on the outer sides of the two outer
main beams, each in the middle of the web and determination of the
mean value Formation of an overall mean value from the area-weighted
area mean values.
Box girder The air temperature in the box girder provides a good approximation of
the average cross-section temperature

bearing forces and thus also on the
internal forces in the stiffening beam.
In most cases, the practical problem is
that the installation temperature can only
be estimated. On the one hand, this is due
to the fact that the temperature state is
constantly changing. On the other hand, it
is usually only possible to measure surface
temperatures at discrete points, from
which the average building temperature
can only be approximated.
In [DIN EN 1337-11, 1998] Annex A
the determination of the average building
temperature is regulated, which ultimately
corresponds to the averaging of the
surface temperatures to be measured in
the area of the deck slab and in the bridge
webs (Table 8.7.1-6). Another empirical
estimation option for the average
structure temperature can be found in
[DIN EN 1337-10, 2003]. It is derived from
an estimated lowest effective bridge
temperature y°C of the day. If the position
of the bridge when it reaches its lowest
temperature on the day in question is at a
suitable point such as
z. e.g. a road crossing, is registered, then
any subsequent movement of the vehicle
must not be allowed.
750 8 Calculation

Table 8.7.1-7 Estimation of the lowest building temperature y of a day, from [DIN EN 1337-10,
2003].
Concrete bridges Lowest bridge temperature (at 8 a.m. ± 1 hour):
y ≈ 1.14 x1 - 1.1
Where x1 is the average shadow temperature of the last 48 hours, formed
from:
– the lowest shade temperature of the day;
– the highest shade temperature of the previous day;
– the lowest shade temperature of the previous day and
– the highest shade temperature of the day before the previous day
Composite bridges Lowest bridge temperature (at 7 a.m. ± 1 hour):
y ≈ 1.14 ⋅ x2 - 2.6
Where x2 is the average shade temperature of the last 24 hours, formed
from
– the lowest shade temperature of the day and
– the highest shade temperature of the previous day
Steel box girder Lowest bridge temperature (at 6 a.m. ± 1 hour):
bridges y ≈ 1.1 ⋅ x3 - 1.3
Where x3 is the
- lowest shade temperature of the day

The method for estimating the bearings anchored to substructures. This

instantaneous building temperature is
based on the lowest effective temperature
y°C (Table 8.7.1-7). However, this method
is only listed in [DIN EN 1337-10, 2003]
as an indication and has not been checked
for all climatic conditions.
An overall improved statement could be
achieved by temperature sensors installed
in the cross-section. Another possibility is
to calculate the temperature state of the
bridge from current weather measurement
data [Vockrodt, 1995]. However, this
requires a chronological sequence of the
temperature measurement and the
weather data recording so that the
underlying numerical model can adjust to
the near-real-time temperature
distribution just like the real structure.
A special situation of installation
temperature estimation occurs when
concreting the stiffening girder already in
the
situation is case 3 mentioned in Table
8.7.1-5. The prediction problem here is
that the bearings must be preset to a
bridge temperature that is not yet known.
As a result of the development of
hydration heat, the freshly concreted
bridge cross-section expands and cools
down again after a few days. At the same
time, the setting process takes place with a
steadily increasing modulus of elasticity. If
the bridge cross-section were completely
unrestricted in its ability to move, the
deformations that occur during the
hardening process would disappear
completely. In reality, the temperature
deformations during the hardening process
are impeded both vertically and
longitudinally by the formwork and fixings
of the bearings. The deformations
hindered in the young concrete lead to
plasticization, so that the concreted
section is no longer able to withstand the
temperature.
8.7 Special problems 751

Figure 8.7.1-20 Temperature profile in a solid concrete cross-section over a period of 40 days
after concreting

Figure 8.7.1-21 Displacement of a longitudinally movable support point at a distance of 30 m from the
superstructure test point
752
Figure 8.7.1-22 Bearing displacement of a prestressed concrete bridge after pre-tensioning and
stripping, from [Hellmich, 1984].
is shortened and vertically curved after the
heat of hydration has dissipated.
Figure 8.7.1-20 shows the development
of the temperature curve in a solid steel
concrete cross-section over a period of 40
days since the concrete was placed. The
heat development due to hydration can be
clearly seen, which gradually changes into
the daily climate-related temperature
fluctuation. Fig. 8.7.1-21 shows the
associated longitudinal displacements of a
concrete layer 30 m away from the fixed
concrete base.
Figure 8.7.1-23 Simultaneous comparison of
air temperature and fresh concrete
temperature, from [Readymix Beton, 2002].
8 Calculation
point of the removed bearing. They consist
of the bridge shortening and the vertical
curvature of the bridge cross-section after
the hydration heat has dissipated. Figure
8.7.1-22 clearly illustrates the bearing
displacement of a prestressed concrete
bridge using an example taken from
[Hellmich, 1984].
Determining the effective installation
temperature when concreting the bridge
superstructure on the bearings without a
subsequent position correction option can
be subject to uncertainties. If the bridge
superstructure could be moved freely
(theoretically), the installation
temperature would correspond to the fresh
concrete temperature. For the example
shown in Figures 8.7.1-20 and 21, the
installation temperature was too high.
TFresh concrete + ∆THydration influence with
∆THydration influence = 5 K was determined.
It is hardly possible to estimate the fresh
concrete temperature from the air
temperature because, as can be seen in Fig.
8.7.1-23, there is only a very weak
correlation between the fresh concrete
temperature and the air temperature
prevailing at the same time, especially as
the air temperature can only be predicted
imprecisely.
One solution is to use an average
expected fresh bed temperature. With the
approach of e.g. 16 °C
8.7 Special problems
the estimation error according to Figure
8.7.1-23 is up to ± 16 K. In analogy to
Table 8.7.1-5, the following allowances
would result for the temperature
fluctuation to be applied to the bridge
superstructure:
(∆TN,pos + 20) K and
(∆TN, neg - 16 K - ∆THydration influence)
The allowance for the influence of
hydration depends on the displacement
restraint of the concreting section as well
as
Figure 8.7.1-24 Proposal for a safety concept to take temperature fluctuations into account
753
of the maximum cross-sectional heating
∆THydration depends on the fresh concrete
temperature and can be reduced to (+5 K)
... (∆THydration -3 K) can be narrowed down.
A comparable situation also o c c u r s with
composite bridges. The hardening
concrete is hindered in its hydration-
induced thermal deformation by the
composite effect. As a result, the top chord
shortens and the stiffening beam bends
accordingly.
754
[Pamp, 1991] deals in detail with these
effects of hydration heat development on
composite bridges.
The consideration of the installation
temperature condition through additional
additive surcharges to the climatically
induced temperature stresses can be
integrated into a safety concept. Figure
8.7.1-24 provides a suggestion for this. It
establishes the relationship between the
characteristic values of the temperature
effects Tk,max and Tk,min , the reference
temperature condition T0 and the
installation temperature condition TF . The
essential safety elements consist on the one
hand of the additive elements
∆T 0,min or ∆T 0,max to record the
uncertainties in the estimation of the
installation temperature and, on the other
hand, in a safety element ∆Tγ in the sense
of a partial safety factor.
8.7.1.9 Summary and concluding remarks
The temperature reactions of bridge
structures result from a complete
interplay of thermal loads (climate,
hydration heat, hot installation of road
surface, etc.), the embedding of the bridge
in the environment and the geometric and
thermophysical properties of the
structure. They are ultimately summarized
in idealized equivalent temperature
distributions, which, however, only reflect
a part of the actual structural reactions
such as longitudinal expansion and
structural curvature. Sufficiently reliable
load assumptions can thus be made for
the dominant climatically induced
temperature effects in the majority of
cases. Corresponding limit values are
specified in the standard regulations. For
cross-section geometries that are not
represented by the three groups,
8 Calculation
methods exist for the model-based
determination of temperature effects.
The idealized equivalent temperature
distributions used to describe the
temperature state act simultaneously on
the structure, which is why they must be
superimposed within the load assumption
"temperature effect" using combination
rules. Additional considerations are
required for the interaction between
various structural elements in exposed
bridge structures such as cable-stayed
bridges.
In addition to considering the extreme
temperature conditions of a bridge
structure, the temperature condition
during bearing installation can be of
importance, as the current temperature
condition is fixed and the subsequent
temperature reactions are linked to these
"new" boundary conditions.
Due to the high paving temperatures of
up to 250 °C, the hot paving of road
surfaces is a short-term, extreme
temperature effect that is superimposed by
the prevailing weather situation. There are
currently no generalized load approaches
for this construction process, which is
why it is difficult to make a specific
assessment of the effects on the supporting
structure. Nevertheless, considerable
constraint stresses can occur in the
roadway level and, for example, lead to the
formation of locally limited flow zones in
orthotropic roadway decks when
superimposed with the residual welding
stresses.
8.7.2 Vibration problems
HUGO BACHMANN
8.7.2.1 More and more vibration problems
In the practice of bridge construction,
more and more vibration problems occur
- there are
8.7 Special problems
seems that the bridges are becoming more
susceptible to vibration. There are several
reasons for this: To a certain extent,
building materials are being bred higher
and higher, so they can be utilized more
and more - for static, i.e. static actions.
This leads to slimmer constructions, i.e.
smaller cross-sectional dimensions or
larger spans than in older constructions.
The consequences are smaller stiffnesses
and masses. The decrease in stiffness
usually predominates, resulting in lower
natural frequencies with an increased risk
of resonance. However, less mass must
also be set in motion, i.e. the energy
introduced by dynamic effects results in
significantly stronger vibrations. In
addition, various dynamic influences - e.g.
from vehicles due to an increase in weight
and speed - have a tendency to amplify.
And finally, people affected by vibrations
are sometimes more sensitive. Probably
due to the increasing environmental
influences, people have become more
sensitive and are more likely to complain.
The increasing vibration problems
show that bridges today can generally no
longer be designed only for static loads -
even if the provisions in various standards
still give this appearance. Often - and this
applies above all to pedestrian bridges - it
is also not advisable to design bridges
initially only for static loads and then
consider any "dynamic improvement" that
may be required. This can be a time-
consuming detour and lead to
considerable additional planning work. It
can be much better and less costly to
include the dynamic effects and vibration
behavior in the design process at the
earliest planning stage.
755
In the following, vibration problems of
the main load-bearing elements are first
discussed for road and railroad bridges
and then for pedestrian bridges; cable
vibrations are also briefly addressed. The
focus here is on understanding the
phenomena that occur and their
engineering management. More detailed
considerations can be found in the
specialist literature. For the practical
dynamic design, the relevant standard
regulations - if available - should be
consulted.
8.7.2.2 Road and railroad bridges
8.7.2.2.1 Problem definition
Vibrations in road and railroad bridges
can primarily affect the main girder (deck
girder) and/or its deck slab as well as
individual slender structural elements
such as cables and pylons of cable-stayed
and suspension bridges. The vibrations of
the main girder and the deck slab are
generally vertical vibrations.
Dynamic impacts are mainly caused by
vehicles and wind. Of particular
importance is the passage of heavy
vehicles with a multi-layered interaction
between vehicle and bridge girder with
specific road unevenness [Cantieni, 1991],
which leads to actions and vibrations with
a quasi-stationary character. Other
dynamic effects are brake forces and
forces on crash barriers etc., which,
however, have a more impact-like
character and therefore lead to vibrations
with decreasing amplitudes.
Vibrations of road and railroad bridges
are mostly safety problems (overstressing
and/or fatigue) and hardly ever
serviceability problems. A
756
Road bridges, for example, which are also
used by pedestrians, are an exception.
Here, strong vibrations can impair the
comfort of pedestrians. Such cases should
be treated similarly to vibrating pedestrian
bridges (see section 8.7.2.3).
The following explanations concentrate
on vertical vibrations of the main girder
(deck girder) of road bridges; they are
supplemented by corresponding brief
notes on rail bridges.
8.7.2.2.2 Dynamic effects due to road loads
Significant vertical dynamic forces from
road loads are caused by vibrations from
heavy vehicles. The following phenomena
and parameters are of particular
importance here:
• Unevenness (waviness) of the road
surface
• running speed
• Mass (weight) of the vehicle and
number of wheel axles
• Natural vibration frequencies of the
vehicle, and the associated
– Suspension characteristics due to
changes in the tire profile and wheel
suspension (leaf springs or air
springs)
– Natural vibration modes of vehicle
construction (lifting and pitching
oscillations)
The dominant frequency and the
magnitude of the dynamic wheel loads are
particularly important for the dynamic
response of a bridge. In vehicles with leaf
springs, all leaf springs are still locked at
low running speeds, so that the vehicle
only oscillates on the tires at 2.5 ... 3.5 Hz.
If the running speed exceeds a certain
level (e.g. 40 km/h), the leaf springs are
partially locked.
8 Calculation
The leaf springs are usually fully activated
at high speeds and the dominant
frequency of the dynamic wheel loads
drops to 2.5 ... 1.5 Hz (more like lifting
vibrations). At high speeds, the leaf
springs are usually fully activated and the
dominant frequency can drop to 1.5 ... 1.2
Hz (pitching vibrations). In vehicles with
air springs, the dependence on running
speed is lower and the dominant
frequency of the wheel loads is generally
1.8 ... 1.5 Hz.
8.7.2.2.3 Dynamic properties of road
bridges
Natural frequencies and damping of road
bridges depend on numerous parameters
such as the load-bearing system, cross-
sectional design, building materials used,
structural design, storage conditions, etc.
and can vary greatly even for externally
similar objects. Figures 8.7.2-1
[Bachmann, 1997] and 8.7.2-2 [Cantieni,
1991] serve as a guide to the magnitudes
that occur. As expected, the fundamental
frequency f decreases with the largest
span; however, the considerable scatter
must be taken into account. The
logarithmic damping decrement, which can
be determined, for example, from the
swing-out of a bridge after the impact of a
vehicle driving over a plank placed on the
roadway, also varies within wide limits.
For composite bridges (steel girders with
concrete deck) and even more so for steel
bridges, the damping is generally much
smaller than for concrete bridges. The
damping decrement δ can be converted into
the damping ratio ζ (ratio of damping to
critical damping) with ζ = δ/2π. Due to
the large scatter, both representations only
provide rough orders of magnitude and
cannot be used to assume calculated
values in specific cases.
8.7 Special problems
Figure 8.7.2-1 Basic frequency of 224 road bridges as a function of the largest span [Bachmann,
1997].
It should be emphasized here that this
information only applies to beam bridges.
For cable-stayed and suspension bridges, it
is hardly possible to provide generally
valid information on the order of
magnitude of the fundamental frequency
and attenuation.
8.7.2.2.4 Vibration behavior of road
bridges
The deflection-time function in the
middle of the largest span or the softest
field is representative of the response of a
road bridge to the passage of a heavy
vehicle.
Figure 8.7.2-3 shows this function for a
3-span bridge [Cantieni, 1991]. A simple
parameter for assessing the fracture
Figure 8.7.2-2 Frequency distribution of the
logarithmic damping decrement of 198
reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete
bridges [Cantieni, 1991]
757
The so-called dy- namic increment is the
characteristic of the oscillation of the
beam:
Adyn - Astat
Ф= ∙ 100 [%] (1)
991
Astatine
In it, Adyn is the maximum deflection at
the measuring point under dynamic load
and Astat is the maximum deflection at the
same point under static load with the
same vehicle.
The so-called dynamic coefficient is
generally used for calculation purposes:
Ф1 = 1 + Ф (2)
Figure 8.7.2-4 shows the dynamic
increment Ф as a function of the basic
frequency of 73 concrete bridges with
normal roadway unevenness when
crossing the bridge.
Figure 8.7.2-3 Deflection-time function when
a heavy vehicle crosses a bridge [Cantieni,
1991].
758
Fig. 8.7.2-4 Dynamic increment as a function of the basic frequency of 73 bridges when a 2-axle
vehicle passes [Bachmann, 1997].
of a heavy vehicle with leaf springs
[Bachmann, 1997]. The envelope shows a
significant superelevation with Ф = 70%
in the range of the dominant frequency of
the dynamic wheel loads of 2 ... 4 Hz.
Although the bridge oscillations are
generally quasi-stationary in character,
they cannot be attributed to simple
resonance considerations. This is also
indicated by the evaluation that the
damping of a bridge does not seem to
have a significant influence on the
dynamic increment. Rather, what happens
when a heavy vehicle crosses a bridge is
determined by a multi-layered interaction
between the vehicle and the bridge.
Together, these form a complicated
coupled dynamic system with considerable
non-linearities, which are primarily caused
by the variability of the vehicle properties
mentioned in Section 8.7.2.2.2. For design
purposes, empirical values from
measurements must therefore continue to
be used.
In the case of a simultaneous crossing
of two or more vehicles in a column, the
bridge vibrations "fight" against each
other as a result of the individual vehicles
and partially compensate each other, so
that the resulting dynamic increment or
8 Calculation
the corresponding dynamic coefficient is
lower. Figure 8.7.2-5 shows a proposal for
the dynamic coefficients Ф1 for individual
vehicles (2-axle and the particularly
critical 3- and 4-axle trucks, no
semitrailers) on the one hand and for a
convoy made up of the same vehicles on
the other [Cantieni, 1991].
Compared to the effect of the same
vehicles, the vibrations of the main girder of
road bridges only lead to significantly
increased stresses (tensions) in the
longitudinal direction as static loads;
however, they can also contribute to the
fatigue of the main girder, which is
particularly true for steel bridges and
steel-concrete composite bridges. The
decisive static loads are therefore also
multiplied by the dynamic coefficient for
the verification of fatigue safety. The
stresses Δstat or stress differences Δσstat
resulting from the increased loads must
not exceed certain limit values.
It should also be noted here that
vibrations of the bridge's supporting
elements in the transverse direction (e.g.
roadway slab on road bridges) can also be
significant in unfavorable pavement
conditions. These are resonance-like
vibrations of the vehicle axles with the
load-bearing element, usually in the range
of
8.7 Special problems
Figure 8.7.2-5 Proposal for the dynamic coefficients for a single vehicle Ф1 and a vehicle convoy
Ф2 [Cantieni, 1991]
of about 10 Hz. Fatigue phenomena can
also be decisive here.
While in previous standards for road
loads (e.g. SIA 160) the dynamic
coefficient is still explicitly stated and thus
recognizable, recently published standards
(e.g. [Eurocode 1, 2000], [SIA 261, 2003])
have started to integrate the dynamic load
component into the total loads. This
explains, for example, the very high axle
loads (2 wheels) of 300 kN according to
[SIA 261, 2003, DIN FB 101, 2009].
8.7.2.2.5 Railroad bridges
With regard to vibrations of main girders
of railroad bridges, similar relationships
and considerations apply in principle as
for road bridges. Here, the irregularities of
the track, the running speed and again the
vibration characteristics of the vehicles
(locomotive, wagon) and the main girder
are important. The dynamic coefficient
can be applied as a function of the span
widths and the speed of expansion. Again,
fatigue must also be considered and
vibrations of supporting elements in the
transverse direction etc. can be significant.
759
8.7.2.2.6 Measures
Moderate vibrations of road and railroad
bridges can be described as
unproblematic, provided that they are
taken into account in the design as
mentioned above. The condition of the
road bridge pavement is of great
importance; regular inspections and
renewals are essential. Further measures
are generally not necessary. In cases of
excessive vibrations, absorbers (tuned
mass-spring dampers) can be considered
in a similar way to pedestrian bridges (see
Section 8.7.2.3.9). One such case is
described in [Ge- rasch, 1985].
8.7.2.3 Pedestrian bridges
8.7.2.3.1 Problem definition
Vibrations in pedestrian bridges can
primarily affect the main girder (sidewalk
girder) but also individual slender
structural elements such as cables and
pylons of cable-stayed and suspension
bridges. The vibrations of the main girder
can be both vertical and horizontal
vibrations (transverse and longitudinal to
the direction of travel).
760 8 Calculation

Dynamic impacts are mainly caused by • Step or hop frequency

pedestrians walking and running and by • Time course of the dynamic influence
wind. The effects of cyclists are not • Number of persons involved
significant compared to those of • "Lock-in" effect
pedestrians. On the other hand, so-called
Common step frequencies for walking
"vandal loading" by rhythmic jumping in
and running as well as frequencies for
place or possibly also by horizontal back
hopping in place are shown in Table 8.7.2-
and forth movement of the body of
1 [Baumann/Bachmann, 1988]. Rough
individuals or groups of people can be a
average values are 2 Hz for walking and
significant impact.
2.5 Hz for running and hopping.
Vibrations of pedestrian bridges are
However, the large possible variations
usually usability problems, in that the
must be taken into account.
comfort of pedestrians is impaired, which
The time course of the acting force Fp
can go as far as the practical unusability
(t) of a person is of considerable
(closure) of a bridge. In rather rare cases,
importance. The force can be broken down
safety problems (overloading and/or
into a static component due to the
fatigue) can also occur.
person's own weight (body weight) and a
The following explanations concentrate
dynamic component as the sum of
on vertical and horizontal vibrations of the
harmonic functions ("harmonics") with
main girder (sidewalk girder) of pedestrian
frequencies that are an integer multiple of
bridges caused by the impact of people.
the step or hopping frequency as the basic
They also apply to similarly designed and
frequency of the action (Fourier
stressed
decomposition):

Fp (t) = G + ΔG1 ⋅ sin(2π ftp )

+ ΔG sin (4π f t - φ )
Structures such as wide-span staircases, 2 p 2
Ship landing stages, + ΔG3 sin(6 π fp t - φ (3)
etc. )3

G Weight of the person (generally G

8.7.2.3.2 Dynamic effects caused by persons = 800 N)
ΔG1,2,3 Amplitude of the 1st or 2nd or 3rd amplitude.
Significant vertical and horizontal Harmonics
dynamic forces on pedestrian bridges are fp Step or bounce frequency
caused by the rhythmic movements of φ2,3 Phase angle (temporal phase shift) of
people's bodies. The following aspects are the 2nd or 3rd har- monic
of particular importance compared to the 1st har- monic

Table 8.7.2-1 Step and bounce frequencies in Hz [Baumann/Bachmann, 1988].

in total slowly normal quickly
Walk 1,4 - 2.4 1,4 - 1,7 1,7 - 2.2 2.2 - 2.4
Running 1,9 - 3,3 1,9 - 2.2 2.2 - 2.7 2.7 - 3,3
Bounce 1,3 - 3,4 1,3 - 1,9 1,9 - 3,0 3,0 - 3,4
8.7 Special problems
Figure 8.7.2-6 Time course of the vertical impact of a person walking with a step frequency of 2
Hz and corresponding amplitude spectrum
The first three harmonics were taken into
account in the formula for Fp (t). In rather
rare cases - especially when bouncing - the
4th and even the 5th harmonic can also
play a role.
Figure 8.7.2-6 shows the temporal
progression of the vertical impact of a
pedestrian walking at a step frequency of 2
Hz. The total force is plotted,
i.e. the force exerted by both feet on the
walking surface and its harmonic
components as well as the corresponding
amplitude spectrum (Fourier spectrum).
761
For the values ΔGi and φi (i = no. of the
harmonic), the values recommended in
[Bachmann, 1997] and shown in the
figure were used. As the stride frequency,
the type of footwear and the individually
different way of stepping and rolling of
the feet as well as vibrations of the surface
have an influence, these values can vary
considerably [Baumann/Bachmann,
1988].
When running - depending on the type
- and always when hopping, contact with
the ground is
762
Figure 8.7.2-7 Time course of the vertical impact of a person (G = 720 N) by bouncing in place at
2 Hz and corresponding amplitude spectrum [Bachmann, 1997].
interrupted. Figure 8.7.2-7 shows the
temporal progression of the vertical force
of a person weighing 720 N by hopping in
place and the corresponding amplitude
spectrum [Bachmann, 1997]. The main
influencing variables are the hopping
frequency, the type of hopping (high/low)
and the footwear. It can be seen that in this
example the maximum force is 6 times (!)
the dead weight and that significant
dynamic forces are delivered up to the 5th
harmonic.
It must be explicitly pointed out here
that the upper harmonics of the temporal
course of the action of people can be of
great importance for structural vibrations.
Of course, the simplest case is that
pedestrian bridges with a relatively low
fundamental frequency f0 are excited to
resonance vibrations by the 1st harmonic
of the dynamic action with the step or
hopping frequency fp ,
i.e. fp = f0 . Sometimes, however, bridges
(as well as gymnasium ceilings, sports
stadiums, etc.) with a higher fundamental
frequency are excited by upper
harmonics, e.g. 2fp = f0 or 3fp = f0 ; in such
cases, the 2nd or 3rd harmonic exerts a
kind of "push into the 2nd or 3rd wave
trough of the structure".
8 Calculation
oscillation" (with phase shift).
Example: Significant vertical vibrations
occurred on a steel pedestrian bridge. Under
normal conditions during the evening rush
hour, frequency and movement amplitudes
were measured. The number of pedestrians
fluctuated between 30 and 55 per minute.
It was found that the bridge mainly
vibrates at its fundamental frequency of
around 4 Hz. The excitation is caused by
the 2nd harmonic of the time course of the
dynamic impact with a step frequency of
around 2 Hz.
When walking and running, people also
exert horizontal forces on the surface.
Such forces are generated by the
displacement of the body's center of mass
with displacement amplitudes of generally
about 1 to 2 cm transverse to the direction
of travel or in the longitudinal direction
compared to the location in the case of a
strictly constant speed of locomotion. It
should be noted that the pendulum
frequency - as the fundamental frequency
of the impact - corresponds to half the
step frequency; it is therefore in the range
of 0.7 to 1.7 Hz at step frequencies of 1.4
to 3.5 Hz (Table 8.7.2-1). If the
8.7 Special problems
Figure 8.7.2-8 Amplitude spectra of the horizontal impact o f a person (G 584 N) walking with a
step frequency of 2 Hz [Schulze, 1980].
If the designation of the individual
harmonics continues to refer to the step
frequency, the amplitudes of the
harmonics can be designated as ΔG1/2 ,
ΔG1 , ΔG3/2 , ΔG2 etc.; ΔG1/2 is in fact the
1st harmonic of the temporal course of
the horizontal impact, but it is usually
referred to as a "semi-harmonic". Figure
8.7.2-8 shows amplitude spectra of the
horizontal impact of a person weighing
584 N walking with a step frequency of 2
Hz [Schulze, 1980]. It can be seen that
upper harmonics can also be significant
here. In the "horizontal transverse"
direction, forces occur primarily at half
and one and a half times the step
frequency, while in the "horizontal
longitudinal" direction, forces are
primarily exerted at one and two times the
step frequency, but also at half, one and a
half times, and so on. step frequency.
Depending on the person and the state of
movement of the support, the magnitude
of the amplitudes can be different
compared to Fig. 8.7.2-8, e.g. for
"horizontal transverse" values ΔG1/2 /G of
up to ≈ 0.07 are possible on a stationary
surface and up to ≈ 0.14 on a strongly
transversely vibrating surface
[Matsumoto, 1978]. Although the
horizontal forces exerted by people when
walking and running are relatively small
compared to the vertical forces, the
763
are small, they are sufficient to cause
strong vibrations in horizontally soft and
therefore low-frequency load-bearing
structures.
Example: A pedestrian bridge at Geneva
Airport is designed as a reinforced concrete
continuous girder with standard spans of
around 15 m [Bachmann, 1992]. Figure
8.7.2-9 shows the dimensions. The sidewalk
slab is 4 m wide. The reinforced concrete
columns of around 7 m in height had a
relatively small cross-section of 65 cm (in
the transverse direction of the bridge) by 30
cm (in the longitudinal direction of the
bridge), as they had only been designed for
horizontal static wind forces. After the end
of a major evening event, numerous
pedestrians streamed across the bridge
from one side. The bridge began to vibrate
strongly, especially horizontally across the
bridge axis, but also in the longitudinal
direction. A panic-like reaction ensued:
some of the pedestrians ran forward to the
end of the bridge to get to safety, while
others turned around and tried to run
back. The pedestrians experienced the
vibrations as in a strong earthquake or
similar to those on a ship in high waves. A
dynamic investigation showed that the
fundamental frequency of the bridge was
horizontally transverse.
764
Figure 8.7.2-9 Horizontal transverse and
longitudinal swinging pedestrian bridge
[Bachmann, 1992]
8 Calculation
Figure 8.7.2-10 Stiffening of the bridge
supports of Figure 8.7.2-9 by sheathing
[Bachmann, 1992].
to the bridge axis was only 1 Hz and 1.75
Hz in the direction of the bridge axis. A
look at the amplitude spectra in Figure
8.7.2-8 explains the vibrations: The bridge
was excited by the pedestrians in the
transverse direction by the "semi-
harmonic" with ΔG1/2 and in the
longitudinal direction by the harmonic
with the amplitude ΔG1 . The bridge had to
be refurbished by stiffening the existing
reinforced concrete supports; these were
carefully roughened and encased in new
reinforcement and concrete (Fig. 8.7.2-10).
The pile head plates of the foundations also
had to be reinforced to ensure the clamping
of the reinforced columns. These measures
made it possible to raise the natural
frequencies in the transverse and
longitudinal direction of the bridge to such
an extent that no more disturbing
vibrations occurred, which corresponds to
subsequent frequency tuning (see section
8.7.2.3.7).
8.7 Special problems
More precise recommendations for the
numerical values ΔGi /G and φi for
walking, running and hopping (as well as
for other rhythmic human body
movements) as a function of the step or
hop frequency are given in [Bachmann,
1997].
8.7.2.3.3 Influence of several people and "lock-
in" effect
The above statements refer to
mainly due to the action of a single
person. Pedestrian bridges are
however, is generally used by several
people at the same time. A distinction
must be made between the following types
of impact:
• Irregular influence
• Synchronous action
• "Lock-in" effect
In the case of random action, e.g. by
walking or running, the step frequency
and the dead weight of the persons
involved are distributed within a certain
range according to a frequency curve,
while the phase angle φ1 of the 1st
harmonic (related to any time zero point)
has a purely random distribution. The
dynamic effects
Figure 8.7.2-11 Multiplication factor when several people are exposed
765
of pedestrians will therefore alternately
support and partially compensate each
other over time. Exact predictions are
hardly possible, as many different
parameters and coincidences play a role.
However, the approach according to
[Matsumoto, 1978] has proven to be
sufficiently accurate for practical
purposes. According to this approach, a
factor m can be de- fined with which the
vibration amplitude calculated for a single
pedestrian in the middle of the bridge can
be multiplied:
m = λ ⋅T0 (4)
λ: average arrival rate (persons/s for entire
bridge width) over a certain period of
time (maximum possible arrival rate
T λmax ≈ 1.5 persons per s and m width)
0 : time required to pass the bridge of
length L at speed vs (T0 = L/v ).s
λ ∙ T0 : Number of people on the bridge at
the same time at the average
arrival rate
It has already been taken into account that
an action evenly distributed over an entire
span produces only about 60% of the
deflection due to the same but
concentrated action acting in the center of
the span.
766
For example, for a bridge 2 m wide and
26 m wide, a passage of 100 people/minute
(λ = 1.66 people/s) and vs ≈ 1.5 m/s results
in a passing time of T0 = 26/1.5 = 17.3 s
and thus a factor m = 5.4.
Equation (4) can be used for pedestrian
structures with a basic frequency f0 in the
range of the most frequent step frequency,
i.e. for normal pedestrian traffic for f0
between 1.8 and 2.2 Hz, can be applied
directly. Lower and higher step
frequencies are significantly less frequent.
Therefore, for fundamental frequencies f
between 2.2 and 2.4 Hz and between 1.8
and 1.6 Hz, the factor m can be applied
linearly to the value mmin
= 2.0 must be reduced. The value 2.0
corresponds to two people walking in step.
In the case of synchronous exposure by
several people - e.g. a group of pedestrians
walking in step or jumping synchronously
in place - there is an increase compared to
the exposure of a single person, which
increases almost linearly with the number of
people n for the 1st harmonic (Figure 8.7.2-
11). Due to the higher frequencies or shorter
periods, differences in temporal
synchronization and other characteristics
(ΔGi /G, φi etc.) always have a greater effect
with upper harmonics and can lead to
significant reductions in the multiplication
factor. The degree of reduction due to
imperfect syn- chronization compared to
perfect syn- chronization or linear
magnification depends not only on the
harmonic but also on the relevant
circumstances (frequency range, type of
activities, etc.). However, at least for a
smaller number of persons, the
assumption of linear magnification seems
appropriate (upper limit). For example, the
effect of "wilful excitation" on footbridges
can be based on 3 jumping persons with
ideal synchronization.
8 Calculation
The phenomenon known as the
feedback and synchronization effect or, in
reference to similar phenomena in
aeroelasticity when vortices are detached
from vibrating bodies around which a
flow passes, the "lock-in" effect can be of
considerable practical importance. It has
been shown that when walking and
running, people adapt their movements to
a vertically or horizontally vibrating
surface as soon as its displacement
amplitude exceeds a certain threshold
value. In this case, uninfluenced walking
or running is no longer possible, you "fall
out of step" and adapt to the vibrations of
the base in terms of step frequency and
phase position (φ1 ). The threshold value
depends on the direction and frequency
and can vary considerably depending on
the individual (age, constitution, etc.). For
vertical vibrations of the base at around 2
Hz, the threshold value (amplitude) varies
between 10 and 20 mm [Baumann/
Bachmann, 1988]. For horizontal
vibrations transverse to the walking
direction at around 1 Hz, it is smaller; in
some people, adaptation to the vibrations
of the support begins at amplitudes of 2 to
3 mm.
If the vibrations of a bridge exceed the
threshold value of a person walking on it,
this person synchronizes with the bridge
vibration and now enters each wave
trough of the vibration (with phase shift),
so to speak, whereby the bridge
experiences a resonance-like and therefore
less favourable dynamic excitation. As a
result, the displacement amplitudes
increase, causing more people to
synchronize with the bridge oscillation and
thus with each other. In other words,
more and more people are "locked" or
"lured" into the synchronization, in
accordance with the English meaning of
"to lock".
8.7 Special problems 767

Example: On the occasion of the opening of Table 8.7.2-2 Usual values of the damping
the newly built Millennium Bridge with dimension of pedestrian bridges [Bachmann,
spans of 80 m - 140 m - 100 m over the 1997].
Thames in the City of London in June Attenuation dimension ζ
2000, numerous pedestrians streamed
across the bridge. Strong transverse Construction min. mediu max.
vibrations occurred with frequencies of method m
around 1 Hz, which, according to later reinforced 0,008 0,013 0,020
estimates, reached amplitudes of up to 70 concrete
mm. Video recordings showed that a large
prestressed 0,005 0,010 0,017
proportion of the pedestrians had adapted concrete
to the vibrations of the bridge and thus
Compound 0,003 0,006 -
synchronized with them. However, many
pedestrians were unable to continue walking Steel 0,002 0,004 -
and had to hold on to the railings. The
bridge had to be closed again. Laboratory
tests carried out on a transversely oscillating whereby, as in the case of road bridges,
platform as part of the dynamic simulation the large scattering must be taken into
showed that at an amplitude of 5 mm, account.
between 30 and 50% of pedestrians already The damping of pedestrian bridges -
synchronize, and at 30 mm it is around 80% especially steel bridges and also composite
[Imp. College, 2000]. For a transverse bridges (steel girders with concrete
acceleration of 2% of g (see section pavement slabs) - can be very low, which
8.7.2.3.6), a synchronization of can result in strong vibrations when a
≈ 30% of pedestrians are assumed. pedestrian passes. Table 8.7.2-2 provides
information on the equi- valent viscous
damping factor ζ = δ/2π from an
8.7.2.3.4 Dynamic properties of pedestrian evaluation of measurements on 43
bridges bridges, each of which was excited by a
single pedestrian (according to A. J.
With regard to natural frequencies and Pretlove et al. in [Bachmann, 1997]). At
damping of pedestrian bridges as beam
bridges, similar relationships apply as for
road bridges (Section 8.7.2.2.3). However,
due to the lower static live loads, smaller
cross-sectional dimensions can be selected
for the same span width, which means
that the stiffness and thus the natural
frequencies assume smaller values. For
example, a road bridge with a span width
of 30 m has a fundamental frequency of
3.3 Hz, while a similarly constructed
pedestrian bridge only has a fundamental
frequency of 2.8 Hz. Figure 8.7.2-12 (after
A. J. Pretlove et al. in [Bachmann, 1997])
gives a rough order of magnitude for the
fundamental frequency of pedestrian
Fig. 8.7.2-12 Fundamental frequency of 67
bridges, foot-operated bridges as a function of the span
[Bachmann, 1997].
768
In some cases (but not always), the
damping increases with large vibration
amplitudes, which prevents a linear
increase in the vibrations with the
strength of the impact. Numerous
pedestrians on a bridge at the same time
also contribute to the damping themselves
due to the energy dissipation in their
bodies. However, the extent of the
increase in damping compared to the
same bridge without pedestrians depends
on numerous parameters and should be
neglected or only assumed very cautiously
in the dynamic design, especially for larger
bridges.
As with road bridges, it must be
emphasized that the above information
only applies to beam bridges. For cable-
stayed bridges, suspension bridges, arch
bridges and the special constructions that
have recently become increasingly
common, it is hardly possible to provide
generally valid information on the order
of magnitude of the fundamental
frequency and damping.
8.7.2.3.5 Vibration behavior of
pedestrian bridges
The deflection-time function in the middle
of the largest span or the softest field is
again representative of the response of a
footbridge to the passing or bouncing of a
person, basically similar to that of road
bridges when a heavy vehicle passes over
them (Figure 8.7.2-3). In contrast to such
bridges, however, the static deflection of
pedestrian bridges is relatively small and a
simple harmonic oscillation around a
practically unchanged zero line with a
pronounced resonance-like character is
usually observed. In the most unfavorable
case, a natural frequency of the bridge -
usually the vertical or
8 Calculation
the horizontal fundamental bending
frequency, but it can also be a higher
bending natural frequency or a torsional
natural frequency - corresponds to the
frequency of a harmonic of the time
course of the action (Section 8.7.2.3.2). In
the stationary state, i.e. after the oscillation
process, the duration of which increases
with lower damping, deflection amplitudes
occur that are a multiple of the natural
frequency,
z. For example, it may be 20 or 100 times
(it is 1/2ζ times, see section 8.7.2.3.7) the
deflection from the statically acting
amplitude ΔG of the dynamic action. It
would therefore not be expedient to try to
capture the influence of the vibrations by
adding a dynamic coefficient to the static
load, e.g. as in the case of road loads.
Instead, the dynamic deflection must be
considered on its own.
8.7.2.3.6 Reference values
Measured or calculated vibration values of
pedestrian bridges (acceleration or speed
or displacement) can be compared with
acceptable values, so-called reference values.
As the name suggests, these are not
precisely definable "permissible" values,
but rather values that provide a useful
order of magnitude with a scatter range
and thus only provide reference points.
Reference values can be determined by the
following phenomena:
• Physiological effects on people
(mechanical, optical, acoustic effects)
• Stresses on the structure or component
(deformation, strength, fatigue)
For the limitation of the vibration values
and thus for the reference values are
usually
8.7 Special problems
the physiological effects are decisive.
The determination of reference values
for vertical and horizontal vibrations of
pedestrian bridges touches on difficult
questions, especially in the case of
physiological effects, and has a certain margin
of discretion. Different standards also
provide different reference values or
"permissible" values. Caution is required
when applying them, as standards can hardly
take into account all the circumstances
relevant in a specific case, e.g.
• Frequent, exceptional or rare event
• Experimentally determined or
calculated (often very uncertain)
vibration value
• Desired comfort level
• Expected acceptance by users (e.g.
suspension bridge in mountain valley ≠
staircase in department store)
• Other specific circumstances
Reference values are always frequency-
dependent. They are generally given in the
form of an acceleration, possibly also a
velocity. Depending on the circumstances,
an acceleration of 0.5 to 1 m/s2, i.e. 5 to 10%
of g (g = acceleration due to gravity) can
be accepted for vertical vibrations. The
lower values do not normally lead to
complaints. Walking people are much
more sensitive to horizontal vibrations,
especially transverse to the direction of
walking. Therefore, an acceleration of 1 to
2% of g is recommended as a rough guide.
In addition, vertical vibration paths of
≈ 10 mm and horizontally ≈ 2 mm should
not be exceeded, provided that the "lock-
in" effect and thus synchronization of the
movements of the persons acting on the
system is to be avoided (Section 8.7.2.3.3).
More detailed information on certain
types of reference values can be found in
[Bachmann, 1997], for example.
769
8.7.2.3.7 Frequency tuning
The following are the main measures that
can be taken to prevent excessive pedestrian
bridge vibrations:
• Frequency tuning
• Calculation of a forced oscillation and
amplitude limitation
• Special measures
• Use of vibration absorbers
In frequency tuning, the supporting
structure is designed so that its natural
frequencies - in particular its fundamental
frequency - meet certain requirements;
the supporting structure is therefore
designed similarly with regard to its
vibration properties.
"tuned" like a musical instrument. To
calculate the natural frequencies, "only"
the stiffnesses and masses are required as
structural parameters, but not the
damping, which is often difficult to
predict.
In the "vertical" direction, the most
frequent step frequencies of pedestrians
(Table 8.7.2-1) and the corresponding
amplitude spectrum (Figure 8.7.2-6) mean
that there is the greatest risk of a
pedestrian bridge being stimulated to
vibrate considerably if one of its
frequencies is between 1.6 and 2.4 Hz.
Natural frequencies in the range from 1.6
to 2.4 Hz should therefore be avoided. And
due to the phenomenon of the 2nd
harmonic (Section 8.7.2.3.2), natural
frequencies in the range between 3.5 and
4.5 Hz should also be avoided for
structures with relatively low damping
and mass (especially steel and composite
bridges). If pedestrian bridges are
frequently crossed by runners ("joggers")
with higher frequent step frequencies
(Table 8.7.2-1), analogous conclusions
must be drawn. Accordingly, natural
frequencies in the range of 2.1 and
2.9 Hz should be avoided.
770
Based on the amplitude spectrum
(Figure 8.7.2-8 left), the risk of vibration is
greatest in the "horizontal transverse"
direction if a bridge has natural
frequencies at around 1 Hz and possibly
also at 2 or 3 Hz. While a number of cases
of bridges vibrating transversely at around
1 Hz (≈ 0.7 to 1.3 Hz) are known, this is
not the case for bridges vibrating at
around 2 or even 3 Hz; their stiffness and
mass should generally be so great that the
relatively low lateral forces of pedestrians
do not excite any disturbing vibrations. In
any case, tuning the frequency to > 3.4 Hz
is on the safe side.
Analogous considerations can be made
in the "horizontal longitudinal" direction
and critical frequency ranges can be
identified, in particular at around 1 Hz and
possibly at 2 Hz and possibly also at 3 Hz
(Figure 8.7.2-8 right). However, it is often
the case that in the case of bridges that are
mathematically soft in the longitudinal
direction, the bearing friction prevents
vibrations. However, caution is required
with frame bridges.
Figure 8.7.2-13 shows the critical
frequency ranges for pedestrian bridges
that should be avoided as far as possible by
frequency tuning.
The frequency tuning of load-bearing
structures is a relatively rough and
generalized
Figure 8.7.2-13 Critical frequency ranges for pedestrian bridges that can be avoided by frequency
tuning
8 Calculation
However, this measure has generally
proven itself in practice; it can be
recommended above all for the frequently
occurring "normal" beam bridges with
spans of up to around 50 m.
8.7.2.3.8 Calculation of a forced oscillation and
limitation of the amplitudes
Depending on the circumstances, the
frequency tuning of a footbridge initially
designed only for static loads can lead to
considerable additional work. In such
cases, more specialized investigations may
be indicated. The focus is usually on
calculating a forced vibration and
comparing the resulting amplitudes with
reference values. If necessary, measures
must then be taken to limit the
amplitudes.
The following applies to a stationary
harmonic resonance oscillation (state after
the oscillation process) under the
influence of a single person in the center
of the field:
d = ds /2ζ ; v = 2π fds /2ζ ;
a = 4π 2 f 2 ds /2ζ (5)
d, v, a Amplitudes of the deflection or
velocity or acceleration in the
center of the field
8.7 Special problems
ds Static deflection due to ΔG f
Natural frequency of the bridge
and frequency of the governing
harmonics
with the amplitude ΔG ζ
Attenuation factor
The exposure of several persons can be
determined by multiplying the random
exposure by the factor m and the
synchronic exposure by the number of
persons n (see Section 8.7.2.3.3).
Instructions for calculations with
consideration of the transient response
and other influences are given, for
example, in [Bachmann, 1997] and
[Grundmann et al., 1993]. Of course,
conventional computer programs can also
be used; however, it is always advisable to
check the results by means of simple
manual calculations, which also promote an
overview and understanding of the
relationships and thus help to avoid gross
errors. In any case, there is a very
important direct dependence of the
calculation results on the damping factor ζ.
This is often very difficult to predict
accurately and must therefore be assumed
with caution (Table 8.7.2-2), which can
considerably impair the usefulness of an
"accurate" vibration calculation.
The comparison of the calculated
amplitudes with reference values shows
whether measures such as increasing the
stiffness etc. need to be taken. This can be
used to try to limit the amplitudes to an
acceptable level.
Experience has shown that for
pedestrian bridges with a vertical
fundamental frequency of around 2 Hz,
the calculation of a forced oscillation with
amplitude limitation usually leads to
similar results as a frequency tuning. More
differentiated findings are to be expected
for bridges with higher natural
frequencies. For example, for steel and
composite bridges with a vertical
fundamental frequency in the range
between
771
3.5 and 4.5 Hz and low damping with the
calculation of a forced oscillation to clarify
whether changes in stiffness such as
increasing the cross-sectional dimensions
etc. are indicated.
The main special measures that can be
considered are unconventional stiffeners,
which of course usually increase the
natural frequencies, e.g.
• only effective clamping of the main
girder for live loads with one or more
abutments
• Installation of a stiffer railing
("serviceability support structure")
• Cable bracing (vertical, horizontal or
inclined)
Increasing the damping by modifying the
supporting structure, connections,
bearings, etc. can also be considered, but
there are usually considerable practical
difficulties in doing so. On the other hand,
the use of vibration absorbers can be an
effective and cost-effective alternative.
8.7.2.3.9 Calming through vibration absorbers
Absorbers are mass-spring dampers whose
natural frequency and damping must be
precisely matched to the dynamic
properties of the structure to be stabilized.
Absorbers can be used for
• Vibration remediation of existing
bridges
• Planning and dynamic design of new
bridges
An absorber is therefore an additional
oscillating system that is attached to an
oscillating main system. It consists of a
mass, a spring and a damper (or several
parallel springs and dampers). A good
tuning of the damper
772 8 Calculation

The higher frequency causes inertial s ζ= cs /(2 ks /ms )

forces of the absorber mass, which
xt,s Displacement of the absorber mass or
counteract the dynamic forces acting on
modal mass of the main system
the main system and can significantly
reduce its resonance vibrations. So while The differential equation of motion of the
the vibration amplitudes of the main equilibrium can be set up for the two
system are significantly reduced, large masses and the coupled sliding system can
displacement amplitudes of the additional be solved [Bachmann, 1997]
system are required. A large part of the [Bachmann/Weber, 1995]. The
energy supplied by the dynamic action is expressions for the optimum natural
transferred to the strongly vibrating frequency fopt and the optimum damping
absorber; it is dissipated primarily in the ζopt of the absorber result in
absorber or absorbers of the absorber.
fs
In the vast majority of cases, fopt = ;ζ opt =
3(mt /ms )
oscillations at a certain natural frequency 1+ mt s
8(1 + mt /ms
(6)
of the main system are problematic /m )3
and must be reduced. The main system
can then be modeled as an equivalent with the natural frequencies ks /ms /(2π )
single-mass oscillator with the fs =
kt /mt / (2π )
corresponding modal mass, etc.
of the main system and ft =
of the absorber.
Together with the additional system, this The optimum natural frequency of the
results in a 2-mass oscillator as shown in absorber is therefore somewhat lower than
Fig. 8.7.2-14: the natural frequency of the main system (≈
mt Tilting mass 95 to 99%), and - like the optimum damping
ms Modal mass of the main system - it depends on the mass ratio mt /ms , which
(bridge) is usually selected in the range of 0.01 to
kt,s Spring constant of the absorber or main 0.05. Design aids are given in
system [Bachmann/Weber, 1995].
ct,s Damping constant of the absorber or
main system with damping factor
t ζ= ct /(2 kt /mt resp.
)

Figure 8.7.2-14 Dynamic model of the main Fig. 8.7.2-15 Example of the influence of the
system (supporting structure) with absorber damping ratio of an absorber on the vibrations
[Bachmann, 1997]. of the main system [Bachmann, 1997].
8.7 Special problems
Calculations of resonance curves show
that the maximum amplitudes of the main
system can be significantly reduced by an
attenuator, but the reduction is very
sensitive to small changes in the
attenuator frequency ft ; this must
therefore match the optimum frequency
fopt as closely as possible. In contrast, even
considerable deviations of the absorber
attenuation ζt from the optimum
attenuation ζopt have relatively minor
consequences, as can be seen in Fig. 8.7.2-
15. In the case shown, ζopt is 9%. Both for
damping that is considerably too small
(3%) and too large (15%), the reduction in
vibrations of the main system by the
absorber is still significant.
The following practical tips may be
useful when using absorbers for vibration
damping of pedestrian bridges:
• A vibration damper of the type
described above is only effective in a
narrow frequency band and if it is tuned
to a specific natural frequency of the
system to be calmed. It does not work
satisfactorily if the main system has
several natural frequencies close to
each other (e.g. bending and torsional
fundamental frequency), which are
excited by the dynamic action.
• The larger the absorber, the more
effective it is.
the greater the mass of the absorber
compared to the nominal mass of the
main system and the smaller the
damping of the main system. Absorbers
are therefore particularly efficient for
steel and composite bridges, which
generally have a lower mass and less
damping than concrete bridges and can
therefore be particularly susceptible to
vibrations.
• The displacement amplitudes of the tilt
The masses must be calculated by
773
must be checked [Bachmann/Weber,
1995], and sufficient space (including a
reserve in case of excessive impact)
must be provided.
• It must be possible to fine-tune an
absorber (frequency) not only during
its manufacture in the workshop but
also on the structure - usually best by
adding or removing small parts of the
absorber mass rather than by changing
the absorber springs. This is because
calculation results for the structure and
the absorber often deviate from the
actual values, and the structural
frequencies in particular can change
over time, e.g. due to the installation of
new decking or railings, changes in the
stiffness of concrete beams due to
cracking, etc. For this reason, absorbers
should always be positioned and
installed in such a way that they are as
easily accessible as possible for
inspection and readjustment.
Example: A pedestrian and cyclist bridge in
Dietikon near Zurich is designed as a
continuous steel girder over 4 spans with a
main span of 25 m and a clear width of 2.5
m [Bachmann, 1992]. Figure 8.7.2-16
shows a view. The walkway and roadway is
formed by square prefabricated reinforced
concrete slabs supported on neoprene slabs
on the cross girders. After commissioning,
strong vibrations were already evident
when individual pedestrians passed and
smaller but clearly perceptible vibrations
were also evident when individual cyclists
passed. A dynamic investigation revealed a
fundamental frequency of 2.48 Hz; this was
therefore above the "forbidden" range
according to the rules of frequency tuning
(Section 8.7.2.3.7 and Figure 8.7.2-13). The
pronounced susceptibility to vibration can
be explained by the extremely low damping.
The damping ratio was only 0.23% at
774 8 Calculation

Figure 8.7.2-16 Pedestrian and cyclist bridge made of steel with low damping and correspondingly
strong vibrations [Bachmann, 1992].

Figure 8.7.2-17 Vibration absorber for dynamic rehabilitation of the bridge of Figure 8.7.2-16
[Bachmann, 1992].

an acceleration of ≈ 1 m/s2 and 0.40% at ≈ 4
m/s2; this meant that there was almost only
material damping (steel) and only slight
system damping (connections, bearings, etc.).
Bridge vibrations with an acceleration in the
center of the bridge of ≈ 9 m/s2 (!) could be
achieved by a person jumping in place. That
is 90% of the earth's acceleration. At 100%
(averaged) would be
the dead weight would have been
compensated, the bridge would have lifted
off its supports and made an actual air
jump, as has happened in other cases.
The dynamic refurbishment was carried out by
2 vibration dampers (Fig. 8.7.2-17) of
narrow design, attached to the inside of the
steel girders in the middle of the main span
and covered with sheet metal cladding.
8.7 Special problems
Figure 8.7.2-18 Vibrations of the bridge in Figure 8.7.2-16 caused by a person jumping with
blocked and active absorbers [Bachmann, 1992].
were provided. The absorbers are therefore
easily accessible from the sidewalk slab for
checks etc. Figure 8.7.2-18 shows the bridge
vibrations when a person jumps, with
blocked and with active absorbers. The
absorbers are extremely efficient in this
case: they reduce the vibrations by a factor
of around 20 to a value of ≈ 0.5 m/s2 (≈ stop
value).
Damper technology will become even
more important in the future. Among
other things, absorber systems in which the
spring stiffness and the damping ratio can
be changed in a simple, e.g.
electromagnetic way and thus, for example,
natural oscillations of the main system
with different frequencies can be damped
by a single absorber, are also likely to
become important. Information on this
can be found in [Footbridge, 2002].
8.7.2.4 Angled cable
8.7.2.4.1 Problem definition
Structures with stay cables - also known as
stay cables - are increasingly being used in
large bridge construction and for
pedestrian bridges. Compared to
suspension bridges, which can be excited
to vibrate by the effects of wind in
particular, cable-stayed bridges are more
stable due to their
775
of the triangular subsystems consisting of
bridge girder, pylon and cable is a
comparatively stiff system, at least in the
vertical direction, and correspondingly
insensitive to vibration [Petersen, 2001].
The stay cables themselves, on the other
hand, are to be classified as highly
susceptible to vibration due to their often
great length (slenderness) and low
damping.
Two different types of ropes (cables) are
mainly used:
• Sealed spiral ropes made from several
layers of round and Z-wires without
sheaths
• Parallel wire and strand bundles of
round wires in a thick-walled plastic or
steel tube, pressed with cement mortar
or epoxy resin etc. for reinforcement or
corrosion protection.
8.7.2.4.2 Dynamic effects
Wind dynamic phenomena and foot point
excitation can be considered as vibration
excitation of the inclined cables.
Wind can generate transverse
vibrations both in the fundamental mode
and in higher natural modes (with several
nodes) as a result of alternating vortex
shedding. Such vibrations are more likely
to occur with thin
776
short ropes - e.g. from pedestrian bridges
[Petersen, 2001]. The excitation forces are
too small for long, heavier and thicker
ropes, such as those used in the
construction of large bridges. The critical
wind speeds increase with the diameter
and natural frequency of the ropes and
can - also due to the higher natural
vibration modes - lie in the entire
spectrum of usual wind speeds.
The phenomena of buffeting (puffing
due to wake turbulence) and certain types
of galloping are less common because they
are only significant with closely adjacent
parallel ropes (distance ≤ 3 to 4 times the
rope diameter). On the other hand, cases
of rope oscillations induced by rain and
wind ("rain-wind galloping") occur time
and again. These require very specific
weather conditions in terms of rain
intensity (not too high) and wind strength
and direction in relation to the rope.
These are complex, self-initiated or
controlled processes with the rain
channels running along the rope. With
wind and rain in the direction of the
vertical rope plane, the rain gutter is split
in two from a certain wind speed. If
horizontal vibrations set in, the two rain
gutters perform an oscillating movement
on the circular cylindrical surface, i.e.
Figure 8.7.2-19 Phenomena of horizontal and vertical vibrations induced by rain and wind with
increasing wind speed from left to right [Petersen, 2001].
8 Calculation
the cross-section around which the air
flows changes in line with the oscillation
frequency. At even higher wind speeds,
the rivulets are driven further up the rope
cross-section and a vertical rope
oscillation is created by the upward and
downward forces from the wind pressure
differences. Fig. 8.7.2-19 shows the
conditions with increasing wind speed
from left to right. Similar phenomena
occur with wind and rain at right angles to
the rope plane [Petersen, 2001].
Vibrations of the bridge girder due to
vehicle or pedestrian traffic are primarily
responsible for the base point excitation of
stay cables, but it can also be vibrations of
the bridge girder or the pylon due to the
effect of wind. If the frequency of the
vibrating bridge girder or pylon coincides
with a natural frequency of the cable,
resonance can occur. The excitation of a
cable frequency by the 2nd harmonic of the
temporal course of the bridge movement
is also possible.
8.7.2.4.3 Dynamic properties of stay cables
Due to the small influence of the bending
stiffness, a rope can be treated
approximately like a string. The natural
frequencies result from
8.7 Special problems
n S
fn = (7)
2l μ
S Rope force
μ Mass assignment
l Rope length
n = 1, 2, 3... No. of the mode shape (n + 1
= number of vibration nodes)
The damping of bending vibrations is very
small in the case of locked coil ropes; the
damping factor ζ (basic mode of vibration)
is in the order of only 0.1%. It is higher for
parallel wire and strand bundles due to
the sheath and the crimping.
8.7.2.4.4 Vibration behavior of ropes
With long ropes, deflections in the
decimeter range and, more rarely, up to
about 1 meter (!) have often been
observed. Such amplitudes - but even
much smaller ones - can cause very
unfavorable fatigue loading. Particularly
at risk are the anchorage areas where the
bending back and forth of the rope is
added to the multi-axial stress already
present there. This has often led to fatigue
fractures and the need to replace the
ropes.
Fig. 8.7.2-20 Reduction of rope vibrations by a) Neoprene damper in steel tube or
b) commercially available shock absorbers [Petersen, 2001].
777
8.7.2.4.5 Measures against rope vibrations
Numerous different
design measures to reduce rope vibrations
were proposed and implemented. The aim
is to
• Geometric limitation of rope bending
during anchoring,
• Energy dissipation through damping
elements.
Both can be achieved, for example, by
attaching a steel tube with a ring-shaped
neoprene damper (Fig. 8.7.2-20 left).
Another possibility, especially with long
ropes, is to support them with
commercially available shock absorbers at
a distance of 2 to 4 m from the anchorage
(Fig. 8.7.2-20 right). However, the space
required and any loss of bridge width
must be taken into account.
Often, ropes lying on top of each other
are also connected to each other. The
connecting ropes can be described as
"interfering ropes" with regard to the
vibrations of the suspension ropes. Fig.
8.7.2-21 shows various possible
arrangements, each of which has its
advantages and disadvantages. What they
have in common is that when a
suspension rope vibrates, the neighboring
ropes are included in the movements. Due
to the different lengths and rope
778
Fig. 8.7.2-21 Different arrangements of
"interference ropes" [Petersen, 2001].
The natural frequencies are different due
to the high forces, and detuning and
damping effects occur. The excellent book
[Petersen, 2001] contains further ideas
and information on possible measures
against rope vibrations.
8.7.3 Earthquake stress
MASAAKI HOSHINO
and EKKEHARD FEHLING
8.7.3.1 Introduction
The earthquake load case must not be
neglected when designing bridges in areas
at risk of earthquakes. In contrast to dead
and live loads, which act in a vertical
direction, earthquake loads result in
deformations and loads in a horizontal
direction, which can be decisive for the
design of bridge components. As a rule,
this is particularly the case for the design
of bearings, piers and columns.
In general, the superstructure of beam
bridges in solid construction is not
endangered by earthquakes. The
superstructure of beam bridges and truss
bridges in steel construction is also
normally not significantly affected by
earthquakes, except with regard to the
cross bracing. However, if longitudinally
fixed bearings are only arranged on one
abutment
8 Calculation
If the bridges are used in the longitudinal
direction, very large inertia forces can have
to be absorbed there, which are
determined by the overall mass inertia of
the superstructure. This can cause buckling
of the webs or lower flanges of steel beam
bridges. In the case of truss bridges, there
is a risk of buckling of the lower chord
members, which are usually very weakly
dimensioned. In earthquake regions,
however, the bearing variant with a
longitudinally fixed bearing arrangement
on a bridge abutment has recently been
used less and less.
In areas of strong seismicity, it is
particularly important that the
displacements of the superstructure
caused by the earthquake can be absorbed
by the movable bearings without a bearing
failing or the superstructure falling from
the support.
The dynamic behavior of large bridges,
especially rigid frame bridges, elevated or
penetrating arch bridges as well as cable-
stayed and suspension bridges, differs from
the behavior of beam bridges and is
generally more complex. Therefore, it is
hardly possible to make generalized
statements in this respect, so that the
seismic safety of such bridges must be
examined more closely in individual cases.
8.7.3.2 Characteristics of earthquakes
Although earthquakes can be caused by
various factors, fracture processes at the
edges of the tectonic plates moving
against each other are considered to be the
most important. According to the theory
of plate tectonics, the origins of which go
back to a publication by Alfred Wegener
in 1912, the earth's crust consists of
around twelve plates. Earthquake activity
is particularly strong along the
8.7 Special problems
The Pacific Plate rim is particularly
affected by earthquakes in countries such
as Chile, Mexico, the USA, Japan, Taiwan,
the Philippines and New Zealand. The
energy released by earthquakes registered
there is said to be around 75% of the
energy released by earthquakes
throughout the world. The second
important earthquake zone runs from the
Himalayan region via Iran and Turkey to
the Mediterranean region.
An earthquake can be characterized by
a number of characteristic parameters.
These include
• the geographical location of the
epicenter,
• the magnitude and
• the intensity.
The epicenter is defined as the projection
of the location of the starting point of the
rupture/earthquake onto the earth's
surface. The magnitude is a measure of the
strength of an earthquake. There are
several definitions for this. Originally, C.
F. Richter originally proposed the
following equation:
ML = log A - log A0
(1)
Here, ML is the so-called local magnitude
given in logarithmic scale, A is the
maximum amplitude of the ground
motion in micrometers (1 μ = 10-6 m)
recorded at a location 100 km away from
the epicentre using a Wood-Anderson
seismograph and log A0 is a correction
value as a function of distance in the event
that the instrument is located at a distance
other than 100 km from the epicentre.
Later, other definitions for magnitude
were proposed, such as the surface wave
magnitude Ms , the space wave magnitude
Mb , the moment magnitude Mw , whereby
an attempt was made to ensure that these
parameters are in principle consistent
with ML . The magnitude M represents the
total energy E released by an earthquake.
779
According to C. F. Richter, this is due to
the following empirically determined
correlation:
log E [Nm] = 4.8 + 1.5 M (2)
However, knowledge of the earthquake
magnitude alone is not sufficient to assess
the possible extent of damage to building
structures at a particular location. The
extent of damage is very much
codetermined by the transmission path of
the waves caused by the earthquake and
therefore primarily by the distance to the
epicenter. For this reason, the concept of
earthquake intensity was introduced. It is
a measure of the ground motion at any
location. As a rule, the intensity decreases
with increasing distance from the
epicenter. However, there are exceptions
to this rule, as shown by the 1985 Mexico
earthquake, which caused severe damage
to high-rise buildings in Mexico City, 400
km from the epicenter. This was due to
the soft subsoil of Mexico City, which
originated from a dried-up former lake
and preferentially transmitted certain
vibrations to the earth's surface.
The Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI),
which uses a scale of 12 levels (I - XII), is
often used as a measure of intensity. In
Japan, the scale introduced by the Japan
Meteorological Agency (JMA) with 9 levels
(1-7 including the split levels 5 and 6) is
common. In the meantime, the 12-level
EMS scale (European Macroseismic
Scale), which is a further development of
the MMI scale, is increasingly being used,
especially in Europe.
8.7.3.3 Response spectrum
The above-mentioned earthquake
parameters such as magnitude and
intensity alone do not allow a more
detailed understanding of the
780
dynamic behavior of a structure in the
event of an earthquake. This depends not
only on the intensity of the earthquake at
the location of the structure, but also on
which vibration frequencies are contained
in the ground motion caused by the
earthquake. Since the 1930s, seismographs
have been installed in many places around
the world to record strong earthquake
events in particular. This began in the
USA, followed by Japan and Mexico. The
records obtained in this way - the
seismograms - provided more precise
information about the ground movement
during the respective earthquake. By
transforming the measured time histories
into Fourier spectra in the frequency
domain, it is then possible to identify
those spectral components of the ground
motion that have a particular influence on
the dynamic response of a structure.
In engineering practice, the so-called
response spectrum has become
established as an aid for dimensioning. It
will be explained below.
The response spectrum represents the
maximum response of a single-mass
oscillator with varying natural oscillation
time T due to ground motion during an
earthquake. Since the sign is usually
Figure 8.7.3-1 Single-mass transducer
8 Calculation
of the response oscillation, the largest
value of the response in terms of
magnitude is used for the response
spectrum, which can be a displacement,
velocity or acceleration. Accordingly, this
is referred to as a displacement, velocity or
acceleration response spectrum.
The following differential equation
applies to the single-mass transducer (Fig.
8.7.3-1):
mx˙˙ + cu˙ + ku = 0 (3)
where m is the mass, x the absolute
displacement, c the damping coefficient, u
the relative displacement and k the spring
constant. Because
x = u + ug (t) (4)
Eq. (3) can be rewritten as follows:
mü + cu˙ +ku = -müg (t) (5)
where ug (t) is the time history of the
ground motion due to the earthquake and
therefore
u∙∙g (t) is the acceleration time curve.
By introducing the natural angular
frequency ω = √6k/m1 and the damping factor ζ
= c/2mω one obtains from Eq. (5):
u ˙ ˙ + 2ζω u˙+ ω2u = -u˙g (t) (6)
The response of the oscillator due to the
ground acceleration üg (t) can be
determined using the Duhamel integral,
for example:
1t
u(t) =- ∫
ωd 0
- mu˙˙g (τ )e-ζω(t-τ ) sin ωd (t -τ ) dτ (7)
where ωd is the natural angular frequency
of the damped oscillation. If ω = ωd is
assumed as an approximation for small
damping ratios, the response of the single-
mass oscillator is finally obtained:
8.7 Special problems
t
u(t) =- 1 ∫
ω0
-1t
- mu˙˙ (τ ) e-ζω(t -τ ) sin ω (t -τ ) dτ (8)
ω
∫ g
0
Accordingly, the time courses of the
relative velocity and acceleration as well as
the corresponding response spectra Sd for
the (relative) displacement, Sv for the
(relative) velocity and Sa for the
acceleration are calculated. The indices d
stand for "displacement", v for "velocity"
and a for "acceleration".
If we assume approximately that the
oscillation half-cycle belonging to the
maximum response corresponds to a
sinusoidal half-wave, we can deduce a
one-fold relationship between the
response spectra for these three variables.
This can then be written:
umax = Sd (ζ ,ω) =|u(ζ ,ω, t)|max
1 oscillator, the maximum acceleration of which
= Sv(ζ ,ω)
ω is the maximum value in terms of magnitude
The displacement response spectrum
obtained in this way, which can also be
regarded as a measure of the earthquake
intensity, is referred to as the pseudo-
displacement response spectrum, as it
does not indicate the maximum value of
the displacement time curve completely
exactly in the general case. The pseudo
acceleration Spa can also be calculated in
the same way:
Spa = ωSv = ω2Sd ≈ Sa
Sa or Spa can be regarded as a benchmark
for the maximum spring load Fs,max
developed in the transducer, since
Fs,max = kSd = ω2 mSd = mSa
is. Each of the above-mentioned spectral
values is a function of the damping factor ζ
and the natural angular frequency ω, so
that they can be calculated over the natural
oscillation time T (= 2 π/ω) in
781
can be mapped in a diagram with ζ as a
parameter. Response spectra are therefore
not only useful as an aid for the
Design of structures and verification of their
earthquake resistance
They are not only of significance in terms
of their dynamic characteristics, as will be
explained later, but also reflect the
dynamic characteristics of an earthquake
in their effect on the vibration response of
a structure. An example is shown in
Figure 8.7.3-2 [Committee for Steel
Structures, 1999].
However, the response spectrum must
not be confused with the Fourier spectrum
of the vibration response of a single-mass
oscillator (specified natural frequency) to
an earthquake. For example, the value of
the acceleration response spectrum Sa for
T = 0 is not zero, as would be the case with
a Fourier spectrum for ω →∞, which
would formally correspond to T → 0. In
this case, the response spectrum provides
the answer of a completely rigid
(9)
of the ground acceleration.
8.7.3.4 Seismic loading in the design of
bridge structures
Although the effect of earthquakes is very
often recorded by the application of
horizontal forces (loads), the earthquake is
not, strictly speaking, a force
but a movement imposed on the structure
(10) via the foundation.
of the subsoil. In order to be able to
determine the design forces and
deformations occurring for the
earthquake-proof design of bridges,
(11) It is imperative that the engineer responsible for
the structural engineer
descriptions of the expected earthquakes
are available, which can take the form of
time histories of ground shaking or
response spectra.
782
Figure 8.7.3-2 Acceleration time history and corresponding response spectra (Hyogo-ken Nanbu
earthquake 1995, Kobe Marine Observatory)
can be done. However, this sometimes
presents a difficulty because there is a lack
of sufficient data for many locations. In
particular, measurements of the time
courses of strong earthquakes are often
not available to a sufficient extent to
characterize earthquakes as statistically
recordable events with sufficient certainty.
In view of this problem, efforts are
made to use the most suitable earthquakes
for the calculation of a seismic design,
taking into account seismological
findings. In this way, earthquake time
histories measured at other locations or
their speci
8 Calculation
tren can be useful for a specific building
location, even if no measurements of
earthquake events are available for the
building location. However, it cannot be
ruled out that an earthquake with
characteristics that were previously
unimaginable will occur, such as the
Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake in Japan in
1995.
Although a strong earthquake can have
an impact on the design of quite a few
structural elements of a bridge, it must be
taken into account that the probability of
occurrence of such an event during the
expected lifetime of a bridge is
8.7 Special problems
is very low. From an economic point of
view, it is therefore not justifiable to
dimension bridge structures in such a way
that they can withstand strong
earthquakes without any damage. It is
therefore accepted practice, for example
in the USA and Japan, to take two
different earthquake events as a basis in
the bridge design phase. For example, an
earthquake that is most likely to occur
during the service life of the bridge is
taken as the basis for the serviceability test.
This means that the occurrence of such an
earthquake event must not cause any or
only minor, easily repairable damage to a
bridge. The other design earthquake
should be the strongest earthquake to be
expected at the location of the structure.
represent
and servesthe
to tender seismic
ensure the eventof the
stability
check. Depending on the importance of
the bridges concerned, minor or severe
damage may be accepted in accordance
with the regulations applicable in the USA
and Japan, but not the loss of the
supporting structure.
8.7.3.5 Dynamic analysis methods for
earthquake loading
Several methods are available for
calculating the dynamic loading of bridges
due to earthquake effects. These are
• the response spectrum method,
• the procedure with power density
aspects,
• the time history method.
The response spectrum method will be
explained here first. As mentioned in
section 8.7.3.4, the linear elastic response
of a single-mass oscillator can be
calculated using the Duhamel integral. By
means of the response spectra, maxima
783
The displacement, velocity and
acceleration values are known. This also
allows the force acting on the transducer to
be calculated, from which stresses can be
determined. This procedure can also be
extended for structures with several
degrees of freedom (multi-degree-of-
freedom systems, MDOF systems). The
modal analysis method is used here.
The following differential equation in
matrix form applies to MDOF systems
with n degrees of freedom:
Mü + Cu˙ + Ku = -MIüg (t) (12)
where M is the mass matrix, C is the
damping matrix and K is the stiffness
matrix. I is a matrix consisting of one or
zero g
matrix, v∙∙ is the given ground acceleration
gation. The matrix I is only filled with the
value one at the points where the direction
of the corresponding degree of
dimensional freedom corresponds to the
direction of the ground movement.
Negligible masses (e.g. rotational mass)
are generally not taken into account, so
that the diagonal of the mass matrix M
may also contain zeros in some cases. In
such a case, some matrix operations are
necessary before and after. Here, however,
it is assumed that a mass is associated with
each degree of freedom. Then you get
from the equation
Mu∙∙ + Ku = 0 (13)
n- Eigenvalues (eigencircular frequencies
ωi ) and n-eigenvectors �i . If it is assumed
that the damping matrix C is such that the
condition of or- thogonality is fulfilled and
thus the square matrix � formed from the
eigenvectors is normalized, the following
independent n-differential equations arise
from Eq. (12) by transformation to
normalized coordinates ξ:
784
ξ + 2˙˖i ωi ξ˙i + ω2 ξ = -�T MIu˙˙˙ g
ii i
Except that the element on the right-hand
side is multipliedi
by -�T MI, this
equation is identical in form to Eq. (6).
Therefore, the time course of ξi (t) can be
determined using the Duhamel integral or
by numerical integration. The
transformation ui = ϕi ∙ ξi yields the time
course
mode) of the i-th modal
corresponding to oscillation.
the shift
vector u (t). Summing u (t) from
i i
i = 1 to n, u (t) is obtained. Now all the
displacements of the system are known so
that the internal forces can be calculated.
The procedure described here is called the
modal analysis method.
In the procedure described above, only
the response due to a specific earthquake
is obtained. In general, when checking the
seismic safety of a structure, one is not
interested in the exact time course of the
displacements or the internal forces, but
only in their maximum values. The
acceleration response spectrum explained
in Section 8.7.3.4 is helpful for this
purpose. Due to the analogy of Eq. (14)
with Eq. (6), the maximum displacement
can now be calculated.
value of ξi from an accelerometer.
response spectrum, which was previously
obtained as the smoothed envelope of the
response spectra calculated from many
seismograms. Such response spectra are
included in many relevant standards.
After dividing by ω2 youi get the
maximum value of ξi . By transforming u
i,max = �i ξ t,max , the maximum
displacement vector u i,max corresponding
to the i-th mode can be determined.
When summing the partial displacement
vectors ui,max from i = 1 to n, a difficulty
arises because the absolute maxima of the
time histories ui,max (i = 1, n)
8 Calculation
(14) generally not at the same time, but
occur with a time delay. Therefore
summing the absolute values of u i,max
leads to an overestimation of the response
of the total displacements. In practice, the
following calculation according to the
Square Root of the Sum of Squares of
modal responses (SRSS) combination rule
is therefore often used:
umas = 9∑u2 4 (15)
√ i ,mas
A similar equation also applies between the
partial internal forces Fi,max calculated
from ui,max and the resulting total internal
forces Fmax . In addition to the SRSS rule,
there are also other superposition rules
such as the CQC (Complete Qua- dratic
Combination) rule, which takes into
account that the vibration responses in the
individual "modes" generally do not occur
statistically completely independently of
each other, but with a certain degree of
correlation.
The response spectrum method
described above can only be used for
linear-elastic MDOF systems. In contrast,
the non-linear-elastic behavior of MDOF
systems can be taken into account in the
time history method. This method is also
based on Eq. (12) like the response
spectrum method, but the modal analysis
is not required. Instead, a numerical
integration of Eq. (12) is carried out step
by step (from time to time) in order to
determine the unknown displacement
vector u directly.
Geometric or material-related
(physical) non-linearity can be taken into
account when building the stiffness matrix
K. Because the material behavior of the
steel or concrete components exhibits
hysteresis effects during the cyclic loading
that occurs in the event of an earthquake,
the matrix K can change in each
calculation step. The time history method
is
8.7 Special problems 785

is best suited for more precise calculation
of the response of MDOF systems, but
always relates to a specific earthquake.
This must be seen as a disadvantage of the
method, as in practice a whole series of
complex response calculations with
different seismograms are required due to
the variety of earthquakes to be expected.
8.7.3.6 Earthquake-resistant design of
bridge structures in Japan [Japan Road
Association, 1996 and Unjoh, 1999].
The verification of the seismic safety of
bridges is generally carried out in
accordance with the relevant regulations
that apply to the calculation of the
component stresses that occur,
particularly in bearings, piers and
foundations.
In the "Design Specifications for High-
way Bridges 1996" of the Japan Road
Association, two design earthquakes are
specified, as shown in Table 8.7.3-1.
one with a high probability of occurrence
and one with a low probability of
occurrence. The latter is further
subdivided into two types (Type I and
Type II). Type I ground motion represents
strong earthquakes to be expected at the
plate boundary, such as the Great Kanto
earthquake of 1923. Type II is intended to
take into account extreme earthquakes
occurring inland, such as the Hyogo-ken
Nanbu earthquake of 1995.
According to the regulations in force in
Japan, the analysis method to be used
depends on the importance and
complexity of the bridge concerned and
the intensity of the ground movement.
The following analysis methods are
specified (Table 8.7.3-1):
• static methods:
– Substitute coefficient method
to be used for ground movement with
a high probability of occurrence
– Ductility verification method
to be used for ground movement
with a low probability of occurrence

Table 8.7-3-1 Ground movement to be taken into account, required bridge behavior
(performance) and calculation method (Specifications for Highway Bridges 1996 of the Japan
Road Association [Japan Road Association, 1996])
Ground movement Ground Ground movement with low probability of
movement with occurrence
high probability
of occurrence Type I (earthquake Type II
at the plate (domestic
boundary) earthquake)
Bridge behavior normal No damage without critical damage
(performance) bridge
(type A)
Important No damage with limited damage
bridge
(type B)
Calculation Equivalent Seismo Ductility testing method
method static method coefficient
method
dynamic Time history method or response spectrum method
method a
a
Only for bridges with difficult to assess earthquake response behavior.
786
• dynamic methods:
- Response spectrum method or time
history method
The following additional rules apply
to bridges that are expected to have
a more complex response behavior
during earthquakes that is difficult
to assess.
In principle, the following bridges belong
to the bridge types that can be expected to
have a more complex response behavior
during earthquakes that is difficult to
assess:
1. Bridges in which the mode of vibration
dominating the response behavior
differs significantly from the mode
presented in the replacement
coefficient method or the ductility
verification method,
2. Bridges that create more than one mode
of vibration, that control their response,
3. Bridges in which plastic joints are to be
expected in more than one place or in
which it is not possible to predict
exactly where plastic joints will occur
due to their complicated construction
system,
4. Bridges for which the applicability of
the energy equivalent principle, which
is based on the non-linear cyclic force-
deformation behavior of the bridges or
their components, has not yet been
investigated in detail.
Concrete examples are frame bridges,
elevated or penetrating arch bridges,
cable-stayed bridges and suspension
bridges. This also includes girder bridges
with a long natural period or high piers as
well as bridges with piers of different
stiffness. Highly skewed and strongly
curved bridges are also included in this
category, as are bridges with seismic
isolation (base isolation). For bridges with
piers in steel construction without
concrete filling
8 Calculation
The use of dynamic analysis methods is
also recommended.
The equivalent coefficient method is
the long-established design method in
Japan. In this method, the earthquake
excitation is derived from the statically
equivalent, horizontally directed
equivalent load.
P = k Wh (16)
at the location of the center of mass. W is
the weight of the building elements. kh is
the seismic coefficient, which is
determined from the following equation:
kh = cz kho (17)
where cz is a coefficient dependent on the
seismic zones specified in the standard and
is 0.7, 0.85 or 1.0 in each case. kho is the
normal value of the horizontal seismic
coefficient and is specified depending on
the subsoil situation (soil class) I, II and
III (Figure 8.7.3-3).
From the equivalent load determined in
this way, the theory of elasticity is used to
calculate the internal forces of the
individual components, from which
stresses can be determined. They are then
combined with those from the permanent
loads and the dead loads and compared
with the permissible stresses, which are
considerably higher than for the load
combination of permanent loads, dead
loads and live loads alone.
The ductility verification method also
belongs to the static methods and is to be
used for earthquakes with a low
probability of occurrence. It was already
partially regulated earlier in the 1990
regulations for the verification of the
earthquake safety of reinforced concrete
piers, but was introduced more
extensively in the 1996 renewed edition.
The reason for this was that the immense
importance of the ductility of bridge
systems became apparent from the
damage caused by the Hyogo-ken Nanbu
earthquake in 1995.
The ductility testing method, which is
mainly used for the dimensioning of the
8.7 Special problems
Figure 8.7.3-3 Normal value of the seismic coefficient Kh
pillars and the foundations, dynamic
inertia forces are calculated with the
following seismic coefficient khe :
khc = cz khco ≥ 0.3 (18a)
khc
khe = ≥ 0.4 cz (18b)
2μa - 1
δu - δya
μ = 1+ (18c)
α⋅
δy
(for concrete pillars)
where khco is the normal value of the
horizontal seismic coefficient, which is
specified depending on soil classes I, II
and III (Figure 8.7.3-4). μa is the
permissible displacement ductility factor
of the concrete piers. The equation of μa
for steel piers filled with concrete differs
slightly from Eq. (18c). δu is the limit
displacement (u stands for "ulti- mate"
here) and δy is the yield displacement (at
the start of yielding). α is a safety factor,
the value of which depends on the
importance of the
787
class of the bridge (type A or B, see Table
8.7.3-1) and the type of design earthquake
(type I or II, see Table 8.7.3-1). Eq. (18b) is
derived on the basis of the energy
equivalence principle. It is assumed that
that plastic joints occur at the lower end of
the piers and/or at the upper ends of the
piles.
With the ductility testing method
The elasticity theory is then used to
determine the forces acting on the
individual pillars.
the horizontal forces are determined and
compared with the horizontal bearing
loads of the corresponding pillars. A
distinction is made between two different
types of failure, namely flexural failure
and shear failure. The horizontal bearing
loads of the reinforced concrete and
concrete-filled steel piers are determined
in accordance with the regulations, taking
into account the non-linear behavior of
the piers. For bridges of importance class
B (see Table 8.7.3-1), not only the load-
bearing capacity but also the remaining
displacement of the piers must be taken
into account.
788 8 Calculation

Figure 8.7.3-4 Normal value of the seismic coefficient Kh0

must be checked. The method of Design earthquake for checking the

calculating the remaining pillar
displacement and its permissible value is
contained in the regulations.
8.7.3.7 Earthquake-resistant design of bridges
in the US state of California [Duan/Li, 1999 and
Xiao, 1999].
According to the Caltrans BDS 1994
(Bridge Design Specifications, published
by the California Department of
Transportation), as shown in Table 8.7.3-
2, two
functionality and stability. The design
earthquake (ground motion) for the
functional evaluation ground motion
should represent a proba- bilistically
estimated earthquake event that has a 40%
probability of occurrence during the
service life of the bridge. For the
verification of stability (Safety Evaluation
Ground Motion), either a
deterministically estimated ground
motion from the data provided by the
Division of Mines and Geology Open-

Table 8.7-3-2 Caltrans seismic performance criteria

Bridge type Soil movement at the site
Proof of functionality Proof of stability
normal bridge functional, repairable damage Limited functionality,
severe damage
Important bridge functional functional
8.7 Special problems 789

Table 8.7.3-3 Performance check and minimum requirements for the calculation method
according to ATC-32
Bridge type Proof of functional Proof of stability
capability
normal bridge Type I not required Equivalent static analysis or
elastic dynamic analysis

Type II not required Elastic dynamic analysis

Important bridge Type I Equivalent static analysis or elastic dynamic analysis

Type II Elastic dynamic analysis Elastic dynamic analysis or

non-elastic static analysis or
non-elastic dynamic analysis

Type I: simple bridges (similar to regular bridges).

Type II: complicated bridges (similar to irregular bridges).

File Report 92-1 or a probabilistically In the ATC-32 recommendations 1996

estimated ground motion with a long
return period (approx. 1000-2000 years).
These two different ground motions are
associated with performance criteria that
vary depending on the importance of the
bridges (see Table 8.7.3-2).
(Applied Technology Council) for the
Cal- trans BDS, various calculation
methods are specified for the verification
of functional capability and stability
(Table 8.7.3-3). They depend on the
importance and c o m p l e x i t y of the
bridge in question. For normal bridges, it
is not necessary to

Figure 8.7.3-5
Force reduction coefficient Z
790
to check the functional capability, because
it is assumed that the functional capability
is also guaranteed with the stability.
The equiva- lent static design method
to be used for checking the stability of
normal, regular bridges is explained in
more detail below. In this case, the
earthquake excitation is also derived from
the statically equivalent, horizontally
directed equivalent load.
Feq = W ∙ (ARS)
at the location of the centers of mass. W is
the weight of the building. ARS
(Acceleration Response Spectrum)
corresponds to the seismic coefficient,
which depends on the natural period, the
soil class and the earthquake zone. The
maximum value of ARS is 1.8. Taking into
account that the linear elastic calculated
response can be reduced due to the non-
linearity, the horizontal load to be applied
for the design is as follows:
W ⋅ (ARS)
Fd = (20)
Z the other hand ( quakes of smaller
Z is the force reduction coefficient and is
shown in Fig. 8.7.3-5. The horizontal load
specified in Eq. (20) is then used to
determine the internal forces of the
individual components according to the
theory of elasticity and compared with
their bearing loads. The concrete piers are
dimensioned in such a way that the more
dangerous shear failure is prevented in any
case. A displacement check is also carried
out.
8.7.3.8 Seismic design of bridges according
to European standards
The countries of the European Union
(EU) and EFTA have agreed with CEN
(Comité Européen de Normalisation) that
the
8 Calculation
to further develop existing Eurocodes and
turn them into European standards (EN).
Part 2 of Eurocode 8, which is intended
for publication in June 2006 as EN 1998,
Part 2 in the German version, is to be used
for the earthquake-resistant design of
bridge structures. In determining the input
parameters for seismic loading, this
standard is based on Part 1 of EN 1998,
which regulates the general principles for
seismic design and is primarily aimed at
(19)
the earthquake-resistant construction and
design of buildings (structures).
The linear elastic response spectrum
results for the respective earthquake zone,
which is to be defined by national
application documents (NAD), depending
on the subsoil situation. Furthermore, EN
1998, Part 1, defines two different types of
response spectra, which take into account
the different characteristics of earthquake
events in the Mediterranean countries
(earthquakes with large magnitude,
impact also on the ground).
at a greater distance) and in Central Europe on
magnitude at a shorter distance).
The stratification of the subsurface
down to depths of several hundred meters
is important for the propagation of
seismic waves. In Germany, where there
are extensive areas with deep basin
structures with soft sediments, such as in
the Upper Rhine Graben, this point is of
particular importance. In this type of
subsurface situation, low-frequency waves
are preferentially transmitted from the
earthquake source to the surface, while
high-frequency waves are attenuated. It is
therefore planned in Germany to test the
geological subsurface (in the depth range
below approx. 20 m) in addition to the
geotechnical subsurface (depth range up
to 20 m).
8.7 Special problems 791

Table 8.7.3-4 Substrate classification according to DIN 4149 (2005-04)

Subsoil class (up to Building ground Building ground class Building ground
20 m depth) class A B class C
Solid to medium- Loose rock (gravel to Fine-grained loose
solid rocks coarse sand, marl) rocks (fine sand) or
loess layers
vS20 > 800 m/s vS20 = 350 to 800 m/s
Underground class (below vS20 = 180 to
20 m depth) 350 m/s
Substrate class R
Areas with rocky
A-R B-R C-R
subsoil
vS > 800 m/s below 20m
Substrate class T
Transition areas between
the areas of the
B-T C-T
underground classes
R and S,
relatively shallow
foundation sedimentary
basins
Underground class S
Areas of deep basin
structures with thick
sediment filling
C-S
vS > 800 m/s below 100
m (Quaternary)
vS >1800 m/s below 500 m
(Tertiary)

Note: vs denotes the shear wave velocity, vs20 is the average shear wave velocity up to a depth of 20 m as a
classification criterion.

20 m) must be given special consideration
(see Table 8.7.3-4).
A map is available for the geological
subsurface in Germany with a division into
three geological subsurface classes
[Landesamt für Geologie, 2000 and
Schwarz/ Grünthal, 1998]. The geotechnical
subsoil, on the other hand, must be
investigated individually for each building
site. With the same geotechnical subsoil,
broad response spectra with long lengths
result in a sediment basin
of the plateau area, while in areas with
underlying bedrock, narrow-band, rather
high-frequency spectra with large values of
the response acceleration result (see Fig.
8.7.3-6).
For long bridge structures or in the
presence of geological faults, it may be
necessary to consider the spatial variability
of the ground movement in the event of
an earthquake. An appendix to EN 1998-2
provides further information on this.
792 8 Calculation

Figure 8.7.3-6 Examples of response spectra in German earthquake zones according to DIN 4149,
April, 2005

Figure 8.7.3-7 Seismic behavior

8.7 Special problems
Figure 8.7.3-8 Determination of the design response spectrum from the elastic response
spectrum
With regard to the response behavior
of bridge structures under earthquake
excitation, EN 1998-2 distinguishes
between the following types of behavior:
• ductile
• limited ductility or essentially elastic
This is illustrated in Figure 8.7.3-7. The
maximum applicable behavior coefficient q
for reducing the response accelerations is
specified in the standard for each type.
Figure 8.7.3-8 shows how the design
response spectrum is determined from the
elastic response spectrum, taking the
behavior coefficient q into account.
For medium and high earthquake
loads, ductile behavior is usually preferable,
both for reasons of economy and safety. In
order to ensure ductile behavior of the
structure, brittle failure modes must be
taken into account by means of capacity
design [Park/Paulay, 1975].
793
mechanisms can be avoided. The load-
bearing capacity ("capacity") of the areas
with ductile behavior (usually the yield
joints) is used to determine the
distribution of internal forces in the non-
ductile structural components. In order to
avoid premature failure in the non-ductile
structural components with sufficient
safety, possible overstrengths in the areas
with ductile behavior must be taken into
account.
This makes it practically necessary,
after an initial determination of the
distribution of internal forces based on
the seismic input variables, to carry out a
second determination of the distribution
of internal forces, taking into account the
occurrence of yield moments in the yield
joints. The yield moments are to be
calculated with a factor for the possible
overstrength specified in the standard.
The overstrength factor is generally
defined as γ0 = 1.35 and also depends on
the related axial force.
794 8 Calculation

Although the representation of the pendent power spectrum) and the time
earthquake effect by response spectra is history method (time history
the most common method used by the representation). In both cases, it must be
standard, EN 1998 also allows the use of ensured that the effects described in this
site-specific power density spectra (site de way are consistent with the representation
by response spectra.
9 Production and execution methods
9.1 Concrete bridges
9.1.1 Production on falsework
9.1.1.1 Teaching frameworks,
tasks and requirements
JÜRGEN STRITZKE (until 9.1.1.3)
Like formwork, falsework is used to
construct and shape bridges. Until the
concrete has hardened and is sufficiently
load-bearing, they absorb the loads from
the formwork and transfer them to the
load-bearing subsoil via set-up beams,
supports and foundations. Falsework is an
engineering structure and must be
calculated and designed in the same way.
Due to the mutual influence of the
structure, falsework and greenery as well
as the different effects over time (fresh
concrete load, pre-tension, compression
and settlement of the falsework), a
number of special features must be taken
into account in the calculation, design and
execution of falsework compared to
scaffolding in building construction and
industrial construction, which sometimes
reach a high degree of difficulty and
require special care:
• The service loads are high compared to
the dead load and generally occur at
least at the specified level, if not
exceeded.
• Framework-specific connections exhibit
large deformations and eccentricities.
which lead to a reduction in the shear
stiffness of the scaffolding.
• Falsework is subject to short service
lives with a high frequency of use.
Their individual parts, such as
scaffolding beams, scaffolding supports
and bracing, are subject to deformation
and possibly damage.
• After the concrete has set, falsework acts
together with the hardened
superstructure, which must be taken
into account when determining the
cantilevers of the scaffolding girders and
when scaffolding.
Falsework belongs to the group of
shoring, the training of which is regulated
in [DIN 4421, 1988]. The scaffolding
working group of the
BauÜberwachungsverein (BÜV) has
updated and supplemented the
"Recommendations of the test engineers
for the testing of falsework" published in
09/2000 [Recommendations of the test
engineers, 2000]. They now apply in the
version of 09/2002 published in
[Empfehlungen der Prüfingenieure, 2002].
Explanations can be found here in [Schmie
del, 2002].
According to DIN 4421, a distinction is
made between 3 shoring groups. This
classification is based on the idea that the
same level of safety can be achieved with
different means [Eibl, 1983]. Only
scaffolding in groups II and III is used as
falsework for bridges:
a) Group II shoring comprises all standard
falsework for bridges. All components
are designed for the limit states of load-
bearing capacity and stability.
796 9 Production and execution methods
smaller than the springback of the falsework due
to be measured. The simplified to
calculation according to [DIN 4421,
1988], para.
6.4.2 is permitted.
b) Falsework with high demands on the
mathematical recording of the realistic
load-bearing behavior, on the
recording of geometric imperfections
and on the graphical representation are
to be assigned to the falsework of group
III. These include the steel falsework for
large bridge construction in accordance
with [DIN 18800, Part 1, 1990] or as
engineered timber construction in
accordance with [DIN 1052, Part 1,
1988].

DIN EN 12812, 2004], which is intended

to replace DIN 4421 and according to
which the design classes A, B1 and B2 will
be introduced, is in preparation.
Falsework must be sufficiently stable
and load-bearing. They should only suffer
slight deformation during construction in
order to avoid the formation of stakes
during the setting process. With
increasing span, fully straight lower edges
of the superstructure appear to sag. To
prevent this phenomenon and to
compensate for expected deformations of
both the falsework and the superstructure
in the falsework, an optical camber of
l/800 to l/1000 is provided. Furthermore,
falsework must be designed in such a way
that the supporting structure can be
scaffolded after the concrete has
hardened. In addition, some special
features must be taken into account when
designing falsework for prestressed
concrete bridges. The longitudinal
deformation (compression) of the
superstructure due to pre-tensioning must
not be hindered by the falsework. The
longitudinal extensions of the falsework
must therefore be loosened before the
prestressing process begins and the
falsework must thus be made
longitudinally movable. The uplift
(negative deflection) of the superstructure
as a result of prestressing is generally
 9.1 Concrete 797
bridges bridged are not too wide or the valleys not
The elastic compression of the too deep. Single-span bridges, up to a
prestressed concrete and the maximum of 3 spans, and superstructures
flexibility of the subsoil mean that with complicated ground plan geometry
the dead load is not effective are built on a stationary falsework.
during the tensioning process and
considerable cracking may occur
in the prestressed tension zone.
For this reason, the supports of
the falsework for prestressed
concrete superstructures must
always be equipped with lowering
devices (spindles). Based on these
considerations, Leonhardt
[Leonhardt, 1973],
p. 621, set out some principles for
the design of such falsework, to
which reference is made here.
As a rule, steel falsework is
used today. Exceptions, such as
the wooden falsework for the
Teufelstal bridge [Werschnick,
2000] on the A 4 highway, are
extremely rare. The Cruciani
falsework (see section 9.1.1.4) is
still used for bridges in the Alpine
countries.

9.1.1.2 Construction of
slab and beam bridges on
falsework

The development of concrete

bridge construction is closely
linked to the development of
formwork and falsework
construction. In particular, the
transition from arched structures
to beam-type structures is
characterized by the introduction
of reusable steel falsework.
Formwork technology adapted to
this development with
prefabricated surface-coated and
edge-protected formwork panels.
Bridges with a height of up to
around 15 m above the ground are
built cost-effectively on falsework,
provided the terrain is reasonably
level and the obstacles to be
798
is erected. Multi-span and side-by-side
superstructures are constructed in
sections with relocatable or movable
falsework.
Construction on a stationary falsework
The oldest method of constructing bridges
is the shuttering and scaffolding of the
entire superstructure. Simple falsework
with supports at relatively close intervals
used to be made of wood. For arch
bridges, some of them w e r e built with
considerable carpentry, which in itself
represented a major engineering
achievement. The superstructure is
scaffolded over its entire footprint.
Wooden falsework is described in detail in
[Völter, 1986] and is not dealt with here.
The steel falsework consists of
scaffolding girders, scaffolding props and
vertical braces in longitudinal and
transverse directions as well as horizontal
braces. The scaffolding girders take the
loads directly from the formwork and
transfer them to the scaffolding props.
Truss girders for bridging large spans or
rolled profile girders in the form of wide
flange profiles are used as scaffolding
girders. The set-up girders made of
interlocking truss elements with or
without the option of under-tensioning
are adjustable in length in stages.
On the one hand, a distinction is made
between the scaffolding supports,
9 Production and execution methods
of which several are connected in one plane
to form a so-called scaffolding bay
(pendulum wall) and several scaffolding
bays are in turn connected by arranging
corresponding stiffeners to form so-called
scaffolding towers (double bays). With this
type of falsework, traffic areas can be kept
clear under the superstructure if the
scaffolding girders are long enough. On the
other hand, frame props are also used,
which consist of 4 frame standards with
corresponding bracing in all 4 levels. The
spacing of the frame supports is so small
that no steel scaffolding beams are required
to support the loads from the formwork
(Fig. 9.1.11).
Technical details of scaffolding props,
frame props and scaffolding girders of
serially produced modular systems can be
found in [Nather et al., 2005] and [Holst/
Holst, 2004] or the manufacturers'
catalogs, such as [Das komplette
Gerüstbaupro gram, 1995]. There have
been no fundamental new developments in
falsework construction for around 15
years due to the declining construction
volume and the saturation of the market
for scaffolding systems. One exception is
the further development of heavy-duty
supports (e.g. [Allround scaffolding, 2000]
and [Modern shoring construction,
2001]).
Set-up yokes, set-up towers, frame
supports and compression chords of the
set-up beams must be sufficiently braced
by bracing to withstand planned effects
such as wind and downward forces from
inclination of the set-up beams when they
are not horizontal.
9.1 Concrete 799
bridges
Figure 9.1.1-1 Shoring using steel frame props according to [Holst, 1998], p. 486
800
to be able to support the lower edge of the
superstructure as well as unplanned
horizontal loads. For lightweight
scaffolding systems, the bracing is formed
from scaffold tubes with scaffold couplers
as connecting elements. Special bracing
elements, such as telescopic rods, have
been developed for heavy scaffolding
systems. A high shear stiffness of the
bracing is required in particular to stabilize
steel scaffolding supports with a high load-
bearing capacity.
The transfer of horizontal forces results
in additional longitudinal forces in the
scaffold girders and scaffold supports,
which must be superimposed on the
normal forces from perpendicular load
trasnfer. It is therefore advisable to arrange
such bracing in the area of the less stressed
falsework supports arranged under the
cantilever slabs of the superstructure.
Information on the calculation of bracing
can be found in [Nather, 1996] and
[Holst/Holst, 2004].
The column bases are equipped with
spindles for fine adjustment of the column
height and
Figure 9.1.1-2 Scaffolding yoke of a central girder bridge made of steel scaffolding supports
9 Production and execution methods
Height-adjustable for lowering the
falsework. When forming sliding
falsework, the lowering level should be at
the height of the scaffold beam position,
i.e. the spindle at the prop head. If the
lowering level is at the base of the
stabilizers, the stiffeners are subjected to
additional stress due to uneven lowering
and the stiffness of the falsework is
impaired.
A scantling layer is usually placed on the
scaffolding girder layer to support the
formwork facing at right angles to the
bridge axis. Square lumber and formlining
are usually guided under the cantilevers of
the superstructure so that the
prefabricated formwork frames can be
arranged on them in accordance with the
cross-section design. Due to the higher
fresh concrete loads in the central area of
central girder cross-sections, in the
immediate area under the boxes and webs
of slab beams, the formwork brackets must
be placed here in comparison to the edge
areas of cantilevered roadway slabs.
9.1 Concrete
bridges
The scaffolding girders and thus the
scaffolding supports must be arranged at
close intervals (Figure 9.1.12). The cornice
caps are manufactured
usually with sill formwork carriage.
Production in sections on a
falsework
In the case of multi-span bridges made of
site-cast concrete, the pursuit of efficiency
and shorter construction times led to
section-by-section construction on
movable or sliding steel falsework (Figure
9.1.13). The repeated use of the same
scaffolding sections on the same
construction site reduces the amount of
formwork and scaffolding required and,
thanks to the cyclical use of workers and
technical equipment, leads to a more
efficient and effective production process
than when using stationary scaffolding.
The prerequisite for the introduction of
sectional production of prestressed
concrete bridges was the development of
suitable coupling points for connecting the
prestressing elements of successive
construction sections in areas of low
moment stress (Figure 9.1.13). A standard
section extends from coupling joint to
coupling joint and thus corresponds to a
span length. Only the first construction
section is approx. 0.2 l longer and the last
section approx. 0.2 l shorter for bay widths
of the same length. The falsework is
Figure 9.1.1-3 Section-by-section construction of continuous prestressed concrete bridges over
several spans on relocatable falsework according to [Stritzke, 1983], p. 21
801
either converted from field to field or
designed to be movable. Depending on
the existing terrain structure, the design of
superstructures and substructures and the
type of scaffolding material, either the
scaffolding girders, including the
scaffolding yokes or towers, or only the
scaffolding girder layer is designed to be
movable. If the height of the terrain varies
greatly, it is advisable to either design a
stationary lower scaffold and the upper
scaffold to be movable in accordance with
the terrain or only the scaffold support
layer. Sometimes, instead of a lower
scaffold, only a stable girder layer on
concrete pedestals of different heights is
sufficient in order to be able to roll the
falsework on it, as was done on the
Cottbus elevated road [Martin/ Schulze,
1978].
In the case of several adjacent
superstructures separated by joints, the
falsework can also be arranged
transversely. The longitudinal and
transverse inclination of the
superstructure to be built must be taken
into account when determining the
sequence of transverse movement. For
structures with a large transverse
inclination, the lower transverse section is
constructed first. In this case, short
lowering distances are sufficient for the
shunting. Picture
9.1.14 illustrates this process. The
cantilever or side formwork must be
moved before shifting begins.
802
Figure 9.1.1-4 Principle of the transverse displacement of a falsework, taking into account the
transverse inclination of the superstructure according to [Stritzke, 1983], p. 22
For bridge structures with a large
number of spans and a constant height of
the substructures, it is advisable to move
the entire falsework including the
supporting yokes and towers. It is best to
move the entire falsework past the bridge
piers without first moving it crosswise.
The falsework must then be designed in
such a way that the profile of the pier in the
direction of the bridge axis is relatively
clear of all protruding parts of the
scaffolding before moving begins.
Figure 9.1.1-5 Division of a longitudinally
displaceable falsework for passing the bridge
abutment according to [Stritzke, 1983], p. 23
9 Production and execution methods
can be easily cleared. Round, slender
columns reduce the effort required for
this partial dismantling of the falsework.
This procedure can no longer be realized
with large column widths or piers. In this
case, it is necessary to split the falsework
(Figure 9.1.15) or move it across its entire
width, first transversely, then
longitudinally and again transversely. The
longitudinal and transverse displacement
must be carried out on two different
shoring levels. When using falsework on
superstructures that are independent of
each other and almost parallel in plan, a
decision must be made on the number of
set-up sections required, taking into
account the number of bays and the
planned construction time. On the one
hand, only one superstructure can be built
initially using a longitudinally adjustable
falsework. In this case, the side of the
superstructure completed first is already
available for use during the construction of
the second side. On the other hand, it is
possible to proceed according to the
deployment scheme shown in Figure
9.1.16, in which the scaffolding material is
provided for at least two transversely
movable scaffolding sections. Then, once
the concreting work has been completed
in one bay, the technologically necessary
break can be used to harden the concrete
and to apply the prestressing forces with
the formwork and reinforcement work in
the next bay. If the set-up yokes or
towers are not also moved, they are
required in almost double the number.
9.1 Concrete
bridges
Figure 9.1.1-6 Schematic representation of the use of two transversely displaceable setup sections
according to [Stritzke, 1983], p. 23
The scaffolding tower under the coupling
joint must then be twice as wide to support
the cantilever and the following bay. If, on
the other hand, the entire shoring section
is moved, two independent scaffolding
towers are required under the coupling
joint.
The main advantages of this construction
method are the savings in formwork and
set-up costs, which amount to around 20
to 30% of the total construction costs of
the superstructure, and the reduction in
friction losses in the tendons due to the
section-by-section pre-tensioning and
thus the savings in high-quality
prestressing steel.
Falsework must be founded in
accordance with [DIN 1054, 2005]. The
foundations of the abutments and piers or
columns are formed in such a way that the
corresponding falsework can still fit on
them. Scaffolding towers and frame
supports are also often placed on
prefabricated foundations if the subsoil
conditions permit this. [DIN EN 12812,
2004] contains general requirements for
foundations for shoring and, under certain
conditions, exempts from the otherwise
prescribed embedment depth of
foundations.
803
9.1.1.3 Production of arch bridges on
falsework
Especially with the introduction of
prestressed concrete construction in
bridge building, there was a decline in the
use of arch bridges in favor of the
construction of beams and rigid frame
bridges with ever larger spans. In more
recent times, arch bridge construction has
undergone a revival, but not through the
use of conventional arch falsework, but
through cantilever construction (see
Section 9.1.3). The development of
falsework for arch bridges is described in
detail in [Mörsch, 1968].
A distinction must be made between
floor-supported and self-supporting
arched falsework. Figure 9.1.17a shows
the classic arched scaffold consisting of an
upper scaffold, which follows the
curvature of the arch, and a lower
scaffold. The fresh concrete loads are
transferred into a trapezoidal or triangular
post system via the crown timbers
subjected to bending, thus concentrating
the load trasnfer on a few foundation
bodies. The upper frame can be lowered
for scaffolding.
804 9 Production and execution methods

Figure 9.1.1-7 Floor-supported and self-supporting arched falsework according to [Holst/Holst, 2004], p.
266

Figure 9.1.1-8 Wooden vertical post falsework of the southern superstructure of the Teufelstal Bridge

In the vertical post system (Figure
9.1.17c), the fresh concrete loads are
transferred to the falsework foundations
via closely spaced and vertically
positioned posts. The falsework (Figure
9.1.18) used for the construction of the
southern superstructure on the Eisenach-
Dresden carriageway consisted of 29
support yokes arranged at 5 m intervals.
12 wooden round supports ∅ 28 to ∅ 32
were each combined into a 7 m long yoke
segment using steel profiles. With the
shafts
The pre-assembled yoke segments were
then joined together in a modular fashion
to form the final falsework. Six horizontal
stiffeners in the scaffolding level, spatial
bracing of the yoke segments to each other
and bracing to the south and between the
scaffolding axis in the valley and slope
areas ensured sufficient stability for this
scaffolding.
Figure 9.1.17b shows an arched
falsework in the form of load tower
scaffolding. Analogous
9.1 Concrete
bridges
the load transfer principle for slabs and
beam bridges, bending beams transfer the
loads from the formwork to load towers.
The Thuringian forest highway A 71
Erfurt - Schweinfurt, built as part of the
traffic project German Unity No. 16,
crosses the valley of the Alb rechtsgraben
near Suhl with a watercourse and a
country road and is spanned by a 770 m
long viaduct [Becker/Mar tin, 2002]. The
14-span bridge structure with spans of 45
to 70 m has a concrete arch in the middle
third (Figure 9.1.19). With a span of
167.35 m and an apex height of around 75
m, this structure is Germany's highest
reinforced concrete arch built on a
ground-supported falsework (Figure
9.1.110). The two directional lanes (RQ
26) are supported on a single
Figure 9.1.1-9 Load-bearing system of the Albrechtsgraben viaduct according to [Becker/Martin, 2002].
Figure 9.1.1-10 Albrechtsgraben viaduct - construction of the arch on a ground-supported
falsework
805
The arch is guided by a single-cell box
cross-section in steel composite
construction. The 8.80 m wide concrete
arch has a two-cell box cross-section of
3.25 m height at the transoms, which
decreases linearly in the longitudinal
direction to 2.00 m at the apex. The web
and chord thicknesses are 30 cm. The arch
is shaped according to a square parabola
and follows a circular curve with a radius
R = 3000 m in plan.
A steel load tower scaffold was chosen
for the construction of the concrete arch,
which consisted of 7 lattice towers, base
and yoke girders as well as scaffold girders
made of lattice constructions and rolled
steel sections (Figure 9.1.111). The length
of the arch of 216.20 m was divided into
20 concreting sections of 10 m each, two
transom sections of 5.40 m and 5.80 m in
length and a 5 m long end section. The
construction of the
806
Figure 9.1.1-11 Albrechtsgraben viaduct -
supporting structure and arch sections
according to [Becker/Mar tin, 2002].
scaffolding and the construction of the
arch took place simultaneously in the
specified sections (Figure 9.1.112). The
scaffolding absorbed the concrete loads
and the concrete served to stiffen the
scaffolding by connecting the individual
scaffolding sections to the already
Figure 9.1.1-12 Albrechtsgraben viaduct - shoring and arch construction according to [Becker/Martin,
2002].
Figure 9.1.1-13 Albrechtsgraben viaduct - falsework girder with built-up superelevation according to
[Becker/Martin, 2002].
9 Production and execution methods
produced and hardened arch sections.
The falsework and the concreted arch
sections thus formed a single unit. The
scaffold towers therefore did not need to
be braced against horizontal forces in either
the longitudinal or transverse direction.
Only the first falsework bays in the area of
the transoms were braced to the transom
foundations with 4 tensioning tendons ∅
36 mm. This method of starting the arch
construction before the falsework had been
completed had the advantages of
considerably shortening the construction
time, ensuring a continuous work process
for the scaffolding and concrete workers
and guaranteeing both the formwork
delivery and the formwork completion.
9.1 Concrete
bridges
assembly could be carried out in smaller
units immediately before the start of work.
Wooden structures (Figure 9.1.113) were
mounted on the scaffolding girders in
accordance with the shape of the
parallelepiped and the necessary falsework
elevation. The scaffolding girders were
placed on the yoke girders bay by bay using
a slewing tower crane. To dismantle the
falsework, it was moved crosswise by
approx. 9 m so that the individual
scaffolding units could then be de-
assembled using 2 slewing tower cranes.
Since 2007, the 1104 m long Grümpental
Bridge with a 270 m wide arch and an arch
span of 63 m has been under construction
as part of the new Nuremberg-Erfurt line
in the Sonneberg administrative district of
Thuringia. The arch is being concreted in
sections on a falsework on reinforced
concrete piers. After its completion in
2009, the Grümpental Bridge will be the
second longest bridge in the world.
Fig. 9.1.1-14 Self-supporting falsework for the
underpass of a service road on the A 71
autobahn near Ranningen
807
The bridge will be Europe's longest
tensioned concrete railroad arch bridge
[Stritzke, 2008].
The further development of post and
load tower scaffolding led to cantilevered
arch falsework (Fig. 9.1.17d). An example of
this is the construction of the self-supporting
falsework for the 60 m wide arch of the Ra
digundengraben bridge ([Preinfalck, 1964],
[Scheer, 1965]). The scaffolding girder
construction method can be used to
economically scaffold smaller arch spans
in particular. Figure 9.1.114 shows the self-
supporting falsework for the underpass of a
service road on the A 71 highway near Ran
ningen with a clear width of 7 m.
9.1.1.4 Arched teaching scaffold type Cruciani
FRANCESCO AIGNER
and THOMAS PETRASCHEK
9.1.1.4.1 Development of the Cruciani teaching scaffold
In the years 1950-1955, at a time of
comparatively high material and low labor
costs, a self-supporting wooden training
frame was developed in Italy that was very
well suited to the production of solid
arches. This was reported on in German in
[Friedrich, 1956]. This created a technically
and economically interesting alternative to
the then common construction methods
of scaffolding the arch from below or the
Melan construction method (embedding a
rigid steel framework). In its original form,
it was used for arches up to 100 m span.
From around 1960, the Cruciani falsework
was continuously further developed in
Austria with the aim of achieving larger
spans and greater stiffness as well as
simplifying assembly. Mainly in Austria,
almost 100 arches with spans between 25
and 200 m were produced with this
system, see [Aigner, 1968 - 1], [Aigner,
1968 - 2], [Pauser, 1987]
and [Aigner, 1990]. Despite serious changes
808 9 Production and execution methods

Figure 9.1.1-15 Construction stages during falsework

assembly [ÖBB photo archive].

Fig. 9.1.1-16 Concreting the base slab (left), concreting the webs and the top slab (right) [Bild archiv
ÖBB].

This method of construction was able to
assert itself many times over the now
newly emerging methods of cantilever
construction or folding in the two halves
of the arch, which were produced upright
using climbing formwork, around
temporary transom joints in open
competition. Figures 9.1.115
and 9.1.116 show some of the
construction stages on the Pfaffenberg
Bridge, completed in 1971, with a 200 m
wide arch on the ÖBB-Tauernbahn. In the
classic construction method, the
scaffolding sections are assembled using
cable cranes. The left picture
9.1.115 shows a tied binder element and
cable crimping needles, the right
9.1 Concrete
bridges
Figure 9.1.1-17 Tillachergraben bridge falsework - Austria, 1998
Figure 9.1.115 The apex closure in the
binder plane during falsework assembly.
In more recent developments, the use of
cable cranes is dispensed with and the
falsework is installed by folding the scaffold
halves, which are erected upright above
the arch abutments, around a simple pin
joint on the transoms, Figure 9.1.117.
Experience with arches up to approx. 120 m
span is already available.
9.1.1.4.2 Characteristic properties
The scaffolding is self-supporting, it requires
neither scaffolding towers nor elaborate
foundations, but only a simple support
structure on the arched abutments (visible
in Figure 9.1.117). The valley floor is not
affected at all by the construction work.
There are no fixed connections, all parts can
be dismantled and used several times. The
upper edges of the trusses are curvilinear:
if the trusses are to be
809
If height compensation is necessary to
achieve the planned arch shape
(correction of the existing course of the
upper edges of the truss), this is very easy
to achieve. The falsework is progressively
stiffened by selecting the concreting
sequences on the cross-section and, if
necessary, activating the bond between the
timber and the concrete. This allows
extremely economical dimensioning of the
falsework, e.g. for only 10-20% of the arch
dead load, especially for very wide-span
arches with large cross-sections. A
disadvantage of the described system is
the time-consuming tensioning of the
turnbuckles, see below. Before the load is
applied, it must be checked whether they
are sufficiently pretensioned. If a longer
time elapses between erection and loading
of the scaffolding, it may be necessary to
retighten them. The use of (more
expensive) dried timber reduces the loss of
tension. The falsework and its interaction
with the concrete arch is to be
810
statically at first. It is also particularly
important to precisely observe the
deformation behavior of the falsework
during the concreting process. As with the
other modern methods of arch
construction (cantilever construction,
folding), the foreland bridges must be
present up to the transoms before the arch
is constructed.
Figure 9.1.1-18 Schematic diagram of a Cruciani binder
Figure 9.1.1-19 Gauge elements
9 Production and execution methods
9.1.1.4.3 Construction elements, assembly:
Figures 9.1.118 and 9.1.119 show the
construction elements of the truss binder.
The chords consist of rough sawn
spruce boards 25/5 with a length of approx.
4 m. The diagonals are square lumber
25/10 (up to 25/20 in areas of high shear
forces) made of
9.1 Concrete
bridges
spruce wood, which are pre-tensioned to
approx. 40 kN using round steel buckles D
= 18 mm made of S355 (steel tension
+100 N/ mm², wood tension -1.6
N/mm²), where the diagonals are able to
absorb tensile and compressive forces. In
addition, by pre-tensioning the buckles
with turnbuckles, the loosely inserted
diagonals are pressed against the chords
via double poplar wedges (does not
fiber!), whereby the chord boards are
pressed together and no rutting occurs
between the boards. The belts can
therefore be regarded as solid cross-
sections. The clear distance between the
chords is 118 cm, the distance between the
double wedges is 200 cm. The boards are
usually pre-curved, Figure 9.1.119. From a
purely elastic point of view, this results in
bending stresses of approx. 16-18 N/mm²
in the boards with the usual dimensions. In
fact, it has been experimentally proven
that these bending stresses are
insignificant for the load-bearing capacity,
which [Friedrich, 1956] justifies with a
stress redistribution within the chord
cross-sections due to sliding movements
of the wood fibers. The effect of the
design-related eccentricities of the
diagonals compared to the theoretical
system nodes was investigated
theoretically and experimentally: For the
usual near-support arch form (Section
5.4.2), the resulting drop in load-bearing
capacity is insignificant.
The basic form is the single-storey
truss, which can be used up to a span of 60
(75) m. Depending on the arch width,
several individual trusses are arranged
with clear transverse spacings of between
2.0 and 3.30 m. For spans greater than
approx. 60-80 m, multi-storey trusses can
be used, whereby one "storey" is required
for every approx. 60 m of arch span. The
additional storeys are created by adding
further
811
diagonal braces and chords on the already
installed girders. For example, the above-
mentioned Pfaffenberg Bridge (L = 200 m,
W = 10 m) was scaffolded with a three-
storey falsework with five girder levels, left
picture 9.1.116. The girders are spatially
braced with horizontal and, at intervals of
approx. 4 m apart, with radial tubular
bracing, Figures 9.1.115, 9.1.116 and
9.1.120, and braced laterally every 8 m with
wire ropes to absorb the wind forces and
for overall stabilization, Figures
9.1.116 and 9.1.117. The bracing bars are
connected to perforated strips (fairly
square hollow steel sections with rows of
holes), which also act as spacers between
the individual trusses.
During assembly, a distinction must be
made as to whether the falsework is
erected using a cable crane or by folding
in. If the falsework is assembled using a
cable crane, Figure 9.1.115, the individual
trusses are first tied in the greatest
possible lengths, if possible from the
transom to the apex, on a tying station in
the intended form to form one or two-
storey individual trusses. These elements,
up to 65 m long, are lifted with the aid of
the cable crane, moved according to plan,
secured by means of auxiliary suspension
cables, laterally braced and, if necessary,
tensioned back onto the foreshore bridges.
Finally, the bracing between the individual
girders is installed. The construction of a
falsework for a 180 m wide, 9 m wide arch
for a highway bridge is described in detail
in [Aigner, 1968 - 2]. If the falsework is
produced by folding in the two halves of
the falsework, the individual trusses are
tied in the longest possible lengths on a
tying station (Figure 9.1.119). These
elements are now brought into the vertical
position and supported or jacked up. All
bracing is now installed. To move the
falsework, the two halves of the falsework
are first cut into lengths.
812 9 Production and execution methods

230 m long and 10 m wide arch with 5 - 4

= 20 belts 0.25/0.45 about 35 000 to
40,000 man hours.

9.1.1.4.5 Concreting the arch

The light, relatively soft scaffolding can be

optimally utilized by successively building
up the arch cross-section and, if necessary,
by activating the bonding effect between
the falsework and the already concreted
cross-section parts. Once the base plate of
the box has hardened, a new, very rigid
load-bearing system consisting of the
falsework and the base plate is in place. The
other concreting loads are mainly absorbed
by the already hardened parts of the concrete
arch, whereby the falsework prevents the
base plate from buckling. Figure 9.1.121
shows an example of a two-cell box cross-
section.

Figure 9.1.1-20 Shoring with horizontal and

radial bracing

The individual parts are cut into sections

that can be moved by the existing lifting
gear (weight!). The individual parts are
assembled upright using a mobile crane
above the archers, joined together again
using friction joints, braced and finally
folded in and joined together at the apex.
Square lumber is placed on the top chords
of the scaffolding trusses to compensate
for the height, onto which the formwork is
attached (planed boards).

9.1.1.4.4 Work progress

As a rule of thumb for the work progress

(setting, assembly, installation, height
adjustment, dismantling), 70-75 man-
hours per m³ of belt timber can be Fig. 9.1.1-21 Successive construction of a box
applied. In the case of the Pfaffenberg cross-section
bridge, this results in
 bridges
9.1 Concrete
Figure 9.1.1-22 First Nößlach bridge - Austrian Brenner highway, 1968: Concreting sequence and bending lines [Aigner, 1968 - 2]

811
812 9 Production and execution methods

In the transom areas, the webs can be
tightened up to approx. 4-8 m at the
beginning in order to achieve structural
restraint of the falsework at the transoms.
The concreting sequence in the
longitudinal direction of the bridge can
only be determined approximately in
advance. The exact concreting sequence
must be determined by continuous
measurements of the deformation
behavior of the falsework or the concrete
resulting from the falsework and the
The load-bearing capacity of the existing
composite system must be determined.
The falsework reacts sensitively to the
applied loads, especially at the beginning
of the concreting process. Figure 9.1.122
shows a typical concreting sequence and
the measured deflections. The strictly
symmetrical load application is essential
(tolerance: maximum 15 kN concrete).

Table 9.1.1-1 Arch bridges built with self-supporting Cruciani falsework

Name Traffic route LBow Ltotal B f h Year

Mitterbach Street 30 55 9,8 6,6 8 1963

bridge
Augarten Street 54 65 18,5 6,7 8 1977
bridge Graz
Wall bridge Street 70 150 10 14,8 20 1989
Kenlach ditch Rail employee 76 185 2 - 5,85 22 45 2001
bridge
Sonnenburg highway 97 182 2 - 13,25 22 80 1961
bridge
Innere Nöß highway 110 184 24 23,7 80 1968
lachbrücke
Fritzbachtal Street 117 274 15,5 30 60 1982
bridge
Mudflow Expressway 143 610 2 - 14 47,5 50 1976
bridge
Grünhübl
Outer Nöß highway 180 342 24 45 85 1968
bridge
Pfaffenberg Rail employee 200 377 10 50 100 1971
bridge
Falkenstein Rail employee 120/150 396 10 36,8/46 90 1973
bridge

LBogen ... transom spacing (classification criterion)

Ltotal ... total length of the bridge (bearing axes)
B ... Lane width (outer edge of edge beam) f
... Stitch
h ... Height above the valley floor or
river Year.. . Year of completion
9.1 Concrete
bridges
9.1.1.4.6 Equipping the bow
The falsework, which is under high
pressure, can be removed either by
lowering it or by creating a kinematic
chain (knocking out a diagonal). If the
base plate has been shear-bonded to the
falsework to activate the bond, the bond
elements must first be loosened. To avoid
uncontrolled deformation or the falsework
falling down, it is provisionally connected
to the arch.
9.1.1.4.7 Buildings
Table 9.1.11 contains a selection of arch
bridges built with the described cantilever
falsework.
9.1.2 Production on launching gantry
JÜRGEN STRITZKE
The increase in demand for long viaducts
due to highway construction led to the
principle used in cantilever construction
(see section 9.1.3) of constructing bridges
in sections, independent of the terrain,
being further developed into the
construction method of field-by-field
concreting with self-supporting, steel
launching girders. Very different concepts
emerged: Scaffolding located under the
superstructure and scaffolding with the
main girders on the bridge, simple girders
with low operating comfort and elaborate
scaffolding machines in which every
movement is mechanized. It was not
always possible t o fully meet the
expectations placed in these launching
gantries and achieve repeated use. The
optimum
813
The design concept for the launching
gantry and for the bridge built with it, the
suitability of the scaffolding for different
types of use (different spans, bridge
widths, cross-sectional shapes, straight
and curved bridge sections), but also
continuous central planning that takes
into account the available capacities and,
if possible, the combination of
construction tasks into large construction
lots are the prerequisites for the success of
these construction methods.
Despite the increased economic risks,
building with launching gantries has
become established in Germany and
abroad and has given new impetus to
bridge construction. The reasons for this
are the independence of the self-
supporting scaffolding from the terrain, the
high construction speed that cannot be
achieved with other in-situ concrete
methods, the savings in labor costs (achieved
in particular through the mechanization of
formwork inputs) and the possibility of
working "upside down". Above all, however,
the success of launching gantries is based on
the high quality of workmanship that can be
achieved with them. The launching gantry is
a production hall that has been moved to
the construction site and combines the
advantage of mass production, which is
otherwise only available in precast
construction, with the greater shaping
possibilities of in-situ concrete
construction.
9.1.2.1 Field-by-field production
on cantilevered launching gantry - setup girder
under the superstructure
The dependencies between the
construction method, superstructure
cross-section and substructures become
particularly clear when using
longitudinally displaceable scaffolding. It
is not only at great heights above the
ground (from 15 m) that already
completed sections of the superstructure
and the substructures are used for
814 9 Production and execution methods
support.
 9.1 Concrete
bridges
Fig. 9.1.2-1 Span-by-span construction of continuous prestressed concrete bridges using cantilevered
launching gantries running under the superstructure
of a longitudinally displaceable feed guide
(Figure 9.1.21).
For long viaducts in uneven terrain and
for slope bridges in the course of traffic
routes along mountain slopes (e.g. [Gass,
1960], [Bänziger, 1980]) with spans of up
to around 65 m, cantilevered steel
scaffolding girders were developed, which
are moved under the superstructure. The
length of the scaffolding girders is two bay
lengths. The actual formwork scaffolding
is mounted on the scaffolding girders and
has a single span length. The support points
of the scaffolding girders in the concreting
position are the suspensions on the
anchoring girders at the coupling joint
and the pier brackets on the front pier. These
pier brackets are an integral part of the
launching gantry and are used in an
intermediate state, in which the entire
scaffolding is
Fig. 9.1.2-2 Superstructure cross-section with position of the scaffolding girders and formwork of a steel
push-pull scaffolding
815
The bridge is suspended from the already
completed superstructure section, moved
forward on the scaffolding girder and
clamped to the piers on both sides.
During the rolling process, the feed
scaffolding transfers its loads to the bridge
piers via these brackets. Sliding chairs are
arranged between the scaffolding girders
and the brackets, which enable the
scaffolding girders to be raised and lowered
by means of hydraulic presses (Figure
9.1.22).
While the respective concreted
construction section is being prestressed,
the scaffolding beams are lowered. This
releases the web and carriageway slab
formwork and the floor formwork is
folded down. In this state, the launching
gantry is partially advanced until the
connecting frame (cross girder) reaches
the next pier and the formwork is folded
down.
816 9 Production and execution methods

the cross beam is lowered onto the pier
head by lowering the scaffolding. The
launching gantry slides on the brackets at
the front via plain bearings, while the rear
end of the scaffolding is attached to a
superstructure running on the already
hardened track slab. The bracket
anchorages on the pier can now be
released and the brackets moved to the
next pier and anchored. The launching
gantry can then be moved into
The formwork can be moved to the next
concreting position and the formwork
moved into the corresponding position
and aligned.
Instead of steel brackets clamped to the
pier heads, steel cross girders are also
used, which rest on push-through girders
in the piers (Figure 9.1.23).
Construction of the superstructure of the
Etzels bachtal bridge as part of the A38
highway

Figure 9.1.2-3 Theis Valley Bridge - Steel cross girders supported by through
girders as support for the launching gantry

Figure 9.1.2-4 Launching gantry of the viaduct over the Etzelsbach

 9.1 Concrete
bridges
Göttingen - Halle - Leipzig with maximum
spans of 62 m was carried out bay by bay
on a 700 t launching gantry with a total
length of 128 m. The launching gantry
running under the superstructure (Fig.
9.1.24) consists of two steel lattice girders
with a height of 4 m [Vorschubgerüst,
2001]. In order to reduce the stress on the
superstructure due to the suspended loads
from the launching gantry and concrete,
the suspended loads were transferred to
the piers with the help of tendons via a
longitudinally movable pylon
construction.
Figure 9.1.25 shows a launching gantry
with main beams at the bottom, which
works according to the slide rule
principle. The construction consists of
single-cell steel boxes. The outer girders,
which pass to the side of the piers, are set-
up girders, connected to each other by
transverse frames and have approximately
the length of the bridge span. The middle
girder (the rake bar tongue) lies in the
middle of the piers between the bearings
and is slightly longer than two span
widths. It has a dual function as a
scaffolding and prefabrication girder: in
the concreting area, it carries the
formwork and serves as a runway for the
outer scaffolding girders when rolling to
the next pier. Hinged floor plates connect
the three main beams and, together with
the beams, form the lower formwork floor
(Fig. 9.1.26). Formwork
Fig. 9.1.2-5 Launching gantry rake bar system, advancing the setup and front beam
817
The cantilevered deck slabs of the
superstructure are supported by the
frames on the scaffolding girders. In the
concreting position, the launching gantry
is supported at the front on the bridge pier.
The scaffolding and launching girders are
supported directly on the pier, the lateral
scaffolding girders by means of steel
cones. At the rear, the main girders are
suspended from a crane carriage of the
last completed superstructure section.
The launching gantry is moved to the
next concreting position in two phases:
After hardening and pre-tensioning of
the supporting structure, the entire
scaffolding is lowered evenly hydraulically
and the floor slabs between the main
beams are folded down. The front crane
carriage, which is only used to pre-
transport the scaffolding girders, supports
the connecting frame in the middle and
takes on the dead load of the scaffolding
girders including the formwork
construction.
On the rear crane truck, which serves as
a suspension beam for the main girders in
the concreting position and for the pre-
transport of the scaffolding girders, the
concreting attachments are removed after
the front crane truck has lowered and
taken over the load of the scaffolding
girders. The scaffolding girders are
suspended from tension members located
outside the bridge cross-section. The
scaffolding girder and the front girder are
separated for the forward movement.
818 9 Production and execution methods

bridges
9.1 Concrete
Figure 9.1.2-6 Unsupported launching gantry system truss rod with plate girder cross-section without cross girders according to
[Kotulla/Wilhelm, 1978].

817
818
First of all, the two rescue carriers are
driven forward with the crane trucks. The
front crane trolley travels on the front
girder, the rear one on a track that lies on
the superstructure. The support brackets
also move forward; they can be removed
from the scaffolding girders and
reinstalled on the pillar once the new
working position has been reached.
In the second phase, the scaffolding
and stem girder is moved. It is equipped
with its own drive and rolls over beams
that are supported in recesses at the pier
heads. After leaving the rear traverses,
these are picked up, moved forwards by
the carrier and moved there when the
next pier is reached. The scaffolding is set
up for the new concreting position in the
reverse order to that described above.
The advantages of a cantilevered piling
rig are that field-wide production can be
carried out with extremely short cycle
times and very few workers. No
intermediate supports are required and the
process is completely independent of the
terrain. When planning a launching
gantry, which is a large piece of
equipment according to its task, detailed
consideration must be given to the desired
and technically possible range of variation.
The amortization of the high investment
costs can only be achieved if the feed
equipment is as adaptable as possible. It
should be possible to use it for different
spans without major modifications and
also allow changes to the cross-section
design. The operational and mechanical
equipment should be designed in such a
way that safe, simple and economical
handling is guaranteed during use on the
construction site. The span range of the
bridges to be constructed, the width range
and the cross
9 Production and execution methods
The shape of the superstructure has a
particular influence on the total mass of
the launching gantry and thus the
investment costs. Various launching
gantries have therefore been developed for
specific support width ranges
[Kotulla/Wil helm, 1978]. It is
uneconomical to use large scaffolding on
bridges with small spans, even if it is
possible to adapt the length of the
scaffolding girders to the existing spans.
The costs for transport, assembly, relocation
and disassembly form a high basic amount
that cannot be reduced by operational
rationalization.
The relatively high construction height
of the steel falsework can be
disadvantageous with regard to keeping the
clearance under the superstructure clear if
traffic routes have to be kept clear and
there is insufficient height available. The
least clearance restrictions are then
achieved by using a two-stage plate girder
without cross girders as a superstructure
cross-section and using launching gantry
according to the slide rule principle, as
here the setup girder level is directly
below the roadway slab (Figure 9.1.26). In
contrast, in the principle shown in Figure
9.1.21, the scaffolding girder level is
located exclusively under the supporting
structure. This in turn makes it possible to
construct slab girder structures with cross
girders.
As a rule, highway bridges consist of
two separate superstructures, which are
conveniently constructed in the outward
and return sections of the launching gantry.
The bridge shown in Fig.
9.1.21, in which each set-up beam is used
as a front beam, these are designed
symmetrically with their cantilevers (front
beak). Before starting the return journey,
only a transverse shift is required behind
the abutment. With the slide rule
principle, only one transverse thrust is
required due to the asymmetrical design of
the
9.1 Concrete
bridges
The same launching gantry can also be
rotated by 180° behind the bearing. This is
why the slide rule principle is no longer
used today.
In the case of box cross-sections, the
internal formwork is usually designed as a
continuous formwork carriage, which
initially remains in the last concreted
section and is only moved forward into
the following section after the
reinforcement for the floor slab and the
webs has been inserted. The supporting
cross beams can then only be concreted
subsequently.
At the Trockau viaduct on the A9
highway [BÖGL/WALTER] with two
a)
b)
Figure 9.1.2-7 Trockau viaduct - launching gantry using an auxiliary support and an auxiliary
pylon a) Auxiliary support in the 100 m span for construction section 5 b) Additional auxiliary
pylon for construction section 6
819
Separate, single-cell prestressed concrete
boxes as continuous girders over nine
spans with spans of 48 m + 58 m + 60 m +
85 m + 100 m + 85 m + 60 m + 58 m + 48
m
steel feed scaffolding was also used. The
economical use of the launching gantry
made it necessary to arrange auxiliary
supports in the three large central sections
of 85 m + 100 m + 85 m with varying
construction heights between 3.50 m and
6.50 m (Figure 9.1.27). This limited the
longest construction section to 62 m.
Despite this limitation, the result was an
advance structure of considerable
dimensions. The
820 9 Production and execution methods

The total length of the bridge, including

the leading and trailing beak, is 128 m.
The 80 m long main supporting structure
consisted of lattice girders with a
construction height of 4.00 m. The
auxiliary piers were transversely braced to
create the second superstructure. The
construction sections extended between
10 m and 14 m beyond the piers and the
auxiliary supports. The trough cross-
section and the roadway slab of each
superstructure were constructed in two
separate operations. The auxiliary pylon,
including the bracing, was required to
cover the negative moment above the
auxiliary support.
A key feature of the Trockau viaduct is
the pre-tensioning of the superstructure in
the longitudinal direction using exclusively
external tendons SUSPA DrahtEx (type
66). A sensible division of the tendons into
continuous tendons, partially overlapped in
the supporting cross girders (Fig. 9.1.28)
and tensioning tendons in the span and
column areas makes it possible to keep the
pre-tensioning forces to be applied locally
within manageable limits. Four tendons
were selected as continuous tendons for
the outer spans and six tendons per box
girder for the large inner spans. In
particular, the anchoring pilaster strips of
the post-tensioning tendons above the
internal supports were arranged as far as
possible in the corner areas of the deck slab
- webs in order to avoid large, localized
carding moments.

9.1.2.2 Field-by-field production

on cantilevered launching gantry - setup girder
above the superstructure

Moving cantilever scaffolding above the

superstructure can be seen as a further
Figure 9.1.2-8 Viaduct Trockau - Partial development of the cantilever scaffolding
longitudinal section of the superstructure with used in cantilever construction.
position of the external, continuous and access Transverse frames cantilever laterally from
tendons the main longitudinal girder above the
superstructure and support the
superstructure.
9.1 Concrete
bridges
Fig. 9.1.2-9 Span-by-span construction of the Elz valley bridge running over several spans using
cantilevered launching gantry according to [Finsterwalder/Schambeck, 1966] - scaffolding girders
running over the superstructure
The formwork is attached to these with
drawbars (Figure 9.1.29). The scaffolding
girder is positioned on the last completed
section with support frames and on the
next pier by means of a special support
structure. Once a section has been
completed, it can move forward by one
bay length at a time by operating its
traveling mechanism without any
additional aids. The formwork is placed
on the lower cross beam arms. Due to the
shape of the cross frames, this launching
gantry is particularly suitable for bridges
with a row of central columns and allows
very different shapes of bridge cross-
sections, such as slab-type structures, slab
beams or cheeses with constant and
variable construction heights.
A different form of launching gantry
running over the superstructure was
chosen for the Ahrtal Bridge [Majewski,
1966]. In the 175 m long scaffold with a
mass of 2060 t, the main girders consist of
truss girders that rest on the cantilever of
the last concreted superstructure section
and on the next pier head during the
concreting process. The largest span of the
Ahr valley bridge built with this
equipment was 106 m.
The repositioning of the launching
gantry on multi-span bridge structures
with separated superstructures was
further developed during the construction
of the third mainland bridge in Lagos,
Nigeria. In order to prevent the
821
In order to allow launching gantry
without dismantling the formwork
scaffolding, the launching gantry above
the last intermediate pier is rotated using a
rotating platform and a turnstile so that it
is possible to move forward to the
corresponding pier of the second bridge
structure [DYWIDAG 11].
Launching gantries arranged above the
superstructure avoid the heavy cross beams
that are required for launching gantries
arranged below. The material can be
transported under the scaffolding girders
high above the superstructure without
hindrance. Due to the practically
unlimited available construction height
above the bridge deck, the main
longitudinal girder is usually designed as a
truss, which allows large support widths
with a relatively low dead load. The
clearance under the bridge is not
restricted as a result, and it is possible to
keep traffic routes underneath clear.
9.1.2.3 Launching gantries made of prestressed
concrete
In contrast to steel launching gantries
made of lattice girders or solid wall
girders, launching gantries made of
prestressed concrete ([Harries et al., 1994],
[Martin/ Adlunger, 1988],
[Keuser/Kremser, 1999]) are also used.
They do not require any moving parts
when moving past the piles and bearings,
as the principle and
822
a)
Figure 9.1.2-10 Trough-shaped prestressed concrete launching gantry according to [Harries et al.,
1994] a) Concreting position b) Launching gantry with raised superstructure
individual components of the incremental
launching method (see section 9.1.4) can
be used. Launching gantries made of
prestressed concrete avoid high
investment costs for an uncertain number
of uses, loading and transport costs and
rental costs and can be adapted to the
individual needs of the structure. After
completion of the bridge structure, they
are dismantled again.
It has been shown that prestressed
concrete advancing equipment is very
cost-effective and therefore competitive
when used only once. The large dead
loads of such launching gantries are of no
significance when advancing. The effects
on the substructures are within the service
loads of the final condition, at least in the
case of railroad bridges. The prestressed
concrete advancing scaffolding can reduce
the cross-section of the superstructure.
Figure 9.1.2-11 Prestressed concrete
launching gantry in ZForm lying under the
lower edge of the superstructure
9 Production and execution methods
b)
The front end of the push-rod can be
enclosed in a trough shape (Fig. 9.1.210)
or it can lie completely under the lower
edge of the superstructure and have a Z-
profile (Fig. 9.1.211). Similar to the
incremental launching method, a steel
launching nose is clamped to the front end
of the feed scaffolding for weight reasons.
This is one of the few components that can
be reused.
To install the upper displacement
bearings between the launching gantry and
the concreted superstructure, both
supporting structures must be moved
vertically against each other: Either the
superstructure is raised and the launching
gantry is left in its vertical position (Figure
9.1.210a) or the launching gantry is
lowered and the superstructure is left in
its vertical position. The first method
mentioned is suitable for single-span
girder chains. Only the last superstructure
span constructed is raised. This was the
method used for the Rombach Valley
Bridge on the new Hanover - Würzburg
line of the German Federal Railroad. The
other method is suitable for continuous
girders. The aim is to avoid additional
stresses on the superstructure due to
support subsidence. The hydraulic
displacement plates between the pier and
the launching gantry can be coupled with
those arranged between the launching
gantry and the superstructure. If the
piston areas of the presses are selected at
the upper and lower ends of the
9.1 Concrete
bridges
If the displacement bearings are the same,
the height of the superstructure always
remains the same in a closed system. Once
the superstructure has been completed,
the feed scaffolding is moved beyond the
abutment, where the steel parts are de-
mounted and the concrete parts are
broken off.
During the construction of the double-
track Geratal bridge Ichterhausen
[Keuser/Kremser, 1999] as part of the new
Ebensfeld - Er furt line, prestressed
concrete launching girders (Figure
9.1.212) were also used. The 1121 m long,
single-cell prestressed concrete box girder
bridge is a single-span girder chain over
24 spans with spans of 44 m to 58 m. It
serves to carry the Deutsche Bahn over the
Gera Valley with the new A71 highway,
the K20 district road and the eastern
connecting ramp of the A4/A71
interchange. The longitudinal prestressing
of the superstructure was
Figure 9.1.2-12 Launching gantry of the
Geratal bridge Ichterhausen
823
The vertical deformations of bridges with
slab tracks must be coordinated with the
requirements catalog for the construction
of slab tracks.
The superstructures were built with a
launching scaffold similar to that used in
the construction of the Rombach Valley
Bridge [Harries et al., 1994]. It consisted
of a prestressed concrete trough, the
launching nose of which was made up of a
prestressed concrete section and a steel
launching nose. The box cross-section was
produced in two sections with the
construction joint between the webs and
the roadway slab. Although the first
partial cross-section of the superstructure
to be produced bears approx. 20% of the
concreting load in accordance with the
stiffness ratios, the launching equipment
was designed for the full concreting load.
The size of the partial longitudinal
prestressing of the concrete trough was
determined as follows:
• In the 58 m span under dead load of
the shear frame and formwork loads
(without concreting load of the
superstructure), there are virtually no
tensile stresses in the longitudinal
direction under service loads (full pre-
tension). The stress from this LF
combination corresponds to
approximately half the stress from full
load. When moving forward, half of the
tensile stresses occurring on the top of
the trough are overpressed by external
loads.
These criteria result in an almost centric
pre-tension. The stresses that are not
covered by the partial pre-tensioning are
absorbed by the slack reinforcement.
After completion of the superstructure
of a bay in the launching gantry, the
launching process was carried out
according to [Keuser/Kremser, 1999] in
the sequence shown in Figure 9.1.213:
824 9 Production and execution methods

Figure 9.1.2-13 Geratalbrücke Ichterhausen - Advance process according to [Keuser/Kremser, 1999]

Phase 1 Phase 4
• Installation of the slideway on the • End insertion with simultaneous
superstructure transfer from the front to the rear
• Mounting the rear guide rail indexing slide bearing
• Lifting the superstructure at the front Phase 5
and installing the upper cycle bearings
between
Scaffold base and lower edge of
• Installing the front guide rail
superstructure
• Expansion of the feed system
• Installation of the feed system
• Raise the rear superstructure until the Phase 6
steel crossbeam releases the front • Construction of the new superstructure
scaffolding from the rear bearing via with simultaneous lowering of the
pressure contact, thus ensuring rear previously constructed superstructure
suspension
In addition to the above-mentioned
Phase 2 advantages of prestressed concrete feed
• Shift the armor until the rear
equipment, there are further advantages.
projection of the armor is only approx. The usefulness of a feed
23 m is • Superstructure rests on press-fitting
• Releasing the steel crossbeam
Phase 3
• Shifting up to approx. 1.50 m before
leaving the superstructure
• Lifting the superstructure at the front
and thus freeing the upper indexing
slide bearings
 9.1 Concrete 825
bridges
The design of the scaffolding is
determined by two requirements:
Firstly, stability must be ensured and
secondly, the deformation behavior
must allow the superstructure to be
produced with dimensional accuracy.
The concrete trough is extremely rigid
and therefore relatively dimensionally
stable. The launching gantry not only
encases the superstructure with the
826
formwork, but with the entire concrete
trough. This prevents the rapid
dissipation of hydration heat and early
shrinkage. This leads to a high concrete
quality of the superstructure with a dense
structure and good visible surface.
9.1.3 Cantilever construction
MANFRED CURBAC, HARALD MICHLER
and SILKE SCHEERER (until 9.1.4)
9.1.3.1 Introduction
Beams, frames and arch bridges are
erected in cantilever construction. This
construction method is used when
medium and large spans of between
approx. 70 m and 250 m need to be
bridged without the need to erect
falsework, for example. This can be the
case if difficult geological or geographical
conditions prevail, for example if the
bridge is at a great height or if wide
obstacles are to be spanned without
supports. As a rule, there are no significant
traffic obstructions under the bridge, nor
are ecologically sensitive areas affected.
Another advantage of the construction
method is that it is independent of the
settlements of a falsework.
In German-speaking countries, the
method of cantilevering a concrete bridge
was first proposed by Finsterwalder in
1930 in a competition to design a bridge
over the Rhine in Basel
[Finsterwalder/Schambeck, 1965]. In the
same year, a steel and concrete bridge was
built in Brazil over the Rio de Peixe by
pre-stretching a plank formwork [Beton
und Eisen, 1931], [Curbach, 19941]. In
1937, another steel-concrete bridge was
built in England using the cantilever
method. Despite this, the method did not
catch on for reinforced concrete bridges.
Only with the
9 Production and execution methods
The development of cantilever
construction for prestressed concrete
bridges by Finsterwalder (Dyckerhoff &
Widmann) opened up a wide range of
applications for this construction method.
Finsterwalder, 1952] reports on the
construction of the first cantilevered
prestressed concrete river bridges in
Germany in Baldu instein over the Lahn in
1950 (Fig. 1.452) and in Neckarrems over
the Neckar in 1951.
The basic principle of classic cantilever
construction is that individual bridge
sections are concreted from a pier using a
mobile production system - the cantilever
construction carriage. The cantilever
carriage carries the scaffolding, formwork,
concrete and prestressing steel
reinforcement as well as the fresh
concrete. The work is often carried out
alternately or symmetrically, creating a
balance beam on the pier in question. The
production sections are usually between 3
and 5 m long. This means that the amount
of material to be kept in stock for the
formwork and formwork is relatively small.
Another advantage is that the formwork
can be reused several times and easily
modified. Adaptation to haunched beam
geometries is possible without any
problems. A further reduction in material
and time is achieved by repeating similar
cycles several times. By enclosing the stem
carriage, work can also be carried out in
adverse weather conditions.
In addition to the so-called classic
cantilever construction, there are also
different variations:
• Cantilever with auxiliary bracing (pylon
cantilever),
• Cantilever with auxiliary beam,
• Cantilever with launching gantry (setup
carrier),
• Cantilever construction with
prefabricated parts (segment
construction),
• Bow free construction.
 9.1 Concrete
bridges
Supporting
structure made
120 of normal
concrete Field
Support
100
Mean
Balduinstein 1950 value
80 Kochertal bridge 1979
Rio de Peixe 1930
60
l/h [-]
40
20
0
50 100 150
Span of the main opening [m]
Figure 9.1.3-1 Slenderness of various cantilever bridges
9.1.3.2 Requirements for the superstructure
In cantilever construction, haunched box
girders are most commonly used. The
bridges can be straight or curved in plan.
In the case of transverse slopes, the box
girder is designed as a rhombus.
According to [Menn, 1990], the
slenderness l/h (h: beam height above the
support) should be approx. 17.
Slendernesses of approx. 50 are achieved
in the middle of the span, and
significantly more if lightweight concrete
is used,
s. Figure 9.1.31. Curved beams can
optimally transfer the cantilever stress in
the construction stage, as the variable
resistance moment can be adapted to the
course of the support moment. The
curved underside of the beam usually
follows a parabola. However, plate girder
cross-sections or parallel girders are also
produced in free cantilever design. A
summary of the slenderness of selected
cantilever bridges is shown in Figure
9.1.31.
The great advantage of box girders is
that the high negative bending moments
resulting from the cantilever load can be
absorbed well in the building structure
and that a simple and rational
construction is possible.
827
Main span completely or
partially made of
lightweight concrete
Field
Support
Mean
value
Shibanpo Bridge 2006
(middle 103 m lifted in as a
prefabricated steel box section)
Stolmasund Bridge 1998
200 250 300 350
shells is possible. The thickness of the base
plate is often significantly increased in the
cross-section above the column compared
to the field area. This results, for example,
in a greater lever arm of the internal forces
or lower stresses in the compression zone.
The thickness of the roadway slab is also
varied, but in this case to reduce the dead
load in the center of the span. Figure
9.1.32 shows the basic cross-section
design.
Vertical bars facilitate both shuttering
and concreting. Inclined webs enable a
wider track slab with an attractive
appearance and can be stripped more
easily by lowering the formwork vertically.
With inclined webs, either the inclination
of the webs remains constant, which
results in a variable width of the floor slab,
or a constant width of the floor slab is
selected, which gives the webs a three-
dimensional curvature. The constant web
inclination is easier to manufacture, but
results in the smallest base plate width in
the highly stressed column area, which
must then be compensated for by a greater
plate thickness. Figure 9.1.33 shows both
variants in cross-section and view.
828
Figure 9.1.3-2 Variation of the design of the roadway and floor slab
Figure 9.1.3-3 Typical bar geometries; left: constant bar inclination and variable width of the base
plate; right: variable bar inclination and constant width of the base plate
9.1.3.3 Special features
for tendon guidance
In their final state, cantilever bridges are
frames or continuous girders. In the
construction stage, however, they are
cantilever beams. These must be
connected to each other in the middle of
the span to form the final system. There
are three different options:
• bending stiffness - this is the usual
solution today,
• Formation of a joint,
• Inserting a suspension beam.
The bending stiffness bridge connection is
the lowest-maintenance variant and has
proven itself
i. A. enforced.
According to [Menn, 1990], articulated
systems are more economical than
continuous systems, as torque
redistribution from the more massive
support to the weaker field area is
excluded. However, there are
disadvantages with regard to
serviceability. These include, for example,
the resulting "kink" in the gradient, which
impairs ride comfort, the design effort
involved in the manufacture of joints and
joints and the need to maintain these
structures.
9 Production and execution methods
parts. The de-icing salt attack is
particularly critical. In joint systems, a
distinction can be made between joints
with dilatation and without dilatation. If
dilatation is to be permitted, complicated
special bearings with a large space
requirement are necessary, which can
absorb the mutually different lateral forces
and vertical displacements. Joints without
dilatation can, for example, be designed as
prestressed concrete joints in the
carriageway slab, see Figure 9.1.34.
The type of bridge connection and
manufacture result in special features in
tendon guidance. A distinction is made
between
• Cantilever prestressing,
• Continuity bias,
• Field bias voltage.
Figure 9.1.3-4 Joint without dilatation for
connecting the cantilevers according to [Menn,
1990].
 9.1 Concrete
bridges
The tendons for cantilever prestressing
primarily absorb the internal forces from
the construction stages and are also
dimensioned accordingly. They are mainly
located in the upper plate of the box
girder, where a maximum lever arm can be
achieved. As each new section must be
connected to the already sufficiently
hardened cantilever in a force-fit manner,
a large number of empty cladding tubes
must be embedded starting from the pier
table. Only those tendons are anchored in
the construction joint that are required to
support the additional loads from the
section that has just been produced. This
gradation allows the pre-tension to be
adjusted to the load without any
problems. The remaining cladding tubes
are merely butted at the construction
joints. PVC pipes are often inserted into
these empty cladding pipes as filler. On the
one hand, these have a stabilizing effect
during concreting. On the other hand, if
there are any leaks, they prevent the
cavities from filling up with concrete,
which would make it impossible to thread
in the prestressing reinforcement
afterwards. For this reason, a few empty
ducts are also provided in the cross-
section, which can then serve as
replacements in the event of damage to
ducts of statically required tendons. If the
anchor points are designed accordingly,
this also provides an opportunity for
subsequent reinforcement of the
structure. Figure 9.1.35 shows an example
of the gradation of cantilever prestressing.
There are different variants for the
arrangement of the cantilever tendons in
the floor plan. If they are straight, the
anchor bars are located on the underside
of the track slab. This makes it easier to
guide the reinforcement, but at the same
time restricts the free height in the box
girder, which makes it more difficult to
work inside the box. Another option is to
use the
829
The tendons at the ends of the web can be
redirected outwards close to the webs or
into the webs themselves. The anchorages
are then located either in the area of the
stiffer connection between the web and
the slab or inside the web. In the latter
variant, the tendons can be guided
downwards far inside the webs. This
significantly increases the shear load-
bearing capacity, but the insertion of
reinforcement and concrete is more
complicated.
The continuity tendons are installed in
the floor slab to absorb the positive
moments in the middle third of the span.
These arise after bending stiffness of the
bridge due to the change in the overall
static system. They are laid and anchored
near the webs, on the one hand to exploit
the higher stiffness of the cross-section at
this point, and on the other to keep the
transverse bending in the floor slab as low
as possible. An example of the stepping is
also shown in Figure 9.1.35. The pilaster
strips in the floor slab must be designed
with particular care, as the slab is usually
very thin here. It is also important to
ensure that sufficient and well-anchored
reinforcement is provided for the
deflection forces that occur due to the
curvature of the continuity tendons.
The tendons of the span prestressing are
threaded into continuous, empty ducts
over the entire span after bridge closure.
In addition to covering extreme stresses,
they can also be used to influence
deformations after bridge closure or, as
already mentioned, for subsequent
reinforcement. The field pre-tensioning
can be realized both as pre-tensioning
with subsequent bonding and as external
pre-tensioning.
For standard construction projects, the
cantilever prestressing from the
construction stage
830 9 Production and execution methods

Figure 9.1.3-5 Example of the arrangement of tendons in the cantilever and in the span,
according to [Curbach, 19931].

compression and tension-resistant, pre-

is dimensioned in such a way that it can
stressed auxiliary columns are often used
also absorb the column moments in the
to support the column.
final state, as a corresponding
redistribution takes place. Therefore, only
cantilevers and continuity prestressing are
generally used.

9.1.3.4 Equipment for classic cantilever

construction

First and foremost is the cantilevered

formwork carriage. It is moved in the
longitudinal direction of the bridge and
carries the scaffolding girders and the
formwork. The length of the concreting
sections depends on the load-bearing
capacity of the cantilever carriage.
Permissible loads for standard
cantilevered formwork carriages are, for
example, 1300, 1750 and 2000 kN. The
maximum length of the formwork must
also be taken into account. The usual
length here is 5 m.
When cantilevering on both sides using
the balance beam principle, the initial
cycle (the pier table) is produced using
conventional construction methods. The
length of the pier table depends on the
space required for setting up the
cantilevered cantilever carriages.
If the superstructure is not
monolithically connected to the column,
 9.1 Concrete 831
bridges
stabilization of the balance beam and to
absorb tilting moments during construction.
The bearings on the bridge pillars essentially
transfer the vertical forces. If an
unsymmetrical balance beam is used, e.g. if
the cantilever on one side is one or two
cycles ahead, compressive auxiliary supports
can be installed on one side and the length of
the pier table can be reduced at the same
time, as the second cantilever carriage is only
installed after the first one has moved ahead.
The most unfavorable combination of
planned tilting moment and load due to
dead load must be used for dimensioning the
auxiliary supports and for the position safety
check. The auxiliary supports are
prestressed on one side at the top of the base
plate of the pier table. The column remains
in state I, which greatly limits its longitudinal
deformations. This reduces the risk of severe
deformation or twisting of the balance beam.
A possible arrangement of auxiliary
supports is shown in Figure 9.1.36.
It is difficult to precisely set the
prestressing force in the auxiliary supports, as
the different expansion stiffnesses of the
auxiliary supports and bridge piers and the
832
Figure 9.1.3-6 Stabilization of the pier table
with prestressed auxiliary supports according
to [Curbach, 1994a].
non-linear deformation of the bridge
bearings can only be modeled with
difficulty. For this reason, presses are
arranged between the superstructure and
the auxiliary supports, with which the
desired pre-tensioning force can be
applied in the auxiliary supports. This
allows the required pre-tension of the
auxiliary supports to be checked and
adjusted in all construction phases. The
arrangement of the auxiliary supports and
in particular their spacing depends on the
maximum tilting moment to be absorbed
and therefore on the span of the balance
beam and the length of the production
sections. If the auxiliary supports
provided for the
Figure 9.1.3-7 Cantilever structure with auxiliary pylon and bracing according to [Munich
Reinsurance Company, 1992].
9 Production and execution methods
last bars, additional auxiliary supports can
also be placed under the bars of the
balance beam, as is the case with the
z. This happened, for example, with the
Oberndorf bridge over the Main
[Curbach, 19941]. However, the tilting
moment can also be absorbed in other
ways, e.g. by bracing the pier table with the
bridge pier or by clamping the
superstructure itself into the pier.
In the case of single-sided or single-
hipped cantilever superstructures, the
moments of force must be absorbed by
sufficiently strong foundations, anchoring
back into the in-situ subsoil by means of
earth or rock anchors, counterweights or
bracing, e.g. in previously completed
bridge spans. Figure 9.1.37 shows a
diagram of the manufacturing process.
Temporary supports or bracing can avoid
unnecessarily high reinforcement of the
superstructure.
A special compensating structure is
often required to close the bridge. For this
purpose, the cantilever shoring is
dismantled and suitable auxiliary
structures are installed to fix the cantilever
during bridge closure. For the cantilever
shoring variants presented in section
9.1.3.6, further aids are required. Here
9.1 Concrete
bridges
examples are auxiliary pylons, scaffolding
girders and temporary bracing.
9.1.3.5 Construction sequence for
classic cantilever construction
First, the foundation and pillar are
constructed. The pier table is then erected
on the pier.
The rule for classic cantilever
construction is symmetrical production
from the pier table. The resulting balance
beam must be stabilized, see also section
9.1.3.4. The cantilever carriages are set up
one after the other, the formwork is
aligned and the slack reinforcement and
empty sleeves for the prestressing
reinforcement are inserted. The first cycle
of each cantilever can now be concreted.
Once this section has reached sufficient
strength after approx. two to three days,
the tendons are pulled into the pre-
prepared ducts of the finished section and
prestressed. The tendon anchorages are
often designed for a lower concrete
strength class than the one that will
actually be installed. In the final state,
therefore, there is slightly more
reinforcing steel than was statically
required. The great advantage of this
approach, however, is that pre-tensioning
can be brought forward in time.
After pre-tensioning, the pre-
tensioning carriage is moved forward and
fixed to the completed section. All further
sections are attached alternately and
prestressed in cycles. The bridge is closed
with the last section in the middle of the
field. The continuous tendons are now
pulled in and prestressed. If necessary, the
span prestressing is installed and
activated.
The considerable elastic and static
beam deflections must be taken into
account.
833
be compensated for by superelevation
during the cantilever. The superelevation
must be dimensioned in such a way that
the intended roadway level is guaranteed
in the service condition. In general,
deformations that occur during
construction must be compensated for.
Such deformations occur
The deformations may occur after
equipping due to dead load and
proportional traffic load or they may be
the result of column subsidence or
temperature differences. Furthermore, in
the case of cantilever construction, the
changing settlements of the cantilever
wagon during concreting, the
deformations of the cantilever system
during construction, the influences of the
changed static system after the bridge has
been closed and the creep displacements
to be expected in this context must be
taken into account.
During the entire construction process,
the current deformation values are
measured after the production of each
cycle. The required cant for the next cycle
is calculated using the actual modulus of
elasticity and the actual dead load of the
installed fresh concrete. Any necessary
corrections can thus be taken into account
at an early stage.
In addition to the height of the
cantilever ends, the tangents of the
gradient in the plan and elevation must
also match when creating the bridge
closure, as no "kink" occurs in the middle
of the span. In order to limit the
deformations from the outset, it may be
advisable to use a concrete with a very
high modulus of elasticity, which can be
achieved by using basalt as an aggregate,
for example. An increased proportion of
prestressing steel can also be useful.
It should be noted that bridges are
often not built entirely as cantilever
structures. For example, end spans or parts
of them are built on falsework if local
conditions permit. In the case of long
foreshore bridges
834
The incremental launching method or
feed units are used.
9.1.3.6 Variants of the cantilever construction
The classic cantilever construction is not
always applicable or practical. If, for
example, parallel chord beams are to be
produced, auxiliary structures must be
used to support the cantilever moment.
Sometimes it is also not possible to bring
the cantilever carriage to the pier base
because there is no access to the pier. For
this reason, different variants of cantilever
shoring have been developed.
Cantilever shoring with
auxiliary bracing or pylon
cantilever shoring
With this method, cantilevering can be
carried out on one side in one direction.
Starting at the abutment, the individual
sections are constructed upside down. If
the cantilever moment is too great, the
bridge girder is braced backwards into the
ground or to the pier behind it. There is no
need to transport the cantilever carriage
from one support to the next. Difficult
terrain conditions can be overcome with
this method. Due to the larger lever arm of
the overstressing, higher cantilever
moments can be absorbed, which enables
the production of parallel chord beams.
The biggest disadvantage of the method is
the double construction time compared to
the balance beam. The method is outlined
in Figure 9.1.37.
Fig. 9.1.3-8 Cantilever with auxiliary beam according to [Stritzke, 1983].
9 Production and execution methods
Cantilever with auxiliary beam
With this method, a mobile auxiliary
girder spans from the finished bridge
section to the next pier, see Fig. 9.1.38.
With the help of this auxiliary girder, the
pre-construction carriages, material and
personnel can be moved to the next
construction section. Transportation on
the ground is no longer necessary.
Development costs and construction time
can be optimized. In addition, moving the
prefabrication trolley is considerably
easier, as there is no need for complex
fastenings and tie-backs in the
construction work. However, the auxiliary
girder itself represents an additional
expense that generally only pays off with a
certain minimum number of bridge spans.
If steel auxiliary beams are appropriately
dimensioned, they can also serve to
stabilize the balance beam, see [Holst,
1998] or [Stritzke, 1983].
Cantilever with launching gantry
(setup carrier)
In this construction method, a steel girder,
which is approx. 60 % longer than the
span of the bridge span, is mounted above
the bridge deck on two adjacent piers. Two
formwork carriages are attached to this
girder, which can be used to advance from
the pier in both directions. The
construction sections can be increased to
8-10 m [Leonhardt, 1979], as the fresh
concrete load is initially carried by the
formwork girder. In addition, the
supporting structure deforms significantly
less than with the classic cantilever
construction and it becomes
9.1 Concrete
bridges
less prestressing steel is required overall.
First, concrete is poured up to half of the
span, then the scaffolding girder is moved
forward by one span. Horizontal
transportation is again independent of the
terrain conditions under the bridge. The
method is particularly suitable for parallel
chord girders. With regard to profitability,
the same applies as for cantilever
construction with auxiliary girders. The
construction method is shown
schematically in Figure 9.1.39. The first
application is the Siegtal bridge in
Eiserfeld with a maximum span of 105 m
[Wittfoht, 1970].
Cantilever construction with prefabricated
parts (segmental construction)
The cantilever construction with
prefabricated parts is dealt with in section
9.1.6.
Cantilever with follower
In order to minimize the dead load during
cantilever construction and thus the
cantilever moments and the prestressing
steel requirement, the prefabricated
bridge cross-section can be reduced to a
core or hull cross-section. After creating
the continuous effect, the remaining
cross-section parts are added using a
trailing setup carriage. This method was
used, for example, in the construction of
the Kochertal bridge near Geislin gen,
Figure 9.1.310.
Bow free construction
If no jig can be provided for a bow, there
are various ways of making the bow. One
835
The first of these is cantilever arch
construction. This construction method
has already been used to build arches with
spans of more than 200 m, e.g. the
Bloukrans Bridge in South Africa with a
span of 272 m in 1983 [Ewert, 1999a]. The
first application in Germany was the
Neckarsburg highway bridge near
Rottweil with a span of 154 m, built in
1978. The currently largest arch bridge in
Germany over the Wilde Gera in
Thuringia (252 m span, see also sections
1.6.8.1 and 9.1.3.7) was also built in this
way.
The arch cantilever is constructed in
parallel from the transoms, whereby the
first cycle is usually produced with the aid
of a falsework. For arches with hollow
cross-sections, the bottom slab is usually
concreted first, followed by the webs and
top slab. If the inclination of the arch is
relatively large, a counter formwork is
required on the upper side. At certain
intervals, the arch is relieved by temporary
auxiliary bracing. There are various
assembly principles. Some of these are
shown in Figure 9.1.311. The
simultaneous construction of arch,
column and roadway has the advantage in
terms of construction technology that the
material can be transported over the
already completed roadway, Figure
9.1.311 (d) and (e).
The back-anchoring forces are
transferred either into pillars or pylons,
but often also directly into the ground,
z. e.g. by earth or rock anchors. The
deformations of the arch and the
tensioning forces of the anchors must be
constantly checked and adjusted as
construction progresses in order to
minimize the stresses.
836 9 Production and execution methods
Fig. 9.1.3-9 Cantilever structure with scaffolding girder, e.g. according to [Leonhardt, 1979] and
[Wittfoht, 1970].
 9.1 Concrete 837
bridges

Figure 9.1.3-10 Kochertal bridge near Geislingen (top photo: [Michler, 2002], bottom photo: [Gerline,
2003])

Fig. 9.1.3-11 Examples of assembly principles for arch cantilever construction, according to [Ewert,
1999a] and [Stritzke, 1983].
838
to keep the bow's stresses as low as
possible. The tensioning forces are
corrected and optimized accordingly.
Instead of monolithic construction, the
arch can also be assembled from
prefabricated parts in cantilever
construction. This method was used in the
construction of the bridge to the island of
Krk in Croatia, which, with a span of 390
m, is the second largest concrete arch
bridge in the world according to [Ewert,
1999a].
9.1.3.7 Examples of bridges built
Main bridge Retzbach-Zellingen [Curbach,
1994-2]
This bridge was built between the towns
of Retzbach and Zellingen near Würzburg
as part of the expansion of the B 27 federal
highway to replace an existing bridge that
no longer met the increased requirements.
In addition to the Main, a railroad station
with an IC line, the new B 27 and a state
road also had to be spanned. The
approach bridges were built using the
incremental launching method. The
largest span over the Main and the two
adjoining foreland spans were each
constructed from the river piers using the
balance beam principle. The "missing"
outer section in
Figure 9.1.3-12 Retzbach-Zellingen bridge (Photo: [Michler, 2002])
9 Production and execution methods
These two foreland fields were erected on
falsework. The structure can be seen in
Figure 9.1.312.
BW 2/3 across the Neckar in
Stuttgart [Curbach/Proske, 1998]
Three different construction methods were
also used for this bridge complex. The
curved foreshore bridges were built on
falsework, the straight foreshore bridges
by means of launching gantries and the
current opening in free cantilever
construction. The special feature of this
structure is that the roadway already had
to be divided over the Neckar in order to
be able to connect the ramps of the four-
lane riverside road. For this purpose, two
cantilever arms from one side, Figure
9.1.313, and a single one from the other
side were joined together above the river.
The ramps were built on one side as
cantilevers in cantilever construction from
the pier, while the single girder was built
as a balance beam from the pier on the
north bank in both directions. The
concreted sections were between 3 and 5 m
long.
Stolma Bridge in Norway [Ingebrigtsen,
1999]
The Stolma Bridge or Stolmasund Bridge
connects the islands of Stolmen and
Selbjørn
 9.1 Concrete 839
bridges

Figure 9.1.3-13 Structures 2/3 across the Neckar near Stuttgart. Top: View of the cantilevers of
the two ramps [Michler, 2002], center, bottom: Ground plan and aerial view according to
[Münchener Rückversicherung, 1992]
840
on the west coast of Norway about 50 km
south of Bergen. With a main span of 301
m, it is the longest-span "pure" concrete
bridge in the world that was built as a
cantilever structure. With such enormous
spans, the reduction of the dead load of
the bridge is of great importance. For this
reason, 184 m in the middle of the main
span were made of lightweight concrete LC
60 with a bulk density of 1.94 kg/dm³, while
the edge areas were made of normal
concrete C 65. The construction height of
the box girder varies between a maximum
of 15 m at the supports and 3.5 m in the
middle of the span, see Fig. 9.1.314. As the
two edge spans are relatively small in
relation to the main span, counterweights
were used by partially filling the box
girder with gravel, see also Fig. 9.1.314.
There are 100 tendons in the deck slab
above the supports, 20 tendons were
inserted in the floor slab in the middle of
the span after the cantilevers were
connected.
9 Production and execution methods
Viaduct over the Wilde Gera in Thuringia
[Wölfel, R., 2000]
This bridge is part of the German Unity
Transport Project No. 16, the highway
through the Thuringian Forest, see also
Section 1.6.8.1. In its current form, the
arch bridge was developed as a special
proposal. With a span of 252 m, the arch is
currently the longest span in Germany.
The total length of the bridge is 552 m with
14 spans of between 30 and 42 m. The arch
was built as a cantilever structure with
auxiliary bracing and auxiliary pylons on
the transom piers. The stem was built
simultaneously from both transoms. The
cross-section of the arch is a two-cell box
girder with a width of 10.3 m, the height
of which varies between 5.5 m at the
transom and 3.3 m at the apex. The
polygonal arch shape, which
approximates a parabola, was optimized
with regard to the bending moments in
the final state. The first cycle of 7 m in
length was built on falsework,
Figure 9.1.3-14 View and cross-section of
the Stolma Bridge according to
[Ingebrigtsen, 1999]
 9.1 Concrete 841
bridges

Figure 9.1.3-15 Schematic representation of

the construction stages of the bridge over the
Wilde Gera according to [Wölfel, R., 2000].

Figure 9.1.3-16 Bridge over the Wilde Gera as built from [Wölfel, R., 2000]
842
The following cantilevering cycles were
each 6 m long. The temporary bracing was
first hung back over the transom piers, and
from the 13th cycle onwards over
additional auxiliary pylons on the
transom piers, Fig. 9.1.315 and 16. A steel
compression piece was used for the arch
closure, which was subjected to pressure
by slightly releasing the bracing so that
the stresses arising from temperature
fluctuations during hardening could be
absorbed. The columns and supports were
then concreted and the single-cell
composite cross-section of the
superstructure was inserted using the
incremental launching method.
9.1.4 Clock shift
9.1.4.1 Introduction
In incremental launching, individual parts
of the superstructure between 10 and 30
m long, known as cycles, are
manufactured in a fixed production facility
behind the abutment. The cycles are
connected to each other monolithically.
After each completed cycle, the
superstructure is moved in the
longitudinal direction of the bridge. The
aim is to produce the concrete in weekly
cycles, as the concrete hardens during the
end of the week and the construction time
can thus be optimally utilized.
The construction method is used for
beam bridges with constant or only
slightly changing spans. According to
[Göhler, 1999], bridges with total lengths
from 100 to over 1000 m can be built
economically. An example of such a long
structure is the 1280 m long bridge in
Veitshöchheim over the Main [Naumann
et al., 1998]. Bridges less than 200 m long
are generally only economically viable if the
construction equipment is already
available. Single spans of approx. 50 m are
optimal; 30 to 55 m are usual,
9 Production and execution methods
According to [Leonhardt, 1979], however,
spans of up to 140 m are also possible. For
large spans, auxiliary supports are
provided during the construction process.
Starting with the invention of the "con-
centered tendon", the construction
method was developed in several stages by
the engineers at Leonhardt and Andrä
[Göhler, 1999]. The bridge that is regarded
as the direct predecessor of today's
incremental launching is the river bridge
over the Rio Caroni built in Brazil in the
early 1960s. Here, individual sections were
produced on land as prefabricated parts
and connected with in-situ concrete joints.
The superstructure was then prestressed
over its entire length with a concentrated
tendon and moved longitudinally into its
final position on a shifting track using
auxiliary supports. The experience gained
from this project was used to develop the
actual concept of the construction method,
for which a patent was granted in 1967.
The first incremental launching bridge
based on the procedure used today was
the Inn Bridge Kufstein with spans of up
to 102 m, which was erected using
auxiliary piers during the construction
phase. However, the bridge was still
loosely reinforced at the displacement
stage. Construction of the Taubertal
Bridge, the first incremental launching
bridge in Germany, began at the end of
1967.
With incremental launching,
monolithic load-bearing structures are
created by combining the advantages of
factory production with those of in-situ
concrete construction. The main
advantage is that there is no need for
falsework, as the formwork is fixed in
place. The recurring work steps reduce the
overall time required. The production
facility enables fast shuttering and striking
and offers protection from the weather.
Transport routes can also be optimized.
The dependence on the load-bearing
capacity of the subsoil, which
 9.1 Concrete
bridges
The traffic space under the bridge remains
largely unaffected, as is the case with
cantilever construction.
The incremental launching method has
been established for prestressed concrete
box girder bridges for many years.
Innovations and further developments
mainly relate to details. The fact that
Germany is currently reluctant to accept
special proposals, which could contribute
significantly to the further development of
conventional construction methods, is an
obstacle. On the other hand, it is positive
that more and more value is being placed
on appealing aesthetics. This and the
undisputed advantages in the
construction of very long bridges have
contributed to the fact that the method
has also been increasingly used for
composite and mixed construction
bridges in recent years,
See also section 9.3.1.3.
9.1.4.2 Requirements for the superstructure
The standard cross-section for
incremental launching is the prestressed
concrete box girder, which is the most
favorable cross-section, especially for
large spans. However, the method is also
used for steel-concrete composite bridges
and, in exceptional cases, for slab girder
cross-sections. For box girders,
slendernesses of max. l/h ≈ 15 in the
construction stage have proven to be
useful. The slenderness in the final state
can be doubled to up to 30 if auxiliary
supports are used in the construction
phase.
It is possible to build curved
superstructures both in plan and elevation.
The spatial radius should be constant, i.e.
the entire bridge is built with a constant
curvature in every spatial direction. If the
gradient is to follow a clothoid in plan, in
many cases the box can be built in a
circular curve.
843
be pushed. The clothoid-shaped alignment
is realized by cantilevers of different
lengths on the roadway slab. The box is
designed as a rhombus for cross slopes.
The cycle length should be as long as
possible, but it should be possible to
produce it in one week. With a bridge
width of 20 m, the cycle length can be up to
30 m [Göhler, 1999]. The cycle length
generally corresponds to half the standard
span. The first and last two cycles are
shorter so that in the final state the
construction joints are close to the quarter
points of the standard spans and a cycle is
always centered over the support (see also
Figure 9.1.45). When using auxiliary
supports, several bars form the bay area.
Joints should not be arranged in the area of
complicated installations such as support
cross beams or cross beams for tendon
deflection with external pre-tensioning.
The superstructure is usually designed
with parallel chords. The cross-sectional
dimensions should be constant, although
exceptions are also possible here. An
example of this are the foreland bridges of
the Danube bridge Fischer dorf, whose box
girders were widened,
s. Section 9.1.4.7 and [Curbach, 19932].
With variable construction heights,
vertical webs and separate base plates and
web formwork are advantageous
[Curbach, 19942]. The dimensions of the
superstructure should be selected so that
the ratio of the moments of resistance Wo :
Wu corresponds to the ratio of supports to
span moment following dead load in the
construction stage, as the centric primary
prestressing can then be used optimally.
The thickness of the deck slab depends
on the transverse load on the slab (e.g.
transverse bending due to concentrated
loads), the space required for coupling
centric tendons or the minimum
dimensions to be observed for transverse
prestressing. The floor slab must
accommodate centric tendons
844
Fig. 9.1.4-1 Formation of the underside of the web with internal (left) or external (right) t e n d o n s ,
sketches from [Göhler, 1999].
local reinforcements are common in the
area of tendon couplings. In contrast to
haunches, these do not have to be constant
over the entire length of the slab, as they
can easily be produced with an attached
formwork.
In the case of box cross-sections, care
must be taken to ensure that the lower
frame corners are sufficiently dimensioned,
as this is where the lifting presses engage
for displacement and the support forces
must be continuously transferred over the
entire length of the superstructure during
displacement. In particular, spalling must
be prevented. For this reason, minimum
distances must be maintained between the
cladding tubes and the underside of the
web, see Fig. 9.1.41. Reinforcements must
be provided at the initial cycle to connect
the launching nose. It should also be noted
that in the case of pre-tensioning with
subsequent bonding, the initially empty
sheathing tubes of the secondary pre-
tensioning mean local weak points, which
can cause the web to collapse if the
distance to the underside of the web is too
small.
9.1.4.3 Special features of tendon guidance
Until a few years ago, incremental
launching bridges were conventionally
built using pre-tensioning with subsequent
bonding. Today, the mixed construction
method has become established, in which
9 Production and execution methods
centric pre-tensioning with subsequent
bonding and eccentric, unbonded pre-
tensioning can be combined. A third
variant is pure external pre-tensioning
without bond. The internal installation of
tendons without bond has so far only been
realized in pilot projects in Germany.
In the longitudinal direction, a basic
distinction is made between centrally and
eccentrically guided tendons in
incremental launching bridges. The
centric tendons are also referred to as
primary tendons. They must cover all loads
during the construction process and are
installed in the floor and in the deck slab.
When dimensioning the tendons, the
stresses from all displacements must be
taken into account. It should of course be
noted that positive and negative moments
occur at constantly changing points of the
superstructure during the advance.
Anchorages and coupling points should be
located close to the webs. The track slab
must therefore be sufficiently thick. For
correspondingly long structures, every
second or, in the case of short cycles, every
third tendon is butt-jointed. As a rule,
these tendons are subsequently bonded.
The tendons are grouted directly before or
after the incremental launching.
The eccentric tendons are the so-called
secondary tendons.
 9.1 Concrete
bridges
tendons. Together with the primary
tendons, they ensure the load-bearing
capacity in the final state. Until a few years
ago, it was common practice to install the
tendons with subsequent bonding in a
garland shape in the girder webs over
several spans. With this pre-tensioning
concept, the tendon guidance is adapted
to the moment curve due to dead load and
partial live load in the final state, see
Figure 9.1.42 above. Empty ducts are
embedded in concrete during the
construction of the individual cycles. They
must not be damaged during concreting
in order to prevent the cavities from filling
up with fresh concrete or water. Once the
superstructure is in its final position, the
strands are pulled in from the pilaster
strips, prestressed and grouted.
When joining tendons, the provisions
of the ZTVING and the
Figure 9.1.4-2 Variants of tendon guidance with different prestressing concepts for box girders
845
DIN technical reports must be observed.
Accordingly, at least 2/3 of the tendons
must pass through the adjacent support
lines to cover the maximum span
moments. In addition, at least 30 % of the
tendons in each cross-section must pass
through unbonded.
In the transverse direction, the
transverse sections can either be
prestressed or loosely reinforced.
In recent years, the mixed construction
method has been increasingly developed
and tested in practice. The centric primary
tendons are subsequently grouted again.
The unbonded secondary tendons are
located externally inside the box girder.
They are arranged straight or polygonal.
Various possibilities are shown in Figure
9.1.42. The advantage of external pre-
tensioning is,
846
that the tendons can be checked and
replaced at any time and that no damage is
to be expected due to improper grouting of
the ducts. The tendons can be placed or
rearranged at different points in the cross-
section during construction and in the
final state, which can lead to prestressing
steel savings in construction methods with
changing loads on the superstructure,
which includes incremental launching. A
disadvantage of the mixed construction
method is the increase in the overall
height due to the tendons being
positioned further away from the edge
than with internal pre-tensioning. It is
also worth knowing that the possible
reduction in the thickness of the
tendonless webs has already led to damage
during construction. The damage patterns
described by [Streit/Sonnabend, 2002]
were mostly due to local overloading
during launching, as the launching jacks
had been applied in the same way as for
conventional incremental launching
bridges, resulting in a higher eccentricity
during load application. In addition, the
difficulties involved in the planned
reassignment of external tendons from a
centric to an eccentric position should not
be underestimated.
9.1.4.4 Equipment
The equipment for cycle pushing includes
the cycle cellar, the shifting system, the
launching nose and possibly auxiliary
supports or auxiliary pylons to reduce the
span during construction.
The cycle cellar is usually located at a
distance of 1.2 times the standard cycle
length behind one of the two abutments
[Göhler, 1999]. Here, the bridge is
constructed in sections so that a
monolithic superstructure is created. The
formwork for the floor slab rests on steel
girders, which either have a fixed and
non-adjustable
9 Production and execution methods
or which can be adjusted in height using
presses. Which variant is used depends
primarily on the subsoil conditions. A
further criterion is any curvature of the
superstructure in plan or elevation. In the
first variant, the steel girders are laid with
high precision and coated with a release
agent and lubricant, e.g. silicone grease.
The formwork panels for the floor slab are
placed on top and pulled forward over the
beams with the entire cycle during the
advance. [Göhler, 1999] recommends, for
example, 1-2 cm thick surface-treated
plywood panels with a length of between 1
and 1.5 m, which then fall down at the end
of the steel girders and are repositioned for
the next cycle. Steel slip sheets can also be
placed between the floor formwork and
the steel girders. In the second variant, the
girder grid is lowered together with the
floor formwork so that the superstructure
rests only on auxiliary bearings, which are
designed as sliding bearings. The
formwork can be stripped particularly
quickly thanks to the height adjustability
of the girder grid. The formwork panels
remain in the cycle cellar. However, the
formwork must be set up precisely for
each cycle. In the case of two separate
superstructures, the cycle cellar and
shoring system are often designed to be
transversely movable.
A cycle is constructed in two sections.
First, the base slab and footbridges are
concreted. The formwork for the roadway
slab is then completed using an internal
formwork carriage and this is then
produced. This also makes it easier to
produce reinforcements, pilaster strips
and other special elements. The internal
formwork is pushed out of the cycle cellar
with the cycle and moved into it after the
floor slab and the webs of the next cycle
have been produced. Fixtures such as
cross beams
 9.1 Concrete
bridges
and the movable inner formwork must be
coordinated. The outer formwork can be
lowered or folded away.
Auxiliary bearings, which are also
designed as displacement bearings, are
located between the cycle cellar and the
displacement system on the abutment.
They fix the advanced end of the cycle. The
target gradient can be maintained by
compensating for horizontal and vertical
deviations using presses.
The principle of the most commonly
used skidding systems today is to transmit
the horizontal press-fitting force to the
superstructure via friction,
s. Figure 9.1.43. The system is usually
permanently mounted on the abutment.
When advancing, the superstructure is
first raised by a few millimeters from the
set-down block (brake calliper) with the
aid of the lifting cylinders. The lifting
cylinders stand in a sliding shoe on a
Teflon-coated plate made of chrome steel
sheet as a slideway. The press head is
roughened or hardened and ribbed steel
plates are used to increase the frictional
resistance between the superstructure and
the cylinder. When the push-pull presses -
also known as push cylinders - are
extended, the entire superstructure is
pushed forward by a press stroke of
approx. 20-30 cm. When the press-fitting
cylinders are fully extended, the lifting
cylinders are relieved and the
superstructure is lowered onto the bridge
bearings and the settling block. The
tension/compression jacks are retracted to
their initial position and the process can
be repeated. In order to
Figure 9.1.4-3 Schematic diagram of a skidding system according to [Göhler, 1999].
847
To hold the superstructure in place,
profiled steel plates are also arranged on
the brake caliper. However, if the
downforce is high, the superstructure can
also be connected to the abutment via
threaded rods. In most cases, the
superstructure is pushed uphill on
longitudinal inclines, otherwise devices
for braking the superstructure are absolutely
essential.
Shunting can also be carried out with
drawbars. For cost reasons, this method is
used on short bridges or on long bridges
with gradients of over 3 %, as the
necessary frictional forces can no longer
be generated here.
Sliding bearings and lateral guides
enable and control the movement of the
superstructure. The bearings allow
vertical, horizontal or combined
movements. The assembly of a
displacement bearing is shown in Figure
9.1.44. As already mentioned,
displacement bearings are necessary in
and in front of the cycle cellar, on the
abutment and on supports and auxiliary
supports. During the advance, all piers
must be manned by workers, as the Teflon
plates of the displacement bearings and the
lateral guides must be constantly replaced.
Once the entire superstructure has been
moved, the bearings are removed and
replaced by the final bridge bearings.
The launching nose is required to
reduce the load on the front bridge cycles
due to cantilever moments. The purchase is
very cost-intensive. For this reason, it is
generally necessary to replace it several
times.
848
Figure 9.1.4-4 Longitudinal section through a displacement bearing according to [Göhler, 1999]
use is aimed for. The statically most
favorable effect is achieved when the pre-
assembly spigot has a length of approx. 60
% of the maximum span. The pre-
assembly spigot should be as light as
possible. For this reason, it is usually made
of steel girders. It is either completely
designed as a truss or has full-walled
longitudinal beams. It can also be partially
or completely replaced by a prestressed
concrete construction. In this case, the box
webs of the actual superstructure are
extended in the form of a launching nose
and supplemented and stiffened at the end
by steel parts. When constructing stiffeners
and frames in the transverse direction of
steel launching noses, care should be taken
to ensure that the width of the entire
structure can be varied slightly. The
launching nose is installed and aligned
before the first cycle and concreted
directly to it. The tensile connection is re
alized with tension rods. A beak lifting
device is attached to the tip of the
launching nose, with which the sag at the
tip of the cantilever can be corrected at the
next displacement bearing.
The abutments must provide sufficient
space for the feed system. The chamber
walls can only be constructed after the
shifting process has been completed.
When dimensioning, the forces from the
shifting process and the intermediate
settling must be taken into account. At the
target abutment, it must be possible to
push the pre-assembly spigot through so
that it can be dismantled behind the
abutment.
9 Production and execution methods
can. There must also be sufficient space
on the column heads for the positioning
and replacement of sliding bearings. As
the horizontal forces during the
construction process are usually greater
than those in the final state, the
substructures can be braced horizontally
or at an angle if necessary.
9.1.4.5 Construction process
The production of a cycle should take one
week if possible. The days of the week to
be scheduled have been added to the
following description of the work
sequence. The construction sequence is
outlined in Figure 9.1.45.
On Tuesday and Wednesday morning,
the formwork is prepared and the slack
reinforcement of the trough, which is
usually prefabricated behind the cycle
plant, and the internal tendons are
installed. The trough - i.e. the floor slab
and webs of the box girder - is concreted
on midweek afternoon. Over the next day
and a half, the roadway slab will be
formed and reinforced. The concrete can
be poured on Friday afternoon. The
concrete composition must be selected in
such a way that the concrete hardens
sufficiently over the weekend so that the
cycle can be prestressed on Monday
morning. The finished part of the
superstructure is then moved by one cycle.
In principle, there are two variants for
the production of cross beams. On the one
hand, a frame-like cross member can be
produced in the course of manufacturing a
support cycle.
 9.1 Concrete 849
bridges

Figure 9.1.4-5 Production diagram for cycle pushing

be installed. It must then be possible to
move the slab formwork carriage out of
the box girder via the reinforcement of the
floor slab and through the cross girder.
Figure 9.1.46 shows two corresponding
possibilities. Either the formwork carriage
is moved on brackets on the sides of the
web or it is mounted in such a way that it
can be moved over the transom. The
second variant is the subsequent
embedding of a disk-shaped cross beam.
In this case, the transom is positioned
under the roadway slab. The two
components are
but separated from each other by a gap so
that the load-bearing behavior of the track
slab is not affected. The advantage of this
variant is that there are no delays in
weekly production. The disadvantage is
that it is not possible to avoid inputs inside
the cramped box girder. This can be
remedied to a certain extent by a
retrofitted cross beam in the form of a
steel framework.
The same applies to the deflection
points for the external secondary tendons.
They are either installed during the
manufacture of the

Figure 9.1.4-6 Formwork for the production of frame-type cross beams according to [Göhler, 1999].
850
The clock is installed in the clock cellar or
at a later date.
After the last cycle has been completed
and the superstructure has been moved
into its final position, the pre-assembly
beak is dismantled, the displacement
bearings are removed, the final bridge
bearings are installed and the external
tendons of the secondary prestressing are
inserted and prestressed.
The shifting process must be constantly
monitored. This primarily concerns the
pressing pressure in the shifting system
and the deflection of the pier heads, so that
z. For example, blockages in the
displacement bearings must be detected in
good time. In addition, it must be possible
to switch off the shifting system via an
emergency switch from each shifting
bearing.
9.1.4.6 Variants
If the dimensions of the cross-section are
unusually large, a part of the box girder
can be manufactured and moved first. The
cross-section is then completed with a
follower.
Another variant is to place the cycle
cellar not at the end of the bridge but
between two bridge sections and to build
and move superstructures from there to
both sides. With the last cycle, the two
sections are connected monolithically and
the bridge is completed. This process makes
it possible to construct bridges with a total
length of up to 2 km, to traverse curves or
to combine a straight line with a curve in
the elevation.
There are also a number of special
features when sliding bridges that are
curved in plan. The cycle station must be
rotatable in plan and movable in the
transverse direction. Slight tilting
movements around the longitudinal axis
must also be possible.
9 Production and execution methods
can be guided. The pier heads support
additional brackets, crossbeams and
auxiliary struts. Examples of this variant
are the Schnaittach and Schafstalgrund
viaducts.
9.1.4.7 Examples of bridges built
New Mulde Bridge Dessau
[Curbach/Wölfel, 1998]
The New Mulde Bridge Dessau consists of
two 17.44 m wide superstructures lying
next to each other. The maximum span
width of the 431.5 m long bridge is 44.0 m.
The single-cell box girder has a
construction height of 2.45 m and has
heavily inclined webs. For cost and
scheduling reasons, a cycle length of 36.75
m was chosen, which corresponded to the
standard span width. The amount of
concrete to be poured per cycle was
therefore about twice as much as for
conventional incremental launching
bridges. The bridge was built using a
mixed construction method. The centric
tendons required for the construction
method were laid internally in the bond,
the secondary prestressing for the final
state was realized with eccentrically
arranged tendons without bond, see
Figure 9.1.42. Figure 9.1.47 shows a view
into the formwork of a cycle.
Danube bridge
Fischerdorf [Curbach,
1993-2]
As part of the expansion of the A 92, a
Danube crossing became necessary in the
immediate vicinity of Fischerdorf (near
Deggendorf). The 102.5 m long main span
over the Danube is spanned by a steel arch
and two connected box girders in steel-
concrete composite construction. The two
5-span prestressed concrete foreshore
bridges on either side of the river are each
277.3 m long. The superstructures consist
of two separate box girders with a
slenderness of l/h = 24.
 9.1 Concrete 851
bridges

Fig. 9.1.4-7 Reinforcement of the prestressing bars at the New Mulde Bridge Dessau
[Curbach/Wölfel, 1998].

Figure 9.1.4-8 Danube bridge Fischerdorf, cycle cellar with widening of the box girder
[Curbach, 19932].
852
were constructed using the incremental
launching method with auxiliary supports.
As the auxiliary supports had to be
founded on piles, a superstructure was
first constructed, eccentrically prestressed
and then moved transversely into its final
position. The second superstructure was
then constructed. Another special feature
of this bridge is the widening of the box
girder on the Deggendorf side. For this
purpose, the cycle cellar was designed in
such a way that the widening could be
realized within two cycles. Particular
attention had to be paid to the fact that the
displacement bearings and the press-
fittings on the auxiliary supports were
located under the webs at all times, i.e. they
had to be displaceable in the transverse
direction. Figure 9.1.48 shows the cycle
cellar with the widening.
Main bridge Retzbach-Zellingen
[Curbach, 1994-2]
In this bridge structure, the three spans
with the largest spans were mainly built
using the cantilever method, see section
9.1.3.7, and the six spans of the foreland
bridge at the Retzbach abutment were
built using the incremental launching
method. The majority of the foreland
bridges have a constant radius of 1300 m
in the base crack. At the Retzbach
abutment itself, the route has a clothoid
(A = 437.5 m). In this area, a replacement
radius for the box girder was used, i.e. the
clothoid was realized by variable
cantilever lengths. The route follows a
constant radius of R = 17,000 m in the
excavation. The lower edge of the box
girder is rounded off with R = 12,600 m,
which increases the height of the
superstructure in the direction of
Zellingen from 2.19 m to 3.09 m. A total
of 12 cycles were produced. The standard
cycle length was 27.50 m, the slenderness
l/h approx. 19. For this reason, auxiliary
supports were erected during the
construction process.
9 Production and execution methods
9.1.5 Segment construction
GERHARD GIRMSCHEID (until 9.1.6)
9.1.5.1 Introduction
Since the middle of the last century, the
development of solid bridge construction
has been strongly influenced by the use of
pre-tensioning. In the first applications of
pre-tensioning, the tendons were arranged
outside the concrete cross-section in order
to control the quite large losses of
prestressing force due to shrinkage and
creep of the concrete by the possibility of
post-tensioning. This influence could be
reduced by using high-strength prestressing
steel. The loss of prestressing force due to
shrinkage and creep of the concrete also
became quantifiable. As a result, external
pre-tensioning disappeared almost
completely, as the bond between
prestressing steel and concrete promised
not only improved crack distribution but
also long-term corrosion protection.
The fact that external pre-tensioning
[Jung wirth/Hochreither, 1992], [Vogel,
1994], [Eibl, 1998] has been increasingly
used again in recent years is closely linked
to segmental bridge construction, in which
the superstructure is divided into
individual segments lying transverse to
the longitudinal direction of the bridge,
which are, for example, industrially
prefabricated and tensioned together on
the construction site [Eibl, 1998]. This
construction method has a long tradition,
especially in France and the USA, where
the main steps in the development of
design and construction methods were
taken [Po dolny/Muller, 1982]. At the
center of the constructive development was
the joint technology, which led from the
relatively wide grouted concrete or mortar
joint to the thin bonded contact joint and
finally to the dry joint. The joints pose an
increased risk of corrosion for tendons
guided in the web of box girders. Due to
the external
 9.1 Concrete
bridges
The new arrangement of the tendons in the
box girder of the bridge, combined with the
improved corrosion protection available
today, solved the problem of tendon
corrosion in principle. In addition, the
difficulties of accurately assessing and
checking the grouting result when
grouting the ducts were largely eliminated.
Ultimately, the exposed, more easily
accessible tendons allow the construction
and operation of durable bridge structures
thanks to improved inspection and
maintenance as well as the possibility of
post-tensioning [Girmscheid, 1994],
[Miller, 1995].
In addition to durability, it was
economic aspects that led to the
combination of segmental construction
with external pre-tensioning. By
outsourcing the tendons and introducing
the dry joint, the production processes -
reinforcement, concreting and assembly -
could be simplified. The individual
production steps from the installation of the
ducts to the grouting of the tendons were
avoided, as was the time-consuming
closing of the joints. The resulting
uniformly good concrete compaction in
the bridge with the simultaneous use of
high-strength concretes and the limited
concreting section (segment), which does
not have to be concreted over several
hours with the help of sophisticated setting
delays (in-situ concrete bridge), result in a
higher quality of the segments and the
finished superstructure. In addition, the
cycle times for the production and
assembly of the segments could be
shortened. The simplification of the
production processes promoted the
introduction of mechanized laying
systems.
9.1.5.2 Features of segment production
The close interdependence of building
construction and construction methods as
a result of indus
853
The flexibility of industrial production
methods is primarily reflected in the type
and number of segments to be
manufactured in the segment production
sub-process. Whether deflection segments
have to be produced in addition to
standard and anchorage segments is
significantly influenced by the selected
tendon guidance. In the following, all three
types of segments are considered, whereby
the basic presentation of segment
production makes it easy to transfer them
to different structural conditions.
9.1.5.2.1 Production site
The superstructure segments can be
prefabricated
• in a stationary precast plant,
• in a temporary precast plant,
• in temporary on-site manufacturing,
whereby the choice of the production site
is
• the available space
• the number of segments,
• transportation routes and transport
distances,
• the frequency of transportation and
• the type of means of transportation
is taken [Kotulla, 1992]. The dependence of
the segment costs on the transport
distance and the number of segments is
shown in Figure 9.1.51.
If geometric constraints of the transport
route, such as clearance heights and weight
restrictions, do not prevent the
prefabrication of the segments in
stationary precast plants, longer transport
distances can be justified, as low upfront
costs for the mechanical equipment and the
utilization of the high degree of
mechanization and automation reduce the
unit costs of the segments. This means that
in the stationary
854
Figure 9.1.5-1 Segment costs: Dependence on transport distance and number of segments
The best way to implement industrial
production methods in a precast plant is to
use a qualified workforce to keep the
workload per manufactured segment low
right from the start of production. It
should be noted that the installation of a
new production line must be integrated
into the production planning of the
precast plant.
For smaller projects, the decision can
be made in favor of temporary
construction site production, where only
as many segments are produced as are
necessary for the construction of the
bridge structure. Although this means
small series with low mechanization and
higher upfront costs for the production
equipment, the entire segment transport
to the construction site is eliminated and
the segment production can be optimally
adapted to the load-bearing capacity of
the lifting gear. In the case of temporary
on-site manufacturing, prefabrication
elements such as
9 Production and execution methods
partial reinforcement cages etc. in order to
increase the degree of rationalization and
achieve a low level of vertical integration
on site.
The construction of a complete precast
plant on site only appears to make sense
for very large projects. Although the
temporary precast plant achieves the
efficiency of a stationary precast plant
with shorter transportation routes after a
certain training period, the large amount
of space required and the additional
increase in upfront costs due to the
provision of further construction site
equipment such as workshops,
accommodation, etc. are to be regarded as
disadvantageous.
In principle, industrial production
methods will be best suited to the
manufacture of larger quantities. As
smaller and medium-sized bridge
construction projects involve the
production of segments in
correspondingly small quantities, the
effects of the learning curve can be
expected.
 9.1 Concrete 855
bridges

Figure 9.1.5-2 Advantages and disadvantages of different manufacturing locations

This disadvantage can be minimized with Both the LongLine and Short Line methods
segment production in the stationary have the MatchCast method (contact
precast plant. This disadvantage is method) in common. This enables
minimized with segment production in congruent surfaces between adjacent
the stationary precast plant and can also segments and thus an exact fit of the joints
be overcome to a certain extent by a by using the last concreted segment
specialized company for temporary (MatchCast segment) as the end formwork
construction site production. Figure for the next segment. In the LongLine
9.1.52 shows a comparison of the various method, the formwork base for a bridge
production sites. span is created completely or partially and
the movable side and inner formwork is
offset by one segment length after
9.1.5.2.2 Manufacturing process concreting [Dimel, 1984]. Consisting of
individual segments, the bridge
The sub-process of segment production is superstructure is available at the end of the
characterized by the formwork as the partial process for an entire span. The
essential process element. It allows a LongLine method is therefore only used
distinction to be made between two economically for larger bridge construction
methods for the prefabrication of the projects where a large number of similar
bridge superstructure (Figure 9.1.53), spans with small curvatures are to be
constructed.
• the ShortLine and be used [Mondorf, 1993].
• the LongLine process.
856 9 Production and execution methods

Figure 9.1.5-3 Basic formwork construction for segment production

The ShortLine method, on the other
hand, uses a fixed formwork in which a
single segment of the superstructure is
produced, which is lifted out of the
formwork after concreting and positioned
in front of the formwork as a new
MatchCast segment [Girmscheid/Prade,
1993]. The usual
The segments of the superstructure section
that have already been produced are stored
separately. The small space requirement for
the actual production facility and the good
adaptation to changing routes and
gradients make the ShortLine process the
preferred choice.

Fig. 9.1.5-4 Advantages and disadvantages of the methods for segment production
 9.1 Concrete
bridges
and thus also qualify it for the extended
area of application of segmental
construction (Figure 9.1.54).
9.1.5.2.3 Measurement and control
As the segments of the superstructure are
manufactured individually in the
ShortLine process, checking
dimensional accuracy of the segments is
particularly important, especially with
curved and inclined superstructures. In order
to ensure the accuracy of fit of the individual
segments, maintain the required gradient
and avoid aesthetic defects, it is essential to
draw up a control and measurement
concept, which must be integrated into the
segment production cycle plan and also
make the dimensional tolerances to be
adhered to verifiable (Figure 9.1.55).
The measurement is based on the
theoretical calculations of the segment
geometries, which include the deviations of
the gra
857
The design of the superstructure has to take
into account the course of the load from
the dead load and the pre-tension of the
superstructure as well as from creep,
shrinkage and relaxation. Dimensional
deviations during the production of the
segments cannot be completely avoided,
whether due to temperature changes in the
concrete or formwork inaccuracies. For this
the
reason, any differences found between the
actual values and the target values of the last
segment to be measured must be corrected
as far as possible when measuring the
subsequent segments in order to eliminate
the accumulation of errors. In order to be
able to adhere to the specified cycle plan,
the aim should be to use as automated a
measurement process as possible with
digital data transfer, which simultaneously
provides the data for the measurement
during segment assembly.
In principle, the measurement should
be carried out in two steps:
1. Check the alignment of the segment in
the MatchCast position and the
adjusted formwork of the new cast.

Figure 9.1.5-5 Measuring principle during segment production

858
segment (measurement before
concreting).
2. Check the position and dimensions of
the concreted segment after initial
hardening of the concrete, but before
stripping the formwork and removing
the segment from the MatchCast
position (measurement after
concreting).
Usually 6 survey points are defined on the
segment which, in conjunction with the
fixed point coordinate network, enable the
required heights and lengths to be
measured. When designing the surveying
concept, it should always be borne in
mind that the greater the increase in
accuracy, the greater the effort required
for production and therefore the higher
the costs, but on the other hand the fewer
the difficulties with accuracy of fit and
rework. In other words, the greater the
permissible tolerances, the lower the
production costs, but the greater the effort
required to eliminate any defects resulting
from inaccuracies [Kotulla, 1992]. The
accuracy requirement also determines the
qualification of the surveying personnel.
For this reason, any surveying work must
be carried out by a specially appointed
surveying engineer or it can also be
carried out by a good site manager. In any
case, a double measurement with a
separate control calculation by two
independent bodies is recommended. The
double measurement concept must be
drawn up in such a way that independent
measurements are taken for both
measurements and the results are only
compared with each other after the control
calculation using the EDP. This prevents
measured values from the first
measurement being used for the second
measurement under production pressure.
9 Production and execution methods
9.1.5.2.4 Production cycle
In order to achieve continuous
production of the segments, the aim
should be to produce one segment per day
and formwork. In this case, the concrete
can set overnight and the segment can be
stripped the next morning and moved into
the position of the new MatchCast
segment. Partial transverse prestressing is
usually required beforehand.
The production cycle of the individual
work processes of a day, taking into
account the measuring and control
processes (Figure 9.1.56), then begins with
a control measurement of the segment (N)
cast the previous day and the match cast
segment (N - 1) (1.). Depending on the
formwork construction, the inner
formwork is now removed in one or more
stages (2.). The match cast segment (N - 1)
is then picked up by a lifting device and
transported to the storage area (3.). The
last concreted segment (N) is lifted out of
the formwork and placed in the match
cast position (4.). At the same time, the
rear end formwork is aligned. Next, the
new MatchCast segment (N) is measured
vertically and horizontally (5.). The lower
and outer formwork parts are then
positioned, their correct connection to the
rear end formwork is checked and their
position is adjusted to the required
segment dimensions with the aid of the
adjustment and measuring equipment
(6.). The reinforcement cage that has
already been created can now be placed in
the formwork (7.). Before concreting of
the new segment (N + 1) can begin, the
inner formwork must again be moved in
one or more stages to its position in the
new segment (N + 1) (8.).
9.1 Concrete 859

856
bridges

9 Production and execution methods

Figure 9.1.5-6 ShortLine process segment production cycle
9.1 Concrete
bridges
9.1.5.2.5 Production organization
The individual production processes for
manufacturing the segments, which take
place in a specific technical and
organizational sequence, determine the
spatial arrangement of the individual
equipment elements at the production
site. They determine the production
direction and the division of the segments
into production sections.
The basic elements of the
prefabrication equipment are as follows:
• Production hall, production site for the
defense cages,
• Tower crane for lifting the cage and for
concreting,
• Steel or steel frame formwork for
concreting the segments,
• Concrete mixing plant and or transport
concrete,
Figure 9.1.5-7 Schematic representation of the usual segment cross-sections
Figure 9.1.5-8 Principle of spatial organization in segment production
857
• Gantry crane, shuttle lift etc. for
transporting the segments to the
storage area
• Storage space.
The general elements of the construction
site facilities, such as accommodation,
office space, workshop, materials store,
etc., can also be used by the construction
site precast production facility for the entire
bridge construction site. In the case of the
temporary precast plant, they must also be
erected. Due to the existing infrastructure
of the stationary precast plant, only a few
elements of prefabrication, such as the steel
formwork, will need to be installed. In
order to keep the number of production
steps to a minimum, the reinforcement
should be delivered in a pre-bent state and
only the reinforcement cage should be
assembled from the individual items in the
segment prefabrication.
Since the bridge superstructure usually
consists of different types of tendons with
regard to
858
In addition to standard segments, segments
with stakes and deflection blocks have to be
produced (Figure 9.1.57), which usually
leads to several production lines in
prefabrication.
Standard segments and segments with
deflection blocks can often be produced
on a single production line, as the layout
can be easily adapted using an additional
inner part. This results in the basic spatial
organization of segment production
shown in Figure 9.1.58 for on-site
manufacturing when using the ShortLine
process.
9.1.5.3 Features of segment mounting
The design and construction method are
also interactively dependent on each other
during segmental assembly, particularly
with regard to the longitudinal bridge
system. Continuous beams will then
require different types of scaffolding than
single-span beams and auxiliary measures
may be necessary, such as temporary
tendons and in-situ joints. Furthermore,
effects on the assembly cycle and the
assembly organization are to be expected.
The following explanations are based on
single-span systems.
9.1.5.3.1 Assembly method
With the prefabrication of the
superstructure segments, the
manufacturing process is limited to
Fig. 9.1.5-9 Segments with laying scaffolding below and different support structures on the piers (see
Fig. 9.1.514)
9 Production and execution methods
superstructure to the work processes of
the segment assembly sub-process. This
means that the advantage of a time and
cost-optimized production process with
consistent production quality resulting
from the clarity of the construction
process in the segment production sub-
process can also be used for the assembly
of the final superstructure on the
construction site by using mechanized
laying equipment.
Whereas in the case of segment
production, the shingling is the core
element of the process identification, in
the case of segment assembly, the laying
framework allows a subdivision into two
process types:
• Segment assembly with lower laying
scaffold and (Figure 9.1.59)
• Segment assembly with overhead
laying scaffold (Figure 9.1.510).
However, it must be mentioned that using
the segmental construction method with a
falsework also provides a very cost-
effective method variant for smaller bridge
structures (2-span).
Which type of scaffolding is used
depends primarily on the driving geometry
and accessibility of the route. While the main
application of the bottom scaffold is for
straight and slightly curved bridges, the top
scaffold can also be used for very small
curvature radii [Girmscheid, 1993].
The laying scaffold below is used for
the proposed application
9.1 Concrete 859
bridges

Figure 9.1.5-10 Segments with overhead laying scaffold

The scaffolding to be preferred is the can be assembled flexibly and cost-

segmental construction method for smaller effectively. This also makes it easy to
bridge systems. The reason for this choice adapt to changes in bay lengths, and the
is the simplicity of the scaffolding design, costs for the static calculations, which are
as it consists of standardized truss module incurred as a result of the load conditions
girders, as offered by various from the advance phases and segment
manufacturers on the market. laying, are reduced.

Figure 9.1.5-11 Advantages and disadvantages of the methods for segment assembly
860
The requirements that need to be met are
low. Small bridge structures in particular
require simple manufacturing and design
concepts in this respect, so that extensive,
time-consuming and cost-intensive
preparatory work can be avoided. The
decision in favor of the lower scaffolding
is also favored by the often large radii of
curvature of small and medium-sized
bridge structures. The top scaffold and the
associated operational concepts were
explained in [Girm scheid/Prade, 1993]. A
comparison of the two scaffold types leads
to the
9.1.511 advantages and disadvantages.
9.1.5.3.2 Measurement and control
On the basis of the measurement data
from prefabrication, the exact
measurement must be carried out during
segment assembly.
Figure 9.1.5-12 Measuring principle during segment assembly
9 Production and execution methods
of the superstructure in accordance with
the documented gradient curve. This
requires various cyclical measurements
and checks (Fig. 9.1.512):
• Height and alignment of the laying
scaffold
• Bearing height
• Position and height of segment
suspension or segment feed slide
• Exact positioning, height and alignment
of the segments after reaching the
laying point
• Alignment of the segments of a bridge
field after laying, but before pre-
tensioning via the bearing points
• Height and alignment of the finished
superstructure of a bridge span
Starting from the measuring points with
which the segments were marked during
prefabrication, the following is calculated
between the column segments of a span
9.1 Concrete
bridges
A centerline is defined on the supports,
which serves as the basis for aligning the
superstructure segments. By transferring
it to the supports, it is also used to check
the position of the laying scaffold.
Measurements are taken during the entire
installation process. If possible, the most
important measurements should be
carried out twice independently of each
other.
9.1.5.3.3 Assembly cycle
The cycle for the assembly of a bridge span,
which should be completed within two to
four days depending on the length of the
bridge span and route alignment, is
divided into three production processes:
• the segment laying
• the segment preload and
• the feed of the laying scaffold.
The individual production steps in the
manufacturing processes of segment
laying and pre-tensioning are essentially
the same for the bottom and top laying
frame (Fig. 9.1.513). After
Figure 9.1.5-13 Segment assembly cycle
861
Once a segment has been taken over from
the laying scaffold, it is moved to its
planned position, whereby each segment
must be supported or suspended in such a
way that it can be aligned individually (1.).
Once all segments of the bridge span have
been positioned and aligned, they are
coupled to each other using temporary
pre-tensioning. The tendons are then
pulled in and the prestressing is applied up
to the point at which the superstructure is
self-supporting (2.). The superstructure is
then lifted by pressing on the bearings,
usually the entire prestressing is applied
and then the hangers or the contact to the
feed carriages is released. After the
bearings have been cast underneath, the
bearing auxiliary presses are released and
the pre-tension is applied in its final size
(3.).
With overhead scaffolding, the
segments are picked up from the transport
vehicle using a scaffolding trolley and
driven to the installation site. There, they
are attached to the scaffolding using
suspension rods and aligned using
hydraulic presses. With the
862
The segments are taken from the
transport vehicle by crane or transfer
structure (see also section 9.1.5.3.4) and
placed on transfer carriages/sledges or
press-fitting plates and moved into the
laying position on the top chord/guide
rails. The feed carriages are equipped with
hydraulic presses that allow the segments
to be aligned in the exact position in the
laying position.
The lower laying scaffold is easy to
handle during the advance. Depending on
the design of the scaffolding, various
solutions are available using cable
winches, hydraulic presses and/or toothed
racks. Lifting forces that can occur with
larger spans are transferred to the
superstructure. The feed conditions for
overhead scaffolding are more difficult,
especially with large spans.
Figure 9.1.5-14 Delivery and handover of the segments with the laying scaffold below
9 Production and execution methods
curved routes, where the tilting safety of
the bridge span and the scaffolding as well
as the load-bearing capacity of the
bearings and auxiliary bearings must be
taken into account [Girmscheid, 1993].
Furthermore, special auxiliary equipment,
such as auxiliary slide chairs, tracking
carriages, etc., must be provided.
9.1.5.3.4 Assembly organization
The entire production processes for
segment assembly take place within one
production section, the span of a bridge
span. The number of production lines on
which the superstructure is built depends
on the number of superstructures lying
next to each other, as is the case with two
or more superstructures on multi-lane
roadways, for example. The segments can
then be assembled on the various
production lines one after the other or in
parallel.
9.1 Concrete
bridges
The delivery of the segments can be
organized in two ways:
• Delivery from the bridge foot or
• Delivery via the already completed
superstructure.
Terrain conditions and bridge height are
the main boundary conditions that
influence the type of delivery. Special low-
loaders are used to transport the segments
from the precast plant to the construction
site. These either transport the segments
directly to the scaffolding transfer point or
set them down on flatbed wagons
beforehand, which reach the laying
scaffolding via pushers or tractors.
The segment transfer from the
transport vehicle to the laying scaffold at
the
Figure 9.1.5-15 Basic spatial organization of segment assembly with laying scaffold below
863
The top-mounted version, as with the
bottom-mounted scaffolding, requires an
additional lifting device. This can be used
(Figure 9.1.514):
• Truck-mounted crane at the foot of the
bridge or on the superstructure,
• stationary crane on the superstructure
and
• Gantry crane or transfer structure on
the superstructure.
Which lifting device is used depends on
the performance requirements, economic
optimization and availability.
The basic spatial organization of the
assembly is shown in Figure 9.1.515 for a
scaffold below with a stationary crane.
864 9 Production and execution methods

9.1.5.4 Planning the execution The single-cell boxes are designed as

of segment assembly using an example standard cross-sections. The
superstructure widths are between 7.00 m
9.1.5.4.1 Technical implementation planning and 15.50 m. The single-span longitudinal
bridge systems consist of the following
The necessary construction planning will typical standard segments (Fig. 9.1.517):
be explained using the bridge system of an
a) pier segments at the ends of each bay
elevated highway with single-span, single-
with the tie bulkhead for the tendons.
cell segmental box girders supported on
b) Standard segments between the pillars
reinforced elastomer bearings (Figure
and deflection segments. The webs have
9.1.516).
a comparatively low wall thickness. This
The bridge system is pre-tensioned
results in a significant reduction in the
with tensioning elements that are guided
weight of the superstructure, as the web
externally within the box girder. In the
thickness is not determined by
final state, the single-span systems are
structural reasons but by purely static
connected by spring plates to form three
requirements (concrete compression
to four-span systems, so that roadway
strut).
transitions are only necessary there. Each
c) Deflection segments are located
bay is interlocked with the piers by means
approximately at the 1/3 or 1/4 points
of earthquake stoppers (cleats), which are
of the span. The vertical and horizontal
cushioned with elastomer buffer plates. In
components of the deflection forces
the event of an earthquake, this largely
from the pre-tension are concentrated
prevents major relative displacements
at these points.
between the substructure and
superstructure. The spans of the single- To understand the necessary static
span box girder bridges are between constructive investigations of the
approx. 25 m and 50 m. The

Figure 9.1.5-16 Superstructure (bay with three/two

deflection blocks)
9.1 Concrete
bridges
Figure 9.1.5-17 Box cross-section, external
bias voltage
The laying technique for the segments
must be explained for the various
construction stages. The segments are
transported to the laying scaffold on low-
lying flatbed wagons, each pulled by a
tractor unit. There they are taken over by a
scaffolding trolley, moved lengthwise to
the laying site and attached to the
scaffolding with suspension rods. After all
the prefabricated elements of a bay have
been moved in, they are aligned and
coupled to form a unit using a slight
auxiliary pretension of 0.1 N/mm². The
elements are joined together dry, without
the usual reinforcement, and interlocked
using shear cams. The sheathing tubes and
tendons of the external longitudinal
prestressing are then installed and
prestressed. The fully prestressed
superstructure is then lowered onto
auxiliary bearings and the scaffolding is
moved over the completed superstructure
bay to the next bay. This requires the
auxiliary sliding chair with feed device
and the tracking carriage on the scaffold.
The basic decision for a bottom or top
scaffolding type
865
results from the track geometry and the
accessibility of the route. Scaffolding at
the bottom is used for straight stretches
and where there is free access to the piers;
this is necessary for the installation of the
slideway supports. Top scaffolding is
required for curved route alignments. The
overhead scaffolding can be moved
through the curves with tangential
displacement, irrespective of the
accessibility of the piers. However, this
type of scaffolding is inevitably more
complex in terms of travel equipment,
control hydraulics and handling. The
lower scaffolding places stress on the
substructures and presents the design
engineer with comparatively simple tasks.
The overhead scaffolding, on the other
hand, places stress on the entire final
superstructure structure during the
crossing. In addition, the loads applied to
the supports of the scaffolding during the
traveling state are often much heavier than
the concentrated loads from the live loads
of the final state; however, the total live
load is usually greater than the total
weight of the scaffolding.
The aim of extensive static investigations
of the construction conditions is to develop
a design and operating concept for the
scaffolding without the need for
permanent additional reinforcements for
the final system. An operating corridor for
moving the scaffolding, the boundary
conditions and, if necessary, limited
auxiliary equipment that can be used must
be defined. For these verifications, various
loads and operating conditions must be
investigated, taking into account all
influencing parameters.
9.1.5.4.2 Detailed planning of the laying technique
using laying scaffolding
The recurring processes during
installation are shown in Figure 9.1.518.
866 9 Production and execution methods

Figure 9.1.5-18 Launching gantry in laying position

The laying technique is divided into with variable outline (Figure 9.1.520).
three main systems according to static In its initial state, the bridge beam is still
aspects: a link chain with defined hanger loads. By
pre-tensioning, the bridge beam
a) Laying position - simple, open static
maintains its stiffness and relieves the
system,
middle hangers of the laying scaffold.
b) Pre-tensioning and settling - static
However, as the total dead load
system with variable articulation,
c) Right-of-way states - variable static
system.
The laying position of the scaffolding in
relation to the pier axes is selected in such
a way that the largest absorbable eccentric
normal force of the piers specified in all
structural measurements is utilized (Mx ,
My , N - interaction). The absorbable
torsional stress of the scaffold girder (steel
truss box) is used to keep the stress on the
piers in the installed state in the order of
magnitude of the action from live load
and dead load, but taking into account the
reduced load factor in the construction
state (Fig. 9.1.519). Furthermore, the
measures for rehanging or coupling the
superstructures are determined in order
to transfer the horizontal forces occurring
during the construction stage.
During pre-tensioning, the bridge
beam behaves like a beam on elastic
bedding, caused by the elastic resilient
effect of the scaffolding. It should be noted
that statically this is a system Figure 9.1.5-19 Laying: Effect and interaction
of scaffolding on superstructures and
substructures
9.1 Concrete
bridges
Figure 9.1.5-20 Static systems during pre-tensioning
remains the same, the load increasingly
moves to the outer suspension rods
during the tensioning process as long as
the bridge beam is not lowered. The
following criteria must be observed after
superposition of the outward and
pretensioning state:
a) Check the permissible load in the outer
hangers.
b) No hanger may receive compressive
force. If it does, the hanger is released
and the dead load of the segment is
transferred to the bridge beam.
c) Tensile stresses must not occur in the
concrete structure during the entire
pre-tensioning process.
For the subsequent displacement
conditions (Figure 9.1.521), the
permissible operating corridor for the
trailing carriage of the launching gantry
must be determined. The wheel sets of the
trailing carriage are arranged in such a
way that they are unobstructed at very high
loads.
867
can travel dangerously over the bars of the
elements. However, the displacement in
the curves forces the wheels to leave the
web areas; the wheels reach the track plate
or the cantilever. At the same time,
however, the support force on the trailer is
reduced, as the center of gravity moves to
the auxiliary sliding chair (phase 2 in Fig.
9.1.522). The maximum loads that can be
absorbed must be determined for the
longitudinal bridge system in order to be
able to correctly determine the transfer
points for the traversing device for certain
operations.
The following boundary conditions
must be observed during all these
construction phases:
a) Tilt safety of the bridge span;
b) Load capacity of the bearings or auxiliary
bearings;
c) Tilt resistance of the steel scaffolding;
d) Geometrically reach the next pillar.
868
Figure 9.1.5-21 Feed states
At the same time, the horizontal fixed
point of the system must be clearly
defined when moving, especially when
moving the sliding chairs or transferring
the loads to the main sliding chair: The
downslope forces on the auxiliary
bearings from the longitudinal and
transverse inclination of the bridge must
be superimposed with the friction forces
from the advance. The forces occurring
must be tracked up to the foundation and
sometimes make it necessary to couple
several spans or piers. For example, the
bearings on pier i (Fig. 9.1.522) are so
heavily loaded when moving from phase 2
to 3 that they must be supported by four
auxiliary supports.
9 Production and execution methods
bearings must be reinforced. It is essential
to reduce costly auxiliary construction
measures to a minimum in order to ensure
that construction work is carried out
economically and on schedule (Fig.
9.1.523).
9.1.5.5 Areas of application for
segmental bridge construction
As a result of the possibility of industrial
prefabrication of the superstructure
segments and the efficiency of assembly, a
decisive advantage of segmental bridge
construction in terms of quality and cost-
effectiveness comes into play. The fact
that the production of superstructure
segments is separated from the actual
construction site processes enables
construction projects to be carried out as
so-called fast track projects [Girmscheid,
1996], [Girmscheid/Hartmann, 1999], i.e.
within extremely short periods of time
between award of contract and
completion.
The requirement to construct an
economical and at the same time durable
structure as part of a fast-track project is
increasingly being made when realizing
large infrastructure projects. Since a large
number of today's infrastructure buildings
are realized as concession objects, one of
the main reasons for this demand is the
desire for a rapid amortization of the
invested capital. If on-site manufacturing
is also hampered by limited space, as is the
case in the large agglomerations in Asia
and South America, for example, segmental
construction is a suitable bridge
construction method that combines a
compressed construction schedule through
the parallelism of manufacturing
processes with the production of
individual construction elements outside
the construction site [Girmscheid/Prade,
1993].
The transfer of technical and
organizational characteristics of the
stationary industry to the construction
 9.1 Concrete 869
bridges
industry allows us to
870
Figure 9.1.5-22 Feed conditions - Effects on superstructures and substructures
This would, however, only appear to be
effective if the superstructure segments
are manufactured in large quantities in
order to avoid the not inconsiderable
upfront costs for the mechanical
equipment.
Figure 9.1.5-23 Construction aids and
stabilization measures during laying and pre-
tensioning
9 Production and execution methods
The main focus of the project is to absorb
the costs of the stationary production site
(formwork, lifting equipment, etc.) and
the construction site (transportation,
lifting and laying equipment, etc.).
9.1.5.5.1 Conditions for use in the European
construction market
The question of whether the field of
application of the segmental construction
method can also be extended to smaller
and medium-sized bridge structures and
under what conditions its use proves to be
worthwhile leads to the following
considerations:
• In principle, the segmental
construction method can also be used
competitively for small and medium-
sized bridge structures with adapted
construction technology and logistics.
For multi-span bridge systems in
particular, which would be built on a
falsework or laying girder in site-cast
concrete, the production and often
time-consuming field-by-field
relocation of the bridge segments is not
 9.1 Concrete 871
bridges
necessary.
872
formwork is no longer necessary.
Although it is still necessary to move
the simplified falsework or launching
girders, the advantages of cost-effective
production of the superstructure can
be combined with a reduction in
construction time.
• It is irrelevant whether production
takes place for one large or several
small bridge structures, as long as the
individual construction sites are not too
far away from each other or from the
production site of the superstructure
segments. Bridges over highways often
meet this requirement, especially as
they are largely similar in their
geometric boundary conditions.
Therefore, despite their short
construction lengths, they can be
realized economically with centrally
arranged segment production.
• The question of the costs of a
construction project is central to the
choice of a suitable construction
method. In addition to the actual
construction costs, the segmental
construction method can in some cases
help to reduce ancillary construction
costs resulting from the interaction of the
construction project with the
environment. In the construction of
inner-city bridges and the conversion
or extension of highway bridges, the
segmental construction method is
therefore a viable alternative to other
construction methods, as the costs of
relocating and obstructing traffic flows
on highly frequented roads can be
reduced as a result of the rapid
construction process and the acceptance
of those affected can be increased.
• In addition to the costs incurred during
the construction project, the subsequent
costs are increasingly being taken into
account when deciding on a
construction method, as costly
maintenance and the renovation of
bridge structures, which is also often
associated with an impact on traffic,
are in
9 Production and execution methods
their cost relevance should not be
underestimated. The segmental
construction method offers the
aforementioned advantage that the
actual construction and maintenance
time and thus also the time of traffic
obstruction during renovation
measures is shortened. Bridge
maintenance is made easier by the
external pre-tensioning, as tendons can
be re-tensioned or replaced. External
pre-tensioning also makes it easier to
dismantle and recover individual
segments or entire bridge sections.
• Within the intended long service life of
bridge structures, changes in use can
only be taken into account with
increased structural effort. In this case,
external pre-tensioning allows simple
and rapid adaptation to changing loads
by successively increasing the pre-
tensioning force or pulling in
additional tendons.
In summary, the segmental construction
method is also an attractive construction
method in the European construction
market under certain boundary
conditions, which can also lead to a
reduction in costs for small and medium-
sized bridge construction projects.
• Investment and cost of capital
• Production costs
• Incidental building costs
• Maintenance costs
• consequential loss costs and
• can contribute to change of use costs.
In order for the economic advantages of
segmental bridge construction to be fully
realized for construction projects of small
and medium lengths, a number of
prerequisites must be met:
9.1 Concrete
bridges
• project planning that is geared to the
requirements of the construction
process
• a construction process that guarantees
a technically and organizationally
smooth process
• a simple and easily modifiable process
for segment production, in order to be
able to manufacture even small series
economically
• a surveying and control concept that
ensures a high degree of dimensional
accuracy in accordance with the
requirements
• a well thought-out organization of
logistics
• a simple, fast and modifiable assembly
process to maintain the time and cost
benefits of prefabrication
The following basic and comparative
considerations deal with the ways to fulfill
these requirements and are intended to
provide decision-making aids for the
efficient use of the segment construction
method.
Figure 9.1.5-24 Cycle of the superstructure manufacturing process
873
9.1.5.6 Segment
construction as a fast-track
project
The basis for characterizing a construction
project as a fast-track project is an
understanding of the production structure
of the segmental construction method.
The most striking feature of a FastTrack
Project [Girmscheid, 1996], [Girmscheid/
Hartmann, 1999] is the extremely short
completion time, which is due to the
utilization of the construction technology
properties of the segmental construction
method.
The segmental construction method
stands out from other construction
methods in that the bridge structure is
divided into individual components that
are often repeated and are largely identical
in shape and dimensions. As a result, the
construction process (production process)
can be divided into various manufacturing
processes (Figure 9.1.524), which in turn
are made up of different sub-processes
[Fiedler, 1991]. On the one hand, these
sub-processes are characterized by cyclical
sequences of operations and, on the other
hand, by their partial, which is the
manufacturing process.
874 9 Production and execution methods

Figure 9.1.5-25 Construction process breakdown of segmental bridge construction (superstructure)

9.1 Concrete 875
bridges
basically completely independent of
This is due to the reduction in the depth
the
of production on the construction site and
the shift to production facilities
independent of the construction site.
The segmental bridge construction
process is then divided into the two
production processes of substructure and
superstructure, whereby the latter
production process is made up of the two
sub-processes of segment production and
segment assembly. In the form of the
repetitive work processes of
reinforcement, forming, shuttering,
stressing, transverse prestressing and
finishing, the segment production sub-
process is shifted to prefabrication, which
is independent of the construction site. In
the segment assembly sub-process that
takes place on the construction site, the
number of equally repetitive work
processes is reduced to segment laying,
longitudinal prestressing and moving the
laying frame. To support and secure the
production process, the transport
processes, the control processes and the
maintenance and storage processes are
added to the segment production and
segment assembly processes (Figure
9.1.525).

9.1.5.6.1 Time savings from parallel manufacturing

processes and industrial production methods

Compared to the conventional in-situ

construction method with exclusive
production of building blocks, a
significant time saving can be achieved
with the segmental construction method
(Fig. 9.1.526).
While the two production processes of
substructure and superstructure are
carried out one after the other in the
conventional in-situ construction method,
the segmental construction method allows
them to be carried out in parallel (time
saving ∆t1 ). This means that production
of the individual superstructure segments
can begin during the prefabrication of the
substructure. The segment production is
 876 9 Production and execution methods

This depends on the construction site

conditions and the prevailing weather
conditions. Parallelized sequences of
individual work processes within the sub-
processes are also possible, whereby industrial
production methods can also be achieved
through the cyclical repetition of the work
processes and their high mechanization, which
ultimately lead to further time savings (time
gain ∆t2 ) compared to the in-situ concrete
construction method [Girmscheid/Hartmann,
1999].

9.1.5.6.2 Time savings from parallel project

phases

An economically oriented use of industrial

production methods in the construction
industry requires the consistent
implementation of their technical and
organizational characteristics. This can be
achieved through parallelized project phases,
with planning of the building design and
construction processes oriented towards the
production methods. This is the only way to
achieve extensive standardization of the
individual production processes, the use of
their mechanization potential, their optimal
interlinking and the targeted use of production
resources. Provided that total contractor
agreements are in place, this goal of
production-oriented planning can be realized
by transferring responsibility for execution
planning to the construction company
[Girmscheid, 1996]. This ensures that the
knowledge gained from previous construction
projects flows directly back into the planning
phase of the new construction project. At the
same time, the construction company has the
option of running planning and construction
in parallel. This means that, without the entire
bridge structure being fully planned and
constructed, it is possible to
9.1 Concrete 877

874
bridges

9 Production and execution methods

Figure 9.1.5-26 Time savings from parallel manufacturing processes and industrial production methods
 bridges
9.1 Concrete
875
Figure 9.1.5-27 Time gained from parallel project phases
876
individual construction phases have
already been completed.
In addition to the time advantage
resulting from the production structure of
the segmental construction method (time
gain ∆tproduction), a further time advantage
can arise from the parallelism of planning
and execution (time gain ∆tplanning). If both
time advantages are combined, the overall
duration of a construction project can be
significantly reduced by starting early and
shortening the execution phase (Figure
9.1.527).
The demands placed on planning
management by the overlapping of
implementation planning and
construction are enormous. Due to the
section-by-section planning and erection
of the building, the constant interplay
between the conceptual tasks of execution
planning [Girmscheid, 1996] demands a
high level of planning management.
• Creating the technical concept: Binding
standards, specifications and
regulations, etc.
• Definition of the structural concept:
static and structural calculation of the
bridge structure, preparation of the
execution drawings, etc.
• Setting up the optimum construction
concept: planning of segment production
and segment transport, design and use
of installation equipment, calculation
of installation conditions, etc.
Strict adherence to precisely defined
planning steps and processes, which must
be embedded in a schedule that specifies
exactly who has to implement what and
when. It is therefore essential that
• planning packages based on the section
formation of the structure,
• the respective planning status is
adequately documented,
• the plan distribution to inspectors,
construction site, etc. is monitored and
controlled and
9 Production and execution methods
• The basis must be created in advance to
facilitate the incorporation of
subsequent planning changes.
Furthermore, the flow of information
between the individual planning teams, the
approving authorities and the construction
team must be organized in such a way that
the most important information flows in a
timely and precise manner.
The aforementioned complex stakes in
the management of execution planning
can only be met if those involved in the
planning process are able to recognize and
assess the interrelationships between the
design and construction methods adopted
and their impact on subsequent decisions
and align their actions with them in an
economical manner. They must be fully
proficient in the construction processes
and have well-rehearsed team structures
across all project phases.
9.1.5.6.3 Conclusions f o r
economic efficiency
Up to now, the characterization of
construction projects in segmental
construction as fast track projects has
primarily been based on the performance
of this construction method during
construction. The extremely short
execution phases are not the result of a
capacity increase in production factors,
but are due to the production process
structure of this construction method. As a
result, a comparison of the segmental
construction method with a conventional
in-situ concrete construction method
shows the dependency of production costs
on production time shown in Figure
9.1.528.
If we assume the same minimum cost
for both construction methods
(production costs k1 ), it becomes clear
that the conventional in-situ concrete
construction method, in order to achieve
the construction
9.1 Concrete
bridges
Figure 9.1.5-28 Dependence of production costs on production time
project in the same short period of time as
the segmental construction method
(production time t1 ), requires additional
costs (production costs k3 ) due to the
necessary increase in the capacities to be
provided. If the realization period of a
construction project is given decisive
weight when choosing a construction
method, the goal of a short completion
period will be more cost-effective to
achieve than with the conventional in-situ
concrete construction method, even if the
minimum cost of the segmental
construction method (production costs k2
) is increased.
If the other cost reductions already
mentioned (see section 9.1.5.5.1) are taken
into account in the search for the
optimum construction method, the
segment construction method will be able
to retain its economic efficiency even if the
production time is given less weight. The
FastTrackProject designation can now be
extended to include construction projects
which, in addition to an extremely short
production, maintenance and conversion
time, also require the construction and
operation of the building.
877
The project should include the
construction of adaptable, maintenance-
friendly and durable bridge structures.
9.1.5.7 Summary
The segmental construction method with
external prestressing has become
increasingly important as a bridge
construction method in recent years. The
reasons for this trend lie on the one hand
in the design and operational
improvements to the construction process,
such as the development of the foundations
and prestressing technology, the
production process and on the other hand in
the realization as a fast-track project. In
addition to the application criteria for large-
scale projects, application criteria were also
drawn up to enable the segmental
construction method to be used as an
economical and durable construction
method for smaller and medium-sized
bridge lengths.
878
9.1.6 Cable-stayed bridges
9.1.6.1 Production of the pylons
A distinction is made between APylon
and HPylon reinforced concrete pylons.
The vertical components of the pylons
are constructed in stages using climbing
formwork. After the concrete has
hardened, the climbing formwork is
moved to the immediately following
concreting section with the help of a crane
or an automatic climbing system (Figure
9.1.61). The automatic climbing system
works according to the walking
mechanism principle and, in addition to
the self-climbing scaffold, consists of a
climbing pole or a climbing frame.
Independent climbing is achieved by
means of hydraulic lifting gear, which is
supported on the climbing rail or the
climbing frame and moves the climbing
scaffold up and down.
Fig. 9.1.6-1 Climbing formwork for pylon
standards [PERI GmbH].
9 Production and execution methods
scaffolding. A prerequisite for the
feasibility of climbing formwork is the
installation of appropriate anchors.
The features of climbing formwork are:
• The production or climbing rhythm
takes place in sections. The climbing
steps usually remain the same size. The
formwork consists of individual, large-
area, modularly assembled elements,
each of which comprises a pylon leg. The
size is limited by the load-bearing
capacity of the available lifting
equipment. Openings and built-in
parts can be installed cleanly. Formwork
conversions for changing dimensions
and wall thicknesses are possible.
• The working rhythm is discontinuous
but cyclical. A cycle consists of:
– Moving and anchoring climbing
scaffold with formwork in Etap pen
– Aligning the inner and outer
formwork elements (the outer side
usually remains open for the
reinforcement work)
– Installing reinforcement
– Move the outer formwork elements
forward, close the formwork, align
(spindles are used to align the
formwork elements when shuttering
and to move them away when
stripping), brace with formwork
anchors
– Concreting (from the upper working
platform)
– Once the stripping strength has been
reached, the outer and inner
formwork are retracted
– Climbing scaffold with formwork in stage
n + 1 and anchor it.
Horizontal construction joints are
unavoidable in pylon construction, as
concreting is carried out in stages, but
these can be deliberately formed and
arranged. The rationalization effect of the
climbing formwork principle lies largely in
the temporal and ar
9.1 Concrete
bridges
The climbing construction method is
therefore carried out in a consistent work
cycle.
9.1.6.1.1 A-Pylon
The two legs of the A-pylon are each
made with a self-climbing climbing
section. Stepping from one stage to the
other can be carried out with the aid of a
climbing scaffold or by means of a
walking beak arranged inside the hollow
cross-section (Fig. 9.1.62). It must be
noted here that the A pylon legs are
subjected to bending as cantilevers until
they join in the embankment area (Fig.
9.1.63). Therefore, the ideal
manufacturing axis must be
superimposed, i.e. increased, by the
negative deformation from dead load as
well as shrinkage and creep of the
concrete. Depending on the inclination of
the APylon legs, temporary horizontal
intermediate bracing (Figure 9.1.64) is
required to keep the cantilever moment
and the deformation small (Figure 9.1.65).
In the construction of APylons, it is
difficult to join the two climbing
formwork of the pylon legs in the
embankment area (Fig. 9.1.62) and then to
construct the shoring. This is usually done
in such a way that the outer formwork on
the inside remains in place after the last
stage of the pylon legs has been formed
before the "embankment area" is formed
and serves as support for the
"embankment formwork" after the
anchoring has been reinforced. The two
remaining outer formworks, each
consisting of three sides, are brought
together in the "embankment area" (Fig.
9.1.66). The horizontal bracing frames of
the climbing formwork are detached from
the adjustable frame parts opposite each
other. These remain with the remaining
879
Outer formwork on the inside of the
pylon leg below the dam. The two U-
shaped horizontal frames are then
connected (Fig. 9.1.62). The formwork is
then successively rebuilt in stages until the
vertical outer line of the anchoring stem of
the pylon is reached. Special internal
formwork is usually required for this area
in order to form the anchor supports for
the cables. For this purpose, new internal
formwork is lifted into place for the upper
anchoring stem of the pylon (Fig. 9.1.67). It
is particularly important that this
formwork is designed in such a way that
prefabricated recess elements for the
anchors and anchor trumpets can be
inserted and fixed as easily as possible, as
the horizontal and vertical setting angles of
the recess elements and anchor trumpets
change from installation point to
installation point. The installation must be
carried out very precisely from the inner
shell side. Together with the installation of
the splitting tensile reinforcement (usually
a splitting tensile prestressing must also be
applied), this extensive input takes a
considerable amount of time, which slows
down the climbing process.
The manufacturing process of an A-
pylon with anchoring stem (purely
reinforced concrete construction) is
shown in Figures 9.1.62 to
9.1.67.
In order to counteract the slowing
down of the climbing process on the
pylon stem in the anchoring area of the
cables, prefabricated steel construction
elements are often used, i.e. one steel
construction kit per double cable pair. The
anchoring plates and anchor trumpets are
welded into the modular steel elements
with extreme precision at the factory,
lifted into place precisely on the
construction site, set down and welded
together on site (Fig. 9.1.68). This
measure allows the construction time of
the usually time-critical pylon production
to be reduced and the quality of the
880 9 Production and execution methods

Figure 9.1.6-2 APylon with anchoring stem

9.1 Concrete
bridges
Figure 9.1.6-3 Phase 1: Concreting the V-shaped pylon legs
The anchoring area must be improved, as
it is very difficult to place concrete in this
area due to the installation elements of the
anchors and the dense reinforcement
layers. For architectural reasons, this steel
anchoring stem is often encased in a cast-
in-place concrete cladding or clad with
precast elements (local joints) (Fig.
9.1.68). The space in between is used for a
landing or elevator.
Cross beams are often installed under
the roadway (yield beam) in A-pylons,
which largely absorb the expansion forces
of the pylon stems in order to minimize
the stress in the pylon and the foundation.
Figure 9.1.6-4 Phase 2: Concreting the
crossbeam
881
to reduce the weight. This crossbeam is
usually also used as a launching platform
for the cantilevered carriages of the
longwall girder (Figure 9.1.64). The
construction is carried out in such a way
that heavy anchorages for the temporary
steel support brackets are embedded in the
pylon legs. The support brackets are then
lifted into place and installed. The
scaffolding girders or scaffolding truss
girders are then connected to the
crossbeam formwork and the working
Fig. 9.1.6-5 Phase 3: Concreting of the pylon
posts
882 9 Production and execution methods

Fig. 9.1.6-6 Phase 4: Concreting the

connection of the pylon legs (embankment
area)

scaffolding is lifted into place using a

mobile crane, supported on the brackets
on both sides and anchored. The side
formwork is then lifted into place on the
scaffolding girder construction between
the two pylon legs, laid and positioned
(Figures 9.1.64, 9.1.610 and 9.1.613). Once
the formwork has been reinforced,
concreted and hardened, the support
structure is lowered hydraulically and the
formwork and scaffolding are removed.
This cross beam of the pylon can also be
Figure 9.1.6-7 Phase 5: Concreting the pylon
lifted in as a finished part using a floating
head (anchoring stem) with the cable
crane or strand lifting device. anchorages

9.1.6.1.2 H-Pylon external formwork, analogous to A-pylon

An HPylon is produced in the same way
as an APylon using climbing formwork
(Figures 9.1.69 to 9.1.611). However, the
production process is much simpler, as no
complex adjustment work is required on
the formwork. The construction of the
anchoring area is also simpler, as only two
cable levels are anchored per pylon leg.
The anchoring elements are installed on
the outside.
construction. For HPylons, cross beams
are usually required under the roadway
and in the upper part of the pylon
uprights or at the pylon head as head
cross beams. The crossbeams are
produced in site-cast concrete in the same
way as described for the A-pylons (Figures
9.1.610 to 9.1.612). The cross beams can
also be lifted in as prefabricated parts
using a floating crane and/or strand lifting
device (Fig. 9.1.613). The connection to
9.1 Concrete 883
bridges

Figure 9.1.6-8 Structural steel anchorage body of a pylon with concrete cladding

Figure 9.1.6-9 Phase 1: Concreting the lower section of the pylon using climbing formwork

The studs are connected by means of a
site-cast concrete joint. Once the cross
beam has been installed underneath the
stretching girder, the upper prefabricated
cross beam or top cross beam can be
placed on the lower cross beam (Fig.
9.1.613). Once the pylon support height
has been reached, the upper cross beam is
lifted using a strand lifting device. The
crossbeam can be attached to the
temporary assembly brackets on both
sides and lifted into position.
after reaching the assembly position in the
prepared anchorages. The precast
transverse beam is connected to the pylon
standards using coupled tendons from
working scaffolds. The tendons are
inserted from recesses on the outside of the
pylon standards and coupled in the in-situ
concrete joints between the pylon
standard and the precast element. The
joints are then filled with in-situ
884
Figure 9.1.6-10 Phase 2: Concreting the
crossbeam
concrete and the prestressing bars or
strand tendons are prestressed from the
outside of the pylon. When using this
method, no temporary stiffening is
possible between the two pylon legs.
Furthermore, the lifting device must be
installed on the pylon standards or on the
heads of the pylon standards before the
upper precast transverse beam or end
transverse beam is raised (Fig. 9.1.613).
Furthermore, during construction it is
sometimes necessary to temporarily
stiffen the two pylon struts on both sides
using auxiliary stiffening walers (Fig.
9.1.611).
9 Production and execution methods
9.1.6.2 Production of the face beam in
in-situ concrete prefabrication
The production of the face girder in in-
situ concrete using cantilever carriages is
carried out in the longitudinal direction
from the pylons, symmetrically, section by
section and alternating in the following
steps (Fig. 9.1.614):
1. Aligning the cantilever trolley
2. Pulling up and anchoring the tensioning
cables in the pylon
3. Concreting
4. Lowering the formwork and anchoring
the tensioning cables in the stretching
girder
5. Advancing the cantilever trolley
The cantilever carriage consists of two
units that can be moved to the opposite
side, the feed carrier and the cantilever
carriage. These units serve as a walking
and feeding device. The feed girder rests on
the last stages of the stretch girder and is
anchored to it temporarily. The main
beams of the cantilever carriages are
positioned lengthwise to the stretch beam. A
distinction is made between the following
cantilever beam systems (Table 9.1.61):
• Above
• Below
The advantages and disadvantages of the
two cantilever trolley systems are listed in
Table 9.1.61.
9.1.6.2.1 Cantilever wagon with overhead main
girders
The overhead cantilever carriage (Fig.
9.1.615) consists of longitudinal and
transverse truss plates that support the
formwork grid. The longitudinal system
consists of at least two lattice girders.
These longitudinal truss plates, which are
usually arranged in a trapezoidal pattern,
usually carry two truss cross members in
the front area. On these upper
 bridges
9.1 Concrete
A) B)
Figure 9.1.6-11 Phase 3: Production of the upper part of the HPylon [Storda Bru, 2002]. A) Production of the stems in the upper section of the HPylon
with tem porary transverse bracing. B) Production of the transverse head beam in site-cast concrete

885
886
Lower crossbar
Figure 9.1.6-12 HPylon - Production of the lower and upper crossbeam in site-cast concrete [Sam
chonpo Bridge, 2002].
The lower scaffolding cross beams are
suspended from the upper truss cross
beams. The cross system thus consists of
the truss cross girders, which are arranged
on the upper chord of the longitudinal
truss plates, and the two lower truss
scaffolding cross girders, on which the
formwork box rests. The lower truss cross
girders are suspended from the upper truss
cross girders by means of suspension rods.
These suspension rods can be pressed by
means of double-gripping hollow rods,
allowing the formwork box to be raised and
lowered. The trusses must be adequately
braced against lateral tilting. The
horizontal and vertical forces as well as
the cantilever arm moment of the
cantilever carriage must be absorbed by
the previously constructed concreting
section.
9 Production and execution methods
Head crossbeam
The feed beam under the longitudinal
sheaves must be sufficiently anchored in
the slab to absorb the tensile and frictional
forces during the sliding process of the
cantilever carriage. The front end carriage
is secured to the feed carrier at the rear by
means of a claw construction. This claw
construction serves to secure it against
tipping during the feed. An armored roller
device is arranged in the area in front of
the longitudinal truss discs for shifting.
The shifting process is usually carried out
using drawbars and hollow piston presses.
In this state of movement, the front
carriage must be secured against
uncontrolled movements by means of
ropes or drawbars, especially on slopes.
During the concreting process
 bridges
9.1 Concrete
A) B)

Figure 9.1.6-13 Assembly of the prefabricated crossbeams using a floating crane or strand lifting device [Second Seven Crossing Bridge, 1995]. A)
Lifting in the prefabricated crossbeam using a floating crane (left). The upper crossbeam is lifted into position, installed and tensioned (right) using a

887
strand lifting device (middle picture). B) Upper precast transverse beam placed on already installed lower precast transverse beam
888 9 Production and execution methods

In the second stage, the front carriage is

anchored by means of tie rods underneath
the track slab next to the longitudinal
beams with load-distributing cross beams.
Most formwork carriages are equipped with
a counterweight to the formwork box in
the rear area. This means that rear
anchoring in the slab is only required for
the concreting weight.

9.1.6.2.2 Cantilever wagon with main girders

underneath

The bottom cantilever wagon (Fig.

Figure 9.1.6-14 Production sequence of the
stretch beam
9.1.616) consists of longitudinal girders or
truss plates that support the formwork box
and transverse truss girders. The load is
transferred from the cantilever shoring
trolley at the bottom to the cantilever beam
via the rear rolling gear or pressure plate
and also via the two lateral suspension
structures. The tilting moment

Table 9.1.6-1 Cantilever systems for cable-stayed bridges - advantages and disadvantages
Cantilever wagon with overhead
main girders
Advantage - Feed elements are in visual
s contact for greater safety
Cantilever wagon with main girders
underneath
– Simple storage and shifting
construction, therefore usually
easier to handle (KIS)
– Usually lower weight due to
simple construction
– Cable anchoring can be fitted in the
front area of the element
– No obstruction due to slopes
crossbars
– Cantilever construction easier in
the cons truction

Disadvantag – Anchoring construction and - Feed elements are not visible at

es sliding construction structurally the top and bottom at the same
complex time, therefore less safety
– Mostly higher weight
– Inclined cables and suspension
beams can interfere with each
other
– Anchoring must therefore often be
located at the rear of the segment
9.1 Concrete
bridges
Figure 9.1.6-15 Cantilever trolley: top side member - cable - side member interaction
of the cantilever must be absorbed by means
of a pair of forces through the previously
constructed bridge section, i.e.
compressive force transfer at the rear
support on the underside of the cantilever
girder and tensile force acceptance via the
suspension of the cantilevered formwork
carriage by means of a U-shaped
transverse truss girder and claw-shaped
support structure at the front support.
The longitudinal girders or longitudinal
truss plates of the cantilever carriage
support the girder grid of the formwork box.
These longitudinal beams are connected in
the central area to an integrated U-shaped
transverse truss girder. By means of this U-
shaped transverse girder construction, the
cantilever carriage at the bottom is
suspended from the longitudinal feed
girder of the previous construction
section. The
889
Feed girders are arranged in the edge area of
the stretched girder, between the cable level
and the outer edge of the concrete
structure. There must be sufficient
working space between the cable level and
the cable level to move the cantilevered
support carriage. An integrated cross girder
is arranged in the rear area of the
cantilevered cantilever carriage
underneath half of the stretching girder. To
lower and precisely align the cantilever
frame carriage, appropriate presses must be
arranged between the support structure of
the U-shaped cross-member and the feed
beams. During the concreting process, the
press-fittings must be set down on a screw
spindle. Armored rollers are also provided
on the rear lower cross member for the
shifting process. During the
890
Figure 9.1.6-16 Cantilever trolley: bottom side member - cable - side member interaction
During concreting, contact with the
previous bridge section is ensured by
means of presses and thrust spindles on
the rear bearings of the cantilever carriage
below. During the concreting process,
appropriate safeguards against
unintentional displacement of the
cantilevered cantilever carriage must be
provided. Shifting is usually carried out
using drawbars and hollow piston jacks.
Figures 9.1.616 to
9.1.618 describes the application of this
concept in practice.
9.1.6.2.3 Design principles for
cantilever scaffolding
The following procedure is recommended
when designing cantilever scaffolding for
cable-stayed bridges:
9 Production and execution methods
1. Define concreting sections or cantilever
lengths from cable spacing in the
longitudinal direction (as equidistant
as possible!).
2. Arrangement of feed beams and
cantilever main and cross beams so
that the cantilever scaffolding can be
moved to the next section after the stay
cables have been tensioned without
obstructing them.
3. Design diagram for the arrangement of
the formwork grid: The spacing of the
shuttering grid is approx. 30-40 cm and
results from the relative deflection limit
of the shuttering panels. This grating
must usually be placed on a supporting
grating made of steel girders, as the
span of the grating is determined by the
permissible deflection (specified
tolerances). The direction of the
orthogonal grating results from
9.1 Concrete
bridges
Figure 9.1.6-17 Sunniberg Bridge, CH (top) [Batigroup, 19961998] Vasco da Gama Bridge,
(bottom) [Bento Pedrodo Constr., 19951998]
the length of the concreting section or
the distance between the main girders
of the scaffolding carriage (shortest static
lengths, no forces to be "carried along").
4. Check all load cases in the construction
stage.
The overriding criteria for the design are
the simple handling of the
891
The main requirements for the design of
the free cantilever trolley when moving
forward, the simplest possible feed steps
without the risk of anchoring errors, a
static system without alternating
articulation, and a lightweight design for
cost reasons.
When designing the work sections, the
aim is usually to create a weekly
 892
Figure 9.1.6-18 Formwork lowered and advanced for realignment
cycle. The weekly cycle of the
Sunnibergbrücke (CH) draw frame
production is shown in Figure 9.1.619.
9.1.6.3 Cable assembly
The prefabricated stay cables are usually
wound onto bobbins and delivered to the
construction site ready for unwinding.
They are transported from the
intermediate storage area to the
installation site where they are inserted
into the stripping device. The temperature
of the cable should be at least 10 °C
during the unwinding process. Two
principles must be observed when
installing PE-piped cables:
• At deflection points, the cables must be
routed using satellite elements during
installation to avoid kinks and other
damage to the pipe.
9 Production and execution methods
• Axial forces can be applied to the cable
end as required via threads and end
faces of the anchor sleeves, but only to
a limited extent on the PE sheath of the
free cable length.
Depending on the construction process,
the saddle elements are mounted on the
pylon in advance or lifted to the pylon
together with the cable (Fig. 9.1.621). The
lower saddle elements are usually placed
on the bridge girder before the cable is
installed (Fig. 9.1.624). The following
preparatory work is required to install the
cables:
• Installation of the work platform on the
outside of the pylon at the height of the
relevant trumpet.
• Installation of the working platform at
the lower anchoring and outside the
concrete slab, below the stretching
girder, at the upper end of the trumpet.
 bridges
9.1 Concrete
Saturday
Work steps Thursday Friday Sunday Monday Tuesday
Wednesday
Concreting Beam
Concreting Slab (Total 36.5 m3)

Remove end formwork shells

Position the feed carrier for the next stage Move the

Setting, hardening concrete

cantilever frame carriage forward

Moving trumpet tube falling (rising) stem branch Moving

trumpet tube rising (falling) stem branch

Reinforcing falling (rising) stem branch

Reinforcing rising (falling) stem branch

Installing tensioning jacks

Uncoiling stay cables from

bobbin
Preparing stay cables for installation
Installing stay cables
Tensioning stay cables (4-6 tensioning stages with V0
Figure
approx.9.1.6-19
2200 kn) Weekly work cycle Sunniberg Bridge (CH)

893
894
• Installation of the winch on the bridge
plate and the towing device on the
anchor plate.
• Preparation of the self-locking nuts for
the upper and lower anchoring.
The following mounting devices are
required:
• Working platforms: Platform on the
outside of the pylon for inserting the
cables into the trumpet and on the
opposite side for pulling in and
supporting the anchor head. Platform
at the lower anchorage for the
tensioning work below the stretching
girder (roadway).
• Lifting gear: Mobile crane for unloading
the cable bobbins and inserting them
into the puller (capacity: max.
transport weight of the cables incl.
bobbins). Slewing tower crane, possibly
winch for hanging the cables in the
pylon. Mobile lifting device on the
bridge deck for moving tensioning
devices, inlet sets etc. and for lifting the
cables when inserting them into the
lower trumpet. Light lifting device at the
anchoring in the pylon for moving the
pulling-in devices. Cable winches with
pulleys: Cable winch for pulling the
cable forward until it enters the lower
trumpet.
Figure 9.1.6-20 Suspending short cables in the pylon area
9 Production and execution methods
9.1.6.3.1 Suspending short cables
in the pylon area
Short cables near the pylon can be suspended
directly in the re gel with the slewing tower
crane. The free-hanging cable is first
inserted into the lower trumpet, fixed
provisionally if necessary (Fig. 9.1.620) and
then swung to the trumpet in the pylon.
The upper anchor head is then pulled
through the trumpet and secured against
the anchor plate (Fig. 9.1.621).
9.1.6.3.2 Suspending long cables
As soon as the height, working radius and
load range of the crane are no longer
sufficient for direct assembly, the assembly
process is changed (Fig. 9.1.622). The
upper cable end is lifted to the pylon with
the crane, pulled in through the trumpet
and anchored with nuts or support plates.
When cantilevering, it is often advisable
to install several cables (max. all cables of
the next stage) in the pylon in advance.
However, the cables can also be pulled
into the pylon as shown in Fig. 9.1.623
using cable winches arranged at the pylon
head. The cables are pulled through the
9.1 Concrete 895
bridges

Figure 9.1.6-21 Detail of pylon head - anchorage

Figure 9.1.6-22 Attaching long cables

The inlet saddle is pulled into the trumpet

of the extension beam and tensioned until
the anchor sleeve can be secured against
the anchor plate (Fig. 9.1.624). Equipment
such as the pneumatic crane, winch and
hydraulic presses are adapted to the Figure 9.1.6-23 Anchoring in the pylon - pulling
necessary pulling forces. in the stay cables
896 9 Production and execution methods

Fig. 9.1.6-24 Installing the cable on the extension beam - lower anchorage

Figure 9.1.6-25 Pasco Kennewick Bridge, Columbia River, USA [Leonhardt et al., 1980].
9.1 Concrete 897
bridges

Figure 9.1.6-26 Ohio River Bridge USA, Portsmouth 1984

Figure 9.1.6-28 Xiang Jia Tang Bridge, China

898 9 Production and execution methods

Figure 9.1.6-27 New Ohio Bridge, USA, Portsmouth (alternative design)

Crossing
Figure 9.1.6-29 Houston Ship Channel

bridges
9.1 Concrete
Pylon Stiffening beam Pylon Stiffening beam

I = 381 m
h = 81 m I = 381 m h = 86 m
I, = 126 m
h1 =49 m I, = 147 m h, = 47 m
I2= 61 m
59
b = 23.85 m b = 26.35 m
6 lanes 6 lanes

0.20 m*/m* Main field: 0.21 m*/m* 0.24 m*/m2 Main field: 0.78 m"/m*
Concrete
End field: 0.76 m /m32

125 kg/m2
Steel construction

Slack steel 26 kg/m* 45 kg/m2 38 kg/m2

Longitudinal direction

Prestressing steel Transverse

direction
2 kg/m^ 23 kg/m*
2 kg/m°
Total
39 kg/m* (49 kg/m* incl. anchor)
32 kg/m* (40 kg/m* incl. anchor)
Ropes

899
900
9.1.6.3.3 Clamping process
Once assembly is complete, the cables are
tensioned according to the instructions.
The male thread of the anchor and
tensioning spindle allows continuous
tensioning of the cables and, if necessary,
a release of the force. Depending on
accessibility, the tensionable anchorage
can be positioned at the top or bottom
end of the cable. On large bridges, this is
usually below the bridge girder.
9.1.6.4 Characteristic values of typical
inclined cable bridges for pre-calculation
purposes
Reference is made to [Girmscheid, 19871]
for the pre-dimensioning of inclined
cantilever bridges. The approximate cost
calculation and the control of the
calculation can be estimated and
controlled on the basis of the square
meter prices or somewhat more precisely
on the basis of the determined unit
masses. Figures 9.1.625 to
29 such values are compiled for various
bridge types. The values given refer to the
unit square meter of bridge area
(carriageway) or cubic meter (pylon,
roadway girder). The calculation is based
on the load effect according to AASTHO
[Standard Specifica tions, 1996].
Fig. 9.2.1-1 Division of a bridge into assembly bays, Rhine bridge Düsseldorf-Oberkassel [Beyer
et al., 1977].
9 Production and execution methods
9.2 Steel bridges
GÜNTER RAMBERGER
and FRANCESCO AIGNER
9.2.1 Workshop production
The division of the cross-section into
sections (see Figure 4.2.220) and the
division of the beam into fields
determines the dimensions of the units
manufactured in the workshop (Figure
9.2.11).
Their size and weight must be adapted
to the production possibilities of the
workshop, to the transport route and
means of transport and to the type and
load-bearing capacity of the lifting gear
used during assembly. Since steel
construction is always a prefabricated
construction, factory production and
assembly must be included in the
considerations right from the start of
planning in order to be able to produce
cost-effective bridge structures. Steel
bridges are predominantly sheet metal
structures. As the strength and toughness
properties of thick sheet metal are also
sufficiently good at low working
temperatures, thick sheet metal is
increasingly being used. The joining
technology used in the workshop is almost
exclusively arc fusion welding in the form
of metal active gas (MAG
) welding and submerged arc welding.
Manual metal arc welding with coated
electrodes is being pushed back by the
aforementioned processes due to their
higher deposition rate.
9.2 Steel bridges
The predominant elements for steel
bridge construction are longitudinally and
transversely stiffened plates (orthotropic
plates and disks). The plates are usually
cut to size on CNC-controlled cross-
carriage cutting machines. These machines
can also be equipped with marking and
scribing devices, which also mark the
cracks for welds and the hole centers for
drill holes on the sheets. Weld seam
preparations on the edges for V, X, K and
steep flange seams are usually made when
cutting out the sheets by skewing the
torches or by cutting with several torches
in one operation.
Hot-rolled profiles for longitudinal
stiffeners (flat steels, beaded flat steels,
halved IP profiles) are either ordered cut
to exact dimensions (surcharge) or cut on
the saw, also as a package. Cold-rolled
profiles for triangular or trapezoidal
stiffeners are either purchased as cold-
rolled profiles or produced by folding. As
the folding benches in most workshops
are shorter than the field lengths of the
supplied parts, the folded profiles are butt-
welded together in advance to form longer
units. Cold-rolled profiles also have much
smaller dimensional tolerances than folded
profiles. Open stiffeners are first joined to
the sheet metal with tack welds (20-30
mm long, approx. 400- 800 mm apart).
Closed profiles can be placed directly on
the sheet metal and stapled at greater
distances. In order to maintain the fitting
accuracy and thus simplify production, it
is important that the longitudinal
stiffeners at the intersections with the
transverse stiffeners are positioned exactly
to the nominal dimension and are tacked
there. Minor deviations between the
transverse stiffeners are of no significance.
The longitudinal stiffeners are joined to
the sheet metal using fillet welds.
Submerged-arc welding machines with two
or more welds are mainly suitable for this.
901
Welding heads that move longitudinally
over the sheet. The tack welds are welded
over in the process. Due to the deep
penetration of the UPS weld, the gap in
trapezoidal sheets is also welded from the
skew of the trapezoidal webs and a
flexurally rigid connection with the sheets
is achieved (see also Figure 4.2.24).
For orthotropic panes (web and sheet
metal), the transverse stiffeners can also be
arranged on the sheet side opposite the
longitudinal stiffeners. This avoids
penetrations and simplifies workshop
production (Fig. 9.2.12, 9.2.13).
For orthotropic roadway slabs and for
orthotropic panes of web and floor panels
with smooth outer sides, the cross
members or stiffeners lie on the side of the
longitudinal members or stiffeners. For
this purpose, the webs of the mostly T-
shaped cross members are cut out so that
they can be combed onto the longitudinal
members and height tolerances of the
longitudinal members can be
compensated. The cross member webs are
welded to the cross chords beforehand
using fillet welds. The cross member webs
are usually connected to the sheet metal and
the longitudinal stiffeners using MAG-
welded fillet welds.
Each fillet weld causes the sheet to
shrink by 0.1 to 0.3 mm, depending on the
thickness a of the weld and the welding
process selected. As all orthotropic
roadway panels have many fillet welds,
this fact should be taken into account by
adding a width allowance chosen
according to experience.
Cross joints of metal sheets are usually
produced before the entire sheet is cut to
size.
Fillet welds are used to connect the web
to the deck plate chord and floor plate. It
is usually sufficient to also connect the
cross members to the webs with fillet
welds. In the case of high stresses in the
chords and high fatigue resistance
requirements, fillet welds are used for
 902
9 Production and execution methods
Figure 9.2.1-2 Cross-section with external longitudinal web stiffeners and internal transverse web stiffeners, north footbridge over the Danube in Vienna [VA
TECH VOEST MCE].
9.2 Steel bridges
Figure 9.2.1-3 Girders with external longitudinal web stiffeners, north footbridge over the Danube
in Vienna
full penetration welds are required for the
connection (see Figure 4.2.21). Whereas in
the past the thickness of the bottom chords
was adjusted to the moment line by means
of shims, today this adjustment is made by
selecting the thickness of the shims
themselves (Fig. 9.2.14).
Sheets with a carbon equivalent CEV ≥
0.4 and thicknesses ≥ 30 mm should be
preheated before welding to reduce the
high cooling rate caused by the heat
flowing off the thick sheets and thus the
formation of martensite and bainite, which
in turn reduces t h e risk of
b a i n i t e formation.
903
Fig. 9.2.1-4 Belt slats down
staging [Thiele/Lohse, 1997]
brittle failures in the seam area can be
avoided. Thermomechanically rolled steels
with an exceptionally low CEV can be
welded without preheating, even with
large thicknesses.
Particular attention must be paid to
those welded areas where tensile stresses
occur in the thickness direction of the
sheet, either from external influences or
from the load of the weld shrinkage. Due
to the inclusion of manganese sulphides
and oxides, which are formed during
rolling in the rolling direction, tensile
stresses can occur during a welding
process with tensile stresses.
904 9 Production and execution methods

Fig. 9.2.1-5 Workshop production with rhönrad [Gerhards et al., 1982].

In the case of stresses in the thickness
direction, the manganese sulphides and
oxides can melt and cause terrace
fractures. This can be remedied by using
sheets whose properties are guaranteed
when stressed in the thickness direction,
such as sheets Z15, Z25, Z35. The
[ÖNORM EN 1993110] provides
guidance on which sheet metal quality
should be used.
Welds are preferably produced in the
trough or horizontal position. The bearing
of the finished
This can be made considerably easier by
placing the part in a rotating device
(rhönrad) (Figure 9.2.15).
9.2.2 Assembly of prefabricated units
Compared to site-cast concrete and
composite structures, steel structures have
the decisive advantage that all their parts
are fully load-bearing after workshop
production. For this reason, steel
structures are never

Fig. 9.2.2-1 Transportation of an entire bridge, SandträgerWeg railroad bridge, Düsseldorf

9.2 Steel bridges 905

complete falsework, as this method is If the supporting structure is too wide,

uneconomical.
For smaller bridge structures, it is
sometimes possible to manufacture the
entire structure in the workshop,
transport it to the construction site and
place it on the substructures there with
the help of lifting gear (usually mobile
cranes) (Figures 9.2.21 to 9.2.24).
splitting the bridge girder lengthwise into
two or more main girders can simplify
assembly. The joints between the main
girders are then closed on site. In this way,
panels located between the main girders
or adjacent to the main girders can also be
connected bay by bay.

Fig. 9.2.2-2 Lifting an entire bridge with two mobile cranes, Sandträger Weg railroad bridge,
Düsseldorf

Figure 9.2.2-3 Lifting with truck-mounted crane, SandträgerWeg railroad bridge, Düsseldorf
906 9 Production and execution methods

Figure 9.2.2-4 Lifting a truss bridge with floating cranes, Danube bridge Krems

In the case of continuous beams, the If it is not possible to transport beams

main beams can be laid over the individual
support sections and then closed. It
should be noted in the calculation that the
main girder spans act as single-span girder
chains for the load from the dead load of
the structure, but as continuous girders
after closing (Fig. 9.2.25 and 9.2.26).
the length of a span, the spans can also be
transported to a pre-assembly site near the
construction site, where they can be laid
down, assembled and used with lifting
gear.
Arched structures occupy a special
position here. As arched structures only

Figure 9.2.2-5 Lifting the side span of a center girder railway bridge with four floating cranes,
Süderelbebrücke Hamburg, 3rd superstructure
9.2 Steel bridges
Figure 9.2.2-6 Lifting of the central span of a central girder railway bridge with four floating
cranes, Süderelbebrücke Hamburg, 3rd superstructure
Figure 9.2.2-7 Floating or pushing a Langer beam, Mittelland Canal Bridge Brahmsche
are fully load-bearing when closed, the
aim is always to assemble the entire
supporting structure on individual
supports and insert it as a single unit. This
can be done not only by lifting in with
cranes, but also by floating and sliding in
on scales and/or a ship (Figures 9.2.27 and
9.2.28).
In rare cases, it is also possible to
construct the supporting structure on the
subsoil and only then remove the subsoil
under the supporting structure. If the
obstacle to be bridged is not too deep or if
the use of the areas under the bridge is
made possible by auxiliary supports, the
907
If the structure is not disturbed, auxiliary
supports can also be provided and the
panels produced in the workshop can be
placed on the supports and joined
together on site to form the supporting
structure.
For all assemblies with prefabricated
units, compliance with the geometric
shape is of decisive importance both for
the aesthetics and, in the case of statically
indeterminate systems, for the load-
bearing capacity. For workshop production
and assembly, it is not the geometric target
shape of the structure in its final state that
must be adhered to, but the workshop
shape derived from the target shape for
the unstressed state.
908 9 Production and execution methods

Figure 9.2.2-8 Installation of a Langer beam, Danube bridge Schwabelweis [Carl et al., 1982].
9.2 Steel bridges
The correct shape of a panel is achieved
by the correct shape of the shaping
elements, i.e. the web plates. To achieve
the correct shape and the correct length of
the beam made up of panels, the panels, or
at least their shaping elements (main
beams), must be joined together in the
correct shape. In order to compensate for
length errors (e.g. from welding
shrinkage), one end is usually cut to size
and the other end is produced with a
planned excess length (30 to 50 mm). Two
consecutive main beams are placed
together either in the workshop or at a
pre-assembly site or, if supported on
auxiliary supports, directly d u r i n g
assembly and adjusted in height so that
the chord stitches h1 and h2 correspond to
the stitches of the workshop form. The
actual dimension list is then taken from the
first to the last cross member and
compared with the target dimension lsoll .
The difference Δ = list - lsoll is the
dimension used to tear and cut the other
end with excess length from the cut end.
This ensures that both the pitch
dimensions between successive wefts and
the length dimensions are correct (Fig.
9.2.29).
Figure 9.2.2-9 Production of the workshop
mold
909
Of course, it is even better if this
method is applied not just to two, but to
several consecutive panels. The
dimensions of the joined panels must be
secured with fitting marks or fitting tabs.
The individual panels are joined either by
welding or by GV bolting. Welders are
mainly used in the area of roadway slabs,
as tabs and bolt heads r e d u c e the
thickness of the roadway pavement and
penetrate the pavement. Bolted joints
have the advantage that they usually have
sufficient load-bearing capacity for
installation even when only partially bolted
and that production inaccuracies can be
compensated for more easily. In the case of
GV screw connections, the use of friction-
resistant coatings on the contact surfaces
can also improve the overall corrosion
protection.
be applied in the workshop.
Joining the parts by welding on site
places higher demands on welders than
welding in the workshop, as the parts have
to be joined in the respective forced
position (including upright and
overhead). Welding also represents a
more homogeneous connection of the
parts without the need to redistribute
forces compared to a lug connection. In
exceptional cases, welds can also be
ground flat so that they remain invisible
under the corrosion protection. In order to
be able to weld the continuous deck, web
and floor plates on both sides or on one
side to secure the bath, the stiffeners in the
weld area are usually initially left out for a
length of a few 100 mm in the seam area.
In order to be able to adapt the sheets well,
especially in the corners, the longitudinal
seams are also not welded a few 100 mm
before the joint. The necessary weld seam
preparations are already made when the
sheets are cut.
910
Bath safety devices, including steel plates,
are usually only applied during assembly,
as they can be knocked off during
transportation. The parts to be joined are
first secured with cleats, tack-welded and
finally welded and the cleats removed. The
previously unwelded fillet welds are then
re-welded. The joints of the longitudinal
stiffeners are closed with welded fitting
pieces, which are usually cut to size on site.
In the case of hollow stiffeners, the butt
welds of the fitting pieces are welded either
on inserted shims or on inserted transverse
bulkheads as bath protection. As the
corrosion protection is destroyed during
welding, the corrosion protection must be
reworked from the ground up in the areas
affected by the welds.
9.2.3 Cantilever construction
Cantilever erection is the name given to
the longitudinally oriented erection
method in which, after the first, so-called
stand bay has been erected, the other bays
are connected one after the other at the
location of the final position over further
distances, possibly with the involvement of
a few auxiliary supports. The lifting gear
can travel under the bridge or (usually) on
the bridge. The individual parts of a bay
are generally moved forward over the
already installed bridge beam. The parts of
a bay are connected freely suspended in
the lifting gear. First, the longitudinally
oriented main girders are suspended and
connected to the preceding, already
assembled span in a bending and shear-
resistant manner. The intermediate and
cantilevered parts are connected to the
main beams, usually longitudinally
oriented, sometimes also transversely
oriented. After the assembly of a bay, the
lifting gears traveling on the bridge deck
are turned over.
9 Production and execution methods
the cantilever is moved forward one bay
length and the assembly process is
continued. When a pier is reached, the
stem tip must either be lifted there or the
deflection of the cantilever must be
compensated for by raising the previous
bearings (Figure 9.2.31).
Cantilevering can be carried out from
an edge span to one side or from an inner
span to both sides. In the case of bridges
with pronounced large openings, e.g.
current bridges, cantilevering is carried
out from both sides simultaneously or one
after the other up to the center of the
bridge, where the bridge structure is closed.
Closing must be carried out at the same
height and tangent. This can be achieved
by selecting the appropriate moment
distribution, by lifting at the adjacent
supports or by locally applying a bending
moment (possibly also a shear force) with
hydraulic jacks. The advantage of
assembling the two load-bearing parts one
after the other is that it is possible to make
do with one prefabrication device, which is
transferred to the second load-bearing
part after assembly of the first. The
disadvantage is the longer (approximately
double) assembly time (Fig. 9.2.32).
In the case of cantilever construction,
longitudinally divided main beams can
also be installed for large web heights.
However, assembly stresses are "frozen"
here, which must be taken into account
when verifying the beams.
Particularly in the case of cantilever
mounting, it is necessary to lay out the
beams of adjacent bays with shape and
length adjustment as described in the
previous section. During assembly, the
distances between the fitting marks or
fitting lugs must be precisely maintained
(fitting screws). The theoretical bending
line must be compared with the actual
beam shape after installation of each bay.
In the event of deviations, these errors can
be corrected with the subsequent shots.
 9.2 Steel bridges
Fig. 9.2.3-1 Cantilever of a beam bridge, Rhine bridge Wiesbaden-Schierstein [Weitz, 1975].

911
912 9 Production and execution methods

Figure 9.2.3-2 One and two-sided cantilever of a beam bridge [Weitz, 1975].

Figure 9.2.3-3 Bar-wise cantilever of a truss bridge in the side span, Brunsbüttel elevated bridge
over the Kiel Canal
9.2 Steel bridges 913

Figure 9.2.3-4 Bar-wise cantilever of a truss bridge up to the middle of the bridge, Brunsbüttel high
bridge over the Kiel Canal

be balanced. Particular attention must be parts from a lifting platform that travels
paid to the shape if parts of the cross- on the support cables. The complete
section (e.g. cover plate) are connected by cross-section of a bay is usually assembled
welds and other parts (e.g. webs and and mounted on the pontoons.
bottom chords) with GV tab joints.
Shrinkage of the weld can lead to a
considerable deviation from the target
geometry. For this reason, the shape of the
supporting structure must be checked
continuously during assembly and
corrected if necessary.
The cantilever method is particularly
suitable for solid walls and trusses. For
trusses of low height, main girder "walls"
are prefabricated, for trusses of great
height, cantilever construction is carried
out rod by rod (Figures 9.2.33 to 9.2.3.5).
Cable-stayed bridges are also
excellently suited for cantilever
construction if the side opening can be
erected on some auxiliary supports, then
the pylon is built and finally the parts of
the large opening are assembled in
cantilever construction, each with cable
support (Figure 9.2.36).
The cantilevering of the beam of Figure 9.2.3-5 Free cantilever of a top chord
suspension bridges is usually carried out member, Brunsbüttel High Bridge over the
by raising the beams floated onto Kiel Canal
pontoons
914 9 Production and execution methods

Figure 9.2.3-6 Cantilever of a cable-stayed bridge, Rhine bridge Düsseldorf Oberkassel [Beyer et
al., 1977].
9.2 Steel bridges 915

9.2.4 Longitudinal insertion (launching)
With longitudinal insertion, the bridge is
assembled in the axis of the supporting
structure on an assembly station starting
with the first spans and pushed
longitudinally into the axis (Figure
9.2.41).
Longitudinal displacement is a very
economical installation method, as the
feed is
assembly on the assembly site always takes
place in the same place under the same
conditions, which may well be similar to the
assembly conditions in the workshop. This
assembly station can be equipped with a
crane (usually a gantry crane) and
enclosed for welder and corrosion
protection work (Figures 9.2.42 and
9.2.43).

Figure 9.2.4-1 Longitudinal insertion of a beam bridge, U6 bridge over the Danube in Vienna

Fig. 9.2.4-2 Assembly site with gantry crane, U6 bridge over the Danube in Vienna
916 9 Production and execution methods

Figure 9.2.4-3 Assembly of two spans, U6 bridge over the Danube in Vienna

Of course, only bridge beams with a
circular or straight axis in plan can be
inserted longitudinally. The method is
particularly suitable for pa parallel chord
continuous beams over several spans.
The assembly site is usually located
behind the abutment, where the chamber
walls are initially omitted. With this
assembly method, the parts can be
assembled and adjusted directly at the
assembly site. One or two auxiliary
supports are usually installed between the
assembly site and the first pier.
required to reach the first pillar.
In order to lighten the feed tip, either a
displacement beak is used or all cross-
sectional parts that are not required for
the load-bearing capacity at the feed tip are
omitted and only inserted after the end of
the longitudinal displacement (Figure
9.2.44).
With the same spans, the thrust buckle
has the disadvantage that the maximum
moments of force in the first span do not
occur at the point where the maximum
support moment occurs. Therefore

Fig. 9.2.4-4 Longitudinal displacement of a girder bridge with feed beak, U6 bridge over the Danube in
Vienna
 9.2 Steel bridges
the second method of lightening is often
chosen in steel construction. Another
method of strengthening the cantilever is to
use an auxiliary span. Longitudinal
displacement can be continuous, if the
displacement bearings are arranged under
the main girder webs, or discontinuous, if
the bridge is supported on the cross girder
or under the main girder - cross girder
junction. Continuous longitudinal
displacement, which is predominantly used
today, has the advantage that longer
distances, or at least the length of a span,
can be displaced without interruption, but
has the disadvantage that any point of each
span becomes a support point and the
support force must be introduced into the
web. Continuous longitudinal displacement
also manages with a relatively short
displacement path. Discontinuous
longitudinal displacement always takes
place via the spacing of the cross beams or
via the spacing of the truss nodes on a carriage
over a displacement path that is at least the
length of this spacing. The supporting
structure is then lifted, the bearings pushed
back, the supporting structure set down and
pushed further. The advantage of continuous
longitudinal displacement is that the bearing
points are stiffened and the parts in
between are not localized, as they never
become load application points.
need to be braced.
Fig. 9.2.4-5 Shunting storage in front of the load U6 bridge over the Danube in Vienna
917
In longitudinal displacement, the
rolling or sliding of moving parts on
supports has a significant influence. Roller
carriages can be used for support forces of
up to around 1000 kN. As the hardened
rollers of the roller carriages can easily
break if overloaded, especially if the edge
pressures are too high, it is advisable to
place them on elastomeric mounting
bearings. For higher forces, only bearings
on sliding surfaces are possible. The
sliding pairing with the lowest friction is
the pairing of PTFE
(polytetrafluoroethylene) with high-alloy
chromium-nickel steels, e.g. X 5 CrNiMo
1810 with a polished surface, whereby the
coefficient of friction can be reduced to
well below 1% through suitable
lubrication. This is always possible with
discontinuous displacement, as the
slideways can be covered with a polished
high-alloy sheet. This is not possible with
continuous displacement, which is why
the coated, well-lubricated underside of
the steel carrier usually slides over the
PTFE of the bearing. The PTFE should
therefore be chambered on a plate so that
it is not pushed out during displacement
and the PTFE is not damaged.
"Beard formation" is largely avoided. The
torsionally soft mounting of the
displacement bearing by arranging an
elastomer mounting bearing is also
recommended here (Figures 9.2.45 and
9.2.46).
918 9 Production and execution methods

Fig. 9.2.4-6 Shunting warehouse with bridge, U6 bridge over the Danube in Vienna

If the launching takes place over a as low as possible: This includes

navigable water surface, a ship that
a) The transverse displacement of the old
supports the superstructure at a fixed
supporting structure, the detour of
point, is connected to the superstructure
traffic onto the old supporting
in a bending stiffness for stability reasons
structure and the new construction in
and is pushed in longitudinally with the
the existing axis (Figure 9.2.51).
superstructure can be used instead of a
b) The construction of the new
displacement bearing. It should be noted
supporting structure parallel to the
in particular that the support provided by
existing supporting structure, the
the ship is very flexible (soft), while the
transfer of traffic to the new supporting
bearing on displacement bearings is rigid.
structure, the demolition of the old
With statically indeterminate bearings,
supporting structure and the transverse
high stresses can therefore occur on the
displacement of the new supporting
bridge girder due to changes in the water
structure into the existing axis (Figure
level (e.g. waves). In order to be able to
9.2.52).
store a bridge structure on a launching
c) The construction of the new
vessel, either the superstructure is stacked
supporting structure parallel to the
from the ship using hydraulic press-
existing supporting structure, the joint
fitting, or the ship is flooded beforehand
transverse thrust of both bridges
and lowered under the superstructure
(Figure 9.2.53).
(Figure 9.2.47).
d) The removal of old structures and the
installation of new structures if a direct
replacement with cranes is not possible
9.2.5 Special procedures
due to lack of space or insufficient crane
capacity. The old support structure
The installation methods for steel bridges
serves as a support when the new
described in sections 9.2.2 to 9.2.4 are the
support structure is pushed in and the
"classic methods". When replacing existing
new support structure serves as a
structures with new ones, with or without
support when the old support structure
retaining the substructures, special
is pushed out.
installation methods are used to minimize
traffic disruption. With methods a) and b), the substructures
of the bridge can also be completely
renewed. In methods c) and d), the
substructures must remain largely intact.
 9.2 Steel bridges 919
Method c) has advantages over
d) the advantage that the exchange can be
920 9 Production and execution methods

Production of supporting
structure (8 shots) Shot lengths
approx. 23 m Launching to
pylon
Mobile crane

DANUBE Danube Island

Mobile crane (220 t lattice boom) Pylon assembly (5 shots) Launch

the supporting structure up to
approx. 54 m above the pylon
pillar and assemble a further 6
approx. 54 m shots
lowboy
trailer Mobile crane (130 t)

Barge 1
slewing tower crane Two cables already pre-assembled
1st pontoon docking advance
Swim in approx. 150 m by 67 m takeover 2nd pontoon
Cable advance to end position
s
67 m

Barge 1 Barge 2 Winch

Activate required cables Flood

and extend pontoon End of
Cables navigation barrier Add
supporting structure (shot 15)

Barge 1Barge 2

End support structure Install

all cables

Prestressed concrete structure

Fig. 9.2.4-7 Sliding and floating a bridge with shunting vessels, Danube city bridge over the Danube
in Vienna [Pauser].

However, it has the disadvantage that the
new supporting structure must be
assembled on scaffolding and the old
supporting structure must be dismantled
on scaffolding and the areas on both sides
of the bridge must be available in sufficient
size. The procedure
d) the costs for these scaffolds are
The assembly of the new supporting
structure and the dismantling of the old
supporting structure can be carried out on
a pre-assembly site with any number of
supports. However, scaffolding is required
for inserting and removing the supporting
structures and for the bearings on the
piers. In addition, the replacement itself
 9.2 Steel bridges 921

Initial state Initial state

Transverse displacement of
the old bridge Traffic detour Construction of the
new bridge

New Transverse displacement of

building both bridges

Final state Demolition of the old

bridge
Final state, demolition of the old
bridge

Figure 9.2.5-1 Transverse displacement of the Figure 9.2.5-3 Simultaneous removal of the
old support structure and new construction in old and insertion of the new support structure
the existing axis

more complicated than the transverse

Initial state
New construction on a shifted
axis, traffic detour
Demolition of the old
bridge
Transverse thrust of the new bridge, final
state
Figure 9.2.5-2 New construction parallel to
the existing supporting structure and
transverse displacement into the old axis
displacement according to method c).
Well-known examples are for method
a) the transverse thrust of the Kronprinz
Rudolf Bridge over the Danube in Vienna,
1934, see Figs. 9.2.54 to 9.2.57 (steel), for
method b) the transverse thrust of the
Oberkassel Rhine Bridge in Düsseldorf,
1976, see Figs. 9.2.58 to 9.2.511 [Beyer et
al., 1977], for method c) the new
construction of the Trisanna Bridge, 1964,
see Figs.
9.2.512 to 9.2.514 [Schmid et al., 1964],
for the procedure d) the replacement by
turning at the Schwarzbachtal bridge in
Wuppertal, 1981, see pictures
9.2.515 to 9.2.522 [Gerhards et al., 1982]
and the replacement of the Kampbrücke
Zwettl, 1999, see Fig. 9.2.523 to 9.2.530
[Holzinger et al., 1999].
922 9 Production and execution methods

Figure 9.2.5-4 Crown Prince Rudolf Bridge over the Danube in Vienna before shunting

Fig. 9.2.5-5 Crown Prince Rudolf Bridge over the Danube in Vienna with preparations for the
transverse shifting

Fig. 9.2.5-6 Crown Prince Rudolf Bridge over the Danube in Vienna after transverse displacement
 9.2 Steel bridges 923

Fig. 9.2.5-7 Construction of the old Reichsbrücke bridge next to the transversely displaced
Kronprinz-Rudolf bridge over the Danube in Vienna

Figure 9.2.5-8 Rhine bridge Düsseldorf Oberkassel, new construction in shifted axis. The old bridge
in the background

Figure 9.2.5-9 Rhine bridge Düsseldorf Oberkassel, new bridge in temporary position
924 9 Production and execution methods

Figure 9.2.5-10 Rhine bridge Düsseldorf Oberkassel, new bridge in final position

Figure 9.2.5-11 Rhine bridge Düsseldorf Oberkassel, before and after transverse displacement
[Beyer et al., 1977].
 9.2 Steel bridges 925

Figure 9.2.5-12 Old Trisanna Bridge [Waagner - Biro]

926 9 Production and execution methods

Figure 9.2.5-13 New construction of the Trisanna Bridge and joint transverse thrust of both
bridges [Waagner - Biro].

Figure 9.2.5-14 New Trisanna Bridge [Waagner - Biro]

 9.2 Steel bridges 927

Views of the bridge Sections I-I

Superstructure 1Superstructure 2Superstructure 3
Entrance to the new bridge
New bridge

1500 Transport track

old bridge
30180 30180 30080 A B
a 855 905 3000

Lifting beams Lifting beams

Tendons

n of
tio on
Rotating device (Rhönrad)
ta ti
ro irec

Transport trolley
d

Rotating device
(rhönrad)
c

old bridge

New bridge
d

Lowering beams Exit of the old bridge Lowering beams

Figure 9.2.5-15 Schwarzbachtal Bridge Wuppertal, assembly overview [Gerhards et al., 1982].
928 9 Production and execution methods

Fig. 9.2.5-16 Schwarzbachtal bridge in Wuppertal, driving in the new supporting structure

Figure 9.2.5-17 Schwarzbachtal bridge in Wuppertal, pulling up the old supporting structure
 9.2 Steel bridges 929

Figure 9.2.5-18 Schwarzbachtal bridge Wuppertal, turning process

930 9 Production and execution methods

Figure 9.2.5-18 (continued)

Figure 9.2.5-19 Schwarzbachtal Bridge Wuppertal, lowering the new superstructure

 9.2 Steel bridges 931

Figure 9.2.5-20 Schwarzbachtal Bridge Wuppertal, between the two superstructures

Figure 9.2.5-21 Schwarzbachtal Bridge Wuppertal, exit of the old bridge

Figure 9.2.5-22 Schwarzbachtal bridge in Wuppertal, cutting up the old bridge

932 9 Production and execution methods

Renewal of the supporting structures of the Zwettler

Kamp Bridge g
-schematic- Pushing out the old TW and setting it down on the outer transport trolley

IV V VI
Zwetti station Martinsberg

a h
Installation of viaduct fastening, installation of cross girder in the old TW, installation of support girder Further pushing out of the old TW and setting it down on the second transport trolley, removal of the old TW
for pillar V1

b i
Assembly of lifting frames and supports Lowering of the new TW onto auxiliary supports, renewal of bridge bearings, dismantling of coupling frame

New TW completed

c j
Moving in the new TW and attaching it to the lifting frames Installation of the coupling frame trolleys in the Martinsberg lifting frame, assembly of cross beams in the next old
TW

d k
Lift the new TW from the transport trolleys, extend the transport trolley Moving the Martinsberg lifting frame, assembly of cross girders in the new TW

e l
Lowering of the new TW, mounting and assembly of the coupling Moving the Zwettler lifting frame, dismantling the abutment fastening
frames
1999].
Figure 9.2.5-23 Kampbrücke Zwettl, assembly overview [Holzinger et al.,

9.2 Steel bridges

f c
Lifting the old TW suspended from the new TW Moving in the new TW and attaching it to the lifting frames

931
 a Mast, side view

24
Figure 9.2.5-

932
b Lifting scaffold, old supporting c Coupling frame
Assembly situation analogous to figure f. structure suspended from the lifted
new supporting structure
6770
Kampbrücke Zwettl, lifting frame overview [Holzinger et al., 1999].

600
New supporting
structure raised to the
maximum

Maximum stroke
11927
Old supporting structure,

18305
suspended from the new

9 Production and execution methods

supporting structure

clearance limits

Bridge transport trolley

New supporting
structure already
completed

Support beam
on pillars VI and VIII
9.2 Steel bridges 933

Figure 9.2.5-25 Kampbrücke Zwettl, view of the old bridge [Holzinger et al., 1999].

Fig. 9.2.5-26 Kampbrücke Zwettl, assembly of the new supporting structure on the station site
[Holzinger et al., 1999].

Figure 9.2.5-27 Kampbrücke Zwettl, driving in the new supporting structure

934 9 Production and execution methods

Figure 9.2.5-28 Kampbrücke Zwettl, lifting of the two supporting structures

Figure 9.2.5-29 Kampbrücke Zwettl, removal of the old supporting structure

Figure 9.2.5-30 Kampbrücke Zwettl, new supporting structure installed, displacement of the left frame
9.3 Bridges in composite and mixed
construction
9.3 Bridges in composite
and mixed construction
ULRIKE KUHLMANN
and ANNETTE DETZEL
9.3.1 Fabrication and assembly of steel
superstructure
9.3.1.1 General information
In many cases, the excellent production
and assembly possibilities of steel
superstructures lead to the decision to use
a composite bridge: Composite bridges are
often used to cross rivers, canals, busy
highways and railroad lines, i.e. where the
erection of fixed earth-bound falsework
for the construction of standard concrete
bridges is difficult and costly.
The example of railroad overpasses
over the A4 near Cologne is typical of
such a situation, see Section 5.2.3.1, Figure
5.2.31 [Kuhlmann, 1995]. Located directly
above the highway in the Cologne ring
road, intermediate support from below
during concreting was not possible. The
steel structure was mounted on auxiliary
supports in the bearing axes during a brief
closure next to the old structure, which was
still in use. Traffic on the highway was
then able to continue unhindered. The
concrete slab was concreted, with the
formwork supported by the steel girders
spanning freely over the highway, and once
the slab was complete, the composite
superstructure was moved into its final
position.
Composite bridges therefore offer the
possibility of using their steel girders as a
kind of
"formwork girders" to overcome the spans
with little or no additional support. The
manufacture and assembly of the steel
superstructure of composite bridges is
similar to the manufacture and assembly
of pure steel bridges. All
935
However, composite bridges are often
more competitive than steel and
prestressed concrete bridges, as there are
significant cost advantages compared to
steel bridges due to the absence of the
orthotropic slab, while offering the same
advantages during assembly.
Depending on the size and span of the
bridge structure, there are two basic
assembly procedures for the steel
superstructure: assembly by lifting in and
assembly by cantilever and/or
longitudinal displacement.
9.3.1.2 Assembly by lifting in
As a rule, the steel structure of the
composite bridge is delivered in large
prefabricated assembly units by heavy-
duty transport, especially for small to
medium spans and few spans. Mobile
cranes or, in the case of water crossings,
floating cranes lift the parts onto the
auxiliary bearings prepared on piers and
abutments. The construction site joints are
closed off by light work scaffolding in the
immediate joint area.
The formwork substructure is suspended
from the steel girders. These formwork
scaffolds are often used simultaneously as
working and safety scaffolds. The actual
formwork is erected. The composite slab
is reinforced and concreted in one go or in
sections. Once the formwork has been
removed, the finishing work is carried out,
such as concreting the caps and, if
necessary, the protective concrete, laying
gravel or asphalt, installing the railings,
etc.
Some features of this approach are
explained below using examples.
The railroad bridges of the Melk bypass
(see also Chapter 4.2.3.2) [Pommer, 1995],
[Glatzl/Pommer, 1995], [Glatzl, 1997] span
over 31 m to 79 m. The steel girders were
pre-assembled to a length of 25 m in the
workshop and installed using special
936
transported to the construction site. There,
two to three sections were welded together
on the ground and lifted onto the finished
piers and abutments with mobile cranes
and welded together (see Figure 4.21).
The concrete carriageway was concreted
in an elevated position above the steel
structure to achieve pre-tensioning. Using
the so-called pilgrim step method, first the
field areas and then the support areas
were concreted in order to avoid tensile
stresses from the concrete's own weight in
the support area. The superstructure was
only lowered into the final position once
the creep and shrinkage effects had been
largely reduced in order to minimize the
negative effect on the prestressing forces.
A floating crane is often used to lift the
superstructure components for waterway
crossings. For example, to minimize
assembly costs, the steel superstructure of
the Moselle bridge Bernkastel-Kues
[Kuhlmann, 1996] was permanently
assembled in the factory into three large
components 7.5 m wide and approx. 50 m
long. Three ships transported the bridge
sections by water to Bernkastel. There, the
parts were unloaded one after the other,
first the cantilevered side spans, then the
center section, using a floating crane and
placed on the auxiliary
Figure 9.3-1 Moselle bridge Bernkastel-Kues: Lifting in the middle steel girder
9 Production and execution methods
bearing. Figure 9.31 shows the lifting of
the middle section, which was suspended
between the cantilevers of the side
sections using top chord cleats.
This method is not suitable for large
spans and larger bridges with several
spans. Assembly methods such as
cantilever or incremental launching,
which are also known from steel bridge
construction and concrete bridge
construction, are then used.
9.3.1.3 Assembly by cantilever
and/or sliding
For large spans and fields that
z. If the bridge cannot be reached by crane
because the valley floor is too deep, for
example, the steel structure can be
assembled as a cantilever or pushed in
lengthwise. For insertion, it is
advantageous if the spans have similar
spans and the bridge span is straight or has
a constant curvature. When designing the
cross-section, the formation of a haunch
should also be avoided if possible.
One bridge where the steel structure was
inserted longitudinally is the Dilltal bridge
near Haiger in Hesse [Pelke, 2000] with
spans of 45 m-85 m and a
9.3 Bridges in composite and mixed
construction
Radius of 750 m in plan. The bridge cross-
section is made up of a trapezoidal steel
trough and cantilevered roadway slab. The
individual parts - sheet metal, webs and
bracing - were delivered from the factory
to the construction site and welded
together into 15 m long sections in a
specially constructed assembly hall. These
sections were joined at the feed stations
behind the two abutments (they were
inserted from two sides) to form 80 m
long sections, which were then inserted in
cycles (Fig. 9.32). Some of the piers of the
old bridge could still be used as auxiliary
piers for the launching. In the middle of the
bridge, both halves were welded together to
form a continuous girder. The carriageway
slab was also constructed here with the aid
of a formwork carriage using the pilgrim
step method.
Further examples of high viaducts that
were inserted into the network are the two
bridges Siebenlehn over the Frei berger
Mulde (spans approx. 2 × 71.4 - 81.6 -
71.4 - 61.2 - 56.1 m) and Wilkau
Haßlau over the Zwickauer Mulde (span
width approx. 55 - 2 × 110 - 3 × 99 - 88
m), [Seifried/Stetter, 1996]. Both bridges
have
Figure 9.3-2 Dilltal bridge Haiger, incremental launching from two sides (Source: Hessian State Office
for Roads and Transportation)
937
transversely prestressed and
longitudinally loosely reinforced
composite slabs. Both consist of two
separate superstructures, each with a
single-cell box with inclined webs. They
were both erected on existing piers to
replace old superstructures.
Due to the great heights of the piers
above the valley floor of up to 70 m, both
bridges could only be assembled by
longitudinal insertion. While only the
steel structure was inserted in Siebenlehn,
the entire composite bridge structure with
slab was moved in Wilkau-Haßlau. This
took advantage of the fact that with spans of
a maximum of 110 m, auxiliary supports
were already necessary in the middle of
the span for the demolition of the old
superstructure.
Due to the tight deadline situation, the
contractors decided to use a special cycle
production method for the Wilkau-
Haßlau viaduct, see Figure 9.33.
The production line consisted of three
parts:
• In the steel construction hall, the
elements prefabricated in the workshop
were assembled together, four elements
per steel section.
938
Figure 9.3-3 Cycle production line for the Wilkau-Haßlau viaduct
elements: two base plate elements with
web connection and two web elements
with top chord and head bolt dowels.
• The sand blasting and coating work
was carried out in the air-conditioned
corrosion protection hall.
• The concrete slab was formed,
reinforced, concreted and prestressed
in the concreting hall, with 20
concreting cycles at a rate of approx. 33
m per week.
The optimal coordination of all individual
processes of steel construction assembly,
corrosion protection measures, composite
slab construction and shifting brought not
only economic but also decisive time
advantages for the Wilkau-Haßlau viaduct.
This aspect is particularly important in the
construction of busy highway bridges.
9.3.2 Formwork and production
of concrete roadway slab
9.3.2.1 General information
There are two basic methods for
producing the roadway slab. Either the
concrete slab is completely concreted on
site with the help of a formwork scaffold
or a formwork carriage, or precast
concrete parts are used.
9 Production and execution methods
used as formwork. In both cases, loads are
transferred to the steel structure during
the concreting process, the introduction
and follow-up of which are relevant to the
design of part of the steel structure, such as
cross beams and transverse frames. With
regard to the proposed formwork concept,
detailed coordination between the concrete
construction and steel construction
partners must therefore take place at an
early stage of planning.
9.3.2.2 Formwork with fixed formwork
scaffolding or formwork carriage
In addition to vertical loads from the
weight of the formwork and fresh
concrete or traffic loads from construction
operations, horizontal forces are also
always transferred via the introduction
points between the formwork and the
steel structure: These include wind and
stabilization loads, but also lateral fresh
concrete pressure. Tracking these
horizontal loads in the steel structure is
crucial because the cross-section still lacks
the closed concrete deck slab in the
concreting stage, which provides the
necessary stiffness in the horizontal
direction in the final state. When
constructing composite bridges, it is
therefore particularly important to ensure
that the pure steel structure is sufficiently
stabilized in the horizontal direction.
9.3 Bridges in composite and mixed
construction
The form of cross frames or even
assembly bracings should be taken into
account. These should be positioned as
close as possible to the components to be
stabilized, such as the steel girder top
chords under compressive stress. On the
other hand, required cross beams should
also be arranged sufficiently deep in the
cross-section so as not to hinder the
forming process. Open cross-sections are
to be preferred with regard to production
with formwork scaffolding or scaffolding,
as in contrast to the box cross-section, the
working space is not restricted and the
projecting steel girder chords enable
simple support of the formwork
construction. Figure 9.34 shows an
example of an underslung falsework girder
that is supported on the bottom chord
near the web via a cantilever construction.
The cantilever shafts can also be easily
supported in this way.
For composite box cross-sections, the
cantilever formwork must be attached to
the outside of the unclosed steel box.
Figure 9.35 shows an example
Figure 9.3-4 Falsework girder with cantilever formwork
Figure 9.3-5 Wilhelmsburg Bridge, formwork construction
939
the formwork construction of the
Wilhelmsburg Bridge in Hamburg. The
tensile forces resulting from the cantilever
moment are transferred to the transverse
frames via bolted connections on the main
girder web and are also short-circuited
across the width of the box using
drawbars made of reinforcing steel. The
compressive forces are transferred via the
cross girders and assembly pressure
members.
Fixed formwork scaffolding is generally
only used for bridge lengths that can be
concreted in one go. For longer bridges
with constant cross-sections, the concrete
deck can be produced more economically
with the aid of formwork carriages, see
Figure 9.36.
While the internal formwork is moved
on slides that rest on the cross girders, the
cantilever formwork is supported at points
on the steel girder top chords at the
locations of the cross frames via supports
that are later concreted in.
More recent developments have shown
that some viaducts with single-cell boxes
940
Figure 9.3-6 Formwork carriage for a composite bridge
The formwork carriage structure for the
cantilevers is only suspended at the
bottom, as in the case of the Schwarza
viaduct [DEGES, 2001]. It is only attached
to the outer longitudinal girder of the
cantilever and to the box girder. The
absence of formwork beams above the
composite slab prevents the slab from
being penetrated by the elevations and
allows unhindered inputs on the surface to
be concreted.
9.3.2.3 Concrete slab with precast elements
As the following example shows, precast
elements are particularly suitable as
formwork elements for composite box
cross-sections. In the course of the A4
railroad overpasses near Cologne, see
section 5.2.3 [Kuhlmann, 1995], the railroad
overpass structure 231A was also renewed,
see Fig.
9.37. The system in the ground plan is a
continuous girder over two fields, which
lies in a strong curvature: The average
radius of curvature is approx. 350 m. As a
result, the cross-section was designed with
two single-cell steel boxes and a continuous
composite slab.
9 Production and execution methods
For the spans of up to 32 m, the
clearance limits and track position meant
that the construction height of 1.34 m was
already quite low. Due to the limited
construction height - the steel boxes are
only around 1.10 m high - an inspection
platform was installed on rails to inspect
the structure.
Similar difficulties, such as those
encountered due to the low construction
height when inspecting the inside of the
box, would also have arisen when
removing the inner formwork after
concreting the composite slab. Precast
concrete parts were therefore used as
permanent formwork,
i.e. the precast concrete parts were not
taken into account for the load-bearing
capacity of the composite slab.
With such low construction heights in
particular, reducing the effective cross-
section by 5 to 8 cm of the non-interacting
precast elements while simultaneously
increasing the weight is not an optimal
solution. A better alternative, which is
particularly suitable for small and
medium spans, is the use of large-area
formwork elements, such asthosedeveloped
by SchüßlerPlan [Schmackpfeffer, 1999].
Approximately 10 cm thick semi-finished
concrete slabs are placed on the
9.3 Bridges in composite and mixed
construction
Figure 9.3-7 Cross-section BW 231A
Steel girders are laid on top. They replace
the formwork and are simultaneously
integrated into the final composite slab. In
the areas between the webs, the plates
span in the transverse direction. There are
two types: simple plates that span between
the inner longitudinal beams in the
transverse direction and cantilevered plates
that rest on the outer and the first inner
beam. So that these cantilevered panels
can be laid on the outer beam, the dowel
pins are arranged in groups and
corresponding dowel recesses are provided
in the panels, see Fig. 9.312. The following
special features characterize these large-
area formwork elements (see Fig. 9.38):
1. In the case of the panels, thrust
securing is via a thrust garland without
an upper cross stake. There is therefore
no need to thread the reinforcement.
The bond joint is assumed to be fully
load-bearing for the final cross-section.
2. The composite effect in the
longitudinal direction is already
effective for the intermediate state of
the steel girder/precast element
composite. This is
941
This is achieved by using double
dowels. Once the precast slabs have
been laid, the longitudinal and
transverse joints, including the dowel
recesses, are grouted.
3. In order to be able to absorb any
tolerances and to seal the joint, the
prefabricated parts are supported on
narrow elastomer strips on the steel
girders.
For the type designs belonging to the
large-area formwork, cross beams are only
required in the bearing axes. These cross
beams can be made of steel,
i.e. as a composite beam in the transverse
direction, as well as in concrete only. If the
transverse girder is made of concrete, as
shown in Fig. 9.310, it makes sense to
interrupt the steel longitudinal girders as
planned. The negative column moment in
the longitudinal beam is then absorbed via a
force couple with a centrally acting tensile
force in the concrete chord and a
corresponding compressive force at the
level of the steel beam bottom chord. The
tensile force in the concrete is only absorbed
by the longitudinal reinforcement in the
slab. He
942 9 Production and execution methods

a)

b)

c)

Fig. 9.3-8 Large-area formwork elements: a) two-span steel girder for service road;
b) four-cell steel girder for RQ 10.5; c) single-cell box for service road; d) three-cell box for RQ 10
9.3 Bridges in composite and mixed
construction
d)
Figure 9.3-8 (continued)
30
35 380
450
Figure 9.3-9 Detail of steel girder support with double dowels, shear garland and elastomer strips
If the compressive force is transmitted via
the concrete of the cross beam, the force is
distributed over a larger area via a thick
head plate. The transverse force is
transferred via dowel pins. In the case of
interrupted beams, these are attached to
head plates on the longitudinal beam
ends. During assembly, concreting the
cross beams and creating a tension-
compression coupling
943
20
35
This results in a continuous effect, i.e. the
transfer of bending moments above the
column, on the inner columns even
during construction. This has a favorable
effect on the load on the steel girders and
thus on the steel weight.
Cross beams made of concrete simplify
the construction process on site if the steel
beams can be delivered in complete units
and no structural steelwork is required.
944
work is no longer required on the
construction site.
Figures 9.311 and 9.312 show two small
bridges north of Ravensburg with a span
of 28 m, which were developed based on
the type design, as an example of this type
of partial prefabrication. In order to hold
the precast slabs in the cantilever area,
they were designed to be continuous over
the edge girder. Corresponding recesses
were provided in the precast elements for
the dowel pins arranged in groups. When
concreting the continuous in-situ
concrete slab, these groups of dowels were
also cast. The VFT construction method
for composite bridges in the small to
medium span range goes one step further
in terms of prefabrication [Doss et al.,
2001],
9 Production and execution methods
Figure 9.3-10 Cross-section of concrete cross
beam with top plate
[Schmitt et al., 2000] and [Schmitt et al.,
2004]. In prestressed concrete bridge
construction, the use of multi-web precast
slab girders including wide top chords as
formwork for the in-situ concrete slab has
been known for years. This idea was
transferred to composite construction. The
precast element consists of a steel girder
with a prefabricated concrete flange, which
stabilizes the girder during transport and
installation and also serves as formwork
for the site-cast concrete slab. Compared
to a conventional prestressed concrete
girder with the same stiffness, the
composite girder has a significantly lower
weight, which makes transportation and
assembly of the precast elements easier
(Fig. 9.313).
Production and assembly are carried
out in three steps:
9.3 Bridges in composite and mixed
construction
Fig. 9.3-11 BW 1 near Ravensburg, steel girder with shear stud dowel
1. Production of the steel girders in the
steelworks: the dowel pins required for
the bond are attached to the top
chords. The dowel pins have different
heights in order to create a bond with
the precast element flange as well as
with the in-situ concrete layer.
2. Production of the precast top chord:
The steel girder is formed. The top
chord is reinforced and concreted. The
steel girder is supported in such a way
that no
Figure 9.3-12 BW 1, dowel groups in precast
element recess
945
tensions are imprinted in the carrier.
3. Assembly on site: The precast element is
lifted onto the auxiliary yokes with a
crane and the in-situ concrete slab is
concreted. Due to the already existing
top chord, assembly reinforcement is
not required during concreting.
As a special example, Figure 9.314 shows a
design as a frame structure. In the
overpass for the Per lachUnterhaching
state road over the A8 federal highway,
the VFT superstructure is rigidly
integrated into the abutments. This made it
possible to bridge 42.7 m with very
slender girders without central support.
As there are no bearings and roadway
transitions, the bridge is less maintenance-
intensive than a girder bridge solution. The
prefabricated construction method enabled
an extremely short construction time of
just four months after the contract was
awarded, without restricting highway
traffic.
The design of a composite girder is
based on a similar idea to the VFT
construction method.
946
40,0
35,0
30,0
25,0
Weight t per m
20,0
15,0
Width
10,0
5,0
0,0
15,0 20,0 25,0
Figure 9.3-13 Comparison of the transport weights of precast prestressed concrete elements and
VFT beams [Schmitt et al., 2000].
Figure 9.3-14 PerlachUnterhaching frame structure
without a steel top flange [Kuhlmann/
Maier, 2002]. In addition to the dowel
holes, there is no need for the less effective
steel top chord and with it the expensive
longitudinal welds. The web protrudes
into the two slab parts made of precast
concrete part and in-situ concrete. The
bonding effect is created by horizontal
dowels welded to the web. Various
research papers provide information on
the load-bearing capacity of horizontal
dowel pins lying in thin concrete slabs or
close to the edge [Breuninger/Kuhlmann,
2001], [Kürschner, 2003] and [Kuhlmann/
Raichle, 2005]. Rules for considering the
reduced anchor load-bearing capacity
9 Production and execution methods
Prestressed
Gt per m width
concrete-FT
Composite FT
Gt per m
width
30,0 35,0 40,0 45,0 50,0
Carrier length in m
for anchors arranged horizontally or close
to the edge, which can generate splitting
tensile forces, can now be found in Annex
A of DIN 188005:20073. The new DIN
Technical Report 104, 2009 edition, also
refers to this rule. Further explanations on
the stakes involved in the handling of
horizontal anchors or anchors arranged
close to the edge can be found in
[Kürschner/Kuhlmann, 2005].
The first implementation of this type of
construction took place during the
renewal of a farm road bridge near
Münsingen in the course of the B465 in
the area of the Tübingen Regional
Council, cf.
9.3 Bridges in composite and mixed
construction
width between the abutments of 26.0 m and
is 4.5 m wide between the railings. The
haunched superstructure of the two-span
slab girder tapers in its construction height
from approx. 2.0 m at the abutment to
approx. 0.8 m in the middle of the span,
while the thickness of the concrete slab
remains constant. First, a 10 cm to 18 cm
thick precast slab was concreted to the two
steel girders in the factory. The connection
was made using a bottom row of
horizontal dowel pins.
947
These precast composite girders were then
placed on the abutments as single-span
beams. The abutments were then
concreted up to the top edge of the precast
element to create the first frame structure.
The 20 cm thick site-cast concrete slab
and the last piece of abutment were then
added to form the final frame. For the
bonding effect with the site-cast concrete,
a second row of horizontal headed dowels
was arranged on the web, see Fig. 9.316.

Figure 9.3-15 Cross-section of the farm road bridge near Münsingen

Figure 9.3-16 Horizontal headed studs before concreting the in-situ concrete layer
948
Initial considerations have also been
given to using this design in conjunction
with trapezoidally profiled web plates, see
[FOSTA P645, 2008]. By dispensing with
the steel top chord here too and allowing
only the profiled web plate to project into
the concrete, it is possible on the one hand
to dispense with the elaborate anchoring of
the steel top chord in the concrete
required by the transverse bending
stiffness of the web (compare the
structurally difficult solution for the
Altwipfergrund viaduct pilot bridge,
[Roesler/Denzer 1999]). On the other hand,
the profiled plate itself acts as doweling and
leads to a considerable increase in load-
bearing capacity in the composite joint.
The degree of prefabrication of the deck
slab therefore has a major influence on the
cost-effectiveness and possibly also on the
design of the composite bridge.
Figure 9.3-17 Bridge no. 71
9 Production and execution methods
9.3.3 Influence of the construction process
9.3.3.1 Tare weight composite
As bridges are generally designed
according to the elastic limit states, precise
monitoring of the load layer is of great
importance. The system during concreting
influences the distribution of internal
forces between the steel and the composite
cross-section. A specific distribution of
internal forces can be set by selecting a
suitable system for the concreting process.
Here is an example from the Central
Waterways and Shipping Directorate:
Bridge No. 71, see Figure 9.317, is a
single-span beam that carries the L104
highway over the branch canal near
Osnabrück [Kuhl mann, 1995]. The bridge
has a span of 47 m and a conical girder
shape.
9.3 Bridges in composite and mixed
construction
The bridge cross-section is a two-span
plate girder, which is braced by transverse
frames at intervals of approx. 8 m.
During concreting in the construction
phase, the bridge was not supported on
the abutments but on the auxiliary
supports shown in Fig. 9.317. These
auxiliary supports were arranged 7 m
inwards, so that the free span was shortened
to 33 m. The main part of the dead load
from the steel weight, formwork weight and
above all the fresh concrete load acted on
this cantilever system. As a result, the
maximum bending moment in the middle
of the girder was not approx. 17 MNm as
with a bearing at the ends of the bridge,
but
Figure 9.3-18 Moment distribution bridge no. 71
949
only 6.6 MNm. The proportion of
bending moments that loaded the pure
steel girder was therefore considerably
reduced.
Once the concrete had hardened, the
auxiliary supports were released. As a
result, in addition to the removal loads
such as caps and asphalt weight, the
superimposed loads from the auxiliary
supports acted as loads on the lattice girder.
This resulted in a relatively high dead load
moment of 13.1 MNm. This moment then
stressed the composite cross-section with
the finished concrete slab.
The use of the auxiliary supports thus
reduced the bending moment component,
which loaded the pure steel girder, from
950
over 50% to only 20% of the total design
moment. In contrast, the dead load
moment on the composite cross-section
increased by approx. 30% to 41% of the
total moment. As a result of the assembly
process, therefore, approx. 30% of the
total moment was absorbed by the
composite cross-section instead of the
pure steel cross-section.
This targeted transfer of the dead load
moment from the pure steel cross-section
to the composite cross-section is also
referred to as a self-weight composite.
Such a self-weight composite allows
structural members whose dimensions are
mainly derived from the structural
condition, such as the steel girders, to be
designed considerably smaller. In
structure no. 71, for example, the top chord
area at the maximum stressed point in the
center of the girder is only approx. 40% of
the bottom chord area. Accordingly, the
total steel weight in relation to the bridge
area for structure no. 71 is comparatively
low at 152 kg/m2 .
The targeted relocation of the
The transfer of dead load stress from the
pure steel cross-section to the composite
cross-section therefore enables a very
economical design. The most economical
solution is achieved by means of a
complete self-weight composite, i.e. by a
conti
Figure 9.3-19 Railroad overpass in Horrem
9 Production and execution methods
nual support of the steel girder during
concreting, so that the entire load
moment is absorbed by the composite
cross-section. However, such a
construction method is only possible in
exceptional cases. The bridge over the main
road in Horrem in the area of the Cologne
Federal Railroad Directorate, see Fig.
9.319, is such an example.
As part of the expansion of the L163,
the railroad overpass over the main road in
Horrem near Cologne had to be renewed.
Instead of the tendered single-span multi-
track steel deck bridge, a special design
was executed in composite construction.
The traffic conditions were particularly
difficult. Road traffic on the main road in
Horrem had to be maintained during the
entire construction period and could only
be closed for short crane operations at the
end of the week. The two main tracks of
the Cologne-Aachen line, a passing siding
and a pull-out track were located on the
bridge. The two main tracks in particular
could only be interrupted for one night at
a time to replace the superstructure.
The bridge cross-section, see Figure
9.319, was adapted to these assembly
conditions. It consists of six individual
superstructures, each with two main
girders.
9.3 Bridges in composite and mixed
construction
like. The joints and joint divisions
between the superstructures were made in
such a way that the four tracks each came
to lie exactly on one of these individual
superstructures.
The composite superstructures were
completely prefabricated on a pre-
assembly site with a concrete slab. The old
superstructure parts were then excavated
and the new composite superstructures
were installed in three overnight crane
operations. Immediately after installation,
the individual superstructures were ready
for traffic again. The joints in the central
cross girder and the two end cross girders
were only closed later - then already
under traffic - to create the girder grid
system. With a span of only around 20 m,
the individual weight of the superstructure
was still less than 100 t despite the
concrete slab, so that lifting with a
reasonably sized crane was still possible.
The transportation options, i.e. the
dimensions and weight of the individual
superstructures, made it possible to use a
composite construction. The steel-
concrete composite slab was an
economically favorable alternative
primarily because it could be erected on
the pre-assembly site with formwork
continuously supported from below. Only
after the prefabricated superstructure had
been lifted into place did the entire
construction weight act on the system and
thus on the composite cross-section. With
this complete self-weight composite, the
optimum distribution of internal forces in
the composite cross-section was achieved
for the design. The ratio of the top chord
area of the steel cross-section to its
bottom chord area was only approx. 25%.
Similar to the support during
concreting, the sequence of the concreting
sections or the subsequent closing of
joints, i.e. construction site joints, can also
influence the internal stress state in the
composite cross-section and the
distribution of the inherent stresses.
951
load internal forces are taken in a statically
unbalanced longitudinal system. For
example, by concreting the support cross-
sections in succession, the so-called
pilgrim step method, the concrete slab
above the column is only subjected to
tensile stress from removal loads and
traffic loads. This measure, which is
intended to limit the crack width in the
reinforced, non-prestressed concrete slab
above the column, requires a very time-
consuming and costly process of moving
the formwork carriage forwards and
backwards. The question arises as to
whether composite bridges of equivalent
quality but at lower cost can be achieved by
careful sealing of the roadway against de-
icing salt, constructively sensible
reinforcement or, where possible, limited
pre-tensioning.
9.3.3.2 pre-tension
The choice of prestressing in the concrete
slab is also of great importance with
regard to production. Pre-tensioning can
be carried out in the longitudinal and
transverse directions or in one direction
only. Prestressing in the longitudinal
direction can be achieved both with the
help of tendons and by assembly measures.
The advantages and disadvantages must be
weighed up anew for each construction
task.
With standard slab thicknesses of 30 to
35 cm, tendon prestressing in both slab
directions is structurally difficult to
achieve. The reinforcement density in two
tendon directions, the additional slack
reinforcement required and any
installations for drainage and the like make
it difficult to place and compact the
concrete. In principle, tendon prestressing
should therefore only ever be provided in
one bridge direction, longitudinally or
transversely.
The Arminiusstrasse bridge, built by
Dörnen Stahlbauwerke, Dort
952
mund, and Hochtief, Dortmund, on
behalf of the City of Dortmund, is an
example of this [Kuhlmann, 1995] (Figure
9.320).
The Arminiusstrasse bridge has a
typical two-span slab girder cross-section.
The two main girders are 7 m apart and
the cantilever length is 3.75 m. Due to
these support conditions, the deck slab is
prestressed with tendons in the transverse
direction of the bridge. However, tendon
prestressing in the longitudinal direction
of the bridge was deliberately omitted.
Instead, longitudinal prestressing was
created by assembly measures.
The bridge was concreted in an elevated
position. After the concrete had hardened,
the bridge was lowered by approx. 30 cm
at the piers as planned, creating a
compressive prestress in the roadway slab
via the inner supports. The required
reinforcing steel (on the inner supports)
was thus significantly reduced. However,
such pre-tensioning, whether by lowering or
tendons, not only generates compressive
stress in the slab, but also tensile stress in
the steel girder bottom chord, and not only
above the supports, but also in the field
area, which is already subject to tensile
stress. As a result of such a lowering
measure for prestressing, the steel girder
bottom chord must usually be reinforced.
Another example of longitudinal
prestressing, but in this case with tendons,
is the Moselle bridge, which was renewed
in 1995 between
Figure 9.3-20 Cross-section of the Arminiusstrasse bridge
9 Production and execution methods
Bernkastel and Kues. The superstructure
consists of a two-cell steel box girder with a
common central web and a continuous
concrete roadway slab. By supporting the
three webs, it was possible to dispense with
transverse prestressing of the slab. The
bridge is longitudinally prestressed by
tendons. The girder height varies between
2 m and 4.3 m.
The static system and the concreting
process generate particularly high support
moments at the piers, i.e. high tensile
forces in the deck slab at the top and high
compressive forces in the bottom chord.
The high tensile forces in the track slab are
overpressed by the longitudinal pre-tension.
The high compressive forces in the bottom
chord are not absorbed by a thick, tightly
braced steel plate, as is usually the case, but
by a double composite cross-section with a
concrete floor slab. It is approx. 29 m long
and between 25 and 50 cm thick.
The construction process for the bridge
is explained using the schematic diagram
in Figure 9.321. First, the three parts of
the steel superstructure were assembled in
the factory as large components, each 7.5
m wide and approx. 50 m long, using a
floating crane. The middle section was
suspended between the previously placed
side sections. Once the construction site
joints had been welded, the bearings at the
ends of the bridge were dismantled to
expose the superstructure at the
abutments.
9.3 Bridges in composite and mixed
construction
25 cm
Figure 9.3-21 Moselle bridge Bernkastel-Kues construction sequence
By setting it free, a clear, statically
determined system was available for the
subsequent concreting processes.
Concrete was then poured symmetrically
to the piers. This began with the
concreting of the concrete floor slabs and
the pier cross girders and continued in the
same way when concreting the roadway
slab in a total of six concreting sections.
Due to the ratio of field length to
approximately twice the cantilever length,
the same stresses were always generated to
the left and right of the pier during
concreting, as on a cradle beam. As the
concreting started at the pier, the main
part of the stress acted on the composite
cross-section. Thanks to the double
cantilever system, the steel upper chords
were practically only subjected to tensile
stress during concreting. They could
therefore be designed very economically.
In the twelfth step, the bridge ends were
raised by approx. 25 cm and a bearing was
installed. As a result of the lifting, a
restraint stress was imprinted in the
supporting structure as planned. In this
case, the assembly measure was not used
to prestress the system but to increase the
contact pressure on the abutments.
953
25 cm
After lifting, the end cross girders were
concreted, the bearings installed and the
bridge fitted with caps and asphalt. Traffic
could then be diverted from the old
Moselle bridge to the new bridge. The old
bridge was then demolished. Its piers and
abutments were refurbished and prepared
for the new bridge structure. During a
traffic closure period, the new bridge was
moved from the bypass position by
approx. 13 m to its final position. The
bridge equipment was then completed, the
roadway crossings installed, the lanes
reinstalled, etc. The bridge was then
reopened to traffic.
The Bernkastel-Kues Moselle bridge is a
special example of how the stresses in the
composite cross-section are significantly
influenced by the assembly sequence and
targeted assembly measures. Here, dead
load internal forces were transferred to
the composite cross-section of the piers
through the release at the abutments and
the assembly sequence. The "expensive" steel
top chord has been replaced by
longitudinal prestressing tendons.
954
the. Following the discussion about pre-
tensioning tendons in thin concrete webs,
the longitudinal tendons would possibly
be used today as external tendons in the
box in the sense of monitoring and
replaceability, similar to prestressed
concrete superstructures.
9.3.4 System-dependent construction processes
9.3.4.1 General information
Construction processes are largely
determined by the external framework
conditions, such as accessibility of the
construction site, possibilities for auxiliary
support and free assembly areas. However,
there are also boundary conditions
resulting from the structural system. A
cable-stayed bridge is typically erected as a
cantilever structure, in which the various
cable levels can be gradually pulled in as
the cantilever grows. With suspension
bridges, the pylons must always be erected
first and the suspension cable pulled in.
Both systems are examples of the fact that
the static systems are the same in the final
and construction stages. This is an
invaluable advantage when no auxiliary
system is required for large spans during
construction. The situation is different
with arch systems: The advantages of the
arch effect, transfer of loads via normal
compressive forces, only come into effect
when the arch is closed. In the case of tied
arch bridges, even the deck and stiffening
girder must be connected as a tension
band in order to activate the static system
of the final structure. As auxiliary
structures are therefore required in every
case and should be designed for the lowest
possible loads, one principle for the
installation of arch bridges with lattice
decks is that the arch system must always
be closed before the concrete deck slab is
concreted. The following
9 Production and execution methods
the examples of tied-arch bridges and
"real" arch bridges therefore primarily
show typical procedures for assembling
the steel substructure. The construction of
the concrete deck slab follows the usual
procedures, see 9.3.2. An important
system-dependent point here, however, is
the consideration that arch systems react
sensitively to asymmetrical loads, see
section 5.4.4.1, and are therefore best
concreted symmetrically,
i.e. starting from the center, for example,
always alternating to both sides.
9.3.4.2 Assembly of tied arch composite
bridges
Only when the arch and stiffening girders
are closed and welded together does the
bar arch system take effect. Until then, the
structure requires additional supports
between the bearing points.
Of course, it is advantageous if this
support can be provided at the actual
installation site, as was the case, for
example, during the assembly of the
Amper Bridge [Hagedorn et al., 1997], see
Fig. 9.322. Here it was possible to install
auxiliary supports in the flooding area of
the Amper, which shortened the span
from 70.2 m to 40.2 m. The girder grid
was supported in 4 axes and served to
support the auxiliary arch supports on
which the two arch sections were placed.
The hangers were installed as the final
step after welder welding of the arches.
Auxiliary arch supports and auxiliary
bearings could then be removed and the
entire system was moved transversely to its
final position on skidways on the support
benches.
From this typical sequence: 1st track grid
completion, 2nd sheet assembly,
3. hanger mounting is only deviated from
in very rare cases. One example of this is
the Saalebrücke Beesedau [Heiland et al.,
2000], where it was also possible to install
auxiliary
9.3 Bridges in composite and mixed 955
construction
The support systems had to be provided
on site, but in this case they were used
directly for sheet assembly. At the same
time, the track trough was constructed
independently behind the abutment and
installed using the incremental launching
method. The actual coupling between the
arch and the track trough and the
installation of the hangers only took place
once both independent systems had been
completed.
However, it is often not possible to
erect auxiliary supports on navigable
waterways. Here, the type of installation
depends largely on the possible
installation site. In the case of the Fischer
dorf bridge, for example, the steel
structure could be assembled on the
already completed prestressed concrete
foreshore bridge, as shown in Fig. 9.323.
The assembly of the complete bar arch
system was carried out on tightly supported
supports. After being set free, the bridge
was supported at the front on press-fittings
with Teflon plain bearings and at the rear
by beak-shaped stakes on rubber-tyred
platform wagons. After pre-rolling on the
transfer track, the superstructure was
transferred to a ship at the front, which took
over the bridge bearings in the 2nd hanger
axle, which was reinforced accordingly by
an arch support. For stabilization during
pre-rolling and floating, the hangers were
held together by an auxiliary bracing and
the bow by a bow brace. It is not always
possible to achieve such a favorable
The "roadway" could be provided by
foreshore bridges. For example, the
Dömitz Elbe bridge [Lüesse et al., 1993]
could only be constructed behind the
abutment on a road embankment and
then had to be transported longitudinally
Figure 9.3-22 Amper bridge installation
to its final position by moving it on the
sequence
embankment and floating it in with 2
pontoons at times. This involved moving
it several times to different storage points,
correspondingly many different
956
Swimming in
Figure 9.3-23 Installation sequence for the Fischerdorf Danube bridge
Intermediate states and static systems,
some of which were also decisive for the
dimensioning of the steel structures. As
tied-arch bridges have comparatively low
stiffening girders and webs, longitudinal
insertion with fixed bearing points that
can be specifically reinforced is generally
sensible despite this effort.
Under certain circumstances, the pre-
assembly site is not in the immediate
vicinity of the installation site, so that
longitudinal and transverse displacement
is not possible. Figure 9.324 shows the
floating of the arch span of the border
bridge over the Oder near Frankfurt
[BMVBW, 2003]. Here, the steel structure
of the tied-arch composite bridge was
completely assembled on a floating
assembly platform consisting of several
pontoons on the Oder at a distance of
approx. 300 m from the installation site.
The last examples in particular show
that composite solutions that use a "light"
steel bar arch system in the construction
stage for the
9 Production and execution methods
Pre-assembly
Advance
The construction of the bridge is
particularly suitable for bridging navigable
waterways without the possibility of
auxiliary support.
9.3.4.3 Assembly of real arch bridges
Since an arch effect only exists when the
last end piece of the arch is also force-
fitted, extensive supports must be provided
for the production of the arch.
In the case of arched structures such as
the Wilde Gera [DEGES, 2000] or the Alb
rechtsgraben bridge [DEGES, 2001], where
a single-cell steel box girder with
composite slab is supported on a closed
concrete arch, the arch assembly can be
carried out independently of the
superstructure by cantilever construction
with bracing. In both of these cases, the
steel boxes were then assembled behind
the abutments.
 9.3 Bridges in composite and mixed
construction
Figure 9.3-24 Assembly of the border bridge over the Oder
The open steel boxes were pushed over the
elevations of the concrete arch by
longitudinal displacement. The composite
deck slab was then constructed using
formwork carriages as described in 9.3.2.2.
Installation is more difficult when the deck
girder itself closes the arch, as was the case
with the Elbe Bridge Pirna [Eilzer et al.,
1999] or the Isar Bridge Grünwald [Fink,
1999]. In the case of the Isar Bridge
Grünwald, see system Figure 9.325, it was
also possible to place auxiliary yokes in the
Isar or the Isar Canal. This made it possible
to lift the lightweight arch girders made of
steel boxes together with the stiffening girders
(also steel boxes) and the columns directly
from the truck and place them on the
bearings and yokes.
and welded there.
For the Pirna Elbe bridge with concrete
piers, the construction of the arch halves
over the Elbe and the simultaneous
assembly of the superstructure sections in
cantilever construction with auxiliary
pylon and auxiliary bracing was carried
out. Fig. 9.326 shows the assembly
sequence of the cantilevered superstructure.
By bringing forward the construction
of the land-side half of the arch, it was
possible to
957
The arch pressure force can be short-
circuited via the superstructure at a very
early stage. The final section of the
superstructure, which also closes the large
arch with a span of 134 m over the Elbe, is
assembled with the help of a floating
crane. The auxiliary pylons and guy wires
can then be dismantled. With such an
elaborate guying construction, the question
arises as to whether a cable-stayed bridge
with the same guying during construction
and in its final state would not have been
more economical here. As in the other
examples, the concrete deck slab was then
constructed using conventional formwork
carriage construction.
It is also astonishing that in connection
with such composite arch structures and
the difficulties in cantilever construction
to form, reinforce and concrete this heavy
concrete arch, at least to our knowledge
no real composite arch has yet been
realized. Considerations on this have also
been made in a dissertation [Weißbach,
2006].
958 9 Production and execution methods

Figure 9.3-25 View of the Isar bridge in Grünwald

Figure 9.3-26 Installation sequence for the Pirna Elbe bridge

10 Bridge equipment
10.1 Roadway design and
seals
URSULA FREUNDT
(up to 10.2; sections 10.1 and 10.2 are based on
work by Günter Ramberger)
10.1.1 Roadways of road bridges
10.1.1.1 Roadway slab steel
(orthotropic slab)
Every bridge is part of a road. The road
surface of the bridge should therefore not
differ from that of the road. Bridges with
steel decks are normally given bituminous
bridge decks, while sidewalks are often
given thin, reaction resin-bonded decks.
The road surface consists of a sealing
layer, protective layer and surface layer
(Figure 10.1.11). The steel surface is
prepared for corrosion protection with
mechanical surface preparation by
blasting or flame blasting according to
Fig. 10.1.1-1 Construction of bridge deck on steel [Vollrath/Tathoff, 2002].
EN ISO 12944 prepared. In the case of
flame blast derusting, care must be taken to
ensure that the coating on the underside of
the cover sheet is not damaged. After flame
blasting, the surface must be cleaned with
mechanical brushes. The blasting material
must be disposed of in an
environmentally friendly manner. The
surface prepared in this way is followed by
the primer layer as corrosion protection.
This consists of bituminous coating
materials or reaction resin coating
materials, usually with adhesion-
improving additives. This is followed by
the bonding layer and the adhesive layer
made of bituminous materials or solvent-
free resins with good adhesive properties,
if necessary with a scattering. Adhesive
and bonding layer together, sometimes
one layer in place of the other, form the
sealing layer. This is followed by the
protective layer of mastic asphalt, stone
mastic asphalt or asphalt clay with a void
content < 4 % by volume. The protective
layer also compensates for the unevenness
of the cover sheet. The nominal thickness
of the protective layer is normally 3.5 to 4
cm, but should not be thicker at any point.
960
be less than 2.5 cm thick and more than 5
cm thick in one layer. Greater thicknesses
should be applied in two coats. The top
layer is applied on top of the protective
layer as the upper wearing course. It usually
has a thickness of 3.5 to 4 cm and is made
of the same materials as the protective
layer. If surface courses of stone mastic
asphalt or asphalt concrete are laid on top
of protective courses of mastic asphalt, the
hot mastic asphalt layer is sprinkled with
bituminous chippings. When applying
mastic asphalt, care must also be taken to
ensure that the corrosion protection on the
underside of the cover sheet is not
damaged.
Footpaths and cycle paths receive
surface preparation, corrosion protection
and either the sealing layer like the
roadway with an approx. 3 cm thick layer
of mastic asphalt as protection and wear
layer or a two-layer surface course of
reaction resin-bonded thin layers, each
layer being sprinkled with quartz sand.
The total thickness of the road
pavement on orthotropic slabs is therefore
around 8 to 10 cm, the sidewalk around 4
cm for mastic asphalt and around 1 cm
for thin pavements.
10.1.1.2 Roadway slabs-concrete
Similar to the road surface on steel (Figure
10.1.11), the road surface on reinforced
concrete and prestressed concrete road
slabs consists of the sealing layer, the
protective layer and the surface layer.
The sealing layer consists of a primer
(or sealant if necessary) or scratch coat
based on reaction resin applied to the pre-
treated concrete surface and a single-ply
bitumen welding membrane or double-
ply bitumen sealing membrane or a
sealing layer of liquid plastic.
10 Bridge equipment
The concrete surface is usually prepared
by blasting with solid abrasives. After pre-
treatment, the pull-off strength must be at
least 1.5 N/mm2 on average. If the peak-to-
valley height of the prepared concrete
surface has exceeded the permissible
values, a scratch coat is applied instead of
the primer.
The bitumen membrane is welded onto
the pre-treated concrete surface. Welded
membranes can be polymeric membranes
with a raised carrier layer or bituminous
membranes with or without metal
lamination. In the transition area from the
roadway to the cap, a minimum 30 cm
wide, stainless steel-laminated bitumen
welding membrane or a stainless steel
strip is welded onto the concrete surface to
reinforce the sealing layer.
Bitumen adhesive arranged.
The liquid plastics used for the sealing
layer are urethane elastomer-based
materials that are resistant to heat and
ageing and at the same time compatible
with bitumen.
If the sealing layer is designed as a
single-layer waterproofing with a
bituminous membrane and in the case of a
liquid plastic waterproofing, the protective
layer is made of mastic asphalt. The
thickness of the protective layer is
generally 3.5 cm. The thickness of the
protective layer must not exceed 5 cm in
one layer. Greater thicknesses must again
be applied in two layers. The thickness of
the protective layer must not exceed 2.5
cm at any point, except in the case of
welded membrane overlaps.
If asphalt concrete or stone mastic
asphalt is to be used as the surface course,
the hot mastic asphalt protection layer is
sprinkled with bitumen-coated chippings.
If the sealing layer is designed as a two-
layer seal with bitumen
10.1 Roadway design and seals
The protective layer is made of asphalt
concrete in the case of a welded
membrane. Otherwise, similar
requirements apply for the maximum and
minimum layer thickness as for poured
asphalt protection layers.
The surface course should correspond
to the surface course of the adjoining
road. The thickness of the surface course
is generally 3.5 cm for mastic asphalt, 4.0
cm for stone mastic asphalt and 4.0 cm for
asphalt concrete.
In the case of waterproofing with a
single-layer bitumen welded membrane, a
20 cm wide edge strip is formed in the
surface course in front of the mastic
asphalt kerb.
Joints 2 cm wide are created in the
protective and top layer in front of kerbs,
fixtures or other boundaries. These joints
are filled with bituminous joint sealant. To
avoid three-edge adhesion, the joint in the
surface course in front of curbs and kerbs
is filled with a filler or a thermal stability
plastic.
10.1.1.3 Wood coverings
Wooden plank decking is often used for
cycle and footpath bridges. The planks are
mounted on the load-bearing structure.
961
(longitudinal or cross beams) by screwing
or nailing.
Screed coverings are often both a load-
bearing and wearing layer. Their thickness
is therefore chosen to be at least 2 cm
greater than the statically necessary
dimension. They are generally laid at right
angles to the direction of travel with open
joints. The most favorable joint width is
between 6 and 8 mm. This avoids
constraints in the flooring due to swelling
of the planks.
Bung planks are often used, which have
the following advantages over open
planks:
• Avoidance of dirt cones and associated
moisture accumulation above the
support timbers
• Preventing rainwater from penetrating
the substructure
• Avoidance of mutual warping and
different deflections of neighboring
planks.
If the planking is arranged diagonally, the
road surface will be involved as part of the
wind bracing.
To increase slip resistance in wet
conditions and in winter, longitudinal
grooves of approx. 7-8 mm are made in
the plank surface on the top side.
Figure 10.1.1-2 Basic construction
for the planking on a foot girder
bridge
962 10 Bridge equipment

width, approx. 10 mm depth and at
intervals of 10-20 mm.
In the sheet pile design, the grooves
should have a movement range of around
4% of the plank width in order to be able
to adapt to different climatic conditions
without damage.
Pressure-impregnated planks made of
pine wood are used. The use of planks
made from oak, larch or Douglas fir
heartwood is more durable.
Fabric-reinforced plastic sheeting,
bitumen felt or galvanized sheeting is
placed between the plank covering and the
load-bearing substructure to protect the
substructure from accumulating moisture.
Figure 10.1.12 shows the basic
construction of the planking. Further
examples are shown in [EG Holzbau,
1997].
10.1.2 Superstructure of railroad bridges
10.1.2.1 Superstructure on steel
As a rule, the superstructure of railroad
bridges today consists of rails on sleepers
in a roadbed (Figure 10.1.21). The
advantage of this is that the roadbed runs
along the entire length of the track, which
makes it easier to maintain and repair.
Centerline of
This is also the best solution for noise
protection. The standard width of the
roadbed is 4.40 m, the distance between the
cover plate and the tie bottom at the
position of the lower lying rail should be at
least 30 cm. This results in a minimum
thickness of the roadbed of 55 cm from
the top edge of the sleeper of the lower
lying rail and a distance from the top edge
of the rail to the top edge of the cover
plate of 72 cm for rail type UIC 60.
The ballast trough surface is
mechanically blasted or flame blasted in
accordance with EN ISO 12 944 in
preparation for coating. A base coat of
reactive coating material is then applied
and sprinkled with quartz sand. Two
layers of reaction coating mortar
(polyethane or epoxy resin), each
approximately 2.5 mm thick, are applied
to the primer coat and sprinkled with
quartz sand after each layer.
In addition to the roadbeds commonly
used today, open roadways are also used
for secondary lines and temporary bridges.
Their advantage over the roadbed is their
lower weight. The disadvantages,
however, are the high noise pollution for
both the surrounding area and travelers,
the need for expansion joints at bridge
ends with movable bearings and the
unchangeable position and height of the
tracks at the bridge ends.

structure axis
Supporting
track

SO ± 0

-720 ≥300 550

r�
40
r
�4

r� r� r�
0

40 40 40

Fig. 10.1.2-1 Ballast bed track [DS 804]

10.1 Roadway design and seals 963

Figure 10.1.2-2 Open roadway [Inst. F. Stahlbau, TU Vienna].

both ends of the bridge. In the case of
open roadways, the sleepers are supported
directly on the longitudinal girders, which
are arranged on the cross girders if the
construction height is sufficient or
between the cross girders if the height is
limited. The longitudinal girders are
generally designed as continuous girders.
The spacing of the longitudinal girders is
1.5 m to 2.0 m, that of the cross girders 2.0
m to 6.0 m.
The sleepers are fastened to the
longitudinal beams with caulking angles.
Any superelevation required in the curve
is achieved using steel base plates. The
areas to the side and between the rails must
be covered either with planks or with plates
so that passengers can get off the bridge in
an emergency (Figures 10.1.22 and
10.1.23).

Figure 10.1.2-3 Sleeper fastening with open roadway [Inst. F. Stahlbau, TU Vienna] (covers not
shown)
964
Figure 10.1.2-4 Direct rail support [Beyer et al., 1977].
In extremely rare cases and only with the
express approval of the railroad
administration, direct rail supports are
installed on orthotropic track slabs (Figure
10.1.24). As the top edge of the rails must
be positioned much closer than the cover
plate, there must be a variable alignment
layer between the cover plate and the rail
fastening.
10.1.2.2 Superstructure on concrete
The design of the superstructure on
railroad bridges is described in detail in
[Köppel, 1999] and is summarized here.
The standard construction type for
concrete railroad bridges is a deck bridge
with an approx. 80 cm thick roadbed.
Ballast as a material for the superstructure
has proven to be a good construction over
the years. With favorable properties such
as low production costs, easy
changeability and height adjustment of the
structure, as well as good structure and
airborne sound insulation, the ballast
superstructure has become established for
all railways. Figure 10.1.25 shows the
construction of these structures.
Using suitable fasteners, the rails are
fastened to the concrete sleepers to form a
track grid, which is embedded in the
ballast.
10 Bridge equipment
is embedded. This connection must be
torsion and shear resistant. The resulting
frame rigidity ensures that the track
remains securely in position.
In recent years, another type of
superstructure, the slab track, has proven
itself for high speeds and low
maintenance. With slab tracks, the
roadbed is replaced by a load-distributing
concrete or asphalt base plate. The rails
are elastically supported on this slab. As
early as 1972, the former German Federal
Railways built two test lines in Oelde and
Rheda with slab track. Investigations have
shown that the RHEDA superstructure is
also suitable for high-speed operation
[Matthews, 1998].
The advantages of slab tracks are
• better long-term behavior of the
superstructure with reduced
maintenance work,
• no gravel is whirled up at high speeds,
• the unrestricted use of the wear-free
eddy-current brake is possible.
In recent years, a number of slab track
construction methods have been
developed.
10.1 Roadway design and seals 965

Figure 10.1.2-5 Standard cross-section in composite construction with double-track ballasted

superstructure from [Curbach, 1997].

have been used. For technological reasons,
the roadways approved for the earth
structure should also be used on railroad
bridges without significant design
changes.
It should be noted that the slab track is
only to be installed if the superstructure is
also a slab track in front of and behind the
bridge structure.
is designed. Depending on the type of
construction, higher stiffness
requirements are sometimes placed on the
superstructure. The jump in elasticity
between the bridge and the earth structure
must be absorbed by suitable structural
measures in the transition area.
Correction of the track system must be
ensured because, for example, in the case
of prestressed concrete superstructures

Figure 10.1.2-6 RHEDA construction type on bridges from [Nesnau/Magnus, 1998].

966
The concrete creep can cause bulging.
The RHEDA design (Figure 10.1.26)
has been approved for prestressed
concrete bridges since 1973. It is the only
type of construction in Germany that has
been tested in railroad operations to date.
10.2 Warehouse
10.2.1 Overview
Bearings are components that enable
rotations between two structural elements
and transfer defined loads as required.
They allow displacements in all directions
of a plane, or they prevent displacements.
Elements that transmit moments about the
vertical axis or tensile forces according to
plan are not regulated in standards. Train
paths are special constructions that may
occur in individual cases.
Table 10.2.11 provides an overview of
the state of standardization. The table also
shows the bearings in common use. The
sliding parts listed are not independent
bearings. Their excellent function is to
realize displacements with low resistances.
For the torsional capacity that is always
required in the construction plant, the
sliding part is fitted with a
Figure 10.2.2-1 Cross-section of a reinforced elastomeric bearing according to DIN EN 13373
10 Bridge equipment
bearing is combined. The combination is
then recognizable in the designation, for
example a deformation plain bearing or
pot plain bearing.
10.2.2 Deformation bearing
Reinforced elastomeric bearings are
generally used as deformation bearings in
bridge construction. They consist of
elastomer layers and steel sheets as
reinforcement inserts. The basic shape is
quadrangular (rectangular, square) or
circular. Oval and octagonal bearings are
also available as special shapes. The sheet
steel reinforcement inserts are arranged at
the same distance from each other and
symmetrically to the central bearing
surface and are joined to the elastomer
layers by hot vulcanization. The basic
cross-section of a reinforced elastomeric
bearing is shown in Figure 10.2.21.
Only chlorinated rubber (CR) is
currently approved as a raw polymer for
elastomer bearings in Germany. In
European regulations, natural rubber
(NR) is also permitted in addition to CR.
In countries with low temperatures,
natural rubber is preferred due to its lower
stiffness at low temperatures. Although
the content of CR or NR is regulated and
the physical and mechanic properties of
the elastomer
10.2 967
Bearings
Table 10.2.1-1 Regulations for bearings in the construction industry

Standard Issue Title

Bearings in construction - European standardization
DIN EN 1337-1 2001-02 General regulations
DIN EN 1337-2 2004-07 Sliding parts
DIN EN 1337-3 2005-07 Elastomeric bearing
DIN EN 1337-4 2004-08 roller bearing

DIN EN 1337-4 2007-05 Roller bearing (correction)

Correction 1
DIN EN 1337-5 2005-07 Pot bearing
DIN EN 1337-6 2004-08 Tilting bearing
DIN EN 1337-7 2004-08 Spherical and cylindrical bearings with PTFE
DIN EN 1337-8 2008-01 Guide bearings and retaining structures
DIN EN 1337-9 1998-04 Protection
DIN EN 1337-10 2003-11 Inspection and maintenance
DIN EN 1337-11 1998-04 Transport, intermediate storage and installation
Bearings in construction - German standardization
DIN V 4141-13 2008-11 Guide bearings and retaining structures -
Design and manufacture

are defined, the working lines of the
material are not the same. This is due to
the different quantities and types of fillers
and additives. In addition, the exact recipe
is handled as manufacturer know-how.
Figure 10.2.2-2 shows an example of the
working line of a CR 60. Steel in
accordance with EN 10025 or an
equivalent steel with at least 18%
elongation at break is used for the
reinforcement sheets. The sheets are 2
mm to 5 mm thick.
Reinforced elastomeric bearings
transmit vertical forces and shift and
rotate under the corresponding impact.
This is made possible by the malleability
of the elastomer.
As there is no influence on the load-
bearing behavior in the vertical direction
under vertical forces, the
deformation is desired, the stiffness in this
direction is increased by the vulcanized
steel sheets. The steel sheets prevent the
elastomer from deforming freely and
bulges occur between the sheets under
load (Fig. 10.2.2-3).
The greatest compressive stress in the
rubber occurs in the middle bearing area
and at the same time the greatest tensile
stress in the sheets.
Relative displacements of the
superstructure and substructure cause
shear deformation of the elastomeric
bearing, which can be absorbed without
problems within certain limits. The
vulcanized reinforcement plates do not
prevent this deformation (the horizontal
stiffness is approx. 1000 times lower).
968 10 Bridge equipment

Figure 10.2.2-2 CR 60 working line (mean values)

than the vertical stiffness), so that the
deformation resistance only leads to
comparatively low restoring forces. Shear
deformation also requires effective
vertical forces, otherwise the bearing
would slip. The corresponding
deformation figure is shown in Fig.
10.2.2-4.
When using an elastic stake, the
restoring forces are used to dissipate
external horizontal forces (wind, braking
and starting). The restoring
The positioning force, or rather the
resistance to horizontal deformation,
depends on the displacement:
FR = A - G - tan γ
where tan γ is the ratio of the
displacement to the bearing height, A is the
bearing area and G is the shear modulus of
the bearing. In a similar way, relative
rotations between the superstructure and
substructure can be realized by shear
deformations of the elastomer. The
corresponding displacement

Figure 10.2.2-3 Deformation pattern of a reinforced elastomeric bearing under centric vertical load

Figure 10.2.2-4 Deformation figure of an elastomeric bearing subjected to compressive and shear loads
10.2
Bearings
Figure 10.2.2-5 Deformation figure under torsion
forming figure is shown in Figure 10.2.2-
5.
The restoring moments (torsional
resistance) that occur depend on the
torsion, the geometry of the bearing and
the shear modulus.
The shear modulus of elastomer is also
temperature-dependent. At low
temperatures, the material stiffens and at
high temperatures it becomes softer. This
fact must be taken into account when
determining the resistance values.
An elastomeric bearing can only be
deformed if the displacement or rotation
is introduced into the bearing. This
requires a shear-resistant connection
between the components of the
supporting structure and the bearing. If
the existing vertical force is sufficiently
high, friction ensures shear-resistant
contact (sliding safety).
Constructive measures are required for
low loads.
For this reason, elastomer bearings are
designed differently. The two basic forms
are
Unanchored elastomeric bearings
The outer steel sheets are covered by an
elastomer layer. Unanchored elastomeric
bearings can be arranged directly between
the adjacent components (concrete, steel).
In Germany, anchor plates must generally
be used to ensure a bearing support.
969
Anchored elastomeric bearings
If the load is low, the anchor plates may be
connected to the load by welding, bolting
or using an anchor washer. Figure 10.2.2-
6 shows an example of the connection with
dowel washers. The shear-resistant
connection between the bearing and the
substructure/superstructure is usually
made using head bolts, which are also
shown in Fig. 10.2.2-6.
Reinforced elastomeric bearings can be
designed as fixed bearings by combining
them with retaining constructions (see
section 10.2.6) or with PTFE sliding parts
as deformation bearings.
The load-bearing behavior of reinforced
elastomeric bearings was extensively
investigated experimentally by the
Research and Testing Office (ORE) of the
International Union of Railways (UIC) in
the years 1962 to 1965 and is documented
in the ORE reports on question D 60
[ORE, 1962- 65]. The investigations
include static and dynamic tests under
centric and eccentric load and tests at
extreme temperatures. Recommendations
for the following issues were derived from
the tests for simple practical application:
• Materials for the bearings
• Dimensioning of reinforced bearings
• Installation of the bearings
• Tests on bearings
The findings on load-bearing behavior
have been translated into empirical,
practical
970
Figure 10.2.2-6 Anchored elastomeric bearing
The recommendations for dimensioning
have been implemented by the German
Federal Ministry for the Environment,
Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety.
Some of these are listed in extracts below:
1. The tests showed a large influence of
the vertical fatigue load. For this reason,
it is recommended when performing the
verification to take into account the
shares of vertical load and torsion
resulting from static (permanent)
actions with a factor of 1 and the shares
resulting from moving (variable)
actions with a factor of 1.5. This is not
necessary for horizontal forces.
2. A permissible (bearable) shear stress
with the value 5 G is defined. The shear
stress to be absorbed results from the
sum of the shear stresses from
compression, torsion and displacement,
whereby the actions are to be taken
into account with the factors according
to 1.
3. The permissible displacement is tan γ =
0.7.
4. To prevent sliding, an average
compressive stress of at least 2 N/mm²
is required.
The so-called ORE tests are still the most
comprehensive and coherent tests for
determining the load-bearing behavior of
elastomeric bearings. For the computational
10 Bridge equipment
The publication by Topaloff [Topaloff,
1964] is trend-setting for determining the
load-bearing behavior. Although it is now
possible to determine the stress and
deformation behavior using FEM for the
serviceability limit state [Vogt, 2009],
simple correlations are required for
practical verification. In the regulations,
the relevant load-bearing capacity
verification for reinforced elastomeric
bearings in the ultimate limit state is
performed via the verification of the total
shear deformation. The bearable limit
shear deformation was taken from the
specifications of the ORE tests and
extrapolated to the ultimate limit state by
multiplication by a factor of 1.4.
Total shear deformation:
εt,d = KL ∙ (εc,d + εq,d + εα,d ) ≤ 7.0
KL is the factor for the load type and is
generally set to KL = 1.0.
The proportions of the total shear
deformation are calculated as follows (in
analogy to Topaloff), whereby an
additional limit value must be observed
for the horizontal displacement:
Shear deformation due to vertical load:
1.5 ⋅ N
ε =
c,d
z,d G
⋅ Ar ⋅ S
10.2
Bearings
Shear deformation due to horizontal
displacement:
vxy , d
εq,d = ≤ 1,0
Tq
Shear deformation due to bearing torsion:
(ar
ċ αa,d + br� ċ αb,d) ċ
εα ,d = � ċ (t )
�i
The usual regulations for the verification
of reinforced elastomeric bearings in
Germany were oriented towards a bearing
selection, not primarily towards a
verification that optimizes dimensions.
This practice-friendly objective allowed a
preliminary design of the bearings solely
on the basis of the vertical load. However,
this was only achievable with additional
restrictions. The bearing load, which is
actively dependent on vertical, horizontal
and torsional effects, was decoupled by
carefully defining the for- mat-dependent
"mean" pressure (12 to 15 N/mm²) and
specifying the maximum displacement.
The recalculation under the restrictions
mentioned leads to the limit of the
rotation angle, which can no longer be
influenced by the engineer.
Proof of the total shear deformation
This approach is possible due to the
mutual influence of the individual
971
stresses. In order to nevertheless enable
preliminary measurements using the
vertical force, it is recommended that
to select sensible loading situations, such as
in Figure 10.2.2-7, in order to determine
the vertical forces that can be absorbed for
standard loads.
(see Table 10.2.2-1).
In the case of elastomer bearings, the fracture
ti hold with a simultaneous load
of pressure, displacement and
twisting neither experimentally nor
theoretically researched. A compression
fracture is initiated by the tensile failure of
the steel sheets and a shear fracture by
destruction of the elastomer/steel sheet
contact joint or by elastomer
displacement.
To validate the bearing parameters
used for the verification and the load-
bearing behavior assumed in principle,
the physical and mechanic properties of
the materials and the bearing behavior as
well as individual bearing parameters are
tested and continuously monitored during
production. Overall, the elastomeric
bearing is a "good-natured" bearing. If it is
not overloaded, its deformation capacity
compensates for inadequacies in
production and use.
Since the verification of the total shear
deformations covers the extreme cases of
vertical load without displacement and
torsion and torsion with low vertical load
without displacement and torsion.

Situation "min"
Situation "Si 2" Situation "Si 1" Situation "Si 1"
Full utilization of the
deformation capacity Full utilization of the Low utilization of shear No utilization of the
deformation capacity deformation deformation capacity
εq,d ≤ 1.00
εα,d ≤ 0.0078 εq,d ≤ 1.00 εq,d ≤ 0.15 εq,d = 0
(to the right of the longer bearing = 0
side) εαx,d ≤ 0.003 εαx,d ≤ 0.003 εαx,d

εαy,d ≤ 0.001 εαy,d ≤ 0.001 εαy,d = 0

Theoretical case
Deformation bearing Fixed bearing, VGL theoretical case

Figure 10.2.2-7 Load situations for reinforced elastomeric bearings

972 10 Bridge equipment

Table 10.2.2-1 Absorbable vertical forces for standard bearings 350 × 450 mm²
and 900 × 900 mm²
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Bearing geometry Absorbable vertical force NSd
in the GZT

Layer thickness

Layer thickness
Reinforceme
bearing side)

bearing side)

Elastomer ti
thickness T
Elastomer
a (shorter

(number)
b (longer

Situation

Situation

Situation

Situation
max vxy,d
Layers n

"max"
"Si. 2"

"Si. 1"
"min"
= nti

nt ts
mm mm mm mm mm mm mm kN kN kN kN
33 3 31,4 2202 3332 4206
44 4 41,8 2437 3286 4274
55 5 52,3 2516 3203 4307
350 450 66 6 11 4 62,7 2517 3103 4320 4737
77 7 73,2 2474 2992 4324
88 8 83,6 2402 2875 4321
99 9 94,1 2313 2754 4314
108 6 102,6 17591 22917 29982
126 7 119,7 18019 22732 30351
144 8 136,8 18 140 22429 30603
162 9 153,9 18 057 22047 30776
900 900 180 10 18 5 171,0 17 831 21610 30894 34634
198 11 188,1 17 501 21134 30972
216 12 205,2 17 093 20627 31020
234 13 222,3 16 625 20097 31045
252 14 239,4 16 109 19549 31052

load, the verification of the stability and Compliance with a torsional limit
positional stability of the reinforced condition is described. For this purpose,
elastomeric bearings must be given greater the following verification must be
importance than before for practical use. provided in accordance with DIN EN
One verification from this group is the 1337-3, section 5.3.3.6, for reinforced
verification of the gaping rectangular bearings:
(ar ċ αa,d + br ċ α )b,d
fugue, which in the rules and regulations is � vz,d = �
Kr,d
10.2
Bearings
� vz,d is the total vertical deformation
under the load that leads to
twisting.
If the verification is fulfilled, the gap opens
to around 1/6 of the side length. The
verification of the torsion limit condition -
gaping joint - leads to application limits of
elastomeric bearings that do not seem
logically explainable. Bridges with small
spans and especially inclined slabs with
small spans tri@ this. The reason for this is
the verification approach, which virtually
assumes a rigid body. Already [Eggert and
Kauschke, 1996] doubt the mandatory
dependence of support rotation angle and
superimposed load for elastomeric
bearings. A known manifestation is the
rolling until the bearing falls out even if
there is no load for a short time, but this is
not possible with anchored bearings. For
this reason, the rule in Germany was
supplemented by the following addition:
"When calculating the total vertical
deformation for the verification of the
torsional limit condition according to DIN
EN 1337-3: 2005, section 5.3.3.6, first
indent, at least 3 N/ mm² must be applied
to anchored bearings Fz /A' regardless of
the existing size. Elastomeric bearings
with dowel restraint on one side are also
regarded as anchored bearings in this
sense."
This regulation is not based on
mechanical or physical principles, but was
chosen pragmatically, building on the
experience of DIN 4141 and on the
following considerations:
• In the case of unanchored bearings, the
torsional limit condition should always
be observed, as this means that even an
overlay of unfavorable conditions will
not cause the bearings to slip out.
can.
• This risk does not exist with anchored
bearings, provided that the dowel
washer is sufficiently embedded.
973
• Nevertheless, a torsional limitation
should exist in order not to leave the
empirical range of stresses
(compression and tension), even in the
case of large rectangular support
torsion and medium stresses.
A comparison of the application limits
between DIN 4141-14 and DIN EN 1337-3
is shown in Figure 10.2.2-8. In this case,
the application limits according to DIN
4141-14 were fictitiously transferred to the
ultimate limit state by multiplication by a
factor of 1.35.
Nevertheless, such pragmatic
approaches can only be temporary aids.
To confirm this, computational
investigations were carried out using FEM
calculations, which allow the following
results to be summarized:
• A gaping joint leads to vertical tensile
stresses in the elastomer bearing.
• These are determined by the deformation
The rubber is hindered by the
reinforcement plates.
• The magnitude of the tensile stress depends
on the
stiffness of the plates and thus the
magnitude of the tensile stress
increases from the reinforced bearing to
a bearing anchored in shear on one side
to a bearing anchored in shear on both
sides.
• The size of the tensile and reference span
The tensile strength is low compared to
the tensile strength of the elastomer
used. The stresses are 0.5 N/mm² and
therefore well outside the critical range.
• The comparative voltages are
shear-anchored bearing is greater than
for the unanchored bearing, which
documents the greater obstruction.
The calculation results allow the
according to the following conclusions:
• A gaping joint with low loads and
torsion leads to the
974
Figure 10.2.2-8 Calculated application limits of anchored reinforced elastomeric bearings
according to DIN 4141 and DIN EN 1337
The tested limit ranges do not lead to
risky stresses in the bearing.
• Determining the minimum pressure
of 3 N/mm² in the presence of lower
pressures due to unfavorable load
positions is within the current range of
experience.
• Since there is a risk of a
reinforced elastomeric bearing for
small loads, the verification in the
modified form may only be carried out
for shear-anchored bearings.
• Shear anchoring should only be used
for
This can be carried out as required, as
an unanchored bearing behaves better.
Figure 10.2.3-1 Linear tilting pad [Ramberger, 2002]
10 Bridge equipment
The investigated range lies at pressures of
1 N/mm² with simultaneous support
rotation angles of 6‰. Irrespective of this,
it is necessary to work on a solution for
the verification of the gaping joint on a
physical basis.
10.2.3 Steel bearing
Steel bearings are the oldest bearings. Their
disadvantage is that the forces are
transmitted along a support section or
through a support point and are therefore
very concentrated. The distribution of
these concentrated forces therefore
requires corresponding
10.2
Bearings
high constructions are required. In this
support section or at the support point, a
flat plate rolls over a cylindrical or
spherical body. In the first case, this is a
linear tilting pad (Figure 10.2.3-1), in the
second case a point tilting pad (Figure
10.2.3-2). If a roller is used between two
flat plates, the result is a roller bearing
(Fig. 10.2.3-3) that allows unidirectional
rotation and uniaxial displacement.
The transmission of forces in beams or
points theoretically results in infinitely
high stresses. The physicist Heinrich
Hertz gave the elastic solution to the
contact problem in 1881. Sections become
elastic under load
Figure 10.2.3-2 Point tilt bearing, fixed on all
sides [Ramberger, 2002].
Figure 10.2.3-3 Roller bearing [Ramberger, 2002]
Figure 10.2.3-4 Hertzian compression
[Ramberger, 2002]
975
narrow rectangles, points are deformed
into small circles. High stresses arise in
these surfaces, the so-called Hertzian
stresses (Figure 10.2.3-4). The larger the
cylinder or sphere radius, the smaller the
Hertzian stress. The limit values for the
pressure were determined in tests.
Point tilt bearings are suitable for
vertical loads between 500 and 2500 kN.
Their rotatability is only about 1/10 of
that of all other bearings and is 1‰. Point
tilt bearings can also be equipped with
additional sliding parts as bearings that
move on all sides or on one side (Figures
10.2.3-5 and 10.2.3-6). They are rarely
used today.
Linear tilting pads and roller bearings
are suitable for vertical forces of 200 to
20,000 kN. The use of high-strength
materials in the contact lines has
contributed to a reduction in the size of
the bearings. It should be noted that no
large bending moments may occur in the
transverse direction so that the bearing
pressure does not become too uneven and
overloads lead to bearing failure.
976
Figure 10.2.3-5 Point tilt bearing, adjustable on one side [Ramberger, 2002].
Figure 10.2.3-6 Point tilt bearing, movable on all sides [Ramberger, 2002].
10.2.4 Pot bearing
Pot bearings consist of a usually circular
steel pot with an elastomer insert, a cover
that fits on top and a seal between the pot
and cover (Figure 10.2.4-1).
Vertical forces are transmitted by
pressing the elastomer insert and thus
over the entire surface. The elastomer
insert is prevented from squeezing out by
a seal. Under pressure, the elastomer
insert behaves approximately constant in
volume like a liquid. Horizontal forces are
transmitted to the cup via the contact
pressure of the cover. An additional
sliding part is introduced to make these
bearings movable on one or all sides. The
plastic polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE
company name Teflon, Hostaflon) is
selected as the sliding pairing with high-
alloy, austenitic sheet steel. The PTFE is
about 5-6 mm thick, is embedded
(chambered) about 2-3 mm deep in the
bearing cover and is provided with
pressed-in recesses (lubrication pockets),
which are filled with silicone grease before
the bearing is assembled. The high-alloy
steel
10 Bridge equipment
The sliding plate is about 1 mm thick and is
welded to a steel plate all the way around
(Fig. 10.2.4-2). The sliding plate must be
large enough to fully cover the PTFE
surface during all movements. If
movement is only required in one
direction, a guide strip embedded in the
bearing cover, which slides in a groove
milled into the sliding plate, prevents
movement transverse to the guide strip
(Fig. 10.2.4-3).
In general, the sliding plate is arranged
so that its surface faces downwards to
prevent dust from being deposited on the
sliding plate. The eccentricity from the
bearing displacement must then be taken
into account in the superstructure.
Reverse installation is also possible. The
eccentricity then goes into the
substructure.
The bearing is protected against the
ingress of water and dirt by a bellows.
The verifications for pot bearings
include the strength calculation of the pot
components, the compressive stress in the
elastomer, the stresses due to the torsional
angles at the lid/pot contact and the
10.2 977
Bearings

Fig. 10.2.4-1 Section through a fixed pot bearing [Ramberger, 2002].

Fig. 10.2.4-2 Section through a pot bearing that can be moved on all sides [Ramberger, 2002].

Fig. 10.2.4-3 Section through a one-sided movable pot bearing [Ramberger, 2002].
978
Compliance with boundary conditions for
the required rotational capability.
The use of cup bearings is common for
rotations of up to 0.03 rad. The changing
torsion angle sizes determine the seal to
be used. Pot bearings are suitable for
vertical forces up to 50 MN.
Pot bearings without a sliding part are
fixed bearings, whereby the torsion is
realized by the deformation properties of
the elastomer. The resulting resistance
variable, the restoring torque, is therefore
dependent on the torsion.
However, a number of other
parameters influence the size of the reset
moment. These are:
• Elasticity of the elastomer, i.e. G-
modulus
• Relaxation of the elastomer
• Temperature
• Twisting speed and twisting
• Geometry of the bearing body
• Lubrication
• Gasket
• Bearing pressure
The restoring torque is determined in
accordance with DIN EN 1337 [DIN EN
1337-5]
according to an empirical approach.
Me,max = 32 × d³
× [F0 + (F1 × α1 ) + (F2 × α2max
)]
F0 , F1 and F2 from tests
d Diameter of the elastomer cushion
in [mm]
Me,max Restoring torque of the
elastomer plate (SLS and in the ULS
M e,d *1.5)
α1 Resulting angle of rotation from
permanent actions in rad
α2max Resulting angle of rotation from
changing actions in rad
In the case of a fixed bearing, there is also a
resetting moment due to cup/cap contact
caused by an applied horizontal load.
To determine the restoring torque
Mμ,max due to friction between pot de-
10 Bridge equipment
A coefficient of friction of 0.2 may be
assumed between the cup and the cup
wall.
As described in section 10.2.2, the
influence of temperature must be taken
into account.
10.2.5 Spherical bearings
The basic shape of the bearing is the all-
round movable bearing. It consists of
three parts: the cup, the spherical cap and
the sliding plate. Sliding surfaces are
arranged between the three parts to allow
movement. A PTFE layer with lubricating
pockets is chambered in the cup. The
mating surface of the cup is hard chrome-
plated and polished. The sliding pairing
PTFE/high-alloy sliding plate between the
spherical cap and sliding plate is the same
as for sliding cup bearings. The two
sliding surfaces are necessary to allow
kinematic rotation without mutual
displacement between the superstructure
and substructure (Fig. 10.2.5-1).
To prevent displacement in the case of
a fixed or unidirectional moving bearing,
the sliding plate overlaps like a cup in the
case of a fixed bearing and like a U-shaped
Fig. 10.2.5-1 Section through a spherical
bearing that is movable on all sides
[Ramberger, 2002].
10.2
Bearings
Fig. 10.2.5-2 Section through a fixed calotte
bearing [Ramberger, 2002].
Fig. 10.2.5-3 Section through a spherical
bearing with one-sided movement
[Ramberger, 2002].
Rail the pan (Figures 10.2.5-2 and 10.2.5-
3).
The bearings cover a vertical force of
up to 100 MN, with a torsional capacity of
10‰ and more. The resistance in
spherical bearings is caused by friction.
When displacement and torsional
movements occur in the flat and curved
sliding surfaces of the spherical bearing, a
restoring moment occurs as a result of
frictional resistance. This results from the
eccentricity of the vertical force arising
during the twisting process. The
eccentricity is determined from the
coefficient of friction and the spherical
radius.
e1 = μmax ∙ r
The coefficients of friction are to be taken
from the standards. In the case of
spherical bearings with guides, additional
eccentricity must be taken into account
for the anchoring means and the adjacent
components as a result of the friction in
the guides.
Figure 10.2.6-1 Elastomeric bearing, fixed on all sides [Ramberger, 2002].
979
guides must be observed. For spherical
bearings, the pressures in the sliding
surfaces and the gaping in the sliding
joints must be verified and the strength of
the support plates must be verified.
Component tests and continuous
monitoring during production are carried
out for all bearings.
In addition to verifying the verification
conditions, operational stresses (e.g.
pressure threshold endurance tests for
reinforced elastomeric bearings or fatigue
tilting tests for pot bearings) are also
tested.
10.2.6 Retaining structures and
guide bearings
In DIN EN 1337-8 [DIN EN 1337-8, 2008]
The following sections deal with retaining
structures and guide bearings.
Retaining constructions prevent
movement in the horizontal plane and
therefore transmit horizontal forces.
Twisting is possible. No vertical forces are
transmitted. A typical application is the
combination of a reinforced elastomer
bearing with a retaining construction to
form a fixed bearing. The retaining
construction then consists of an upper and
a lower part, which engage with each other
with cleats. The shape of the cleat
engagement (hole or slot) can be used to
provide retention in all directions or only
in one direction (Figures 10.2.6-1 and
10.2.6-2).
Guide bearings only transmit
horizontal forces in one direction. As with
fixed
980
Figure 10.2.6-2 Elastomeric bearing, fixed on one side [Ramberger, 2002].
Fig. 10.2.6-3 Example of a guide bearing [Inst.
f. Stahlbau, TU Wien].
holding constructions, twisting is possible
and vertical forces are not transmitted
(Figure 10.2.6-3).
The force is transmitted via the contact
pressure in the sliding surfaces. Sufficient
clearance must be ensured in the vertical
direction to prevent the transmission of
vertical forces.
Particular attention must be paid to the
connection of the parts to the
superstructure and substructure, as not
only horizontal forces but also bending
moments must be transmitted in the
connection joint due to the eccentricity of
the force application.
10.2.7 Special bearings
This brief description of common bearing
types cannot be comprehensive. In
addition to other combinations not listed
here, which can also be found in the
European regulations, there are a number
of non-standardized bearings with special
functions. These include train paths,
bearings with built-in sensors for
measuring forces and deformations
10 Bridge equipment
bearings, adjustable reinforced elastomeric
bearings, soft elastomeric bearings and
height-adjustable bearings. The list is not
exhaustive. This brief outline is intended to
illustrate that, in the case of special
requirements, contacting the bearing
manufacturers will always lead to success.
10.2.8 Installation and replacement of bearings
10.2.8.1 Installation of the bearings
The bearing is delivered complete to the
construction site by the manufacturer and
must not be dismantled on site. All
information on the bearing and its
installation must be recorded in writing.
Part 11 of the European standard contains
a form for a bearing record.
Bearings are high-quality construction
products whose full functionality and
durability can only be guaranteed if they
are installed correctly. In construction
practice, installation defects are much more
frequently the cause of bearing damage
than the stress of use and scheduled wear.
The main cause of sensitivities during
installation are the unavoidable
differences in scale between mechanical
engineering and construction. Accuracies
during construction and permissible
tolerances in mechanical engineering are
difficult to reconcile. For this reason,
bearings should only be installed by
specialists. The presence of the bearing
manufacturer is advisable at least for the
first bearing of its kind in every structure.
10.3 Roadway crossings 981

The bearings are installed in The necessary starting points for

accordance with the bearing installation hydraulic presses are provided for in the
plan and the bearing description. The design.
mortar joint between the lower anchor When replacing bearings that are fixed
plate and the upper edge of the support on one or all sides, the transfer of
bench must not be thicker than 5 cm. The horizontal forces must also be ensured in
minimum thickness must be three times the raised state.
the maximum grain size of the aggregate. During the planning phase, bearing
After the bearing has been installed, the replacement schemes must be drawn up
joint is either filled with grouting mortar or for larger bridges, whereby axle-by-axle
tamped with earth-moist mortar. When replacement must be planned.
grouting, the bearing is encased all around A bearing log must also be created each
and a low-shrinkage grouting mortar, time bearings are replaced.
which has been mixed exactly as instructed
in a compulsory mixer, is poured in from
one side until it emerges on the other
10.3 Roadway transitions
sides. This ensures that the mortar expels
the air in front of it and no air bubbles
remain under the bearing.
GÜNTER RAMBERGER
If the remaining bed joint is smaller
and FRANCESCO AIGNER
than 1 cm, a two-component epoxy resin
grout should be used instead of a cement- 10.3.1 General information
based grout, which is thinner and is also
poured in from one side. If the joint is The purpose of expansion joints is to close
sufficiently thick, an earth-moist mortar the joint between the bridge and the
can also be used instead of the grouting adjoining continuation of the roadway and
mortar, which is tamped under the anchor to compensate for the movements that
plate without formwork using auxiliary occur there as a result of temperature
materials and smoothed at the edge. changes and variable loads. Expansion
The connection of the upper anchor joints for road bridges should be designed
plate to the superstructure depends on the to be robust, easy to replace and as
manufacturing process and the building watertight as possible. They should ensure a
material of the superstructure. In high level of ride comfort and low noise
falsework construction, the upper anchor emission. Expansion joints are wearing
plate (with the bearing) is usually parts that usually have to be replaced several
concreted in directly. In other cases, this times during the service life of a bridge.
connection must be made with grout. For There are currently no national or
steel bridges, special compositions of the European standards for e x p a n s i o n
grouting material must be observed. j o i n t s . However, there are national
approvals for expansion joints, which are to
be extended throughout Europe in the future
10.2.8.2 Replacement of bearings (EOTA).
For railroad bridges with an open track
Bridges are designed in such a way that or direct rail bearing, an expansion joint
bearings can be replaced while traffic is still must be installed at least on the side of the
moving. The necessary movable bearings.
982 10 Bridge equipment

Figure 10.3.1-1 Interaction between track, superstructure and subgrades

to be arranged. For railroad bridges with b) Transitions for medium-sized

roadbed rails, expensive expansion joints movements (25 mm to 80 mm)
are largely dispensed with today. c) Transitions for large movements
According to [UIC Code N774-3, 2001], (greater than 80 mm)
the thermal expansion length for roadbeds
Displacements at expansion joints can
with continuously welded rails without
occur in the longitudinal direction of the
pull-out devices is to be limited to 60 m
bridge, in the transverse direction of the
for steel structures and 90 m for concrete
bridge and in the vertical direction;
and composite structures. The thermal
twisting can also occur. Not all crossings
expansion length is the distance from the
can accommodate displacements in the
thermal anchor point (i.e. the point that
transverse direction of the bridge. Many
does not undergo any displacement in the
transitions can also only accommodate
event of a uniform temperature change)
vertical displacements to a very limited
to the respective end of the superstructure.
extent. These displacements can also
A longitudinal displacement resistance of
significantly impair driving dynamics. For
the track is to be applied as a horizontal
this reason, the expansion joints must
force, which has an effect on the fixed
always be designed together with the
bearings and the subgrades, especially in
bearings and the bearings must be
the case of horizontal forces in the bridge
arranged in such a way that the expansion
axis (Figure 10.3.1-1).
joints do not undergo any displacements
In these cases, the forces due to braking
or rotations that they cannot
and starting may be reduced. In the case
accommodate.
of rail extension devices on one side, the
longitudinal displacement resistance must
Track transitions for small
also be taken into account, but the forces
movements (up to 25 mm)
due to braking and starting may be
These transitions are usually carried out
reduced.
with movements of up to 15 mm below
the continuous covering (Figures 10.3.2-1
to 10.3.2-3).
10.3.2 Expansion joints for
The covering is given a cut joint at this
road bridges
point, which is filled with a permanently
elastic material. For movements of up to
Expansion joints for road bridges are
25 mm, the joint is covered and usually
divided into
also sealed. In the transition area, a
a) Transitions for small movements (up permanently elastic material is used
to 25 mm) instead of the covering (Figures 10.3.2-4,
10.3.2-5).
10.3 Roadway crossings 983

Fig. 10.3.2-1 Sub-base roadway expansion joint up to 15 mm on concrete bridges [Ramberger, 2002].

Fig. 10.3.2-2 Sub-base for roadway expansion joints up to 15 mm on steel bridges [Ramberger, 2002].

Figure 10.3.2-3 Sub-base roadway expansion joint up to 15 mm on concrete bridges with elastic filling
[Ramberger, 2002].

Track transitions for medium profile or by a reinforced rubber element

movements (25 to 80 mm) that allows movement through
With these roadway transitions, the deformation. Of particular importance is
pavement is interrupted in any case and is the fastening of the deformable elements
usually finished off with a metal profile. and the possibility of replacement. In the
The joint is sealed with a special rubber case of transitions that
984 10 Bridge equipment

Fig. 10.3.2-4 Sub-base for roadway expansion joints up to 25 mm on concrete bridges [Ramberger, 2002].

pedestrians, especially in urban areas, it is a) the cushion construction (up to approx. 350
important to prevent stiletto heels from mm)
getting stuck on rubber profiles, either b) the finger transition (up to approx. 300 mm)
with a sheet metal cover or with a rubber c) the watertight slat transition (up to
profile of appropriate strength that is flat approx. 1000 mm)
on the surface (Figures 10.3.2-6 to 10.3.2- d) the sliding plate transition (from approx. 300 mm)
10).
The cushion construction consists of
Track transitions for large reinforced rubber profiles that allow
movements (greater than 80 movement by staking the soft
mm) unreinforced parts (Figures 10.3.2-11 and
Various designs have proven their worth 10.3.2-12).
in roadway crossings for large movements. There are two types of finger
transitions: the one with protruding
fingers

Fig. 10.3.2-5 Sub-base roadway expansion joint up to 25 mm on steel bridges [Ramberger, 2002].

Fig. 10.3.2-6 Track expansion joint up to 60 mm with rubber lip [Ramberger, 2002].
10.3 Roadway crossings 985

Fig. 10.3.2-7 Roadway expansion joint up to 80 mm with special rubber profile [Ramberger, 2002].

Figure 10.3.2-8 Roadway expansion joint up to 80 mm with rubber cushion [Ramberger, 2002].

Figure 10.3.2-9 Roadway expansion joint up to 80 mm with rubber cellular body [Ramberger, 2002].

Fig. 10.3.2-10 Roadway expansion joint up to 80 mm with rubber lip and sheet metal cover
[Ramberger, 2002].
986
Figure 10.3.2-11 Roadway expansion joint with reinforced rubber cushion [Ramberger, 2002].
Figure 10.3.2-12 Roadway expansion joint with reinforced rubber cushion with several expansion joints
[Ramberger, 2002].
(Figure 10.3.2-13) and the one with
supported fingers (Figure 10.3.2-14).
The transitions with supported fingers
allow larger movements. Finger bridges are
very robust and require no maintenance
apart from cleaning. However, they do not
allow movement in the transverse
direction of the bridge and are not
watertight directly on the surface. Sealing
and drainage below the crossing can
prevent water from running through onto
the abutment structure.
There are several types of watertight
slat transitions, which differ in the rubber
profiles between the steel slats, in the
support of the slats and in the type of slat
control. In the case of rubber profiles,
there are V and box profiles, which
10 Bridge equipment
can be replaced in different ways. The
slats are supported by beams in the bridge
axis, by inclined beams or by vertical
scissors. The profiles can be controlled so
that they have the same opening width in
every position by springs between the
beams, by horizontally or obliquely
arranged control elements or by vertical
scissors (Figures 10.3.2-15 to 10.3.2-18).
The sliding plate transition, which is
usually only used from movements of
approx. 500 mm, consists of a pendulum
plate that bridges the joint and adjoining
sliding plates that can slide back and forth
on sliding blocks when the joint moves.
On the side of the sliding blocks, the
sliding plates are covered with a slide
chair. Pendulum plate and slide chair
10.3 Roadway crossings 987

Figure 10.3.2-13 Finger transition with overhanging fingers [Ramberger, 2002].

Figure 10.3.2-14 Finger transition with supported fingers [Ramberger, 2002].

are held down by strong springs. The
sliding plate transition is not inherently
watertight and therefore requires a
drainage system (Fig. 10.3.2-19).
Proper installation and anchoring are of
decisive importance for ride comfort, noise
emission and the service life of a roadway
expansion joint
of the construction on the bridge and
abutment. For this reason, and also for
warranty reasons, the installation of the
expansion joint should be carried out by
the manufacturer or at least under the
supervision of the manufacturer, taking
into account the installation temperature
and the time-dependent displacements
(shrinkage, creep) that still need to be
taken into account.
988 10 Bridge equipment

Figure 10.3.2-15 Slat transition with beam in longitudinal direction and spring control [Ramberger,
2002].

Figure 10.3.2-16 Slat transition with beam in longitudinal direction and horizontal guide control
[Ramberger, 2002].
10.3 Roadway crossings 989

Fig. 10.3.2-17 Slat transition with inclined beam support and inclined beam control [Ramberger,
2002].
990 10 Bridge equipment

Figure 10.3.2-18 Slat transition with scissor support and scissor control [Ramberger, 2002].

Figure 10.3.2-19 Sliding plate transition [Ramberger, 2002]

10.3 Roadway crossings 991

10.3.3 E x p a n s i o n j o i n t s Expansion joints should not be

arranged directly at the joint, but rather at
There are two types of expansion joints: a short distance behind the abutment
outside the bridge. This rounds out the
a) the pull-out with parallel joint (Fig.
kink (tangent twist) through the track and
10.3.3-1)
makes it easier to hold the expansion joint
b) the pull-out with spring tongue joint
in place.
(Fig. 10.3.3-2)
whereby the latter has the better driving
characteristics, as there is no gap in the
rail.

Fig. 10.3.3-1 Expansion joint with parallel joint [Ramberger, 2002].

Figure 10.3.3-2 Expansion joint with spring tongue joint [Ramberger, 2002]
992 10 Bridge equipment

10.4 Scuff plates, The design of the section is mainly carried

Guards, caps and railings
URSULA FREUNDT
Equipment elements such as railings,
kerbs and safety barriers are used to safely
guide vehicle and pedestrian traffic on the
bridge structure. They form the lateral
boundaries and separate the traffic areas
between users.
10.4.1 Capping of road bridges
out outside built-up areas at permitted
speeds ofzul > 50 km/h.
For permitted speeds of up to vzul ≤ 50
km/h and for overpasses of agricultural
and forestry roads, kerbs with a height of
0.15 m to 0.20 m are generally sufficient
and the protective device is not required.
The cross-section design depends on
the required width for pedestrians and
cyclists and the required safety distances.
Figures 10.4.1-2 and 10.4.1-3 show the
cross-sectional design.

The caps form the kerb area and thus the

lateral boundary of the carriageway for
the safe guidance of vehicle traffic. The
kerb stop and the protective device catch a
straying vehicle and guide it back onto the
carriageway. In particular, the aim is to
prevent vehicles from falling off the bridge
or, in the case of multi-directional
carriageways, from entering the opposite
carriageway. The standard design for the
cap formation in the edge area is shown in
Figure 10.4.1-1. This transverse
Figure 10.4.1-2 Cap formation on farm road
overpasses

Figure 10.4.1-1 Cap formation on building

structures according to [RIZ-ING, 2008]. Figure 10.4.1-3 Cap formation for shared
pedestrian/cycle path (vzul ≤ 50 km/h)
10.4 Scuff plates, protective devices, caps and railings
training for the overpass of a service road
or for a cycle-pedestrian path.
In addition to the safety function for
vehicle traffic, the caps also have
structural and design functions to fulfill.
They cover the lateral end (cantilever end
face) of the superstructure and the sealing
layer. The design of the cornice band
contributes significantly to the overall
appearance of the bridge structure.
The supply lines running in the access
route of the road are often transferred in
the cap. The individual lines and cables
are conveniently laid in protective pipes
set in concrete so that they can be
replaced.
The caps are usually guided over the
entire length of the superstructure
without a guide and are therefore subject
to strong shrinkage and temperature
resistance in the longitudinal direction. In
order to keep these stresses as low as
possible, the cap is only attached to the
face of the superstructure using
connecting reinforcement. Between the
sealing layer and the bearing surface of the
cap, an additional protective layer of
bitumen is applied.
centerline
of track
Figure 10.4.2-1 Concrete cap with ballast wall on railroad bridge
993
roof membrane. Nevertheless, a high
minimum reinforcement in the
longitudinal direction is provided to avoid
wide cracks. The heavy loads caused by
frost and de-icing salts place high demands
on the concrete. Concretes with a high air
void content are used. The concrete
strength should be as low as possible in
order to keep the forced stresses low.
10.4.2 Caps on railroad bridges
As with road bridges, the caps on railroad
bridges form the lateral end of the
carriageway and also support the roadbed
of the railroad track. Figure 10.4.2-1 shows
the typical design of the edge cap on a
railroad overpass with ballast support
based on the technical guidelines and
standards M-RKP 1602 [DB Netz AG,
2000].
The service route on the edge cap is
used to inspect the structure and the track
systems. The necessary rail technology
lines and cables are laid in the cable
trough. On large bridges of the
994
Fig. 10.4.2-2 Edge caps according to framework planning for new lines [Prommersberger/Rojek,
1987].
On new lines, the catenary masts are
anchored in the edge cap. The service track
is designed wide enough to allow
appropriate equipment for bridge
inspection to be set up on it without
impairing the operation of the line. The
typical design is shown in Figure 10.4.2-2
from [Prommersberger/Rojek, 1987].
10.4.3 Railings and guidance systems
The railing as the outer boundary of the
bridge cross-section is primarily intended
to protect the
10 Bridge equipment
protect bridge users from falling. This
protection can only be fully guaranteed by
the railing for pedestrian and cyclist
traffic. As described in section 10.4.1,
kerbs or protective devices are installed at
the edge of the carriageway to restrain
vehicle traffic.
Railings are usually made of steel or
aluminum. For design reasons or
depending on the bridge structure in
question, wooden railings or concrete or
masonry balustrades are also possible.
10.4 Scuff plates, protective devices, caps and railings
In addition to cycle paths and
walkways, infill railings are used because
they offer greater safety against children
and small animals falling off and objects
falling down. Wire mesh infills of the
individual railing sections are also possible.
The railing height is at least 1.00 m next to
pedestrian paths. Next to cycle paths, it
must be increased by 20 cm to 1.20 m.
Railings (knee railings) are sufficient
for bridges outside built-up areas with
existing emergency walkways and for
service routes on railroad bridges.
On road bridges with a length of more
than 20 m between the splitting of trains, a
continuous wire rope is arranged in the
handrail of the railing. In the event of a
vehicle impact, this is intended to
distribute the impact energy over the entire
length of the railing and prevent the
vehicle from breaking through. The
railing itself and its anchoring in the cap
concrete will of course be destroyed.
Protective devices on bridges are
designed in accordance with [DIN EN
1317, 2007].
Figure 10.4.2-3 Concrete sliding wall with footpath and cycle path
995
The performance of the vehicles is
assessed and assigned to performance
classes on the basis of impact tests with
real vehicles.
The division into performance classes
is based on the criteria
• Containment level,
• Range of action class and
• Impact severity level
made.
The type and scope of the tests are
regulated in [DIN EN 1317-2, 2007].
The containment level characterizes the
containment capacity of the protective
device as a function of the vehicle mass,
impact angle and impact speed during the
impact tests. The effective range class is
characterized by the maximum dynamic
deflection of the protective device. The
impact severity level is used to estimate
the load on vehicle occupants in the event
of an impact with the protective device.
The support levels required on bridges
according to [RPS, 2009] are summarized
in Table 10.4.4-1.
996 10 Bridge equipment

Table 10.4.4-1 Required containment levels on bridges based on [RPS, 2009].

Roads with
Danger Vzul > 100 km/h
zone below Vzul ≤ 100 km/h Vzul ≤ 100 km/h
and highways and
the bridge and and
highway- Vzul ≤ 50 km/h
DTV(SV) > DTV(SV) ≤
l i k e roads with
500vehicles/24h 500vehicles/24h
Vzul ≤ 100 km/h

Particular
risk to third H4b H2 H2 H1
parties

Danger to
Scuff plates with a
third parties
height of 0.15 m-
and
H2 H2 H1 0.20 m and railing
(particular)
with rope
danger to
according to RIZ-
vehicle
ING
occupants

For protective devices on bridges,
additional measurements must be carried
out during the impact test to verify the
forces transferred to the structure by the
protective device and the vehicle [RPS,
2009]. Recommended values for the
horizontal forces transmitted by
protective devices are contained in [DIN-
FB 101, 2009].
Steel crash barriers or concrete sliding
walls can be used as protective devices on
bridges.
With steel crash barriers, the impact
energy of the vehicle is absorbed by the
deformation of the crash barriers and the
vehicle is guided back into the road.
Due to their shape, concrete sliding
walls prevent the wheel from rising and
guide it back onto the roadway. Figure
10.4.2-3 shows the arrangement of a
concrete sliding wall on a bridge structure
with a pedestrian and cycle path located
beneath it.
Extensive theoretical studies
and practical impact tests were carried out
by the Federal Highway Research Institute.
carried out [BASt, 2005]. The BASt also
provides information on vehicle occupant
loads and impact classes of the tested
systems.
10.5 Bridge drainage
GÜNTER RAMBERGER
and FRANCESCO AIGNER (until 10.7)
In the past, it was common practice to
drain rainwater from the bridge surface
into the ground or water below by the
shortest route. Today, this is generally
only permitted for pedestrian bridges.
Precipitation water on road and rail
employee bridges is now collected and fed
into the sewer system or, after separation
of liquid hydrocarbons (petrol, oil), into
the ground. In the case of road bridges,
sufficient longitudinal and transverse
slopes should be provided for driving
reasons.
(q = √9q2 9+ q2 3 ≥ 2.5%) for rapid
res lengt tran
hwis sver
e se
10.5 Bridge drainage
drainage of the roadway. At the edges, the
rainwater is drained by screwable or
lockable bridge inlets with
correspondingly high load-bearing
capacity ( influence area
< 200 m2) with drainage boxes and
possibly
The sludge is collected in sludge buckets
(Figure 10.5-1) and passed on through
branch pipes connected to the
longitudinal drainage system.
Utilizing the construction height of the
structure, the slope of the longitudinal
drainage can be steeper than that of the
roadway or even in the opposite direction.
Pipe gradients of less than 1.5% should be
avoided. Pipe diameters of less than 150
mm should not be used for either branch
or longitudinal pipes due to the associated
risk of blockages caused by mud, leaves,
small branches etc. being washed in. The
longitudinal lines are either laid on
brackets or suspended from the supporting
structure. If it is made of
Fig. 10.5-1 Bridge drainage boxes for steel bridges (left), for concrete and composite bridges (right)
[ACO Drain Passavant].
997
If this is justifiable for aesthetic reasons, the
longitudinal pipes should be accessible
a from the outside so that leaks can be easily
detected. Drainage pipes in box cross-
sections should be avoided wherever
possible. If possible, plaster openings
should also be provided at appropriate
intervals in the longitudinal pipes.
Steel, cast iron and plastic pipes are
used as the material for longitudinal
drainage. The spacing of the suspensions
or supports depends on the material and
diameter of the pipes. The joints are made
with sleeves (machined or pushed over),
which must not shift in the event of
vibrations. Plastic pipes, especially PE pipes,
have thermal expansion coefficients that
are many times (up to 20 times) those of
steel or concrete. This must be taken into
account in the design by means of
appropriate displacements. With
998 10 Bridge equipment

Figure 10.5-2 Cross-section of surface drainage

72,50 m 105,00 m

227,098
225,693 225,770
224,430 223,930 223,300 P
P P
P NW250 2%
P P 18 %
NW200 222,298

5,00 m

Figure 10.5-3 Longitudinal section of surface drainage

For direct discharge into the receiving
watercourse below, perpendicular drainage
supports are used, the lower edge of which
should be below the bridge structure and
which should have a defined drainage
point or a jet distributor so that the
structure and the substructures are not hit
by the rainwater. In all other cases, the
rainwater should be drained off vertically
at the abutments or piers and either fed
into the wastewater or combined sewer
system or into a dry well via petrol and oil
separators.
lead. As the bridge structure moves relative
to the substructures, either movable
rubber spiral hoses or drain funnels must
be provided at the connection points of
the longitudinal drainage pipe to the waste
pipes to ensure proper drainage even in
the event of extreme longitudinal
displacements of the superstructure.
10.6 Lighting
When lighting bridges, a distinction is
made between lighting the roadway and
lighting the bridge.
10.6 Lighting
lighting of the structure itself. The
roadway lighting on road bridges is
usually designed in the same way as on the
adjoining areas. For this purpose, the
lighting masts or the masts for tensioning,
to which the lighting bodies are attached,
must be provided on the bridge structure.
The power supply is provided by cables that
are routed in empty conduits and fed in
and out of each mast.
In some cases, the walking surfaces of
pedestrian bridges are also used when
Fig. 10.6-1 Roadway lighting as for roads
Fig. 10.6-2 Lighting of the support structure, Rossau Bridge Vienna [MA 33]
999
is illuminated when the adjacent walkways
are unlit (see also Fig. 9.2.1-3). This
effectively reduces soiling and damage
caused by vandalism. The lighting can be
mounted on standard lighting masts.
However, it can also be integrated into the
railing or even into the walking surface.
Significant, architecturally well-
designed buildings in populated areas
certainly deserve to be illuminated. There
are various ways of installing the lighting
in this way,
1000 10 Bridge equipment

Fig. 10.6-3 Fiber optic system, Franzensbrücke Vienna [MA 33]

Fig. 10.6-4 Lighting of the edge beam and the steel supports - Augarten Bridge Vienna [MA 33]

that the user is not dazzled, but the
structure is effectively illuminated.
Sometimes it is also possible to integrate
the lighting of the roadway into the
lighting of the bridge. Examples of effect
lighting for bridges are shown in Figures
10.6-1 to 10.6-4.
10.7 Utility connections
This section deals with pipelines that are
required for the municipal supply.
are necessary, such as water pipes, natural
gas pipes, high and low voltage cables.
Pipelines for crude oil, liquids from the
chemical industry, flammable or non-
flammable, toxic or respiratory gases must
be agreed with the approving body
(authority) on a case-by-case basis with
regard to the necessary safety measures.
When transferring drinking water
pipes onto bridges, it must be ensured that
the pipes are laid or supported on the
supporting structure at appropriate
intervals.
10.7 Utility connections 1001

Figure 10.7-1 Cross-section with fixtures

1002 10 Bridge equipment

The pipe must be suspended so that the The same applies to emergency shut-off
load can be absorbed and at the same time valves as to water pipes.
relative movements between the pipe and Power cables for energy supply and
the supporting structure can take place low-current cables for
without hindrance. Appropriate telecommunications are laid on cable
expansion joints must be installed to trays, in empty conduits or in cable ducts.
compensate for the movements of the As the fields surrounding the power
supporting structure at the abutments. cables can interfere with the operation of
Gate valves must be installed before and the low-current cables, either a sufficient
after the bridge to close automatically in distance or appropriate shielding must be
the event of a pipe break. If the water pipe provided between the cables. To
is laid in a box cross-section, the floor compensate for movements at the ends of
must be provided with appropriate the bridge, bends or loops are arranged in
openings at suitable points to allow the the cables.
water that escapes in the event of a pipe
burst to drain away. On the one hand, this
makes the pipe burst noticeable and, on 10.8 Noise protection systems
the other hand, prevents overloading of
the supporting structure. If the flow rate is URSULA FREUNDT
low, water pipes must be protected against
freezing by thermal insulation. 10.8.1 Overview
Natural gas pipes for municipal supply
must not be laid in box cross-sections, but Increasing noise pollution has become a
should be laid on the outside of the bridge problem for the environment, including
under the bridge deck if possible (Fig. noise caused by road traffic. The reason for
10.7-2), so that the escaping gas cannot this is the general increase in traffic volume
form an explosive mixture with air in the and the increasing density of buildings.
event of a leaking pipe. Natural gas is Noise studies and the r e s u l t i n g noise
explosive when mixed with air in the control measures are only r e q u i r e d by
range of 4 to 17 percent by volume. With legislature in Germany for new roads or
regard to the storage of pipes, expansion road sections with significant changes (e.g.
joints and increase in traffic density).
the number of tracks, etc.).
The need for noise protection measures
is assessed on the basis of the immission
limit values in accordance with the Federal
Immission Control Act [BImSchG, 2002].
It must be demonstrated that the noise
level at the place of immission is below the
permissible limit values according to
Table 10.8-1.
The intensity of the noise level at the
place of immission is expressed by the
rating level Lr . Various factors are taken
into account when determining the rating
level.
Figure 10.7-2 Bearing of the gas pipe
10.8 Noise protection 1003
systems
Table 10.8-1 Permissible immission limit are to be. The following categories are
values according to [BImSchG, 2002]. distinguished according to absorption
Location Immission limit capacity:
value [dB(A)] • Reflective ΔL < 4 dB
Day Night • Absorbing 4 dB ≤ ΔL < 8 dB
• Highly absorbent ΔL ≥ 8 dB
at hospitals, schools, 57 47
convalescent homes,
retirement homes
10.8.2 Noise protection systems on bridges
in pure and general 59 49
residential areas, Bridges are particularly relevant in terms
small housing estates of noise protection due to their exposed
in core, village and 64 54 location above ground. The standard
mixed areas design c o n s i s t s o f noise barriers
with heights of up to 6.0 m. As the noise
in industrial estates 69 59 shield is located close to the traffic route, a
good shielding value is achieved.
Noise barriers are constructed from steel
tors are taken into account. The most
posts, see Fig. 10.8-1, with interchangeable
important input variable is the existing or
wall elements between them. The joints
forecast traffic volume. The proportion of
must be sealed soundproof and
heavy traffic is particularly important here.
permanently elastic. The wall materials
In addition to the speed driven, the road
used are metal, wood, concrete, glass or
surface, longitudinal gradient and possible
plastic.
reflections of the road noise are used to
determine the noise level.
Anchoring
Structural measures can shield or
The posts of the noise barriers are
redirect the sound. The shielding value,
anchored in the cornice area of the cap or
the distance the sound has to travel, is the
on concrete parapets. In the case of
decisive factor for achieving the shielding
particularly high noise barriers, it may be
effect.
necessary to secure the cap against lifting
A sound shield must have the following
using plate anchors. Caps with plate
properties:
anchors are currently used in conjunction
• sound-impermeable, i.e. the sound that with noise barriers up to 8.0 m high.
passes directly through the screen must In addition to the task of transmitting
be reduced by at least 30 dB(A) tensile force, the plate anchors also have to
ensure tightness in the area of the seal
The diffraction edge should be as high as penetration.
possible and close to the traffic route, as The mode of action of installed plate
this increases the shielding value z. anchors with a movable upper part in the
Multiple reflections can lead to level event of loads is being investigated as part
increases. These effects can be reduced by of a research project at the Faculty of Civil
using materials with absorbent properties. Engineering, Chair of Transportation
Engineering at the Bau-
1004
University of Weimar [Michael et al.,
2008]. Figure 10.8-2 shows the
arrangement of plate anchors in bridge
caps for new construction measures.
Design
As noise barriers on bridges have a
significant influence on the design, the
corresponding systems must be taken into
account in the design phase.
From the point of view of both residents
and drivers, a number of design aspects
should be taken into account with regard
to the structural design and the choice of
materials and colors. Examples can be
found, for example, in [BMVBW, 1995].
For example, noise barriers made of
wood or concrete allow for different
surface designs on the resident and
roadway sides. Transparent noise barriers
cause the least disturbance to the
appearance of the bridge. From the driver's
point of view, long noise barriers should at
least have transparent window strips at a
height of approx. 1.20 m above the
roadway.
Fig. 10.8-1 Noise barrier as built from [Thür, 2003].
10 Bridge equipment
be installed. On high viaducts, a non-
transparent plinth (approx. 50 cm high)
provides drivers with additional safety.
Particular attention must be paid to the
transition to the open road.
Wall elements
Various building materials are used for the
wall elements, which allow for specific
design options. In terms of sound
insulation, the wall constructions differ
primarily in terms of their reflection
properties.
Wall elements made of metal usually
consist of 10-12 cm thick aluminum
cassettes, in which air spaces and sound
insulation mats, e.g. made of rock wool, are
integrated. The elements are usually 33 or
50 cm high. Sound can penetrate through
single or double-sided perforations and is
absorbed. Any color is possible.
Wall elements made of wood are
mainly arranged when they are used on
adjoining sections. For
10.8 Noise protection
systems
Figure 10.8-2 Arrangement of plate anchors in conjunction with noise barriers
High-pressure impregnation is required to
ensure sufficient durability, which makes
disposal problematic. The wall
construction consists of battens with clear
spacings of 4-5 cm. Behind this is a sound
insulation mat. The rear side is usually
formed by a cement-bonded chipboard.
The wall elements are usually large-format,
e.g. 2.0 m - 5.0 m.
Due to the relatively high dead load,
concrete wall elements are only used to a
limited extent on bridges, and installation is
usually only possible with the use of a
crane. However, the most varied surface
design options are provided by texture
and color.
Transparent noise barriers usually have a
single-skin structure made of silicate glass
or plastic glass. Manufacturers now also
offer absorbent transparent wall elements
or modular combinations of opaque, highly
absorbent and reflective transparent wall
elements, so that a transparent absorbent
noise barrier can also be created.
1005
can be created. In order to ensure splinter
protection above public traffic areas,
special interception constructions (wire
mesh) must be provided. Various
manufacturers offer solutions here by
installing splinter-binding fibers without
impairing transparency. In some cases, a
glare effect can occur due to reflection at
night.
Structural requirements
Noise barriers must meet the following
requirements:
• acoustic requirements
• traffic safety stakes
• sufficiently stable and dimensionally stable
permanent
• Resistant to ageing and corrosion or
-protected
• color-fast, fire and stone throw
resistant and maintainability.
With regard to traffic safety, the
requirements of [RPS, 2009] and [ZTV-
LSW, 1988] must be observed.
1006
If an additional railing is dispensed
with when an LSW is installed, the safety
cable for fall protection of departing
vehicles must be attached to the noise
barrier together with the rail.
The LS elements must be individually
secured against falling. For this purpose,
retaining structures made of wire ropes at
least 4 mm thick are usually arranged in
the four corners and connected to the
posts.
It must be possible to replace damaged
elements or entire panels of noise barriers
without adversely affecting unaffected
panels.
The stability of noise barriers must be
verified for the load-bearing components
(stakes of the posts and the transfer of
forces). The main actions are the effects of
wind. These are regulated in [DIN FB-101,
2009]. Additional actions are dependent
on the height and position of the noise
Figure 10.8-3 Bridge enclosure in Italy from [Röhm, 2003]
10 Bridge equipment
and are subject to national regulations, in
Germany for example the [ZTV-LSW,
1988].
Further developments
A greater shielding effect can be achieved
if a much larger part of the roadway can
be covered by the noise protection
structure [Herder, 2001], [Groh, 2003].
Level increases due to multiple reflections
can be reduced by installing sound-
absorbing cladding on the ceiling and
walls. Level reductions of around 20 dB(A)
can be achieved.
With partial roofing, natural
ventilation and exposure is usually
sufficient. However, the condition of the
road can vary greatly in terms of moisture
and ice.
The most effective, albeit most
expensive, type of noise protection is the
complete enclosure of the bridge. Through
10.8 Noise protection
systems
By using transparent elements, artificial
exposure can be dispensed with. Figure
10.8-3 shows an example from Italy.
Experience regarding the problems of
vehicle collisions, fire protection, access
for emergency services and not
1007
The latest cleaning results are not yet
available. In Germany, a transparent noise
enclosure is planned for the Saale bridge
near Salzmünde as part of the new
construction of the A 143 motorway
(Halle western bypass) [DEGES, 2002].
11 Monitoring, testing, evaluation and
assessment of bridges
11.1 Introduction
EVA-MARIA EICHINGER-VILL
and JOHANN KOLLEGGER (until
11.2)
Structural inspection is the determination
and evaluation of the actual condition of a
structure. Structural monitoring covers all
measures required to detect defects and
damage to structures in good time so that
failure can be ruled out without prior
notice. In this context, damage is a change
to the structure that impairs its
serviceability, durability or load-bearing
capacity, whereby the cause can be either
a defect on the resistance side or
overloading of the structure on the action
side. A defect is the negative deviation
from the intended structural condition to
the actual condition. A defect can result in
one or more damages.
11.2 Causes of damage to
concrete bridges
11.2.1 General information
Defects in bridge structures, which can
subsequently cause damage, are caused by
design errors, execution errors or external
influences.
causes. The majority of the defects
identified primarily affect the durability of
the structure. However, if these defects are
not taken into account, they can also
jeopardize the load-bearing capacity of the
bridge over time. Strict quality assurance
measures, in the sense of in-house and
third-party monitoring, must be
implemented to avoid defects due to
execution errors. Due to the fact that
bridges made of reinforced concrete and
prestressed concrete are exposed to a
multitude of influences, it is impossible to
list all potentially damaging influences.
However, the most common causes of
damage are known and are described
below.
Defects and subsequent damage can
affect the various components and
building materials of the structure and
have a wide variety of causes. A major
cause of damage to reinforced concrete
and prestressed concrete bridges is
corrosion of the reinforcement, which is
caused by substances that are already
embedded in the structure or come from
the immediate environment. In this
context, it must be emphasized that
professionally executed reinforced
concrete is permanently resistant to
weathering under normal conditions.
Weather-related damage usually only
occurs if defects are already present or if
the service life and load of the structure
far exceed the originally assumed level
[Ruffert, 1983].
1010 11 Monitoring, testing, evaluation and assessment of bridges
The use of de-icing salt as part of road
operations in the winter months poses one
of the biggest problems for the durability
of bridge structures, attacking both the
concrete and the steel. Sodium chlorides
are mainly used as de-icing agents in
winter service.
The question of who is responsible for
remedying damage is essentially
determined by the time at which the
damage occurs. In this context, formal
acceptance of the construction occurs both
after completion and before the end of the
limitation period. The time at which the
damage occurs is not only important for
the clarification of legal issues, but can
also be a decisive factor in the technical
assessment of the cause of the damage.
11.2.2 Damage to concrete
11.2.2.1 General information
Together with the reinforcement, the
concrete should meet the requirements
with regard to
The durability of the overall structure is
significantly influenced by the design and
material properties of the concrete
resulting from the manufacturing process
prior to installation. The durability of the
overall structure is significantly
influenced by the structural design and
the material properties of the concrete
resulting from the manufacturing process
prior to installation.
Concrete is a porous building material.
Its ability to absorb water in liquid form
depends on its surface tension. The water
in the area of a bridge can be
contaminated by chemicals and then only
has about half the surface tension of
chemically pure concrete.
water. For this reason, contaminated
water can penetrate the concrete much
more easily. In this context, it is therefore
particularly important to protect the
construction from such effects by means
of proper sealing.
The properties of concrete depend on
its chemical and mineralogical
composition as well as the degree of
sealing and the associated pore volume.
Physical and chemical influences, which
affect the building in various ways and
combinations, have a significant influence
on the ageing of the building material.
However, the quality of the concrete has a
significant influence on the durability of
the structure. Concrete compressive
strength is often used as the only criterion
for concrete quality. However, for bridge
structures in particular, the compressive
strength alone is not sufficiently
meaningful with regard to durability; other
factors must also be taken into account
[Ruffert, 1983]. These include
• the capillary volume, i.e. the water
absorption capacity under atmospheric
conditions in the relaxed drinking
water
water,
• the air permeability, i.e. the resistance
to the passage of carbon dioxide,
• a sufficient content of calcium-
hydroxide, detectable by means of pH
value and
• the absence of cracks when looking at the
Surfaces.
In order to achieve sufficient compaction
and limit the pore volume in the hardened
concrete, the fresh concrete is compacted
using a vibrator. Compaction can result in
defects or damage to the concrete if it
cannot be properly compacted between
the reinforcing bars. But also too in
11.2 Causes of damage to concrete bridges
Intensive vibration can produce defects, as
this can lead to segregation of the fresh
concrete. Due to the condenser of the
concrete, the aggregates sink downwards
as a result of their own weight and the
lighter cement content begins to rise
upwards.
Concrete can be attacked by chemical
substances, whereby a distinction is made
between dissolving and driving attack.
Cement paste consists of calcium silicates
and aluminates, which are formed by
hydration. Its alkalinity is the reason why
it can be attacked by any acid. This
dissolving attack first loosens and then
destroys the bond between the aggregate
and the mastic substance. However, if the
protective concrete skin is undisturbed,
the loosening attack can be prevented.
Cracks and extensive damage are
dangerous, as they allow the aggressive
substances to penetrate deeply. It is
therefore important to detect dissolving
damage as early as possible and to take
suitable measures to rectify it. One
possibility is to protect the sensitive
cement stone with acid-resistant films.
If the attacking substances trigger a
reaction that leads to an increase in
volume, this is referred to as a driving
attack. These substances can penetrate
through cracks or already be present in
the concrete in the form of alkaline
aggregates (alkali-silica reaction). The
larger volume of space that forms has a
structure-bursting effect. An example of
this are gases and solutions containing
sulphate ions. During the reaction
between the sulfates and the tricalcium
aluminate in the cement paste, ettringite is
formed, which has about eight times the
volume of the starting materials. This
increase in volume leads to crater-shaped
spalling of the concrete surface, to a
reduction in strength, and to a reduction in
the strength of the concrete.
1011
This can lead to a reduction and, in
extreme cases, complete destruction of the
affected concrete. This damage can be
prevented by using sulphate-resistant
cements.
However, three types of damage or
changes in the properties of the concrete
are of decisive importance for the corrosion
of the reinforcement, which are described
in more detail below. These are the
formation of cracks, carbonation and the
chloride content of the concrete.
11.2.2.2 Cracks in the concrete
Cracks occur in a reinforced or
prestressed concrete structure when the
tensile strength of the concrete is
exceeded. Cracks of small width initially
have no direct negative effects on the load-
bearing capacity of a structure, as this is
verified on the assumption t h a t the
concrete cannot withstand any tensile
forces. All tensile forces are therefore
assigned to the reinforcement. The
following types of cracks and their causes
can be distinguished [Nürnberger, 1995]:
• Stress cracks: Exceeding the tensile
strength resulting from loads (also
from pre-tensioning) and hindered
deformation (shrinkage, temperature
change, support displacement)
• Shrinkage cracks: Surface drying
of the processed fresh concrete
• Hydration cracks: Surface cooling of
the concrete heated as a result of
hydration
• Corrosion cracks: Volume increase
Reinforcement of the reinforcement in case
of corrosion
• Frost cracks: Volume increase of the
water during the change of the ag-
gregate state due to ice formation
1012 11 Monitoring, testing, evaluation and assessment of bridges
Shortly after concreting, the curing
process and shrinkage can cause cracks to
form in the fresh concrete. This can be
countered by a suitable concrete
composition, curing in accordance with
the state of the art or by pre-tensioning.
The concrete is subjected to compressive
forces by prestressing, which largely
overwhelm the tensile stresses caused by
constant and variable influences and
constraints. Nevertheless, it is only
possible to prevent cracks in the concrete
to a limited extent. Tensile stresses occur
in the superstructure as a result of
permanent and variable actions and
constraints (column subsidence, uneven
heating). Constraint and residual stresses
due to hydration heat or different
shrinkage dimensions of components of
different thickness or age are also
important for crack formation. In
addition, forced internal forces occur due
to temperature differences caused by solar
radiation. The sometimes very large
temperature differences between the top
and bottom of the superstructure are a
major cause of cracking in prestressed
concrete bridges. In the early days of
prestressed concrete construction,
however, these tensile stresses were often
not taken into account in the structural
calculations.
In addition, the tensile strength of
concrete is a highly scattering parameter
whose permissible values are based on
laboratory results. The actual tensile
strength of the concrete in the construction
work depends primarily on the concrete
composition, the quality of execution and
possible previous damage and also
decreases over time. In addition,
inadequate curing or unfavorable weather
conditions have a negative effect on the
concrete tensile strength. To avoid cracks
due to hydration heat, all concrete
technology measures must be implemented
first and foremost.
surface cracks can be the starting point for
deeper cracks due to their notch effect.
With crack widths of more than 0.4
mm, sufficient corrosion protection of the
reinforcement is not guaranteed, which
means that corrosion erosion and thus a
weakening of the reinforcement is possible.
This could pose a direct risk to the load-
bearing capacity of the structure.
Cracks in the area of the coupling
joints have a problematic effect; here the
problem of fatigue strength for the
prestressing cable comes to the fore. Due to
the change in bending moments as a result
of the traversing load, large stress
fluctuations occur in the prestressing steel
[Leonhardt, 1979 and Zilch et al., 2004].
While tendons on the free section between
the coupler anchors can withstand high
fatigue stresses without damage, there is a
significant reduction in fatigue strength in
the immediate area of the coupler anchor.
If this is exceeded, there is a risk of fatigue
failure for the prestressing steel.
The chloride content and carbonation
are also of decisive importance for the
corrosion of steel. Only the carbonation of
the concrete up to the reinforcement
makes it possible for the iron to dissolve on
the steel surface and for corrosion to
occur. However, if a critical chloride ion
concentration is exceeded in the cross-
section of the steel reinforcement, there is
also a risk of corrosion in non-carbonated
concrete. The following section will
therefore explain the influence of chloride
ions and carbonation on the corrosion
process.
11.2.2.3 Chloride content
The presence of chlorides improves the
conductivity of the electrolyte, so that
11.2 Causes of damage to concrete bridges
corrosion already in progress in the
carbo- natized area of the concrete can be
significantly accelerated. Carbo-
natization of the concrete therefore
additionally increases the risk of
corrosion, as bound (harmless) chloride
goes back into solution. In the case of
chloride corrosion of steel in concrete, the
following conditions must be met
simultaneously:
• The chloride content in the area of the
weir must be above a critical limit value.
• For the cathodic sub-process
sufficient oxygen diffuses through the
concrete cover to the steel surface.
• For the ion current between the
cathode
and anode, a sufficient moisture
content of the concrete is required.
Chlorides can already be present in the
starting materials for concrete production,
but are limited to harmless quantities by
the technical regulations. Chlorides that
penetrate the concrete from the outside as
a result of the use of de-icing salt during
the cold season are harmful.
The penetration of chloride into the
concrete takes place differently to the
penetration of gaseous carbon dioxide
during carbonation. While well
measurable fronts or areas occur during
the carbonation of the concrete, chloride
penetration results in continuously
decreasing concentration distributions.
However, a high impermeability of the
concrete (W/B value, compaction, curing)
has a positive effect on the penetration
resistance of the chlorides. In the area of
permanently immersed zones, the
chlorides present on the concrete surface
in the solution can penetrate the concrete
by diffusion via the micropores. The
greater the concentration gradient and the
lower the diffusion resistance, the higher
the diffusion speed.
1013
resistance of the concrete. This is
determined by the concrete density
(capillary porosity); the chloride
concentration in the concrete cannot
become greater than in the solution. If the
concrete structure is sufficiently dense, the
chloride concentration tends towards a
final value over time.
For bridges, however, the conditions of
alternating humidification apply, with
significantly less favorable conditions. The
transport of chloride ions in the concrete
is significantly influenced by the
simultaneously diffusing water, which is
why the time intervals between the
moistening cycles are of great importance.
Due to the capillary effect, the penetration
speed of the chlorides into the concrete is
high when the solution acts on concrete
that is not saturated with water or is
completely dry. The penetration rate is
low when the solution acts on a water-
saturated concrete tri@, as chlorides
cannot enter the concrete via water
transport. If the concrete is repeatedly
moistened with chloride-containing
solutions and dries out in the meantime,
chloride concentrations can occur after
the evaporation of the water that are far
above the chloride concentration of the
initial solution.
In cracks, chlorides can penetrate to
the steel surface much faster than in non-
cracked concrete. As chloride impact is
always accompanied by wetting of the
component, capillary suction processes
play a significant role, so diffusion
processes in cracks are not important.
However, even with high chloride
contents, further conditions must be met
for corrosion to occur: the concrete must
be sufficiently conductivity (moist) and
sufficiently permeable to oxygen. The
most unfavorable corrosion conditions
are present when higher moisture contents
are present in leaking and low concrete
cover.
1014 11 Monitoring, testing, evaluation and assessment of bridges
content can be introduced. In this
situation, carbonation of the concrete can
lead to corrosion damage even without
chloride effects. In dense concrete and
with standard-compliant concrete
coverings, chloride corrosion is limited
even in the case of high chloride contents
on the reinforcement, as oxygen ingress is
impeded.
The risk of corrosion for reinforced or
prestressed concrete components exposed
to chloride can therefore be summarized
as follows. Severe signs of corrosion always
occur, particularly in the case of chloride
attack, if weak points in the construction
result in heavy chloride accumulation
and/or frequent soaking of individual
components, concreting errors are present
or the quality of the concrete covering
does not meet the minimum
requirements. In all these cases, cracks in
the concrete can promote corrosion.
As failure of prestressing steels cannot
be completely ruled out after depas-
sivation of the steel surface, chlorides
must be prevented from penetrating to the
prestressing steel surface for prestressed
concrete components. This can be
achieved, for example, with the help of
permanently impermeable ducts (e.g. made
of plastic).
As the effects of de-icing salt pose a
great danger to durability, additional
constructive measures, i.e. direct protective
measures, are required to prevent the
ingress of de-icing salt water to the
structural concrete and above all to the
prestressing steel (perfect sealing and
drainage as well as permanently
watertight carriageway transitions).
Cracks in the carriageway slab are
therefore fundamentally more critical
than cracks in the concrete due to possible
defects in the carriageway waterproofing
and the greater chloride exposure there.
The webs and in the floor slab, where
normally, with the exception of spray mist
areas above roads treated with de-icing
salt, attacks by de-icing salt water are not
to be expected. If the waterproofing is
defective, cracks in the concrete of
roadway slabs, if they cross tendons,
represent a serious interruption of the
corrosion protection.
11.2.2.4 carbonation
The gaseous carbon dioxide CO2 contained
in the air can diffuse into the concrete
through the air-filled pores of the cement
paste and at local defects, nests and cracks.
The CO2 reacts with the calcium
hydroxide Ca(OH)2 dissolved in the pore
water of the concrete to form calcium
carbonate CaCO3 . A reaction of the carbon
dioxide with the components of the
cement paste dissolved in the water is now
possible, whereby the CO2 is consumed in
the carbonation reaction. Only when the
reaction process has progressed so far that
no more calcium hydroxide can be
dissolved at the reaction site does the
carbonation penetrate deeper into the
concrete. This results in clear, easily
measurable carbonation fronts. However,
due to pores and other defects in the
concrete structure, carbonation peaks
occur which can often be many times
greater than the average carbonation
depth.
As carbonation progresses, the
originally high pH value of the hardened
cement paste decreases until, at pH values
below 9 in the carbonated range, the
corrosion protection effect of the concrete
is lost due to depassivation of the steel
surface. Fully carbonated concrete finally
has a very low pH value of 8.3 compared to
the pH value of the non-carbonated
cement paste of approx. 12.5. The concrete
11.2 Causes of damage to concrete bridges
itself is not damaged by the carbonation.
The formation of crystalline calcium
carbonate even increases the
impermeability of the cement paste and
the compressive strength of the concrete.
As a result of the process described
above, the carbonation front slowly moves
into the interior of the concrete. As the
diffusion resistance of the concrete to the
concrete interior increases and at the
same time calcium hydroxide migrates
from the interior to the carbonation front, a
limit value of the carbonation depth is
reached in the cross-section in which an
equilibrium is established between the
diffusing carbon dioxide and the calcium
hydroxide supplied from the interior.
The composition, processing and curing
of the concrete are of decisive importance
for carbonation. In the composition, care
must be taken to keep the water-binding
agent value as low as possible, as the
porosity of the cement paste increases
significantly as the W/B value increases.
Furthermore, an optimum grading curve
of the aggregates should be aimed for.
When processing the concrete, it is very
important to produce a closed structure
through complete compaction, which in
turn requires a suitable fresh concrete
consistency. Curing should guarantee the
impermeability of the concrete on the
component surfaces, which is crucial for
the corrosion protection of the steel
inserts, by ensuring the necessary degree
of hydration. Sufficient curing includes an
adequate supply of moisture or protection
against premature drying out by covering
the freshly concreted components.
In addition to the concrete properties
themselves, the environmental conditions
have a major influence on the carbonation
of the concrete. Carbonation is strongly
dependent on the moisture content of the
concrete.
1015
dependent. As carbon dioxide can only
diffuse through pores that are not filled
with water, water-saturated concrete is
largely protected against carbonation.
Even completely dry concrete does not
carbonate, as water is required for the
carbonation reaction. However, humidity
levels that prevent carbonation (< 30% rel.
humidity) hardly ever occur in Central
Europe. Relative humidities between 50
and 70% are favourable for carbonation; at
higher humidities, the progress of
carbonation slows down. From these
correlations it is understandable that
surfaces protected from rain (bridge
soffits) can have greater carbonation
depths than surfaces that are more
exposed to rain.
11.2.3 Damage to the reinforcing steel
Many problems on older solid bridges are
associated with damage to the slack
reinforcement and the prestressing
reinforcement. In most cases, this is
caused by corrosion. This is the
decomposition of a material, in this case a
metal, under external influences starting
at the surface. Metals are extracted from
natural metal compounds (ores), which
are thermodynamically low in energy and
therefore chemically stable, by adding
energy during smelting. They are in a
high-energy, stable state and have the
tendency to return to a lower-energy state
by forming oxides, hydroxides, sulfates or
carbonates. This is why unprotected steel
tends to corrode and form iron oxide and
hydroxide (rust). When describing the
corrosion mechanism, a distinction can be
made between the initiation period and the
damage period. The initiation
1016 11 Monitoring, testing, evaluation and assessment of bridges
Figure 11.2.3-1 Galvanic element
The corrosion protection period
comprises the time period in which
carbonation or a critical chloride content
has not yet reached the steel surface. The
steel surface remains passivated during this
period; no corrosion removal takes place.
In contrast, the damage period only begins
when corrosion has reached the steel
surface.
Figure 11.2.3-2 Corrosion mechanisms in the crack
rosion is actually possible, i.e. after the
carbonation has penetrated to the
reinforcement or after a critical chloride
content has been reached in the concrete.
A corrosion process starts as soon as
the protective alkaline environment
provided by the cement mortar is no
longer present and moisture ingress
becomes possible. Corrosion is an
electrochemical process that takes place in
two partial reactions, which can take place
on the surface directly next to each other or
locally separately. A distinction must be
made between processes at the anode and
the cathode (Fig. 11.2.3-1).
In principle, two corrosion
mechanisms are possible (Figure 11.2.3-
2). If the corrosion areas are small and
close to each other, this is referred to as
localized or microelement corrosion (self-
corrosion, corrosion mechanism I); the
progress of the corrosion mechanism is
then generally rather slow. In the crack
area, the deposited surface of the steel
insert corrodes like a
11.2 Causes of damage to concrete bridges
unprotected steel, the anodic and cathodic
sub-areas lie directly next to each other in
the area of the crack and the required
oxygen penetrates predominantly via the
crack.
However, if local moisture penetration
impedes oxygen ingress or if chlorides
have only locally disrupted the
passivation, so-called macro-element
corrosion (corrosion mechanism II)
occurs. In this process, the de- passivating
layer in the crack area has an anodic
effect. The adjacent steel surface between
the cracks has a cathodic effect, whereby
the oxygen in the uncracked area diffuses
to the cathode.
11.2.3.1 Prerequisite for corrosion of
steel
Moisture and oxygen are required to
enable rust formation, and the corrosion
process is accelerated as the temperature
rises. When embedded, steel is effectively
protected against corrosion by the concrete.
The corrosion protection is based on the
high alkalinity of the pore water in the
concrete, which has pH values between 12.5
and 13.5 due to the dissolved calcium
hydroxide Ca(OH)2 formed during the
setting and hardening of the concrete.
Here, a stable passive layer of iron
hydroxide forms on the steel surface, which
prevents anodic iron dissolution and thus
corrosion. Although the passive film
consists of corrosion products, the
associated removal rates are irrelevant
from a practical construction point of
view. The corrosion protection can be lost
due to mechanical damage (loss of concrete
cover), carbonation (loss of alkalinity of the
pore fluid) or excessive chloride content in
the concrete (attack by corrosion-promoting
substances). However, carbonation or
chlorides alone have
1017
This does not necessarily result in
corrosion, as steel can only corrode if the
following four conditions are met:
• Sufficient water must be present on the
steel as an electrolyte. This condition is
fulfilled at a relative humidity of 50 to
60%.
• Between the metallically connected
electrodes, a potential difference must
exist. This is always present on the steel
surface, e.g. due to the rolling skin and
base material, between different alloy
components, between areas of different
deformation states, due to the
inhomogeneities in the concrete and
due to different compaction.
• At the anode, an unobstructed
iron dissolution should be possible.
The carbonation of the concrete is the
prerequisite for this.
• Sufficient acid must be connected to the
cathode.
er material. This is possible if the
concrete cover is insufficient or if the
cracks in the concrete are too large.
If corrosion is caused by substances in the
environment of a material, a distinction is
made between the following corrosive
agents [Nürnberger, 1995]:
• Corrosive agents of a physical nature: heat,
frost, temperature changes, humidity,
water vapor, driving rain, condensation,
wind, dust, UV radiation
• Corrosion agents of a chemical nature: Acid
solvents, solvents, oils, greases, organic
compounds, exhaust gases, flue gases,
smog
• Corrosive agents of a biological nature: Mi-
croorganisms, algae, fungi, macro-
ganisms
With regard to corrosion of the
reinforcement in reinforced and
prestressed concrete bridges, the biggest
problems for the reinforcement are not
only physical corrosion agents but also
chemical corrosion agents in the form of
de-icing salts.
1018 11 Monitoring, testing, evaluation and assessment of bridges
durability of bridge structures. In order to
protect the steel inserts from these
environmental influences, well-sealed
concrete, sufficient concrete cover for the
reinforcement and limitation of the crack
widths are of enormous importance.
However, in the early days of prestressed
concrete construction, relatively little
importance was attached to sufficient
concrete cover and crack width limitation.
In prestressed concrete structures, the
concrete is exposed to compressive forces
that largely exceed the tensile stresses
caused by constant and variable actions
and constraints. In the early days of
prestressed concrete technology, it was
therefore believed that no cracks would
occur in the concrete. However,
experience soon showed that it was only
possible to prevent cracks in the concrete
completely to a limited extent [Leonhardt,
1979 and König et al., 1986].
11.2.3.2 Types of corrosion
The corrosion process leads to a reduction
in the cross-section of the reinforcement,
with the resulting corrosion products
displaying a color spectrum ranging from
red to green to black. However, if there
are localized imperfections in the passive
layer, deep rust scars can form, which can
have additional negative consequences for
the steels due to the notch effect. In
principle, a distinction can be made
between surface corrosion, pitting
corrosion, fretting corrosion and stress
corrosion cracking. The latter is a special
case, as the formation and propagation of
cracks in steel depends only on the
concentration of hydrogen and the tensile
stress that occurs and can also take place
in an alkaline environment without prior
damage caused by corrosion. Stress
corrosion cracking is particularly
problematic for highly sensitive quenched
and tempered prestressing steels.
11.2.3.2.1 Surface corrosion
In the case of surface corrosion or ablative
corrosion, the material is removed almost
uniformly from the surface. The most
important prerequisite for the initiation of
corrosion is the dissolution of the alkaline
passive layer (depassivation). This is the
case after the pH value has fallen below
the so-called passivation threshold. The
attack of chlorides in already carbonated
concrete leads to a significantly increased
corrosion attack of the stakes.
Furthermore, the concrete must have
sufficient electrical conductivity. This is
caused by the presence of unbound water
in the capillaries of the concrete, whereby
the presence of chloride ions significantly
increases the conductivity of the concrete.
Oxygen is another important component,
which is consumed by the reaction during
the corrosion process. The concrete must
therefore be dry enough to allow oxygen
to be transported via diffusion processes
or cracks.
The corrosion process is therefore a
function of the parameters conductivity
(water in the capillaries) and oxygen
supply, whereby these two factors are
strongly interdependent. The extreme case
of completely water-saturated concrete
shows the best electrical conductivity, but
offers considerable resistance to oxygen
diffusion. The extreme case of dry
concrete shows very poor electrical
conductivity; oxygen diffusion finds
optimal boundary conditions here. The
risk of corrosion thus reaches a maximum
when the combined effect of oxygen
supply and electrical conductivity is
present in moderately moist concrete or
frequent wet-dry cycles.
11.2 Causes of damage to concrete bridges
11.2.3.2.2 pitting corrosion
Pitting corrosion (generally chloride
corrosion) is basically based on the
formation of micro and macro elements,
but chlorides promote the corrosion
process without being consumed. The
penetration of chlorides into the concrete
in the uncracked state is based on the ca-
pilar suction effect of the cement paste on
the one hand and on diffusion processes
on the other. If there are stakes, chlorides
preferentially migrate to the anode and
cause an accumulation in the electrolyte at
this point.
Freeze-thaw cycles (alternating
stresses) lead to increased chloride
penetration; in the case of evenly and
heavily soaked concrete, hardly any
corrosion takes place as the access of
oxygen is prevented.
11.2.3.2.3 Stress corrosion cracking
Stress corrosion cracking is the formation
and propagation of cracks in prestressing
steels under the influence of certain media
and static tensile load and/or residual
stresses from the production process.
Mechanical or corrosion-related pre-
damage is not required. In this sense, even
steels installed and tested in accordance
with standards can be at risk simply due
to their chemism.
Stress corrosion cracking is linked to
the formation of atomic, absorbable
hydrogen, which is responsible for the
brittleness of the prestressing steel. In an
alkaline medium, hydrogen is formed
during water decomposition at the
cathode in the course of anodic iron
dissolution.
The most important factors influencing
hydrogen-induced cracking include
hydrogen concentration and tensile stress.
1019
tion. Under high tensile stresses, even a
very low hydrogen activity is sufficient to
initiate the process of stress corrosion
cracking in sensitive steels.
The so-called decohesion theory sees
the diffusion of absorbed hydrogen into
areas of high stress (notches, tips of
cracks, etc.) as the cause of stress
corrosion cracking. The diffusion is
favored by the fact that hydrogen is very
mobile due to its small atomic diameter.
In the affected areas, the cohesive forces in
the metal lattice are reduced to such an
extent that cracking becomes possible,
which favors further crack growth.
In contrast to pitting corrosion,
embrittlement occurs inside the steel and
not at an interface; discontinuities in the
metal lattice (grain boundaries) tighten
the atomic hydrogen. Crack growth
occurs in stages, whereby a sufficient
amount of hydrogen must always be
supplied to the interior and diffuse in at
the plastic deformation limit. This results
in the degree of embrittlement that leads
to further progression of crack growth.
This gradual process of embrittlement is
the reason for the delayed fracture
behavior of sensitive prestressing steels.
Compared to other prestressing steels,
quenched and tempered prestressing
steels have a much higher risk potential
with regard to strength-reducing stress
corrosion cracking. In particular, the
chemical composition of prestressing wires
of the so-called "old type" (pre-1965) is
considered critical. From 1965 onwards,
the addition of chromium and a change in
the Mn/Si ratio as well as the silicon and
carbon content significantly reduced the
residual stresses and thus the risk of stress
corrosion cracking.
1020 11 Monitoring, testing, evaluation and assessment of bridges
11.2.3.2.4 Fretting corrosion
Frictional corrosion occurs when two steel
surfaces rub against each other under
pressure in cracked concrete (state II) over
a longer period of time (frictional fatigue
stress). Due to their different surface
shapes, prestressing steel and reinforcing
steel exhibit different bonding behavior,
as a result of which the load application
and anchoring lengths of prestressing and
reinforcing steels also vary. In the
immediate vicinity of cracks, relative
displacements can therefore occur
between tendon and duct or between the
individual wires of a prestressing wire
bundle.
Crack width fluctuations combined
with constant opening and closing of the
cracks as a result of dynamic loads (traffic
loads) are to be regarded as particularly
critical, as they successively weaken the
bond between the concrete and the
reinforcement. This weakening of the
bond leads to frictional processes along
the length of the unbonded prestressing
steel. As a result, metal particles are
released from the prestressing steel surface,
which oxidize immediately. The oxidation
products are harder than the steel, which
leads to an increase in the coefficients of
friction [Wollmann et al., 1988].
Bridges are subject to frequently
changing stresses due to traffic loads. With
frequent load cycles, however, the strength
of the materials is lower than with a single
static load. In uncracked concrete
(condition I), the fluctuations in the
bending moments due to traffic loads
result in only small oscillation widths in
the prestressing steel stresses. However, if
a cross-section cracks (condition II), the
amplitudes of the prestressing steel
stresses increase significantly. When
assessing the fatigue failure risk, a
distinction must therefore be made
between the free tendon length and
tendon couplers.
On the open track, frictional fatigue
stresses and frictional corrosion processes
must be taken into account with regard to
their effect on the tolerable vibration
widths of a prestressing steel. Solar
radiation on supporting structures leads to
a change in the existing crack widths
(temperature deformation), the traffic
loads can lead to a further intensification
of this effect. As a result of the partially
loosened bond, frictional fatigue stresses
and frictional corrosion processes occur
on the prestressing steel surfaces, which
result in a drop in the fatigue strength of
the prestressing steels.
As the strength-reducing frictional
fatigue stress on the prestressing steel
surface is not present in prestressed
concrete structures in state I, relatively
high fatigue strength values of the freely
vibrating prestressing steel can be
assumed. These are above 200 N/mm² for
most of the prestressing steels approved
by the building authorities today. In the
cracked range, larger vibration amplitudes
occur on the one hand, which on the
other hand are offset by smaller bearable
vibration amplitudes due to the larger
friction paths. Curved tendons show a
lower fatigue strength under this frictional
fatigue load than free-swinging
prestressing steels, whereby the chafing
movements of the tendons when opening
and closing the cracks as well as deflection
pressures between prestressing steels and
ducts, but also within a bundle, must be
taken into account.
Fractures of prestressing steels due to
frictional fatigue loading and fretting
corrosion do not usually lead to the
sudden failure of a component, as the
tensile force released by the fracture can
be redistributed to the remaining tendons
of the cross-section. The associated
increases in stress cause an increase in
crack widths or lead to the formation of
recognizable cracks in load-bearing
structures in condition I.
11.2 Causes of damage to concrete bridges
cracks. Failure is therefore only to be
expected with advance notice.
When cracks form in bridges, the
tensile forces in the crack are transmitted
jointly by the prestressing steel and the
reinforcing steel. This means that, due to
the better bonding properties of the
prestressing steel, a greater tensile force
transfer occurs than was calculated. The
prestressing steel therefore still has
reserves that were not taken into account
when planning and selecting the
prestressing steels.
11.2.4 Damage to the joints and bearings
11.2.4.1 Joints
A solid bridge is subject to considerable
deformation due to the effects of
temperature and loads. To ensure that a
bridge structure can withstand these
movements without damage, expansion
joints are provided by design. The
pavement cannot be carried through at
these points and expansion joints must be
installed. These can easily accommodate
the changes in length of the structure. In
addition to the great advantage that they
reduce the expansions and therefore do
not cause any constraining stresses, they
also have the disadvantage that the
covering cannot be applied at these points
and therefore form a weak point for the
structure where sealing measures are
difficult.
The following requirements are placed
on the movable transitions between two
rigid parts of a bridge structure. On the
one hand, they must have sufficient
mobility to reduce the expansions that
occur and, on the other hand, they must
ensure protection against aggressive
substances by providing sufficient sealing
effect.
Joints should be limited in number
because they are weak points in the
supporting structure.
1021
represent. As they cannot transmit such
high tensile and shear stresses, they
should be arranged in areas of low stress
on the hardened concrete [Schneider,
1995].
A distinction is made between
expansion, construction and coupling
joints. Expansion joints have the task of
absorbing the change in length resulting
from temperature changes and the
shrinkage of the concrete. They must be
arranged so that the restraint stresses
resulting from the changes in length
described above do not cause any damage.
Construction joints result from the
individual concreting sections and
coupling joints from the prestressing and
coupling of the tendons at the
construction joints.
Expansion joints are equipped with an
elastic sealing material. A distinction is
made between bituminous-based plastic
sealing compounds and permanently
elastic plastic sealing compounds. Joints
do not have the task of transmitting
forces, but merely have to withstand the
deformations to be expected from the
loads and temperature changes without
damage. To withstand these without
damage, a permanently elastic joint
material is required. The elasticity is
achieved by adding plastics. UV radiation
and chemical influences cause these to age
and become brittle. In the joint area in
particular, the large number of installed
reinforcements can also cause errors in the
concreting process (gravel pockets).
The coupling joints of older prestressed
concrete bridges are subject to particular
stress. At these points, a new section is
concreted against an already hardened
and prestressed section (see also sections
5.2.1 (here Figures 5.2.1-24 to -32), 8.5.3.3
and 11.2.2.2).
The usually very small amount of slack
reinforcement in old bridge structures can
lead to relatively wide cracks in the area of
these connections.
1022 11 Monitoring, testing, evaluation and assessment of bridges
joint. Through these cracks, water
containing de- icer can penetrate the
prestressing steel and cause corrosion
damage. In addition, cracks in the area of
the coupling joints are also problematic
with regard to the fatigue strength and
fatigue of the prestressing steels [Zilch et
al., 2004].
In the case of leaking expansion joints,
the water flows over the face of the
supporting structure where the anchors of
the tension reinforcement are located. The
associated tensioning niches should usually
be filled with mortar. However, they
sometimes become detached from the
structural concrete due to shrinkage,
allowing water to freely enter the
tensioning channels at these points.
11.2.4.2 Warehouse
Supports must transfer the forces into the
ground and absorb the deformations of
the supporting structure. In order to cause
as little disruption to traffic as possible
during maintenance work, it should be
possible to replace bearings as quickly and
easily as possible. Support structures are
also subjected to massive stress from de-
icing salt. Metal parts in particular must be
protected against corrosion. In old bridge
structures, you will mainly find roller
bearings made of steel.
11.2.5 Damage to the superstructure
The superstructure of a bridge structure
has the task of distributing the traffic loads
and reducing the stress on the supporting
structure caused by traffic. The
superstructure is usually made up of
individual layers. The colonel layer is the
surface course. Beneath this i s a leveling
layer, which is stabilized by
is separated from the supporting structure
by a sealing layer. Different focal points of
damage can form within the individual
layers.
11.2.5.1 Sealing layer
A sealing layer must be provided to protect
the construction from water penetration.
Fully bonded sealing and vapor-release
layers are used. The latter have the
advantage that the formation of bubbles can
be largely prevented.
The waterproofing provides protection
against chemical and physical attacks.
Additional protection is achieved by
coating the endangered concrete surfaces
with an epoxy resin. In this context, the
following requirements are placed on the
waterproofing [Kollegger et al., 2000]:
• Water impermeability
• Resistant to de-icing salt, oils, greases
and acids
• Aging stability against ther-
mical effects and ozone
• Resistance to mechanical impacts
• Low maintenance costs
• Good adhesion to the substrate
• Ease of installation
• Trafficability by vehicles during
installation of the covering
If cracks form within the sealing layer,
there is a risk of harmful substances
penetrating.
In the years 1975 to 1985, two
bituminous waterproofing membranes
with glass fleece inserts were generally
applied to the supporting structure using a
bituminous adhesive. As these bitumens
only have a limited temperature range of
unobjectionable serviceability (0 °C to 90
°C)
11.2 Causes of damage to concrete bridges
have repeatedly caused problems. At low
temperatures, the bituminous membranes
no longer have a crack-bridging effect and
at high temperatures their shear strength
decreases significantly. With increasing age,
the bituminous membranes also begin to
become brittle and peel off as a result of
poor adhesion.
After 1985, polymeric sealing
membranes were used, which have a
higher elongation capacity. Their service
temperature range extends from -20 °C to
+120 °C. This means that these polymers
are crack-bridging and suitable for use in
a sufficient temperature range.
Embrittlement due to the ageing of the
polymers is hardly observed. The adhesion
of the waterproofing membranes can also
be significantly improved by using epoxy
resin.
11.2.5.2 Top layer
When designing the surface course, a
distinction can be made between
bituminous construction and concrete
construction. Due to its direct exposure to
traffic, the surface course is more
susceptible to damage than the supporting
structure. This can result in damage to the
waterproofing and subsequently to the
supporting structure.
The bituminous construction method
is available in different variants. One option
is to construct the surface from asphalt
concrete. Difficulties arise during
installation due to the fact that sealing on
objects is more complicated than in the
adjacent earthworks area. After a short time,
water leaks and cracks can already be
observed. To counteract this deficiency, the
mortar content or the binder content in the
mix can be increased. The resulting
reduction in the resistance to deformation
1023
However, the use of a new flooring can
already lead to damage within the
warranty period due to heavy rutting.
Another design option is the use of
mastic asphalt. This is a completely
different process to conventional rolled
asphalt. Due to the high bitumen and filler
content, mastic asphalt does not need to
be compacted and is still void-free. Its
advantage lies in its water-tightness, vapor
diffusion resistance and high resistance to
abrasion. If water penetrates at
imperfections, it is held back between the
sealing and surface layers.
A slope of the deck slab should allow
the water to run off in order to prevent
damage to the bridge structure. Taking
into account the longitudinal and
transverse inclination of the supporting
structure, the slope of the waterproofing
should not be less than 2.5% in order to
ensure sufficient drainage of the water.
In the past, cement slurries were
vibrated into asphalt layers with a high
void volume. This procedure resulted in
damage occurring within the warranty
period.
Inadequate connections of the
waterproofing to installation parts, such as
day water inlets, underfloor drainage and
expansion joints, are often the cause of
water ingress. Today, it is not permitted to
penetrate the waterproofing with
reinforcing rods, but this is often found
when inspecting older structures. The
trough-like raising of the waterproofing at
longitudinal and transverse edges should
also be avoided.
1024 11 Monitoring, testing, evaluation and assessment of bridges
11.3 Damage to steel and
composite
bridges1
FRANCESCO AIGNER
Environmental influences, scheduled use
or extraordinary impacts can cause changes
to bridge structures. If such changes
correspond to a deterioration in the
original properties of the structure,
damage has occurred that may require
repair.
One or more of the following properties
may be affected:
1.1 Appearance,
1.2 fitness for purpose,
1.3 Load capacity,
1.4 Durability.
The damage may affect
2.1 the steel structure itself,
2.2 for composite structures (apart from
the steel structure and the concrete
slab) also the composite joint,
2.3 the bearing construction including
the bearing plate,
2.4 the areas of the roadway crossings.
Damage to steel bridges with regard to
planning and execution is usually due to
one or more of the following causes:
3.1 Errors in the static calculation or in
the structural design, non-
compliance of the structure with the
static calculation,
3.2 Errors or excessive inaccuracies in
execution.
1 The author of this chapter would like to thank
Dipl.-Ing. Helmut Brunner
Infrastruktur Betrieb AG) for providing the
images and for his commentary on Fig. 11.6-7.
Causes of damage to the steel structure are
generally
4.1 Corrosion,
4.2 Material fatigue,
4.3 repeated plasticizing under service
loads,
4.4 Stress peaks due to localized spatial
stress conditions,
4.5 Effects of force (extraordinary
effects).
The following damage patterns in the steel
parts are characteristic:
5.1 Cracks,
5.2 Fractions,
5.3 extensive corrosion damage,
5.4 Corrosion along gaping cracks,
5.5 localized signs of instability
(bumps).
This section explains some of the points
listed above, discusses typical causes of
damage and shows examples of damage.
The presentation is limited to the causes
of damage listed under 3. and 4. Collapses
during or after construction are not dealt
with here; please refer to [Scheer, 2000].
However, the Prater Bridge in Vienna is
treated as a special case. During its
construction, a partial collapse occurred,
which left permanent damage to the
supporting structure, and which
nevertheless - after thorough repair -
could be put into operation without any
safety risk, was raised by around 4 m after
approx. 30 years and simultaneously
widened and reinforced, and which has
proved its worth for decades.
The routine replacement of structural
components whose service life is a priori
shorter than that of the overall structure,
(ÖBB e.g. bearings, expansion joints, corrosion
protection, is not covered. The problem of
damage is associated with ongoing
monitoring and repair. The refurbishment
of steel structures
11.3 Damage to steel and composite bridges
generally simple compared to the
renovation of concrete structures, as steel
can absorb tensile, compressive and shear
stresses to the same extent and a simple
joining technique is available using SLP or
GV bolting (or exceptionally GVP
bolting). Caution is required when using
welding technology, whereby older steel
grades up to around 1930 must generally
be regarded as non-weldable. In special
cases, old structures may also be suitable
for welding. Welding iron, which is
extremely rarely used in bridge
construction, is not weldable under
construction site conditions, whereas the
commonly used flux iron can be weldable
(preheating, restriction of welding work to
flat areas, i.e. plates, legs of angle sections
as well as flanges and webs of I-beams, in
each case at a sufficient distance from the
fillets).
There are guidelines for the
recalculation of existing bridges [Rili 805,
2002 and ONR 24008, 2006], which
deviate from the standards applicable to
the design or reconstruction of new
bridges.
Ad 1.1 Impairment of the appearance
If the damage has no influence on the
serviceability or does not impair the load-
bearing capacity (or serviceability),
immediate refurbishment is not necessary.
However, it should be checked whether
refurbishment is not worthwhile in terms
of durability.
Ad 1.2 Impairment of fitness for use
Insufficient structural behavior with
regard to deformations is due to the
stiffness of the structure being too low for
the actions occurring,
z. e.g. due to unforeseen use. If a return of
the use
1025
If it is not possible to raise the system to
the planned level, the only option is to
refurbish it by means of reinforcement
measures or by changing the system.
The criterion of adequate serviceability
according to [EN 1993-2] is not fulfilled if,
among other things, the yield point of the
steel is exceeded due to damage to the
cross-section (cracks, material removal) or
damage in the fasteners under temporary
effects at service load level. The stresses
are calculated according to the E-E
calculation method (elastic determination
of internal forces, elastic stress
distribution in the cross-sections, realistic
models in special areas,
z. e.g. frame corners). In the control areas
of the members, the stress limitation
under service loads can become decisive
compared to the load-bearing capacity
verification (cross-section verification
under approx. 40% larger internal forces =
design loads), as disproportionately high
edge stresses can occur as a result of
cracks on one side. For example, a normal
force in a sheet with a crack on one side of
10% (20%/30%) of the sheet width results
in 148% (219%/327%) of the normal
stresses of a non-damaged sheet (nominal
stresses, i.e. without notch effect).
Likewise, in special areas, e.g. force
redirection areas, the stress limitation
under service loads can be decisive due to
different types of modeling in the proof of
load-bearing capacity and serviceability.
Inadequate vibration behavior under
live loads is due to unfavorable dynamic
tuning, usually due to insufficient
structural stiffness. Restrictions on use
(e.g. speed limitation) can be expedient
here; alternatively, reinforcements or the
installation of vibration-damping elements
can be considered.
1026 11 Monitoring, testing, evaluation and assessment of bridges
Wind-induced or wind/rain-induced
oscillations of hangers or ropes represent a
special problem (Section 8.7.2.4). As a
result of large numbers of load cycles,
there is a pronounced fatigue problem
here, especially at the connection points.
Ad 1.3 Impairment of the load-bearing
capacity Insufficient load-bearing
capacity in a single cross-section is given
if the cross-section resistance defined by
interaction relationships is exceeded due
to damage to the cross-section (cracks,
material removal) or damage in the
connecting means under temporary
actions at the design load level. If there is
a plastic or compact cross-section (cross-
section class 1 or 2 according to [EN
199311]) and if there is no risk of shear
buckling according to [EN 199315], the
cross-section resistances may be
determined taking into account plastic
stress redistributions and the non-linear
interaction relationships that can be
derived from equilibrium conditions
(calculation method EP). Damage in the
form of one-sided cracks provides
significantly smaller normal stresses with
plastic calculation than with elastic stress
determination. For example, assuming full
plasticization (and without notch effect),
124% (160%/217%) of the normal
stresses of an undamaged sheet arise as a
result of a normal force in a sheet with a
crack on one side with 10% (20%/30%)
of the sheet width.
Ad 1.5 Impairment of durability
A bridge is usually built for a service life
of 100-120 years. This assumes that the
assumed environmental and usage
conditions will be met during this period
and that the bridge - apart from the
replacement of ver- sions - will be able to
withstand the expected service life.
Apart from wear elements such as
expansion joints and bearings - is
maintained accordingly. This also includes
the repair of damaged areas, including
corrosion protection. If the environmental
or usage conditions deteriorate (e.g. the
effects of fatigue), the desired durability
must generally be compensated for by
increased maintenance and repair work.
Ad 2.1 Damage to the steel structure itself
Starting from geometric or structural
notches, e.g. at rivets or screw holes, at
welds or at points with large jumps in
rigidity, cracks can develop in the course
of use, which can grow in various ways
depending on the stress conditions that
arise and which are usually the cause of
increased damage due to corrosion.
Figures 11.3-1 to 11.3-2 show a crack
scenario on an angle bracket and the
associated tie plate. The angled leg is
cracked through, and the tie plate is
approximately 40% cracked according to
the design. In the damaged cross-section,
the force is only transmitted through the
uncracked angle leg and the second,
undamaged angle. High notch stresses
occur at the crack tip, which inevitably
lead to further destruction under dynamic
loading. Figure 11.3-3 shows a crack in the
area of a cross-member connection that
was short at the time the photo was taken,
originating from a rivet hole, while Figure
11.3-4 shows a similar but much longer
crack. Finally, Fig. 11.3-5 shows a wide
gaping, long crack in the connection area
of a towing beam. This area had already
been repaired once (simultaneous use of
rivets and screws!). Transverse force
transmission is no longer possible.
11.3 Damage to steel and composite bridges 1027

Fig. 11.3-1 Crack in the leg of a bracket in a ("multi-piece") bar consisting of brackets and tie plates

Fig. 11.3-2 Crack in the tie plate of the multi-piece bar according to Fig. 11.3-1

Ad 2.2 Composite joint of composite If the joint is not rusted, progressive

supporting structures
Local bulging or increased corrosion
attack in the joint can be avoided by
correct design in accordance with [EN
1994-2] and execution in accordance with
[EN 1090-2]. If corrosion damage occurs
in the bonded joint
opening of the joint is to be expected due
to an increase in volume during rusting.
Ad 2.3 Bearing design including the
bearing plate
Fig. 11.3-6 shows the damage pattern of a
damage detected during a routine
inspection.
1028 11 Monitoring, testing, evaluation and assessment of bridges
Fig. 11.3-3 Short crack originating from a rivet
hole in the cross member connection area
Fig. 11.3-5 Wide gaping, long crack in the
connection area of a towing beam
Figure 11.3-4 Long crack originating from a
rivet hole in the cross-member connection area
The lower bearing plate of a line tilting
bearing of a (rail) bridge in the ÖBB area
broke due to insufficient tamping. A
speed restriction was ordered for the short
period until the repair. Figure 11.3-7
shows the result of the rehabilitation,
which was carried out in an eight-hour
closure with a new bearing plate on a high-
strength grouting compound.
Ad 3.1 Errors in the structural analysis or
in the design, non-compliance of the design
with the structural analysis
Errors in the structural analysis can relate
to the modeling within the structure or to
the modeling of the boundary conditions.
This includes in particular the
underestimation of unplanned or the
overestimation of planned clamping effects
or a modeling of the load-bearing
behavior that deviates too far from the
realistic load-bearing behavior.
11.3 Damage to steel and composite bridges
Figure 11.3-6 Broken bearing plate
Figure 11.3-7 Renovated support area
special areas, e.g. force redirection areas.
According to the static theorem of
ultimate load theory, the load-bearing
capacity can - under certain conditions
with regard to the cross-sectional design -
be verified using equilibrium conditions
alone, but in bridge construction (with the
exception of exceptional load
combinations) the internal forces must be
determined using elastic models.
1029
(calculation method E-E or E-P). This is
the only way to avoid unwanted stress
concentrations or strains under service
loads.
In a recalculation according to [Rili
805, 2002] or [ONR 24008, 2006], truss-
type frame structures may be calculated as
hinged trusses - according to the time of
their erection - if the design of the beam
cross-sections
1030 11 Monitoring, testing, evaluation and assessment of bridges
corresponds to the relevant historical
standards and thus the secondary stresses
resulting from the deformation of the
node figure remain sufficiently small in
the case of riveted structures.
In perfect condition, old bridges
generally meet today's requirements with
regard to vertical actions, but the
horizontal actions assumed during
planning (brakes and starting, rolling
forces, centrifugal forces, wind) are often
not comparable with the load approaches
required today. Old bridges often exhibit
damage due to eccentricities in the brake
or wind bracing,
z. For example, if the filling bars are in a
different plane than the chords. Even at
relatively low numbers of load cycles,
cracks occur as a result of deformation-
induced bending moments with edge
strains above the yield strain, which are
significantly exacerbated by corrosion.
The Prater Bridge in Vienna is a special
case (Figure 11.3-8, [Scheer, 2000]). This
is a three-span current bridge with
haunches on the two current piers.
Shortly before completion in 1969, a
combination of several safety-reducing
conditions led to a partial collapse of the
supporting structure due to buckling on
two of the bridge's piers.
Fig. 11.3-8 Buckling on the bottom plate of the Prater Bridge. A flow joint has formed in this area
The buckling process increased the lever
arm between the upper and lower chord,
thus stabilizing the structure. As the
continuity of the cantilevered beam was
already fully effective, two yield joints
clearly visible on the finished structure
were able to form during the collapse.
This meant that a new unplanned state of
equilibrium had set in. The buckled areas
were repaired as best as possible, but what
remained was a structure with a
deformation condition that could not be
clearly assigned a section size condition,
so that the latter is - within certain limits -
unknown, which is undoubtedly to be
assessed as damage. In order to avoid
damage due to buckling, reliable
knowledge of the resulting stress states is
necessary for thin-walled constructions
made of stiffened sheet metal. The only
very rough knowledge of the internal
forces became a particular problem when
the bridge was raised, widened and
reinforced around 30 years after
completion. Instead of an unambiguous
calculation, two limit cases always had to
be considered for the internal forces,
between which the actual internal forces
lay. The reconstruction succeeded
11.3 Damage to steel and composite bridges
without complications, the converted
bridge has been in operation for over ten
years.
Ad 3.2 Errors or excessive inaccuracies in
execution
The design of steel structures is regulated
in [EN 1090-1 and 1090-2]. The
reliability, serviceability and durability
criteria of the basic standard [EN 1990] are
met if the above standards are complied
with and if the load approaches of [EN
1991] and the application of the material
parameters and compliance with the
calculation rules of the material-specific
standards [EN 1992 to EN 1994] and the
earthquake standard [EN 1998] are taken
as a basis. Larger deviations with regard to
tolerances, requirements for rivet, bolted
or welded joints, misalignments or
undesired component curvatures than
those specified as permissible for bridge
construction in [EN 1090] can reduce the
quality of the structure and even lead to
damage.
Ad 4.1 Corrosion
Please refer to [Klopfer, 1996] on the subject
of corrosion damage from a chemical
point of view. The corrosion protection of
a bridge depends on its use and the site
conditions. In principle, rail employee
and pedestrian bridges are less exposed to
corrosion than road bridges (road salt!).
However, combined bridges for railroad
and road traffic or railroad bridges in the
immediate vicinity of road bridges are also
exposed to the same high corrosion attack,
especially in the areas that are in the
immediate vicinity of a road bridge,
especially if they are located in areas of
high humidity and are exposed to the
attack of aggressive salt mist (current
bridges).
1031
Old, riveted (or bolted) load-bearing
structures that consist of disintegrated
cross-sections made up of thin individual
sheets and angles are particularly exposed.
The node areas of such bridges are often
designed in such a way that water and dirt
can remain in place and are therefore
exposed to increased corrosion. In newer,
much less articulated constructions with
thicker sheets and welder connections, the
conditions are much more favorable.
Ad 4.2 Material fatigue
With the exception of pedestrian bridges,
all bridges are predominantly structures
that are not subjected to static loads and
are subject to fatigue-related stress
differences in their entirety and also
locally as a result of traffic loads. The
notch cases of common construction
details are given in [EN 1993-1-9]. For
other design details not explicitly specified
in the standard, general calculation
instructions are given. With regard to
economic efficiency, more favorable notch
details should be selected for locations
with large fatigue-effective stress
differences; for locations with small
fatigue-effective stress differences, designs
with lower fatigue resistance are also
possible. The decisive factor for achieving
the fatigue resistances specified in the
notch tables of the standards is strict
compliance with the standards. It is of
particular importance that a component
affected by corrosion with minor notches
behaves considerably less favorably in
terms of fatigue strength than a structure
in perfect condition [Haibach, 2002,
Radaj/Vormwald, 2007]. For this reason
alone, corrosion damage must be carefully
observed. In tests on components with
1032 11 Monitoring, testing, evaluation and assessment of bridges
However, rivet holes as geometric notches
have only shown a drop in fatigue strength
in the case of very pronounced corrosion
damage [Brühweiler/ Hirt, 1987,
Brühweiler et al., 1989]. It is also
important to avoid notches, even if they
appear to be removed: For example, the
unplanned welding of assembly aids always
constitutes damage, even if the
corresponding parts are removed again
after use and the welds are ground down,
as structural notches from the welding
remain in the structure. A corresponding
fatigue analysis must be carried out here.
Exceeding the fatigue resistance leads to
damage in the form of cracks or fractures.
If there are individual, non-
systematically occurring stakes, targeted
repair of the affected areas is possible and
necessary. Stress concentrations are present
at the crack tips and, depending on the
prevailing state of stress, the cracks can
either continue to grow or come to a
standstill by themselves or by the
arrangement of relief notches at the crack
tips (Aubohren).
If systematic fatigue cracks occur in
similar details of a structure, this is a sign
of an unfavorable design. In this case, the
only effective measure is to relieve the
affected areas by reducing the fatigue load
on the bridge or by modifying the system
locally.
With all repairs, care must be taken to
ensure that the measures taken can
actually be expected to result in
permanent restoration and that no new
geometric or structural notches damaging
the structure are created.
In the case of partially damaged
structures, the condition of the structure
and the
The remaining service life can be
estimated based on the traffic situation. It
may be possible to avoid refurbishment
for the time being by reducing vehicle
weights, annual tonnage or speed or by
banning traffic from crossing the bridge.
Cracked cross-sections can be analyzed
using various methods, e.g. fracture
mechanics, whereby the results can vary
greatly depending on the material
characteristics and assumed initial
conditions.
Ad 4.3 Repeated plasticizing under service
loads
If the stress difference ∆σ = σmax - σmin
under characteristic load combinations
(service loads) locally exceeds 1.5 times the
value of the yield point fy under repeated
load, plasticization must be expected,
which will lead to cracks when a certain
number of load cycles is reached. This is
the case, for example, with partial or
complete obstruction of twisting. The
verification criterion is specified both as a
serviceability criterion in accordance with
[EN 1993-2] and as a fatigue criterion in
accordance with [EN 1993-1-9] (fatigue at
low number of load cycles).
A frequently encountered case is the
direct bearing of bridge timbers on the
main girders, as is often the case with old
structures. As a result of the twisting of the
timbers tensioned as single-span beams
between the main girders, the top chord
angles and top chord lamellae are bent
with each train crossing, which can
ultimately lead to cracks, see Figures 11.3-
9 to 11.3-11.
Even if the cracks reduce the stiffness
locally to such an extent that they come to
a standstill, the corrosion problem
remains, so that such damage must be
repaired.
11.3 Damage to steel and composite bridges
Figure 11.3-9 Bearing of the bridge timbers on
the main girders and cracking
Figure 11.3-11 Crack on an inner top chord angle
Ad 4.4 Stress peaks due to local spatial
stress conditions Construction details with
thick sheet metal and accumulations of
thick welds that are under multiaxial
(tensile) stress conditions can break brittle
without notice, especially if
1033
Figure 11.3-10 Bearing of the bridge timber on
the steel structure
high residual stresses (shrinkage stresses)
are present due to the manufacturing
process. If such unfavorable details cannot
be avoided, the shrinkage stresses should at
least be kept as low as possible by means of
an appropriate welding sequence.
Alternatively or additionally
1034 11 Monitoring, testing, evaluation and assessment of bridges
stress-relief annealing of such components
is an option (expensive!).
Ad 4.5 Effects of violence
Impact loads on the steel structure or on
piers can cause localized plasticization,
local buckling, component deformation or
damage to the bearings, which can call
into question the load-bearing capacity or
even the positional safety (criterion EQU
according to [EN 1990/A1]). Before
further use, a damage survey and a safety
assessment must be carried out. If the
substructures (piers, abutments) are
undamaged, limited use is usually possible
until repairs are carried out; if the
substructures are directly affected,
renovation is usually necessary before
operations can be resumed.
Fig. 11.3-12 The pier shaft was displaced by 2.20 m relative to the foundation as a result of the impact of
the ship (view downstream)
Figures 11.3-12 to 11.3-14 (after [Fink
et al., 2006]) show the example of the
Danube Bridge Krems. In the event of a
ship collision, the shaft of the pier between
supporting structures no. VI and VII was
displaced by 2.20 m relative to the
foundation (Fig. 6.11-12). As the six
bridge spans of the river bridge were
arranged without a continuous effect, the
damage to the steel structure was largely
limited to the bearing area of the affected
pier and the two adjacent piers (Fig. 11.3-
13). The tension band effect of the
caissons could have contributed to
reducing the displacement between the
pier shaft and the foundation of the
severely damaged pier to the extent
mentioned above (Fig. 11.3-14). During
the refurbishment by floating out the two
supporting structures, the foundation first
had to be
11.4 Monitoring and inspection of bridge structures 1035

Figure 11.3-13 Damage to a bearing of the directly affected pillar

Figure 11.3-14 Tension band effect of the cable ducts

The stability of the pier without the 11.4 Monitoring and inspection of
superimposed load from the supporting bridge structures
structures can be reliably estimated. The
pier was newly built in compliance with EVA-MARIA EICHINGER-VILL and
[EN 1991-1-7], which regulates the size of JOHANN KOLLEGGER (until 11.4.2)
impact loads. Piers built according to the
specifications of this standard are 11.4.1 Basics for monitoring bridge
inevitably much bulkier than the slender, structures
stone-clad historical piers.
According to Figure 11.4.1-1, bridge
maintenance is divided into bridge
maintenance and bridge
monitoring/inspection.
1036 11 Monitoring, testing, evaluation and assessment of bridges
Figure 11.4.1-1 Bridge maintenance
The tasks of bridge maintenance
include the application of global and local
investigation methods, the assessment of
detected damage, the estimation of the
load-bearing capacity of the structure, the
design of monitoring concepts and the
development and assessment of the
effectiveness of repair measures.
11.4.2 Testing of concrete bridges
11.4.2.1 General information
The procedure and organization of the
inspection is regulated in corresponding
standards and regulations, such as in
Germany in [DIN 1076, 1999]
"Engineering structures in the course of
roads and paths, monitoring and testing".
The aim is to record the actual condition
and detect damage as early as possible.
The inspection begins with a visual
inspection of the structure by an
experienced engineer, as the condition of
the structure can often be inferred from
the external appearance of the structure.
can be performed. However, if there is any
doubt about the condition of the structure,
non-destructive or quasi-non-destructive
testing methods are predominantly used,
which, in contrast to destructive testing
methods, require little or no damage to
the structure.
11.4.2.2 Regulations and guidelines
for monitoring and testing bridge structures
All regulations that correspond to the
state of the art today have in common that
the monitoring and inspection of bridge
structures must be carried out at certain
intervals and in varying degrees of detail.
The intervals between the individual
inspections vary slightly depending on the
country. A distinction is essentially made
between
• Ongoing monitoring every 3 to 6
months
• Simple check or inspection every 2
up to 3 years
• Main inspection every 6 to 10 years
11.4 Monitoring and inspection of bridge structures
In addition, special inspections can be
carried out as required and for specific
reasons.
The task of ongoing bridge monitoring
is primarily to ensure traffic safety and is
limited to areas that are accessible without
auxiliary structures. The structure is
inspected for unusual deformations and
skewed sections, grossly damaged
components, conspicuous cracks, large
areas of moisture and concrete spalling as
well as impact damage. The results should
be recorded - ideally in a bridge
management system. The bridge must be
monitored by competent personnel.
All damage to the structure is recorded
in the course of the tests. In addition to
traffic safety, the load-bearing capacity and
durability of the structure are also assessed.
In order to ensure that all areas of the
structure are accessible, appropriate
auxiliary structures (ladders, stanchions,
etc.) or bridge inspection equipment are
usually required for the inspection. The
inspection of the bridge must be carried
out by an engineer experienced in the field
of bridge inspection.
11.4.2.3 Planning the bridge inspection
The basis for the inspection is the building
logbook, which consists of the as-built
documents and contains the results of the
inspections carried out to date. In
addition, maintenance measures already
carried out are recorded in it. The
inspection concept should be adapted to the
existing maintenance facilities, whereby
full accessibility to all components must
be guaranteed. Particular care must be
taken to ensure that, in addition to the
main supporting structure, the foundation
and any attachments are also inspected.
1037
The inspection should be carried out using a
bridge inspection device. If necessary, the
inspection should be carried out with the
aid of a bridge inspection device, which
also enables the inspection of parts that
are difficult to access, such as bearings,
etc. Table 11.4.2-1 lists examples of those
areas of a solid bridge that should be
inspected in the course of an inspection.
In addition, the parameters to which
particular attention should be paid in the
course of a bridge inspection are listed.
These parameters must be taken into
account when planning the inspection.
A great deal has developed in the field
of bridge construction in recent decades.
Many design solutions that were state of
the art at the time a bridge was planned
are no longer up to date today and are
considered problematic due to new
findings [Iványi, 2002]. These
construction details are the focal points of
damage and must therefore be examined
with particular care. They essentially
include
• Fastening of suspensions, battens and
rear-ventilated cladding,
• lost formwork,
• drainage facilities set in concrete,
• inaccessible lane transition con
structures and joints and
• outdated construction techniques, such
as anchoring tendons in the deck slab,
or full coupling of the tendons in the
construction joint.
If a bridge has already been repaired or
reinforced, the repaired or reinforced areas
in particular must be carefully inspected
to ensure the durability of the repair or
reinforcement measures.
1038 11 Monitoring, testing, evaluation and assessment of bridges

Table 11.4.2-1 Areas to be tested and characteristics to be examined (according to [Iványi, 2002, and
Hump foreman/Santa, 2004])
Area to be tested Characteristics to be examined

Concrete Dirt/dust, foreign matter/residue, weathering, destruction, gravel

pockets, moisture penetration, water leakage, efflorescence, rust
stains, exposed reinforcement, cracks, mechanical damage/impact, fire
damage, concrete cover, voids, leak tightness, carbonation, chloride
content, concrete strength
Reinforcing steel Position and diameter, surface cracks along the bar axis, condition
and degree of corrosion
tendons Condition and degree of corrosion, cracks along the tendon axis,
inadequately grouted duct sections
Tie rods and Condition
coupling points
Bridge bearing Condition and functionality, bearing position, bearing damage
Roadway transitions Condition, functionality, tightness, cracks
Sealing Condition, tightness
Drainage Functionality
Further equipment Joint tightness, decking damage, railing anchoring
Ground surface Settlements, cracks, landslides

11.4.2.4 Test equipment
A bridge inspection usually consists of a
series of individual tests, the type and
scope of which are determined by the
engineer responsible for the bridge
inspection. The inspection of a prestressed
concrete bridge can therefore only consist
of a precise visual inspection of all
components and simple tests, such as
tapping the surface, determining the
concrete compressive strength using a
rebound hammer - if necessary using a
bridge inspection device. However, more
extensive examinations, t a k i n g
samples, carrying out measurements or
test loads may also be necessary.
The human eye is the main aid for the
engineer when inspecting bridges,
enabling him to assess the condition of
the bridge based on the surfaces and
external appearance. For example, the
location and width of cracks,
discoloration, rust stains, damp patches,
spalling and large deformations of the
structure can be determined during the
visual assessment of the structure. Crack
magnifiers, microscopes or cameras can
be used as aids for visual inspection.
To determine properties of the building
that cannot be derived from the external
appearance, additional testing tools are
required, such as
z. e.g. rebound hammer, rebar finder
11.4 Monitoring and inspection of bridge structures
Table 11.4.2-2 Test objectives and test methods
Test objective
Determination of concrete
compressive strength
Assessment of homogeneity,
compaction, defects, voids,
inclusions
Assessment of porosity, water
absorption, permeability
Concrete
Assessment of cracks (see also
Table 11.4.2-3)
Assessment of moisture content
and distribution
Assessment of the depth of
carbonation
Assessment of the chloride
content
Reinforcin
Determining the position and
diameter of the reinforcement
g steel
Assessment of corrosion
Determination of pressing
prestressing
errors
steel
Assessment of the corrosion
condition
device, corrosion measuring device or
coating thickness gauge. Depending on
the test objective, different test methods
can be used, which are summarized in
Table 11.4.2-2. The test equipment must
be selected accordingly.
11.4.2.5 Test procedure
Various methods are a v a i l a b l e
testing a bridge, which are
1039
Test procedure
Rebound hammer, ball impact, ultrasound, mechanical
single impulse, removal of test cylinders
Visual inspection, tapping, ultrasound, gamma
backscatter, radiography, infrared thermography,
endoscopy, cavity evacuation
Filling test, capillary suction, permeability test
Visual inspection, magnifying glass, probe, ultrasound,
dynamic bending test, infrared thermography
Visual inspection, drill dust removal, infrared
thermography, electrical conductivity, neutron braking,
dielectric constant
Indicator method (phenolphthalein test), drill dust
sampling
Indicator method, drill dust extraction
Magnetic induction, eddy current probe, gamma
radiation, infrared thermography
Endoscopy, potential mapping, corrosion currents
Endoscopy, ultrasound, gamma radiography, X-ray
radiography, infrared thermography, acoustic emission
analysis
Endoscopy
differ from one another due to the
knowledge that can be gained. These are
• visual inspection,
• Knock off the surface,
• Opening of cavities,
• Measurements on the building to
determine the material properties,
• Taking material samples and
• Test loads.
for Whether and to what extent the
individual procedures are used depends
on the respective project requirements
specification and the
1040 11 Monitoring, testing, evaluation and assessment of bridges

condition of the structure. More Defects and damage must be recorded. In

complicated methods are usually not used
as part of a regular main inspection, but
are used if necessary as part of a special
inspection to clarify specific problems
(e.g. determining the condition of the
prestressing steel).
11.4.2.5.1 Visual inspection
The visual inspection of the structure
forms the basis for the use of other
elaborate testing methods, whereby all
visible defects on the component surface
are
the course of the simple inspection
(inspection), the visual inspection is
carried out without auxiliary structures,
which is why not all parts of the structure
are visible. If necessary, binoculars should
therefore be used to ensure a detailed
recording of the bridge. During the main
bridge inspection, appropriate auxiliary
structures or a bridge inspection device
are available and the components can be
inspected at close range.
Recording cracks is an integral part of
the visual inspection. Short

Table 11.4.2-3 Assessment of cracks in concrete (according to [Iványi, 2002])

Test objective Criterion Remark
Assessment of Near-surface crack shallow depth; depending on the cause,
the type of directional, with large widths (due to setting
crack of the fresh concrete, drying shrinkage,
corrosion along the reinforcement) or
reticular, with small widths
Separation crack covers a large part of the cross-section
(tension zone, web, total cross-section);
arises due to stress from loads and constraint

Assessment of Position and length Graphic representation or specification of

the crack characteristic data, e.g. distances for bending
progression cracks, mesh size for mesh cracks
Determinatio Vertical distance of the Specification in several defined areas (e.g. in
n of the crack crack banks the height of the reinforcing bars)
width (Accuracy: 5/100 mm)
Determination short-term mainly due to traffic loads
of the crack (Accuracy: 1/1000 mm)
width change
daily according to solar radiation on the track
(Accuracy: 1/100 mm) surface, periodic change

long-term continuous (due to subsidence) or periodic

(Accuracy: 1/100 mm) (due to seasonal changes)
Determination Humidity level Determination according to Table 12.2.3-2
of the
condition of Impurities if recognizable from the outside
the cracks and
crack banks
11.4 Monitoring and inspection of bridge structures
Cracks usually show up particularly well
after a period of rain and are therefore
easier to detect. It is advisable to use a line
thickness scale (crack ruler) or a crack
measuring magnifier to determine the
actual crack width. For longer cracks, the
crack width should be measured at several
points. In addition to the crack width, the
component temperature and the
prevailing weather conditions should
always be recorded. Table 11.4.2-3
summarizes the test objectives for the
assessment of cracks.
The crack width change is determined
for slow crack width changes using plaster
or glass marks. With displacement
transducers that detect changes in
displacement based on the change in
inductive resistance (inductive
displacement transducers), for example,
short-term changes in crack width can also
be detected and continuously recorded.
If cracks are detected during the
inspection, the type and extent of
treatment of the cracks depends on
whether they affect the appearance,
serviceability or durability of the
structure. The cracks must be assessed by
an expert engineer. In general, cracks in
reinforced concrete or prestressed
concrete bridges with widths < 0.4 mm do
not impair durability if the concrete cover
is sufficiently thick and dense. However,
special care must be taken with cracks
under aggressive conditions (de-icing
salt). Cracks along the reinforcement due
to the explosive effect of corrosion
fundamentally require repair measures.
11.4.2.5.2 Knocking off the surface
By tapping the concrete surface, it is
possible to localize hollow areas close to
the surface, whereby those areas of the
con-
1041
The reinforcement should be examined
particularly carefully in areas of the
structure where the reinforcement is very
dense and has been laid in several layers.
In this context, support areas, component
connections, high and low points as well
as anchorage and coupling joint areas of
tendons are critical [Iványi, 2002].
During the first main inspection, the
entire structure should be tapped. During
the subsequent inspections, only
conspicuous areas where defects, spalling
or cracks have been detected must be
checked by tapping. In the course of any
repair work, concrete repair areas or
newly applied shotcrete layers must also
be checked by tapping to ensure the
quality of the work.
11.4.2.5.3 Opening cavities
During the inspection, mechanical
interventions on the structure should be
avoided if possible. Therefore, cavities
should only be opened if this serves to
determine the condition of the
reinforcement or to take material samples,
for example. The creation of smaller
openings is necessary to remove any
accumulation of water in cavities or as
preparation for an endoscopy. The
opening of larger areas (e.g. head joints,
tendon sections, support areas) should
only be carried out in exceptional cases as
part of a special inspection in the course
of which specific problems with the
structure are to be investigated, whereby
damage to the reinforcement elements
must be avoided at all costs. Drill holes
that need to be created to enable endoscopy
of the clamping rods should therefore be
drilled using a drilling machine with
automatic shut-off. Such drills
1042 11 Monitoring, testing, evaluation and assessment of bridges
switch off automatically in the event of
metal contact, i.e. when the drill hits the
cladding tube, the cladding tube can then
be opened manually and the grout removed
without damaging the prestressing steel.
In all cases, care must be taken to ensure
that the opened areas are properly sealed
again.
11.4.2.5.4 Measurements on the building
Depending on the desired test objective, a
whole range of non-destructive or quasi-
non-destructive test methods are available
that can be applied directly to the
structure. In addition, there is a whole
range of non-destructive testing methods
that are usually complex, require a great
deal of practice in interpreting the data
obtained and are therefore not used in the
course of a regular bridge inspection.
They are primarily used to assess the
condition of the reinforcement elements
and the prestressing steel, to detect damp
spots or cavities and to assess the overall
load-bearing behavior and provide more
or less reliable results depending on the
structure and type of construction. These
methods are used almost exclusively in
the course of special inspections. These
measuring and testing methods, which
can be used for special inspections on
structures, include ultrasonic testing
(strength, voids, cracks), radiographic
methods with X-rays and gamma rays
(position and condition of the
reinforcement, voids),
conductivity/resistance measurement
(moisture content), infrared
thermography (moisture spots,
compression defects) and vibration
analysis (overall load-bearing behavior,
condition of the tendons). With regard to
the use of the individual methods,
reference is made to the relevant specialist
literature, such as
z. e.g. the fib bulletin "Monitoring and Sa-
fety Evaluation of Existing Concrete
Structures" [fib, 2003].
Determination of the carbonation
of the concrete
To determine the carbonation of the
concrete, a phenolphthalein solution can
be used, which is sprayed onto a fresh
fracture surface of the tested component.
Spraying on the indicator solution causes a
color change to red-violet if the pH value
is above approx. 9. The uncoloured areas
are carbonated. If the solution is sprayed
onto a fracture surface that is no longer
fresh or if the fracture surface coincides
with a hairline crack, the result is falsified.
Since the carbonation reaction requires
water on the one hand, but the carbon
dioxide can only diffuse through pores
that are not completely filled with water
on the other, surfaces that are protected
from rain (bridge soffits) usually have
greater carbonation depths than surfaces
that are more exposed to rain.
Determining the chloride content of the
concrete Chlorides are primarily introduced
into the concrete by dew salt. Accordingly, a
distinction is made between the contact area,
splash water area and spray area (Fig. 11.4.2-
1).
Similar to the determination of the
carbonation depth, an indicator test can
also be used to determine the chloride
content. The silver nitrate spray method is
used for this purpose. Silver nitrate is first
sprayed onto a fresh fracture surface.
After drying, the surface is sprayed with an
indicator solution. Chloride-free areas
turn reddish-brown, chloride-containing
areas do not change color or only slightly.
The chloride distribution can be inferred
from the color distribution. However, this
rapid test does not allow any conclusions
to be drawn about the chloride content.
11.4 Monitoring and inspection of bridge structures
Figure 11.4.2-1 Chloride attack zones
meet. It is only possible to determine
whether the concrete contains chloride or
not.
However, as the actual chloride content
is of great importance for the durability of
the construction, drill cores or drill dust
samples can be taken and chemically
analyzed. In order to create a chloride
profile, the samples should be taken from
different layers (each with a depth of approx.
10 mm). In this way, the chloride
contamination can be determined down
to the first layer of reinforcement.
Assessment of the position of the
reinforcement and the concrete
cover
The position of the outer reinforcement
layers can be determined non-
destructively with the help of a
reinforcement detector, whose mode of
operation is based on the pulse induction
technique. Depending on the type of
device, the diameter of the reinforcement
and the existing concrete cover can also be
detected.
The reinforcement detector provides
satisfactory results for normally reinforced
components. However, if the position of
the underlying rebars or the prestressing
1043
reinforcement of interest or if the
components are very highly reinforced,
reinforcement search devices are not
suitable.
Assessment of the condition of the
reinforcement A reliable assessment of the
condition of the reinforcement and the
degree of corrosion is only possible by
exposing the reinforcement. In order to
avoid damage to the structure as far as
possible, the reinforcement should only
b e exposed during regular bridge
inspections if this does not involve any
particular effort (e.g. removal of loose
concrete cover or a poorly applied
shotcrete layer) or if there are reasonable
doubts about the condition of the
reinforcement (e.g. severe rust flags or
cracks along the tendon axis). It is
essential to ensure that the opened areas
are properly and permanently sealed again.
Determination of the degree of
grouting and the condition of the
prestressing steel
The condition and degree of corrosion of
the prestressing steel can be checked using
an endoscope with a fixed or movable axis.
1044 11 Monitoring, testing, evaluation and assessment of bridges
can be assessed. The endoscope is inserted
through a small drill hole with a diameter
of approx. 20 mm and allows the
prestressing steel to be inspected and the
expansion of poorly pressed cladding tube
sections to be assessed. Photos can also be
taken to document the results using a
suitable camera attachment. Care must be
taken to ensure that the drill holes are
made with a drilling machine that switches
off automatically as soon as it comes into
contact with the metal cladding tube and
that the cladding tube is opened by hand.
This is the only way to avoid damaging the
prestressing steel.
If compression defects are detected, the
cavity volume can be determined using
the vacuum method. A pump is used to
extract the air from the open cladding
tube and create a vacuum. The cavity
volume can be determined by measuring
the amount of air flowing back. This
method can also be used to determine the
volume of cavities in concrete.
11.4.2.5.5 Taking material samples
Depending on the test to be carried out,
different types of material samples, such as
drill dust, drill cores or broken pieces, can
be taken. The identification of the samples
according to location, time, position,
structure and component is of great
importance. The test objective must also be
specified. When taking concrete samples,
care must be taken to ensure that the
reinforcement elements are not damaged.
When drilling holes to obtain drill dust, a
drilling machine with an automatic
switch-off function for metal contact
should be used if necessary. As a first step,
the compressive strength of the concrete
should be determined using a concrete
tester.
hammer. Drill cores should only be taken
if there are reasonable doubts about the
properties of the concrete. In these cases,
both the number and diameter of the cores
and the depth of the drill holes should be
reduced to a minimum. Samples of
reinforcing steel should only be taken in
special cases.
11.4.2.5.6 Test loads
Test loads can be used to verify
guaranteed properties for new buildings or
to check the load-bearing capacity of
existing structures. Usually the load tests
relate to structural components, tests on
the entire structure are the exception
[Hump foreman/Santa, 2004]. The type of
loading depends on the objective of the
investigation and the structure itself.
The aim of a test load is generally to
record load-bearing reser- ves that are not
or only insufficiently recorded in the
calculation, which enables an economical
design for certain cases with the aid of the
test results. In the run-up to the test load, a
comprehensive inventory and the
determination of the actual condition are
essential, but of particular importance are
additional comparative and
accompanying calculations for the
creation of a mechanical load-bearing
model as well as in-depth experience in
dealing with the structure to be examined
and the testing and measuring technology
used. The following points must be taken
into account for a test load:
• Slow application of the load in small
load increments to ensure that there is
sufficient time between the individual
load increments to fully capture the
structural response
11.4 Monitoring and inspection of bridge structures
Measuring standSemitrailer with on-board crane and ballast
Hydraulics Steering Brackets/load beams
axles
Figure 11.4.2-2 Load vehicle BELFA
• Continuous increase of the load steps
until the required test load is reached,
whereby it must be ensured in each
load step whether a further safe load
increase is possible
• Observation of crack development and
Measurement of deformations in each
load step
• Holding the maximum load over a
longer period of time (at least one
hour) and observation of the load-
bearing structure
• Slow relief and observation
of the deformations
In the case of linear-elastic analysis, the
measured deformation must be smaller
than the calculated deformation. In this
context, however, it must be clear that it is
not possible to make statements about the
actual load-bearing capacity of the
structure, the remaining ductility or the
damage caused to the structure by the
load test.
In cooperation with the EGGERS
Group and several other companies, the
Bremen University of Applied Sciences,
the TU Dresden, the HTWK Leipzig and
the Bauhaus University Weimar have
developed a special, rapidly deployable
loading vehicle [Steffens, 2001]. With the
BELFA loading vehicle, tests can be carried
out according to a self-locking loading
principle, whereby a variable adaptation
to spans of up to l ≤ 18.00 m is possible by
infinitely variable telescoping of the
vehicle (Figure 11.4.2-2).
1045
Tractor unit
The advantage is that the vehicle can be
operated without significantly restricting
road traffic. In addition to the BELFA-DB
test vehicle for road bridges, there is also a
suitable vehicle for testing railroad
bridges.
11.4.3 Testing of steel and
composite bridges
GÜNTER RAMBERGER
and FRANCESCO AIGNER (until 11.4.5)
11.4.3.1 Supporting structure and components
First of all, the supporting structure and
its components must be checked
geodetically for compliance with the shape
on sight, plan view and cross-section. This
should be done on the basis of the
measurement data that was recorded
during the handover of traffic at the
opening or after a conversion measure. If
these are not available, the supporting
structure should be measured geodetically
and this measurement should serve as the
basis for further checks. All measurements
should be taken shortly after sunrise,
because during this time the bridge has a
roughly constant temperature due to night-
time cooling. Temperature gradients
caused by solar radiation can significantly
influence the shape of a structure.
All steel components must then be
visually inspected for straightness and
1046 11 Monitoring, testing, evaluation and assessment of bridges
flatness of the sheets (bulges). Deviations
from the nominal shape can possibly be
quantified using a string and straightedge.
If there are deviations from the shape
between two examinations, the causes
must be determined.
For structures with cables, the cable
force can be measured in almost all cases
via their first natural frequency. For this
purpose, the cable is made to vibrate by
"plucking" it, e.g. with a hemp rope looped
over it, and then further excited by hand at
the first natural frequency until a harmonic
vibration is achieved over the entire cable.
As the cable damping is low, the time t for
n oscillations can be measured using a
clock with a second hand and the natural
frequency can be calculated from this.
n ruts. All the phenomena described can be detected
f= can be calculated. The cable force S
3t
results from S = 4 f 2 -l 2 - μ with the length
l between the exit points of the cable from
the anchorage and the mass μ - including
corrosion protection, cladding tube etc. per
unit length. The measurement should also
be carried out on the unloaded structure
shortly after sunrise and recorded. In the
event of deviations, the cause must be
determined.
In the case of composite bridges,
visually check whether slip has occurred
between the concrete slab and the steel
girder. This indicates a failure of the
dowels. A slip may also be recognizable by
cracks in the corrosion protection or by a
special crack pattern in the concrete slab.
11.4.3.2 Road surfaces
Road surfaces are wearing parts. They are
subject to wear and tear when driven on.
As the wear is mainly caused by HGVs
and only very little by cars, it affects the
lanes predominantly used by HGVs.
more than the other areas. The wear and
tear caused by pedestrians and cyclists is
negligible. On the other hand, damage can
also occur if the connections between the
individual layers are either not made or
are insufficient. In this case, larger parts of
the pavement can become detached. If
water can penetrate between layers, but
especially between the cover sheet and the
sealing layer, it can freeze in winter and
create bubble-shaped elevations in the
covering. In these areas, the pavement is
destroyed when driven on. This creates
potholes that have to be repaired at short
notice.
Prolonged high temperatures in the
pavement can also lead to plastic roll-outs
and pronounced cracks in the truck tracks.
visually. Also
If none of the damage described above
occurs, road surfaces must be repaired or
renewed at regular intervals due to wear.
When installing hot pavement layers, the
corrosion protection on the underside of
the cover sheet must not suffer any
damage. Coatings based on linseed oil,
PVC and chlorinated rubber suffer
permanent damage from around 90 °C,
coatings based on phthalate resin from
around 140 °C and coatings based on epoxy
resin from around 150 °C. When installing
hot pavement layers, the supporting
structure also suffers considerable
temperature deformations and, in the case
of statically indeterminate vertical or
horizontal bearing, considerable stresses,
which should be investigated, especially if
adjacent traffic lanes continue to be
loaded by traffic, often in a shifted
position.
11.4.3.3 Corrosion protection
The top coating of the supporting
structure must be protected against
weathering, mechanic
11.4 Monitoring and inspection of bridge structures 1047

Damage, spalling, corrosion, any material

damage caused by corrosion, crevice rust
damage in the contact surfaces of riveted
and bolted supporting structures. The
thickness of the previously cleaned
coating can be measured at selected points
and compared with the target thickness.
In the case of galvanized components, the
condition of the galvanization can be
assessed in a similar way and the actual
thickness of the zinc coating measured.
Rust marks indicate that water is flowing
over non-corrosion-protected and
unsealed surfaces and thus indicate cracks. Fig. 11.4.3-1 Cracks in the surface course [Voll-
In order to avoid human inertia, which rath/Tathoff, 2002].
prefers to inspect easily accessible areas, it
is advantageous to select the areas of the
coating to be inspected at random.
The thickness reduction of the top coat
due to weathering is 1 to 5 μm/year and is a
natural process that depends on the
coating material, the atmospheric load
and the "microclimate" of the respective
surface (weather side, driving rain,
ventilation, rain run-off, etc.).
If the top layer cracks (Fig. 11.4.3-1) or
blisters form, the protective effect of the
top layer is severely impaired. This
accelerates the corrosion process.
If parts of the coating (Figure 11.4.3-2) or Figure 11.4.3-2 Peeling of coating parts
entire coating structures flake off, the [Vollrath/Tathoff, 2002]
coating has been applied to damp surfaces
or the individual layers have not bonded
due to the system (the previous coating
has not dissolved). The peeling of layers
can completely negate the effect of the
corrosion protection.
If the surface is covered with
punctiform rust formations (Figure
11.3.3-3), a lack of surface preparation,
insufficient coating thickness in
conjunction with

Figure 11.4.3-3 Spot rust formation

[Vollrath/Tathoff, 2002].
1048 11 Monitoring, testing, evaluation and assessment of bridges
Fig. 11.4.3-4 Two-dimensional rust appearances [Vollrath/Tathoff, 2002].
Pore formation or aggressive deposits may
be the cause. Spot rust formation does not
yet require repair, but indicates that the
corrosion protection should be replaced
soon.
Extensive surface rusting requires the
corrosion protection to be completely
renewed within a short period of time
(Figure 11.4.3-4).
Sometimes the coating may be in order
and the substrate may show severe
underfilm corrosion (Figure 11.4.3-5). In
this case, the coating must also be renewed.
Fig. 11.4.3-5 Underfilm corrosion of the
subsoil [Vollrath/Tathoff, 2002].
Crevice corrosion mainly occurs in
riveted and bolted supporting structures
or supporting structure parts (joints,
connections) if the overlapping surfaces
are not tightly supported at the edges
(Figure 11.4.3-6). The penetration of
moisture with a different supply of oxygen
creates local electrochemical elements that
lead to the dissolution of the iron. The
onset of crevice corrosion is noticeable in
the form of rust plumes. Finally, due to the
multiple volume of the rust, rust rubs off
and thus also leads to an increased notch
effect that reduces fatigue resistance.
Crevice corrosion is remedied by making
the crevice surfaces as accessible as
possible by removing the rust in them,
reapplying corrosion protection and
finally sealing them.
In rare cases, where mild steel comes
into contact with other metals or high-
alloy steels under the influence of
moisture, contact corrosion can occur,
whereby the less noble metal corrodes.
11.4 Monitoring and inspection of bridge structures 1049

Figure 11.4.3-6 Crevice corrosion [Vollrath/Tathoff, 2002]

11.4.3.4 Welds

Welds and the structural and

constructional notches caused by them
are often the starting point of fatigue
cracks that only occur after the bridge has
been in operation (Fig. 11.4.3-7). These
cracks can start both in the weld and in the
heat-affected zone. Occasionally, lamella
fractures in the area of influence of the
seams only become noticeable later.
For every bridge inspection, a randomly
determined proportion of full penetration
welds and non-full penetration welds
should therefore be checked beforehand.
Cracks up to the surface may be indicated
by paint flaking or rust stains. If surface
cracks are suspected, the dye penetrant
method is used, in which the seam must be
thoroughly cleaned beforehand. Magnetic
powder testing may also reveal a crack
under the paint. Through-welded seams
can be inspected for incipient seam cracks Fig. 11.4.3-7 Welds as the starting point for
using radiographic or ultrasonic testing. fatigue cracks [Vollrath/Tathoff, 2002].
For each defect detected, independent
1050 11 Monitoring, testing, evaluation and assessment of bridges
Depending on the previously defined
scope of testing, two further similar points
must be tested. If faults are detected again,
two further locations must be checked for
each fault. With this method, you can very
quickly check all similar points in the case
of systemic faults.
11.4.3.5 Rivets and screws
The loose fit of rivets and screws can often
be detected by damage to the coating and
rust marks in the area of the rivet heads or
the screw heads and nuts. Loose rivets can
be detected by tapping the rivet heads with
a light rivet hammer (< 0.3 kg weight). HV
bolts in GV connections should be checked
by retightening. To do this, the torque
wrench should be set 10% higher than for
tightening due to the higher static friction
compared to sliding friction. It should not
be possible to continue turning with the
torque wrench set in this way. The
number of connections to be checked
Figure 11.4.3-8 Surface corrosion [Vollrath/Tathoff, 2002]
The amount of fastener (usually 5 to 20%)
must be determined in advance, whereby
the location must also be determined
randomly. For every loose rivet and for
every screw that is not fully tightened, two
more must be checked in the vicinity or at
similar locations, etc.
11.4.3.6 Ropes and tension elements
Ropes and tension elements generally
differ from other steel structures in terms
of their high strength, low elongation at
break and usually also their large inner
surface area. This also makes them
susceptible to stress corrosion cracking
(Fig. 11.4.3-8).
As they usually have a decisive
influence on the load-bearing capacity of
the structure, their inspection is
particularly important. For this purpose,
the entire length of the tension element
must be inspected. The inspection can be
carried out with a complete set of
equipment from a ladder, from an
inspection device on a separate suspension
cable or from a cable carrier (Fig. 11.4.3-9).
Through
11.4 Monitoring and inspection of bridge structures 1051

Fig. 11.4.3-9 Inspection of the tensile element [Vollrath/Tathoff, 2002].

Figure 11.4.3-10 Anchoring point [Vollrath/Tathoff, 2002]

1052 11 Monitoring, testing, evaluation and assessment of bridges
Figure 11.4.3-11 Magnetic induction testing of ropes [Vollrath/Tathoff, 2002].
An external visual inspection can
determine the condition of the external
corrosion protection. In the case of ropes,
breaks in wires in the outermost layer, the
condition of the cementing and the
bleeding of the ropes can also be
determined visually. The points where
most damage occurs are the anchorage
points, which are usually difficult or
impossible to access (Fig. 11.4.3-10). In
many cases, these areas can also be
inspected with an endoscope.
Wire breaks inside ropes and bundles
can be detected using a rope testing device
based on magnetic induction methods
(Fig. 11.4.3-11). Here too, the device can
only be used on the free section and not in
the area of rope heads and anchorages.
If serious damage to a tension member
is suspected, it should be removed and
examined in detail at a testing facility.
11.4.4 Inspection of the bridge equipment
The main elements of the bridge
equipment are bearings, roadway overpass
constructions, edge caps, railings, bridge
deck and bridge deck.
The main elements to be checked are the
bridge deck, waterproofing and surfacing,
deflective protective devices, any overhead
line protection and noise barriers on the
bridge. All of these elements must be
checked during a bridge inspection.
11.4.4.1 Warehouse
The first step is to check the external
condition and position of the bearing.
Checking the bearing position is of
particular importance, as bearings are
sometimes installed rotated by 90°,
preventing them from moving. If there is
an intact indicator device, the bearing
position can be read off directly.
Otherwise, the actual position must be
measured and compared with the target
position, taking into account the building
temperature.
Depending on the bearing type,
different checks and inspections are then
required. In the case of roller bearings, the
rolling surfaces must be checked for
contamination, corrosion and damage. In
addition, it must be determined whether
the bearing parts can roll without
constraint.
11.4 Monitoring and inspection of bridge structures
In the case of reinforced and
unreinforced elastomeric bearings, the
frictional fit to the structure must be
checked. If cracks appear in the elastomer,
this is an indication that the bearing is
overstressed.
11.4.4.2 Roadway transition constructions
Roadway expansion joints are under great
strain due to the constantly increasing
traffic loads. As part of the bridge
inspection, it must be checked whether the
expansion joints can move freely and
whether the distance between the
abutment and superstructure is
sufficiently large. Depending on the type
of construction, the functionality of the
plain bearings between individual parts of
the construction and the control devices,
the condition of the spring boxes, springs,
bolts and guides, the tightness of the
rubber profiles in the area of the
construction site joints and the rail
extensions must also be checked.
11.4.4.3 Edge caps and railings
The external appearance of the caps must
be determined. Particular attention should
be paid to cracks and de-icing salt
damage.
The height of the railings and the clear
distances between the filling bars must be
checked. It is also particularly important to
check the railing's anchoring elements and
the corrosion condition of the railing and
anchoring.
11.4.4.4 Sealing and covering
The bridge deck must be checked for
evenness, ruts, cracks, blisters, chipping,
roughness and tightness of the joints to the
roadway crossing, drain and kerb.
1053
control. Underruns and moisture
penetration usually start in the joint
between the kerb and the roadway and in
the joint at the end of the structure.
Particular attention must therefore be paid
in these areas to any voids and a well-
adhering grouting material.
11.4.4.5 Noise barriers
The general condition of the noise barrier
on the bridge is determined, whereby the
anchoring structure is of great
importance. Tapping can reveal hollow
areas in the area under the base plates.
11.4.5 Inspection of bridge equipment
The elements of the bridge equipment to
be tested include the drainage system,
pipes and cables, inspection equipment,
bridge lighting as well as signage and
traffic sign bridges [Vollrath/Tathoff,
2002]. The inspection is essentially based on
the accessibility of the individual elements
and is an integral part of every bridge
inspection.
11.4.5.1 Drainage
A functioning drainage system is of
central importance for the durability of
the bridge, which is why special attention
must be paid to the drainage elements
during the inspection. Ideally, the
functionality of the bridge drainage
components, i.e. drains on the edge of the
carriageway and footpath as well as on
piers and abutments, longitudinal,
transverse and downpipes as well as
inspection openings and transfer shafts in
box girders and on the structural supports,
should be checked.
1054 11 Monitoring, testing, evaluation and assessment of bridges
The drainage system is checked when it
rains. This is the only way to ensure that
the water produced is actually drained as
planned.
In addition, the functionality of the
cover grates and dirt collection buckets is
checked. The inspection openings must be
opened in order to detect silting of the
longitudinal pipes. The transfer shafts
behind the abutments must also be
inspected as part of the bridge inspection,
as the entire bridge drainage system is not
functional if the water in the transfer shaft
cannot drain away [Vollrath/Tathoff,
2002].
11.4.5.2 Lighting
The bridge lighting must be inspected for
corrosion, bulges or collision damage.
Similar to the bridge railings, there is also
a risk that the lighting masts will start to
rust from the inside. The stakes of the
lighting fixtures, the connection to the
superstructure and the joint grouting
must also be checked. It must be ensured
that no parts of the lighting can fall onto
the roadway.
11.4.5.3 Wires and cables
As part of the bridge inspection, the
external condition and the suspensions of
all pipes (water and gas pipes etc.) are
checked and the possibility of dilatation is
checked.
11.4.5.4 Viewing facilities
Inspection equipment is used to facilitate
the inspection of the structure and includes
inspection trolleys and
-walkways as well as entrances and stairs
for accessing superstructures or pillars.
Furthermore, fall protection, guard rails
and any existing ventilation or interior
lighting are part of the inspection facilities.
The condition and functionality of all
these inspection facilities must be checked.
11.4.5.5 Signage
and traffic sign gantries
It must be checked whether the required
signage is actually present and functional.
In the case of traffic sign gantries, the
anchorages in the superstructure are often
a problem, as they can be prone to fatigue
fractures due to wind-induced vibrations.
For this reason, the fastening elements
must be checked particularly carefully.
11.5 Condition assessment
and assessment of bridges
EVA-MARIA EICHINGER-VILL
and JOHANN KOLLEGGER (until
11.7)
11.5.1 General information
The data obtained in the course of
monitoring and testing a bridge serve as
the basis for evaluating the structure
according to the following criteria
• Road safety,
• Load capacity and
• Durability.
In the following cases, it is necessary to
check the load-bearing capacity of an
existing bridge object:
• when structural damage is detected (e.g.
cracks and deformations, corrosion)
11.5 Condition assessment and evaluation of bridges
• for interventions in the supporting
structure (conversion/reinforcement)
• for heavy goods vehicles
(Heavy transport: load model that causes
higher stresses in the structure than the
model on which the calculation of the
structure is based)
• with the introduction of higher line
categories
(Increase in axle and load per meter for
railroad bridges)
• when constructive defects are detected
gel
• after extraordinary events
• when new knowledge concerning the
load-bearing capacity arises
The condition assessment and evaluation
of existing objects requires a much more
realistic modeling of the load-bearing
behavior than the recalculation, makes
higher demands on accuracy and requires
verifications with usually higher
calculation effort.
11.5.2 Procedure for assessing the condition
of bridges
For the assessment of a solid bridge and to
determine the need for strengthening and
reinforcement, the remaining load-
bearing capacity must be examined as
realistically as possible. The current
standard procedure for assessing the load-
bearing capacity of an existing bridge is
based on the relevant standards and
guidelines that are used in the respective
countries to assess structures or the
provisions of the respective Eurocodes.
These are mostly regulations for the
design of new structures. In most cases,
the standards are based on semi-
probabilistic approaches with partial
safety coefficients and are very strongly
geared towards the requirements for
reliability and loads.
1055
neralized, as they must be valid for a wide
variety of bridge types and geometries.
The fact that some of the provisions in the
standards are highly generalized and can
therefore be applied to a large number of
different cases is very economical in many
cases, as it makes both the load
assumptions and the reliability
considerations relatively simple. Moreover,
in the case of the construction of a new
bridge, the additional costs resulting from
generalization are marginal. However, the
situation is different in the case of
repairing or strengthening an existing
bridge. The verifications prescribed in the
design standards can often no longer be
provided, which can lead to the use of
expensive measures or even the
demolition of a structure.
When assessing an existing structure, a
number of factors can be taken into
account that can only be estimated when
planning a new bridge. In particular,
knowledge of the actual strength of the
materials, the modulus of elasticity, the
permanent effects and the traffic loads
enable a very realistic calculation.
However, when assessing existing
structures that are already in use, it must
be taken into account that, for example, the
remaining service life is likely to be
reduced compared to new structures due
to the presence of damage. Attention must
also be paid to the different behavior of
old and new building parts. In this
context, however, sufficient reliability
against failure of the structure can be
achieved in many cases, taking all
framework conditions into account. If this
cannot be guaranteed, appropriate
strengthening and reinforcement
measures must be taken.
1056 11 Monitoring, testing, evaluation and assessment of bridges

Table 11.5.2-1 Comparison of old and new verification methods for the assessment of an existing bridge
The past
Verification on the basis of
the limit lines according to
the elastic calculation
Verification of the load-
bearing elements by
compliance with the
permissible stresses
Great simplification of the
static systems
Present
Consideration of the critical
load configuration and
application of the static
methods of the ultimate load
method
Comparison of the stress
(cutting forces) with the
load-bearing capacity (cross-
sectional resistance)
Use of software enables the
consideration of complicated
spatial static systems
Future
Consideration of the actual
properties of a bridge with
the aid of probabilistic
verification methods
Consideration of the
relevant limit state
function
Performing a non-linear
calculation

The state of the art is to verify the
existing load-bearing capacity according
to the currently valid design rules.
However, the use of new innovative
methods can often mobilize reserves
compared to the old verification methods.
Table 11.5.2-1 shows how the verification
methods of the present have changed
compared to those of the past [Schäfer,
1996] and how they can be improved in the
future.
11.5.2.1 Stages of the load capacity assessment
Compared to the design, the evaluation of
existing buildings requires a much more
realistic modeling of the load-bearing
behavior, makes higher demands on
accuracy and requires verification with
usually higher calculation effort.
Furthermore, knowledge of the standards
and material technology at the time of
construction of the structure is required.
In contrast to the draft, existing
buildings that are in operation are
of new load-bearing structures - have
been tested for many years and therefore
allow conclusions to be drawn about the
real load-bearing behavior. In the absence
of structural damage and design defects, it
can be concluded that these load-bearing
systems have proven their worth.
Conversely, structural damage and design
defects can also provide conclusions about
the load-bearing behavior.
When assessing bridges, it can be
assumed that the structure was planned
and executed in accordance with the
technical rules applicable at the time of
construction, provided that no contrary
indications are known from structural
inspections, archive documents or other
sources (principle of trust). However, the
assessment of the load-bearing capacity
must be based on the established facts.
If there is a gross uncertainty regarding
the quantification of the risks (e.g.
technological parameters, fracture behavior
of building materials or acting forces from
earth pressure), supplementary
investigations must be carried out or
relevant experts consulted with the aim of
determining the relevant values, if
necessary coupled with
11.5 Condition assessment and evaluation of bridges
statistical parameters. Further measures
up to the final assessment are indicated if
further risk factors (e.g. very poor state of
preservation, critical damage) are added
to such uncertainties.
The load-bearing capacity of an
existing bridge can therefore be assessed
in three stages (Figure 11.5.2-1).
• Level 1:
The calculation is based on the latest
valid standards.
• Level 2:
The calculation is carried out using
updated data on the action side, the
resistance side including modeling and
the safety side (calibration of the partial
safety coefficients).
• Level 3:
The calculation is carried out using a
probabilistic analysis. This allows the
reliability level to be determined and
compared with the corresponding
standards (e.g. [EN 1990, 2002]).
Of course, the load-bearing capacity does
not have to be assessed in all stages. If, for
example, all verifications can be fulfilled
in stage 1, the assessment of the bridge is
complete and stages 2 and 3 do not need
to be examined.
11.5.2.2 Assessment of the reliability of
the bridge
The procedure for the assessment of an
existing bridge using proba- bilistic
methods (assessment according to level 3
in Figure 11.5.2-1) is based on the concept
that the bridge under investigation does
not have to fulfill all verifications and
requirements of a design standard as long
as the
1057
general reliability level on which the
standard is based is maintained. The aim
of using probabilistic methods is to reduce
or completely avoid the cost of
refurbishing or strengthening a structure
without jeopardizing the reliability or safety
of an existing bridge. The required
reliability for a bridge assessed using
probabilistic methods is therefore the same
as for all new structures designed according
to the currently valid standard. In the
calculation, both the statistical scatter of
the material properties of the investigated
bridge as well as the local traffic situation
and the resulting traffic loads are
uniformly taken into account. Thus, a
"standard" for a specific bridge is designed
with the help of the method presented
[Enevoldsen, 2001 and Eichinger, 2003].
Furthermore, the probabilistic
approach makes it possible to incorporate
information from bridge inspections and
material tests, as well as traffic load
measurements, directly into the calculation
without the need for conversion to
standard values. The aim of such
inspections and investigations is to obtain
more detailed information about the
behavior of a structure and thus reduce
uncertainties and scatter. The results of
these investigations are usually mean
values and standard deviations of
variables on the impact or resistance side,
such as the mean value and scatter of the
concrete compressive strength of drill
cores taken from the structure. These
results can be taken into account directly
in the structural analysis. In contrast, it is
often impossible to reconcile such
additional information in a reasonable and
consistent manner with the provisions of
the standards, which are based on design
values and
1058 11 Monitoring, testing, evaluation and assessment of bridges

Figure 11.5.2-1 Stages of the load capacity assessment

11.6 Bridge management 1059

The safety factors are based on partial

safety factors.
Another advantage of the probabilistic
assessment is the determination of the actual
reliability level of a specific bridge. When
using the standard, it is possible to make
statements about the load-bearing reserves
of the structure by comparing the
calculated load-bearing capacity with the
load under service load and a classification
into "safe" and "not safe". However, it is not
possible to determine whether the
reliability level of the bridge examined and
classified as "safe" according to the
standard is 10-6 or 10-15. However, only by
determining the reliability level at which Figure 11.5.2-2 Change in the condition of a
the structure is located is it possible to bridge over time (after [Mallet, 1996])
estimate the development of reliability
over time. The development of reliability
over time is an important basis for is more economical. If an upgrade makes
optimized maintenance management, as it sense, a method should be selected that
allows an optimized bridge management enables the intended type of use to be
plan to be drawn up with regard to the established as quickly and efficiently as
interplay between economic efficiency possible. The decision-making process
and safety. For example, inspections as can be facilitated by Figure 11.5.2-3
well as maintenance and reinforcement [König/Nowak, 1992].
measures can be carried out at the Once the decision has been made in
optimum time in accordance with the favor of a repair or reinforcement
management plan. measure, the choice of a suitable method
depends on the respective framework
conditions and must be formulated
11.5.2.3 Decision-making Demolition or specifically for each problem.
refurbishment

The condition of a solid bridge 11.6 Bridge management

deteriorates over time and at a certain
point reaches a minimum at which the
intended use can no longer be fulfilled
(Fig. 11.5.2-2). The type and speed of
deterioration essentially depend on the
corrosion agents.
Once the limit state has been reached, a
decision must be made as to whether it
makes sense to upgrade or replace the
structure.
11.6.1 General information
During the monitoring, inspection and
maintenance of bridges, a large amount of
data is collected depending on the type and
size of the structure. This data can be
recorded and managed with the help of a
computerized bridge management system
(BMS). The following data is required for
structure maintenance
1060 11 Monitoring, testing, evaluation and assessment of bridges

Figure 11.5.2-3 Decision-making in the context of structural bridge maintenance

groups of data are of particular 11.6.2 Bridge management systems

importance:
• Building data describing the building
• Damage data that is the result of a
bridge inspection and describe the
current condition of the bridge
• Cost data resulting from the
maintenance
maintenance, repair and reinforcement
of the structure.
Software-supported systems for bridge
management (e.g. SIB-Bauwerke, BAUT
or KUBA) are tools for archiving and
documenting all relevant substance data
of the structures. Depending on the degree
of development, these systems can also be
helpful in technical and financial terms for
maintenance planning and management.
11.6 Bridge management 1061

The main tasks of such systems are the
recording and management of bridge
objects, the management and archiving of
digital building documents, the creation of
digital building books, the planning of
inspections, the recording and evaluation
of damage data, the creation of building
inspection reports, the evaluation of
construction and damage data and the
estimation of the service life of the
structures.
The core of each bridge management
system is the so-called object database,
which contains the characteristic
properties and attributes, i.e. technical data
and administrative data of the bridge
(Table 11.6.3-1).
In addition to pure archiving, the object
database also serves as an "electronic"
building book, as it ideally also contains
construction drawings, data sheets,
material information, photos and sketches,
text documents and measurement data.
With the help of the evaluation modules
linked to the object database, the recorded
data can be searched, filtered, grouped,
analyzed and prepared [Hump
foreman/Santa, 2004].
In addition to the object database, the
condition database is of central
importance. The condition database
should be structured in such a way that
the results of the bridge inspections can be
saved directly. However, it should be
noted that different program systems
contain different classifications and
mechanisms of condition assessment with
regard to load-bearing capacity,
serviceability and durability. In general,
the inspection subdivides the structure
into components that differ from each
other due to their geo- metry, function,
the construction materials used or their
manufacturing method. For example, a
bridge can consist of the superstructure,
substructure, bearings, roadway transition,
etc. components. These components can
be further subdivided into individual
inspection elements, which are evaluated
in the course of the inspection using
grades. The damage is recorded
qualitatively and quantitatively. This
inspection element-related information is
contained in the condition database. The
information in the condition database and
the extent of the damage can be used to
determine which measures are suitable.

Table 11.6.3-1 Information from the object database

General administrative data Building name, building number, owner, year of construction,
construction costs, maintainer, date of last inspection
General technical data Type of structure, structural system, main building material,
load-bearing capacity
Geometry Structure area, total length, total number of spans, spans,
cross-section, width between the railings, width of the clear
cross-section, clear heights or wall heights, carriageway
widths, sidewalk widths
Materials Construction, tensioning method, road surfacing and sealing,
sidewalk surfacing, corrosion protection
Equipment Drainage, storage, roadway crossings, mechanical
equipment, safety equipment
Documents Building files, building book, microfilms
1062 11 Monitoring, testing, evaluation and assessment of bridges
In addition to the basic modules object
database and condition database, further
modules can be included in a bridge
management system. These are modules
for estimating the damage development
and prioritization, the financial
requirements and the necessary budget
funds, the reliability of the construction
and the service life.
11.7 Continuous computer-aided
permanent monitoring
11.7.1 General information
Continuous computer-aided permanent
monitoring - also known as monitoring -
is a non-destructive testing method using
electronic sensors that are installed on the
structure to be monitored and record
certain properties of the structure at fixed
time intervals. Both the unloaded and the
loaded condition can be recorded and
analyzed. Damage that occurs during the
service life of the bridge can thus be
detected, localized and predicted.
Basically, long-term monitoring
strategies are divided into two groups,
global (top-down) and local (bottom-up)
strategies. Global monitoring covers the
global properties of a structure such as the
behavior of modal shapes. Local
monitoring refers to certain structure-
specific parameters, such as the distortion
(strain, compression and sliding) in a
specific element of the structure [Strauß et
al., 2009].
Continuous monitoring has become
increasingly important in recent years, not
least due to ongoing developments in the
field of
Measurement and computer technology,
data acquisition and data transmission.
However, the principle applies that such
systems cannot replace the conventional
inspection of bridges by a qualified
inspector, but should be seen as a
supplementary measure to ensure the
reliability of the structures.
However, the considered use of
continuous monitoring systems can be
useful in order to detect damage in critical
areas of the structures as early as possible
or to gain knowledge about the behavior
of areas of a bridge that cannot be
inspected visually or only with great effort
(such as buried tension bands, pier
foundations, abutment backs, etc.). The
monitoring of complex construction
conditions (such as the floating in of
structures) can also be useful and can be
used to control the detailed construction
process. In addition, the results of
continuous monitoring can be used to
check calculation models and identify
possible load reserves as well as for the
targeted selection of bridge inspection
intervals.
11.7.2 Definition of a concept for
permanent monitoring
Theoretical considerations, preliminary
investigations or simulations must be
made at the beginning of any continuous
monitoring. Based on this, comparative
variables are obtained for which suitable
measured variables must be selected. The
variables are those that can actually be
used to assess the properties or behavior of
the bridge that is of interest in the course
of long-term monitoring. These
comparative variables can be, for example,
deformations or deflections, which can be
measured directly, but also internal forces,
which can be measured directly.
11.7 Continuous computerized permanent monitoring 1063
setting up the measuring system, it is
cannot be measured directly on the therefore necessary to determine in detail
building, but can be derived from the which
measurement. The measured variable is the
variable that can be linked to the
comparative variable obtained from the
preliminary investigation/simulation. The
success of the continuous monitoring
measure depends decisively on the
existence of a clear and reversible
relationship between each measured value
of the measured variable and exactly one
value of the reference variable, which is
described by a functional specification
[Zilch et al., 2009]. In the case of a
concrete component, for example, it must
be ensured that the direct correlation
between the measured variable and the
reference variable is not only given in the
uncracked state, but also in the cracked
state.

11.7.3 Measured variables and associated

sensors

The following measured variables are

distinguished in the course of continuous
monitoring:
• Displacement values (deflections,
foundation, pier, abutment
deformations or bearing
deformations),
• Distortion variables (local component
bean-
claims),
• Temperature variables (ambient or
component temperature),
• Acceleration and speed
of the time,
• Angle sizes (pillar or abutment
rotations),
• Force variables (bearing forces or
preload
ning),
• Pressure variables (earth pressure, air
pressure) and
• Moisture values (concrete or
soil moisture).
Different types of sensors are available for
each of these measured variables. Before
1064 11 Monitoring, testing, evaluation and assessment of bridges

The sensors are used to determine which

variables are sensibly recorded and which
sensors should be used based on the
expected magnitude of the measured
values.
For certain measured variables, it is
very important that zero measurements
are carried out, e.g. for acoustic methods to
detect prestressing steel fractures. If it is
already clear during the planning or
construction phase of the structure that
the structure is to be permanently
monitored, robust sensors should be
installed during construction. This makes
it possible, for example, to determine the
strains in the reinforcing steel by
attaching strain gauges or fiber-optic
strain sensors. Such measurements can
only be carried out retrospectively with
correspondingly greater effort by locally
chiseling off the concrete and exposing
the reinforcement, which, however,
results in a disturbance of the bond that
cannot be precisely defined [Zilch et al.,
2009].
Due to their importance in the field of
continuous monitoring of bridges, the
measurement of displacement, strain and
temperature variables is discussed in
particular below. All measuring
equipment must be protected as
permanently as possible against dirt and
damage.

11.7.3.1 Measurement of displacement values

Depending on the project requirements

specification and measuring range,
displacement transducers, laser sensors,
electric hose scales, string potentiometers,
speckle pattern sensors or trigonometric
leveling devices can be used to measure
displacements.
Displacement transducers are robust
sensors that are well suited for outdoor
use. A direct connection to the
measurement object is required,
 11.7 Continuous computerized permanent monitoring
with a measuring range from 1 mm to 500
mm and accuracy from 0.001 mm to 1 mm.
The measuring principle is based on
induction or on the principle of strain
gauges. Displacement transducers are
suitable for both static and dynamic
measurements. The costs per sensor are
between approx. € 300 and € 1,000.
Possible application examples for
displacement transducers are the
measurement of bearing displacements
(longitudinal, transverse and vertical), the
detection of static and/or dynamic crack
deformation, the long-term crack
development in concrete or masonry and
the determination of deformations of
expansion joints. If a fixed point is
available, deflections and distortions can
also be recorded. If an extensometer is
connected to a displacement transducer,
deformations of abutments and retaining
walls, in backfill areas and overfills as well
as in the transition area between bridge
and free roadway can be determined. It is
also possible to measure rock and soil
movements caused by fracture processes
or landslides, settlements and deformations
in the subsoil of foundations and artificial
cavities, as well as any length
measurement between the anchor point in
the borehole and a reference surface in the
borehole mouth.
Laser sensors are based on the optical
measuring principle and are suitable for
both static and dynamic measurements,
although their use outdoors is rather
limited. One possible advantage of these
robust sensors is the possibility of non-
contact measurement. The measuring
range extends from 0.1 mm to 100 m and
the accuracy from 0.0001 mm to 10 mm.
The costs per sensor are between approx.
€ 500 and € 10,000. In addition to the
basic application possibilities that also
apply to other types of displacement
transducers, such as the detection of
bearing displacements, crack detection,
etc., these sensors can also be used for
other applications.
1065
and relative displacements, laser sensors
can also be used, among other things, for
• Distance measurements over longer
distances (e.g. displacement of
abutments or piers in relation to each
other, determination of arch
deformations),
• Deflection measurements on high
bridges, provided a stable reflective
surface is available,
• the application as light barriers for
Triggering of measurement data (e.g.
triggering data recording only when the
bridge is under load) or
• the measurement of the configuration of
trucks and center distances.
The measuring principle of the electronic
hose scale is based on the pressure change,
whereby a coupling to the measuring
object is necessary. Hose scales are only
suitable for static measurements, are very
robust and suitable for outdoor use. The
measuring range is between 100 mm and
1000 mm, the accuracy between 0.1 mm
and 2 mm. The cost per sensor is between
approx.
Electronic hose scales are particularly
suitable for measuring long and short-term
deflections, for recording the settlements
or heave of abutments or piers, for
determining the vertical deformations of
components as well as twisting and torsion.
Deformations in different construction
stages (e.g. lowering of the bridge onto
temporary bearings, bridge insertion,
production of composite slabs) as well as
deformations of auxiliary supports or in
the course of cantilever construction can
also be easily recorded.
The measuring principle of an
electronic string potentiometer is based on
induction or on the principle of strain
gauges, just like that of a classic
displacement transducer. Static and
dynamic measurements are possible,
whereby a coupling to the measurement
object is necessary in any case.
1066 11 Monitoring, testing, evaluation and assessment of bridges
is. String potentiometers are robust and
well suited for outdoor use. Their
measuring range is 0.01 m to 50 m, with an
accuracy of 0.1 mm to 1 mm. The costs
are between approx. € 500 and € 2,000.
Electric string potentiometers are suitable
for measuring deflections, vertical bearing
displacements and any relative
deformation between two structures, such
as movements of abutments or piers in
relation to each other. Movements of the
slope relative to the abutment and
landslides can also be recorded.
The speckle pattern sensors, which are
used to measure crack movements and
require a direct connection to the object
being measured, are also robust measuring
systems, although they are only suitable
for outdoor use to a limited extent. Both
static and dynamic measurements are
possible. The measuring range is 0.1 mm
to 50 mm, the accuracy 0.01 mm to 1 mm.
The costs are approx. € 500.
Ultimately, trigonometric leveling is
based on the non-contact measuring
principle of triangulation. The measuring
range of the precision theodolites used is
0.05 m to 50 m, the accuracy 0.5 mm to 5
mm. The cost of a precision theodolite is
around € 40,000. Levels are particularly
suitable for determining long and short
term deflections, determining vertical
deformations of components as well as
settlements or elevations of abutments or
pillars. Levels can also be used to determine
deformations in different construction
stages, e.g. when lowering a bridge onto
temporary bearings or the final bridge
bearings, during the welding of
supporting structures, during bridge
insertion or during the production of the
composite slab or bridge construction.
Appropriate geodetic marks must be
attached to the structure as a basis for the
measurement.
11.7.3.2 Measurement of distortion variables
Distortions (strains, compressions and
sliding; local component stresses) can be
measured using strain gauges or fiber
optic strain sensors.
Strain gauges are based on the principle
of the Wheatstone measuring bridge, a
measuring device for measuring ohmic
resistance (DC resistance) or small ohmic
resistance changes. Strain gauges are
attached (glued) directly to the object to
be measured, are well suited for outdoor
use and allow both static and dynamic
measurements. The measuring range is
0.01% to 0.5%, the accuracy is 1/100 of the
measured value. The sensors themselves
are inexpensive (approx. € 30). However,
an additional A/D (analog/digital)
converter is required (approx. € 500),
which is why the total cost of a system
consisting of 20 sensors, for example,
ultimately amounts to approx. € 11,000.
Strain gages can be used, for example, to
determine steel strain due to dead load,
load or temperature and to determine
warping or twisting. In addition, the
calculation of stresses and deflections
from strain measurements is possible, as is
the determination of residual stresses or
stress amplitudes as a basis for fatigue
tests.
Fiber optic extensometers are also
coupled directly to the measurement
object, are very robust and well suited for
outdoor use. The measuring range is
0.0001% to 0.5%, the accuracy is 1/1000 of
the measured value. Static and dynamic
measurements are possible. The cost of a
sensor is around € 400, but there are
additional costs for the evaluation unit of
around € 15,000. This results in the
following costs for the overall system
consisting of
 11.7 Continuous computerized permanent monitoring
z. Fiber optic extensometers can be
installed directly into the formwork and
are therefore used to determine the strain
of concrete and steel due to creep,
shrinkage, dead weight, load, temperature,
etc. As with strain gauges, stresses and
deflections can also be calculated from the
strain measurements, and tensile stresses
and shrinkage widths can be determined.
11.7.3.3 Measurement of temperature variables
Electronic or fiber optic temperature
sensors are used to measure temperature
variables. Both types of measuring
systems are suitable for both static and
dynamic measurements, are robust and
well suited for outdoor use. They differ in
terms of the measuring principle
(electrical versus optical) and the
associated accuracy. This is 1/100° for
electrical sensors and 1/1000000° for fiber
optic sensors. As a result, the costs are also
different. If electronic temperature sensors
are used and the system consists of 20
sensors including A/D converter, the total
costs amount to approx. € 11,000; if fiber
optic temperature sensors are chosen, the
total costs amount to approx. € 23,000 for
the same number of sensors including
evaluation unit.
11.7.3.4 Measurement of other variables
Acceleration and speed variables can be
determined using acceleration and speed
sensors. It should be noted that
accelerometers are good for determining
the acceleration of the structure over time.
1067
and the maximum vibration accelerations.
They are also suitable for frequency
analysis and determining dynamic
parameters (natural frequencies, vibration
modes, system damping). However,
acceleration sensors are not suitable for
determining deformations, stress
oscillation widths or axle loads.
Angle sensors or inclinometers are used
to determine angular values for
determining pier and abutment rotations.
Force variables, such as bearing forces or
prestressing, are measured using load cells
or force transducers. Earth pressure or air
pressure sensors are used to measure
pressure variables such as earth pressure
or air pressure. Finally, moisture variables
are determined using moisture sensors to
determine soil moisture or concrete
moisture (multi-ring electrodes).
11.7.4 Recording the measurement data
Depending on the project requirements
specification, static (e.g. once a day) or
dynamic (e.g. 100 times per second)
measurements may be required. This
depends on which parameters are to be
recorded and whether or not a rapid
change in the state of the structure is to be
expected. A decision as to whether static
or dynamic measurements should be
taken must be made before monitoring
begins. Table 11.7-1 summarizes the
properties of both types of measurements.
One problem with dynamic
measurements is the large amount of data
that is generated. If, for example, four
sensors record 100 measured values per
second over 24 hours, the amount of data
to be processed per month is
approximately
1068 11 Monitoring, testing, evaluation and assessment of bridges
Table 11.7-1 Static and dynamic measurement
Static measurement
Application "Slow" processes
Typical event Slow foundation
Low (e.g. 1 day, 1 hour, 10
sampling rate
seconds)
Long-term deflections, long-term
Examples
deformations, component
temperature
Typical sensors Electronic hose scale
Amount of data Low
1.2 GByte. One solution to this problem is
so-called triggered recording of the
measured values, i.e. only saving the
measurement data when previously
defined threshold values are exceeded (e.g.
when a truck or train passes).
Regardless of which measuring method
and which measuring equipment is used, it
must be determined before the start of the
measurement how the measuring points
can also be found at later points in time so
that the measurement results can actually
be assigned to the examined point on the
structure.
11.7.5 Preparation and processing of
measurement data
As part of computer-aided continuous
monitoring, the measurement data is
recorded automatically without the need
for manual readings. For this purpose, the
power supply for the measuring devices
must be ensured, whereby power
interruptions should be excluded as far as
possible, which can be guaranteed by an
emergency power supply.
The measuring equipment on site
should also be checked at regular intervals
to ensure that it is functioning properly
and to guarantee that the measurement
results transmitted are not influenced by
Dynamic measurement
"Fast" processes
Train or vehicle crossing
High (e.g. 1 Hz, 1000 Hz)
Deflection during vehicle crossing,
all vibration processes
Acceleration and
vibration sensors
High
damage or contamination of the
measuring system.
The recorded data is stored locally on
data loggers directly on site and, in the
case of modern systems, is automatically
transmitted via GPRS, UMTS or ISDN for
evaluation. Simple evaluation functions
(extreme value or averaging) can be
carried out before the data is transmitted,
provided the measuring system has an
appropriate buffer memory to reduce the
amount of data and enable faster
transmission.
The automated data retrieval can also
be connected to an automated standard
data evaluation, which makes it possible to
obtain current information on the
behavior of the structure very quickly and
make it available on an internet platform,
for example. In this context, the bridge
owner may also be interested i n
automated alerting via SMS or email if
limit values previously defined in an
emergency plan are exceeded. Figure 11.7-
1 shows an example of such an emergency
plan based on the traffic light principle
[Praxmarer/Reiterer, 2007]. Warning level
green would describe the planned behavior
of the structure and would not require any
action. Warning level yellow would be
linked to the
 11.7 Continuous computerized permanent monitoring 1069

Exceeding a predefined limit value (e.g. for
deflection) for a period of more than five
minutes. This would have required an
advance warning from the operator of the
monitoring system.
and the bridge keeper. A red warning level
would correspond to the specified limit
being exceeded for more than 24 hours
and would result in the bridge being
closed.

Monitoring system
Permanent recording of bridge
deformations and pier rotations

Green warning level: No measures

Behavior as planned

Limit value exceeded

> 5 minutes

Automatic
Notification by SMS
-Operator monitoring system
Warning level orange: -bridge support
advance warning
Operator monitoring system:
plausibility check

Long-term Recommendation
exceedance of limit value Alarm All-clear
> 24 hours

Manual Manual

Automatic
Notification by SMS
-Operator monitoring system
Red warning -bridge maintainer (all persons)
level: -On-call service bridge keeper

Alarm

Bridge closure

Operator Monitoring system Bridge maintainer

Plausibility check Bridge assessment

Bridge closure Restricted access to All-clear

remains in the bridge Manual
place
Fig. 11.7-1 Monitoring and emergency plan
1070 11 Monitoring, testing, evaluation and assessment of bridges
12 Bridge repair and renovation
12.1 Introduction
EVA-MARIA EICHINGER-VILL
and JOHANN KOLLEGGER (until
12.2)
This chapter deals with the problems
associated with the repair and
rehabilitation of concrete, steel and
composite bridges, including the road
surfaces on bridges. In this context, repair
or rehabilitation refers to the sum of all
measures by which known defects and
damage are eliminated in such a way that
both the durability and the reliability of
the bridge are fully restored. In contrast,
bridge strengthening is the sum of all
measures that serve to increase the existing
load-bearing capacity of a bridge structure
- also due to a change in use.
12.2 Concrete bridges
12.2.1 Planning of repair and
refurbishment measures
Smaller repair measures can usually be
carried out solely on the basis of the
results of the bridge inspection, while
larger repair measures require a careful as-
built survey covering all important details.
In the course of the as-built survey, the
main aim is to identify the causes
defects or damage and assess their
influence on the load-bearing capacity,
serviceability and durability of the
structure. This inventory serves to
determine the appropriate repair
measures. The following objectives, among
others, can be pursued when planning a
repair measure in the bridge area [Grube
et al., 1990]:
• Restoring the load-bearing capacity
• Restoring or maintaining the corrosion
protection of the reinforcement
• Restoring or supplementing the
Concrete cross-section with/without
load-bearing capacity requirements
• Restoration or increase of the
Resistance of the concrete surface to
frost stress, freeze-thaw stress, weather
influences, penetration of substances
that attack concrete or steel,
mechanical attacks
• Restoration or increase of the
Frictional resistance of the concrete
surface
• Sealing cracks
• Removal of leaking (construction)
joints or poorly compacted areas
Based on the results of the assessment, the
engineer responsible for planning the
repair work draws up a maintenance
concept for the structure, which includes
information on the pre-treatment of the
concrete substrate, the repair principles for
the individual components, material
specifications, repair and painting
surfaces as well as the maintenance and
repair work.
1070
Table 12.2.1-1 Application examples for remediation methods (according to [Ruffert, 1983])
Requirement
Optical compensation (covering of
color differences in the concrete)
Protection against aggressive substances from
the atmosphere
Protection against carbonation
Creation of a sufficient concrete cover
according to the standard
Consolidation of sanding surfaces
Protection against aggressive water
Protection against mechanical stresses
Protection against de-icing salt attack of the
concrete
Restoration of deep frost and de-icing salt
damage
Restoration of frost and de-icing salt
damage in the surface area
Deep concrete destruction due to corrosion,
chemical attack, impact, mechanical stress,
etc.
quality assurance. The estimation of the
masses of the expected damaged areas and
the associated cost estimate is of course
also of central importance. For repair
measures, it is usually difficult to
determine the masses in comparison to
new construction. A
12 Bridge repair and renovation
Suitable procedure
Colored sealant or paint, either mineral or
plastic-based as a solution or dispersion
Impregnation with plastic dispersions
Acrylic-based sealer
Application of a new alkaline concrete covering
to the required thickness by spraying
– Non-film-forming impregnation
– Sealer based on dissolved mixed
polymers, acrylates, epoxies,
polyurethanes
– Treatment with silicic acid (silicatization)
Thick coating based on solvent-free reactive
plastics or other very dense mortar or
concrete coatings
– Thick coating (two-component base)
– Wear-resistant screeds
– Acrylic-based sealer
– Impregnation of the concrete surface
– Thin coating
Chiseling off the damaged and possibly
chloride-contaminated concrete, replacement
of the destroyed concrete with shotcrete,
possibly simultaneous replacement of corroded
reinforcing steel
Coating with sufficiently dense fillers,
previously mortared with synthetic mortar
Chiseling off the damaged and chemically
contaminated concrete, replacing the missing
cross-section parts with shotcrete, possibly with
the installation of missing reinforcement
However, the expected extent of damage
can be estimated using a blasted, open test
area [Hillemeier et al., 1999]. On the basis
of the maintenance concept, the project
owner decides on the implementation of the
measure. Table 12.2.1-1 shows the
following
12.2 Concrete
bridges
Depending on the respective
requirements, suitable repair and
refurbishment methods are given as
examples [Ruffert, 1983].
12.2.2 Preparatory measures
In the run-up to the actual repair
measure, preparatory measures usually
have to be taken on the concrete substrate
and the reinforcing steel. The pre-
treatment of the concrete substrate and the
reinforcing steel is particularly important
for the durability of the repair measure.
12.2.2.1 Pre-treatment of
the concrete substrate
The adhesive bond between the material
applied during the repair work and the
concrete substrate is crucial for the
durability of the repair work. Pre-
treatment of the concrete is particularly
important in order to guarantee that the
bonding surface lies in undamaged
concrete. This includes cleaning the
concrete substrate of dust, loose particles
or standing water, cleaning the concrete
surface of any existing paints and
coatings, formwork oil residues or post-
treatment agents, removing cement
slurries and layers of low strength,
removing damaged concrete and
derusting exposed reinforcement bars.
A range of coarse and fine methods are
available for pre-treatment of the concrete
substrate (Table 12.2.2-1). Coarse
methods, e.g. chiseling, milling and flame
blasting, are used to remove the concrete
in depth. Before
1071
After the actual repair work has been
carried out, it is usually necessary to
rework the concrete surface. In addition,
the tensile strength of the concrete surface
is greatly reduced compared to untreated
concrete [Dartsch, 1988]. Fine processes
include sand blasting, shot blasting or high-
pressure water jetting. The slight surface
roughness achieved when using these fine
processes is advantageous for most repair
measures (e.g. coatings). Furthermore, the
surface tensile strength is increased by
compressed air blasting. The use of
chemical processes to pre-treat the
concrete substrate (e.g. to remove paint
residues, oils and bitumen) is not
recommended; flame blasting is the more
suitable method in this case.
Depending on the repair measure,
different requirements are placed on the
properties of the concrete substrate,
whereby the desired roughness of the
surface, the size distribution of pores and
blowholes, the surface tensile strength, the
compressive strength and the modulus of
elasticity, the carbonation and the
chloride content as well as the concrete
moisture and temperature influence the
choice of process for treating the concrete
substrate. In addition, permissible crack
widths or permissible vibrations, as well as
questions of environmental pollution and
the disposal of waste materials can be
important for the selection of a suitable
process for pre-treatment of the concrete.
In the following, the methods for treating
the concrete substrate are briefly
presented; a more detailed description can
be found at
z. e.g. [Grube et al., 1990] and [ZTV-SIB,
1990].
1072 12 Bridge repair and renovation

Table 12.2.2-1 Procedure for pre-treatment of the concrete substrate (according to [Grube et al., 1990])
Procedure Device or treatment agent Purpose
to be used
Pressure washer Pressure washer (heated or Removing dirt and vegetation
unheated)
High-pressure water jets Blasting device, water Removal of coatings and
with 100-1000 bar layers of low strength
Fine procedures

High-pressure water jets Blasting device, water Removal of chloride-

with 1000-3000 bar containing concrete
sand blasting Blasting unit, dry blasting Removal of coatings; derusting
agent of the reinforcement
Shot blasting Blasting device, steel balls Removing coatings from
horizontal surfaces
Compressed air blasting Blasting unit, wet blasting Removal of coatings
with solid blasting agent
media and water
Milling Milling machine Deep removal of the
concrete
Rough procedures

Stemmen Chisel Deep removal of the concrete;

exposing the stakes

Flame blasting Flame jet burners, Removal of organic soiling such

acetylene and oxygen as oil, bitumen and rubber
residues; deep removal of
concrete; exposure of coarse
aggregate

12.2.2.1.1 Pressure washer 12.2.2.1.2 High-pressure water jets

High-pressure cleaning is carried out with
heated or unheated pressure washers,
whereby working pressures of up to
approx. 200 bar and temperatures of up to
approx. 150 °C can be achieved. High-
pressure cleaning is mainly used to
remove dirt and fouling as well as thin
coats of paint, but is not suitable for pre-
treatment of damaged concrete substrates
due to the low pressures involved.
Depending on the water pressure and
water volume, different results can be
achieved when pretreating the concrete
substrate using high-pressure water
jetting. At water pressures of up to approx.
1000 bar, residues of coatings, cement
slurries and concrete layers with low
strength can be removed. At pressures of
around 1500 bar and a water flow rate of
approx. 150 l/min, a deep, large-area
removal of
12.2 Concrete
bridges
z. For example, concrete containing
chloride, while at water pressures of up to
approx. 2500 bar and a water volume of
approx. 5-10 l/min, even high-strength
layers can be removed or the concrete can
be cut. The result of high-pressure water
jetting is a uniformly load-bearing
concrete surface, the reinforcement is not
damaged. High-pressure water jetting is
therefore a suitable method for exposing
the reinforcement. The sludge produced
during high-pressure water jetting must
be disposed of properly.
12.2.2.1.3 Compressed air
blasting with solid blasting
media
Compressed air blasting with solid
blasting media is mainly used to remove
coatings from concrete surfaces and to
roughen the concrete surface. Cleaning
the concrete surface with compressed air
after blasting is important for all blasting
processes. Depending on the blasting
media used, a distinction is made between
sand blasting and shot blasting. In sand
blasting, the abrasives used are
electrocorundum, silicon carbide or fused
copper ore slag. Quartz sand is no longer
used today for health reasons, but the term
sand blasting has survived. Sand blasting is
questionable in terms of the environment
and health due to the large amount of dust
generated. Wet blasting can be used to
reduce dust generation, whereby water is
introduced into the blasting path in
addition to the blasting medium. Wet
blasting generally achieves the best surface
tensile strengths with the same coating
surface [Hillemeier et al., 1999]. Rust
removal from the reinforcement must be
carried out using the dry blasting method.
If the concrete surface is
1073
If the surface is treated with wet blasting,
the reinforcement must be dry blasted.
When wet blasting, as with high-pressure
water blasting, care must be taken to
dispose of the resulting sludge.
During shot blasting, steel balls with a
diameter of approx. 1.5 mm are thrown
onto the concrete surface at high speed.
Parts of the cement paste and the
aggregate are loosened and sucked off
together with the balls using an appropriate
suction device. In this way, the same effect
as sand blasting can be achieved with less
dust and in a more environmentally
friendly way.
12.2.2.1.4 Milling
Milling machines can be used to remove
large areas of concrete in layers up to 5
mm thick [ZTV-SIB, 1990], whereby
mainly horizontal surfaces are milled. As
already mentioned, due to the severe
damage caused by the milling machine, the
concrete surface must be appropriately post-
treated after milling by compressed air
blasting with solid abrasives or by high-
pressure water jets in order to be able to
carry out the actual repair measures. If very
heavy milling machines are used, the
concrete surface may be permanently
damaged, which cannot be removed even
by subsequent blasting processes.
12.2.2.1.5 Stemmen
Chiseling is suitable for removing small
areas of concrete, opening local defects or
exposing the reinforcing steel in small
areas. When exposing the reinforcement,
care must be taken not to damage the
reinforcing bars.
1074
Therefore, only devices with automatic
switch-off on metal contact should be
used to expose prestressing steel.
12.2.2.1.6 Flame blasting
In flame blasting, the concrete surface is
briefly heated with a 3000 °C gas flame
from an acetylene-oxygen mixture,
causing the concrete to flake off due to the
thermal stresses. Flame blasting is mainly
used to peel the concrete surface down to
depths of 4 mm [Grube et al., 1990] and
thus to remove organic soiling, whereby
the rate of advance should be at least 1
m/min in order to avoid deeper damage
to the concrete as a result of the high
temperatures. To avoid damaging the
reinforcement, the sufficient thickness of
the concrete cover must be verified before
flame blasting, e.g. using a reinforcement
detector. After flame blasting, the flame-
blasted surfaces must be reworked by
milling and then by compressed air
blasting with solid abrasives or high-
pressure water jets in order to reliably
remove the concrete with a disturbed
structure.
12.2.2.2 Pre-treatment of
the reinforcing steel
Whether and to what extent pre-treatment
of the reinforcing steel is necessary depends
on the degree of corrosion of the
reinforcement and the chosen repair
measure. If it has been determined that
the reinforcement is corroded over a large
area, it must be exposed.
12 Bridge repair and renovation
12.2.2.2.1 Exposing the reinforcement
If the reinforcement is corroded, it must
be exposed approx. 20 mm laterally
beyond the corroded area. It should be
noted that the inputs will disturb the bond
between the reinforcement and the
surrounding concrete, which is why the
work must be carried out in sections and
the structural conditions and the effects of
the missing bond must be taken into
account.
Carbonated concrete must be removed
up to a maximum of the surface of the first
layer of reinforcement, while concrete
containing chloride must also be removed
behind the reinforcement if the critical
chloride content is exceeded. If the cross-
section of the reinforcement is severely
weakened by corrosion, the reinforcement
can be replaced by additional
reinforcement that is fixed to the existing
reinforcing steel without vibration, taking
into account the necessary anchorage
lengths.
12.2.2.2.2 Rust removal from the reinforcement
Depending on the necessary corrosion
protection measures, the reinforcement
can be derusted by sandblasting, wet
blasting or high-pressure water jetting.
Manual derusting is also possible in
principle, but is very time-consuming and
can therefore only be applied locally. If a
new layer of concrete (see section 12.2.3.2)
is applied to create a sufficient concrete
cover, the reinforcement must first be
cleaned and leaf rust removed.
If the applied concrete layer is not thick
enough, the reinforcement must be
protected against corrosion. Rust removal
and cleaning of the reinforcement can be
carried out by means of wet blasting or
high-pressure water jetting if plastic-
modified cement mortar is used as
corrosion protection.
12.2 Concrete
bridges
slurries can be used. If an epoxy resin
corrosion protection coating is applied, the
reinforcement must be prepared by sand
blasting.
12.2.2.2.3 Coating the reinforcement
An anti-corrosion coating of the
reinforcement is only necessary if, under
the prevailing environmental conditions,
the concrete cover of non-carbonated and
non-chloride-containing concrete is less
than the concrete cover specified in [EN
1992-2, 2005]. It should be noted that
coating the reinforcement has a negative
effect on the bond between the concrete
and the reinforcement.
Various coating materials can be used
as corrosion inhibitors, whereby mainly
reaction resin hardening systems based on
low-solvent or solvent-free epoxy resins
or plastic-modified cement slurries are
used. The advantage of plastic-modified
cement slurries over epoxy resins is that
even steel that has been exposed and
cleaned by high-pressure water jets can be
coated, as plastic-modified cement slurries
place lower demands on the steel substrate
in terms of purity and moisture content.
With reaction resin curing systems,
particular care must therefore be taken to
ensure that they are processed correctly
and that the limit values for temperature
and moisture are adhered to.
The minimum thickness of the
corrosion protection layer for reaction
resin-curing systems is 300 μm, whereby
the coating is applied in one or two layers
and the second layer is sanded with quartz
sand. However, the first layer (minimum
thickness 200 μm) must not be sanded in
order to avoid perforation of the second
layer. In the case of plastic-modified
cement slurries, the
1075
Minimum layer thickness 1000 μm,
whereby the coating must be applied in at
least two layers [ZTV-SIB, 1990].
12.2.3 Implementation of repair and
refurbishment measures
The most important repair measures are
discussed in the following sections. These
are the filling of cracks, the replacement of
the concrete and the protection of the
concrete surface.
12.2.3.1 Filling cracks
12.2.3.1.1 General information
Knowledge about the influence of cracks
in concrete components on the corrosion
of the steel inserts and thus the durability
of a structure has increased significantly
in recent years. It is now known that not
every crack, e.g. in a bridge abutment with
an average crack width of 0.25 mm, must
necessarily be filled without other
circumstances such as
z. e.g. the de-icing salt load on the
component [Vollrath/Tathoff, 2002].
Therefore, a careful inventory must be
carried out before filling the cracks,
otherwise success will not be achieved.
There are two different methods for
filling cracks based on the application
technique. Impregnation is the filling of
cracks without pressure, while injection is
the filling of cracks via a filler neck under
pressure. In impregnation, epoxy resin is
filled into the crack without pressure
using the so-called "brush" or "pouring"
method, whereby the filling material
penetrates into the crack due to gravity
and capillary activity. The penetration
depths depend on the viscosity, the
processing time, the wettability and, above
all
1076
especially the crack width. Near-surface
cracks should be filled to a depth of at
least 5 mm and 15 times the crack width.
Separation cracks cannot generally be
closed by impregnation.
During injection, a fast-setting flexible
reaction resin is injected into the crack via
filling nozzles (drill packers), which are
placed at a distance of 100 to 500 mm.
The injection depends on the following
factors: Functional principle and pressure
of the injection device, drilling method,
depth and angle of the drilling, type,
number and position of the packers,
damming of the cracks and the timing of
the injection and post-grouting. It should
be noted that high pressure over a short
period of time fills the cracks less deeply
than low pressure over a longer period of
time. A crack that has been injected once
should - unless it has been injected using
the low-pressure method - always be re-
injected, as the capillary-active reaction
resin also penetrates the adjacent concrete.
After the resin has hardened, the packers
and the insulating material are removed
and any drill holes are filled.
The following objectives are pursued
when filling cracks:
• Closing the cracks to prevent the
penetration of corrosive substances
into the component
• Sealing water-bearing cracks in order to
to eliminate leaks in the component
• Force-fit, tension-proof connection
both banks of the crack
• Expandable connection of both crack
banks
In the case of a large number of cracks
close to the surface, it can often be
expedient to close the cracks with an
expandable coating rather than by
impregnation or injection. A friction-
locked connection of both sides of the
crack is only necessary if the tensile
stresses that occur after
12 Bridge repair and renovation
of the repair measure in the structure are
lower than the tensile strength of the
concrete. Otherwise, the filling of the
cracks would be absurd. The aim of the
ductile bonding of the crack banks is to
seal cracks whose widths change. As the
increase in crack widths for today's
common expandable fillers may be
between 5% for small crack widths (w <
0.2 mm) and a maximum of 25% for crack
widths over 0.3 mm, it is necessary to
estimate the expected change in crack
width as accurately as possible. It should
also be noted that low temperatures reduce
the ductility of the filling material. It
should be emphasized that, contrary to
what is often widely believed, it is not
possible to create an expansion joint by
injecting a crack with an expandable filling
material [Vollrath/ Tathoff, 2002].
12.2.3.1.2 Filling goods
The requirements placed on the filling
material are very diverse and include good
workability, sufficient mixing stability and
viscosity, low reaction-related volume
shrinkage, sufficient adhesive strength to
the concrete structure, sufficient inherent
strength and high aging stability. In
addition, the compatibility of the filler
with all materials with which it comes into
contact is important, especially with regard
to corrosion [Hillemeier et al., 1999].
According to [ZTV-RISS, 1999], epoxy
resins (EP), polyurethanes (PUR) and,
more rarely today, cement paste (ZL) and
cement paste suspension (ZS) are used as
fillers, depending on the application
objective (Table 12.2.3-1). In Table 12.2.3-
1, T refers to impregnation (e.g. EP-T
impregnation with epoxy resin) and I to
injection (e.g. EP-I injection with epoxy
resin).
12.2 Concrete 1077
bridges
Table 12.2.3-1 Application of various filling materials (according to [ZTV-RISS, 1999])
Moisture content of the cracks or crack banks
dry moist water-bearing
not under pressure Under pressure
Close EP-T EP-T* PUR-I PUR-I**
EP-I EP-I* ZL-I ZL-I***
PUR-I PUR-I ZS-I ZS-I***
ZL-I ZL-I
ZS-I ZS-I
Application goal

Sealing EP-I EP-I* PUR-I PUR-I**

PUR-I PUR-I ZL-I ZL-I***
ZL-I ZL-I ZS-I ZS-I***
ZS-I ZS-I
Force-fit EP-I EP-I* ZL-I ZL-I***
connection ZL-I ZL-I ZS-I ZS-I***
ZS-I ZS-I
Expandable PUR-I PUR-I PUR-I PUR-I**
connection

EP-T*, EP-I* with proof of suitability.

PUR-I** using a fast-foaming PUR (SPUR) before the PUR-I.
ZL-I***, ZS-I*** together with temporary sealing measures to reduce pressure.

Epoxy resins (EP) are used for friction-
locked joints, whereby the two sides of the
crack are virtually rigidly connected after
the resin has cured. To enable the resin to
penetrate deep into fine cracks, epoxy
resins must be low-viscosity, solvent-free,
unfilled and also insensitive to moisture.
The adhesive strength of the epoxy resin is
generally greater than the tensile strength
of the concrete, which means that if the
concrete is overstressed again, the concrete
directly next to the crack will crack, but not
the injected crack itself.
Polyurethanes (PUR) are used for
closing, sealing and elastic bonding of dry,
moist or water-bearing cracks. Due to
their elasticity and compressibility,
flexible polyurethanes are the only filling
material that can be used to seal cracks
with varying crack widths. Nevertheless
There are limits to the use of
polyurethanes in moving cracks, as the
elongation capacity decreases with the
absolute thickness of the PUR film in the
crack.
Cement paste and cement suspension
consist of water and cement, whereby the
difference between the two cement
injection materials lies in the grinding
fineness of the cement. Cement
suspension consists of ultra-fine cement
and can be used for injecting fine cracks
with widths of more than 0.2 mm.
In Table 12.2.3-1, the application of the
various filling materials depends on the
degree of moisture in the cracks.
According to [ZTV- RISS, 1999], a
distinction is made between dry, moist,
"unpressurized" water-bearing and
pressurized water-bearing cracks in
accordance with Table 12.2.3-2.
1078 12 Bridge repair and renovation

Table 12.2.3-2 Moisture content of cracks or crack banks (according to [ZTV-RISS, 1999])
Humidity level Classification
Dry or concrete with – Water ingress not possible
ambient equilibrium – Influence of water on the crack area not detectable
moisture content – Water ingress possible, but has been ruled out for a sufficiently
long time
– Crack banks visually detectable dry (assessment of crack banks
on dry cores)
– Crack banks assessed dry according to laboratory methods
Moist – Color change in the crack area due to water, but no water
leakage
– Signs of water leakage in the immediate past
– Crack banks recognizably moist or matt-damp (assessment
of the crack banks on dry drill cores)
– Crack banks assessed according to laboratory methods wet

"Pressureless" – Water visible in fine droplets in the crack area

water-bearing – Water beads up from the crack area
Water-bearing under - Coherent water film emerges from the crack
pressure

12.2.3.2 Concrete replacement
Concrete replacement systems include
standard concrete, shotcrete and cement
mortar with or without plastic additives as
well as reaction resin mortar. These
concrete replacement systems differ in
their suitability for use and can be
combined with coatings for corrosion
protection of the reinforcement, bonding
bridges to the concrete substrate, fillers to
produce a suitable surface or surface
protection systems and then form so-
called repair systems. If the concrete
replacement systems are prefabricated
substances or materials, no other
admixtures may be added.
12.2.3.2.1 Load classes
According to [Rili-SIB, 2001], a
distinction is made depending on the
load-bearing capacity.
The following four stress classes are used
to determine the strength of the respective
concrete replacement system.
Load class M1
Mortar and concrete of stress class M1 are
used for facades or similarly stressed
components. Concrete replacement
systems of stress class M1 are not suitable
for dynamic stress during application.
These systems cannot be driven on and
cannot be used in the calculation as
statically acting.
Exposure class M2 Concrete replacement
systems of exposure class M2 must be
suitable for increasing the resistance of the
concrete surface to chemical attack and must
exhibit a known resistance to carbonation
and a buffering capacity against chloride
penetration. They must also be able to be
installed under dynamic loads. Mortar of the
stress
12.2 Concrete
bridges
class M2 must not be driven on directly
and must not be used as a static
contributory factor.
Load class M3
Mortar and concrete of stress class M3
may be used in the calculation as statically
contributing and are therefore approved
for the statically effective area. In
addition, they can be used to increase the
resistance of the concrete surface to
destruction by chemical attack. It must be
possible to install them under dynamic
loads, but they cannot be driven on
directly.
Load class M4
Concrete replacement systems of stress
class M4 are reactive resin-bonded
mortars that must achieve certain
strengths and wear resistances in addition
to the requirements of stress class M3.
This means that they can be driven on
directly.
12.2.3.2.2 Concrete
The composition of the concrete used as
part of a concrete replacement must meet
the requirements of the relevant standards
for exterior components. Because the
concrete replacement is usually applied in
very thin layers, the proper curing of the
concrete is of decisive importance,
whereby the minimum curing time should
be five days and it should be noted that
the spraying of curing agents is not
permitted in the area of traffic structures
[Hillemeier et al., 1999]. Before applying
the new concrete layer, the existing
concrete substrate must be pre-wetted for
at least 24 hours. However, care must be
taken to ensure that the existing
1079
The concrete substrate must have dried to
such an extent that the surface is only
slightly damp before the new concrete is
applied. To improve adhesion to the
substrate, a cementitious bonding agent
should be brushed into the concrete
substrate.
12.2.3.2.3 Cement mortar
Cement mortar is used to fill spalled
concrete or to repair gravel pockets and
localized defects in the concrete. The
cement mortars used for concrete
replacement have a maximum grain size
of 4 mm, a cement content of at least 400
kg/m³ and a water-cement ratio of
maximum w/c = 0.5. The cement mortars
are applied in a plastic consistency with a
bonding bridge and, as in the case of
concrete repairs, are cured for five days. It
should be noted that prolonged rubbing
worsens the bond to the substrate.
12.2.3.2.4 Concrete/cement mortar
with plastic additive
The addition of plastics improves the
workability, water retention capacity,
ductility and adhesive strength of the
concrete or cement mortar. In addition,
the tendency to crack and the modulus of
elasticity are reduced compared to plastic-
free products [Hillemeier et al., 1999].
Cement mortar with added plastic can be
used for stress classes M1, M2 or M3. The
cement mortars used for concrete
replacement have a cement content of at
least 350 kg/m³ for a maximum grain size
of more than 8 mm and a cement content
of at least 400 kg/m³ for a maximum grain
size of less than 4 mm. The maximum
amount of plastic added is usually
1080 12 Bridge repair and renovation

limited to 5 % by weight of the total dry Added as a dispersion in the mixing

mass. Prefabricated products whose water, or together with the mixing water
suitability has been proven by appropriate at the nozzle in the case of dry gunning
testing are usually used. The post- mortars. When composing the shotcrete,
treatment period is at least 5 days. it is important to ensure that a high binder
content and a small maximum grain size
ensure good smoothness, but also lead to a
12.2.3.2.5 Shotcrete or mortar high degree of shrinkage. During
installation, it is also important to ensure
The composition and properties of the that plastic-modified shotcretes or
shotcrete or mortar used must meet the -mortar may only be installed with the
requirements of the relevant concrete spraying equipment, hose length and
construction standards, with a minimum nozzle used in the suitability test. Plastic-
layer thickness of 30 mm. The possible uses modified shotcrete has proven itself for
of shotcretes and mortars are diverse and spraying dense multi-layered stakes and for
range from supplementing the load-bearing application on dynamically stressed
concrete cross-section to surface repairs surfaces.
and the injection of additional
reinforcement. According to [Rili-SIB,
2001], both dry and wet shotcretes are 12.2.3.2.7 Reactive resin mortar
permitted. When installing multiple layers,
care must be taken to ensure that the first Reaction resin mortars consist of an
layer installed is free of loose spray dust so aggregate and a binder based on reaction
as not to impair the bond to the next layer. resin and are used exclusively in the area of
the concrete that is close to the surface and
not statically effective. For this reason,
12.2.3.2.6 Plastic-modified shotcrete or mortar reaction resin mortars are usually only used
on small areas. As part of the basic test, proof
Plastic-modified shotcretes or of suitability for reaction resin mortars
-Mortars are mainly used to increase the should be provided for stress classes M1 and
concrete cover in larger areas, whereby M2. Compared to cementitious mortars,
the application of a bonding bridge is not reaction resin mortars are characterized by
necessary. The layer thickness is usually 1 their rapid hardening, the fact that no post-
to 5 cm and can therefore also be used treatment is required, increased flexural
when normal shotcretes with a minimum tensile strength and increased resistance to
layer thickness greater than 3 cm cannot chemical attack. In addition, reaction resin
be used. Similar to cement mortars with mortars can also be used to produce very
added plastic, a maximum of 5 % by thin concrete replacement layers.
weight of plastic is added to the total dry be provided.
mass of plastic-modified shotcrete. With In order to achieve an improved bond to
wet spray mortars, the the existing concrete, appropriate bonding
bridges must be applied before the
reaction resin mortar is applied, into
which a bonding layer is applied
depending on the waiting time between
the application of the bonding bridge and
the installation of the reaction resin
mortar.
12.2 Concrete 1081
bridges
quartz sand can also be sprinkled on top
of the mortar.

12.2.3.3 Surface protection

12.2.3.3.1 General information

Surface protection measures should either Figure 12.2.3-1 Impregnation

increase the durability of concrete
components or improve their
performance properties. The principles
for the surface protection of concrete are
described in [EN 1504]. A distinction is
made between
• Principle 1 (PI): Protection against the
ingress of harmful substances
(Protection against Ingress),
• Principle 2 (MC): Control of the
concrete
moisture content (Moisture Control)
• Principle 5 (PR): Resistance to
physical/mechanical stress (Physical
Resistance)
• Principle 6 (RC): Resistance to che-
mical stress (chemical resistance)
Depending on the prevailing effects, one
principle or a combination of several
principles is selected and, based on this,
one of the three different methods for the
surface protection of the concrete. These
are impregnation, hydrophobization or
coating.
12.2.3.3.2 Impregnation
and filler-free substances based on epoxy,
polyurethane or acrylate resin are used. A
uniformly thick film with a thickness of 10
to 100 μm is formed on the concrete
surface, whereby the concrete pores are
partially filled. Although impregnations
reduce the water absorption of the
concrete surface, as they line the capillary
pore walls near the surface to repel water,
they do not act as a gas brake due to the
non-cohesive film.
12.2.3.3.3 Hydrophobization
The aim of hydrophobization is to create a
water-repellent concrete surface.
Hydrophobization does not change the
appearance of the concrete surface, or only
slightly, as there is no visible film and the
concrete pores are not filled with the
hydrophobizing agents, but merely lined
(Fig. 12.2.3-2). Initially, it can be observed
how the water on the hydrophobized
concrete surface

Impregnation is the treatment of the

concrete to reduce the surface porosity,
whereby the outermost concrete edge
zone is hardened. This increases the
resistance of the concrete to chemical attack
and mechanical stress (Fig. 12.2.3-1).
For the impregnation of concrete
surfaces, low-molecular, pigment-based
Figure 12.2.3-2 Hydrophobization
1082 12 Bridge repair and renovation

rolls off. Although this effect no longer 12.2.3.3.4 Coating

occurs after some time, the effect of the
hydrophobization in the deeper concrete
layers is still not reduced.
Pigment and organosilicon compounds
are used for hydrophobization.
Depending on the particle size, these are
silanes, siloxanes or silicones. Depending
on the porosity of the concrete, these
substances penetrate up to a depth of 5
mm into the concrete substrate. This
reduces the water absorption capacity of
the concrete and the penetration of
substances that could lead to damage to
the concrete or reinforcing steel. In
addition, hydrophobization of the
concrete surface can also reduce soiling
and infestation by mosses, fungi and algae.
Studies [Wittmann, 1987] also show a
positive influence on frost/de-icing salt
resistance. Hydrophobization is also
recommended as a preparatory measure
before applying a coating, as this prevents
moisture from infiltrating the coating.
A disadvantage is that the carbonization
of the concrete is accelerated by an
applied hydrophobization [Klopfer, 1978
and Kern, 1977].
Coating is the treatment of the concrete
surface to produce a closed protective
layer with a thickness of 0.1 to 0.5 mm
(Figure 12.2.3-3). A coating consists of at
least a primer and a surface protection
layer.
Depending on the area of application, a
distinction is made between different
coating materials according to Table
12.2.3-3. Coatings can be used to cover a
very diverse performance spectrum,
whereby the prevention of the penetration
of water and the pollutants dissolved in it is
often the main focus. However, depending
on the coating material and layer thickness,
other properties of the concrete can also be
influenced, such as the

Figure 12.2.3-3 Coating

Table 12.2.3-3 Coating materials and areas of application (according to [Hillemeier et al., 1999])

Area of application Coating material

Vertical surfaces not subject to traffic - Polymer solutions, especially acrylate resins
- Weather-resistant and non-yellowing two-
component reactive resins based on polyurethane or
polyurethane acrylate combinations

Crack bridging - Acrylic resin dispersion

- Plastic-modified cement slurries
- Elastic polyurethanes

Trafficable coatings with high - Epoxy resins

chemical and mechanical resistance - Polyurethane resins
- Acrylate resins
12.3 Steel bridges
diffusion resistance, wear resistance and
chemical resistance. Cracks can also be
bridged using a suitable coating, as
described in Table 12.2.3-3.
12.3 Steel bridges
GÜNTER RAMBERGER
and FRANCESCO AIGNER (until 12.4)
12.3.1 Corrosion protection
The maintenance and ongoing repair of
corrosion protection is of crucial
importance for a steel structure, as
corrosion damage to the material is
associated with a reduction in load-
bearing capacity and fatigue resistance
and can only be repaired at great expense.
So far, two different strategies have
been used by the bridge maintainers:
• Repair the corrosion protection at
short intervals if localized damage
occurs
• weather the corrosion protection for so
long
until a renewal of the corrosion
protection from the ground up is
indicated.
If the former strategy is u s e d , rusting
can be safely avoided. The disadvantage,
however, is that the method is relatively
expensive, as scaffolding is usually
required for each repair, which has to be
erected and dismantled. If the inputs can
be carried out from an existing bridge
inspection vehicle or from a standard
bridge inspection device, the method can
be quite economical. Another
disadvantage is that if the coating is
repaired locally, it may differ in color and
texture from the
1083
original surfaces and the building looks
blotchy.
The second strategy has the advantage
that the entire supporting structure is
scaffolded, a perfect rust removal is carried
out and the coating can be applied as with
a new supporting structure. After
renovation, the structure has a uniform
appearance. The disadvantage, however, is
that the coating does not weather evenly
on all surfaces and therefore some surfaces
are far more corroded than others. On the
more heavily corroded surfaces, rusting may
already have occurred, which reduces the
load-bearing capacity, while a renewal of
the coating is not yet necessary on other
surfaces. The second method shows which
surfaces are weathering heavily. By
applying better coatings to these surfaces
or by deliberately applying thicker layers, a
corrosion protection system can be
selected for renewal that guarantees longer
protection for surfaces exposed to severe
aggression.
12.3.2 Rivets and screws
Loose screws in GV connections must be
tightened with a torque wrench, taking into
account the required preload force. In the
case of loose rivets, the head must be burned
off, the rivet driven through and a new rivet
driven in. It should be noted that only
enough rivets may be removed at the same
time to maintain the static load-bearing
capacity in this condition (e.g. with
reduced live load). As riveting requires the
time-consuming use of a riveting crew (three
men) with all equipment (riveting furnace,
counterholder, riveters or hydraulic
riveting tools), removed rivets may also be
replaced with GV screws of strength class
10.9 with the largest possible diameter and
full pre-tension. This enables
1084
This means that even if the contact
surfaces are not particularly machined, the
transfer force of the previous rivet is still
achieved.
12.3.3 Repair of rust
In the case of slight rusting, the actual
thickness must be determined after rust
removal. If the second side is not
accessible, this can also be done with a
calibrated thickness gauge using
ultrasound. If the measured thickness
does not fall below the nominal thickness
despite rusting, which is often the case due
to the plus tolerances of the sheets and
profiles, reinforcement measures can be
omitted. If the measured thickness is less
than the nominal thickness, the structural
safety check and possibly the fatigue check
must be carried out using the cross-
sectional values of the weakened cross-
section. Only if these are not fulfilled are
repair measures to be carried out.
Otherwise, only the corrosion protection
measures described above are required.
Rusted HV bolts must be replaced with
new ones due to the possibility of stress
corrosion cracking. If the rivet heads are
rusted, check that they are firmly seated. If
the rivets are tight, they generally do not
need to be replaced. In the case of rusted
welds, the actual thickness must be
determined after derusting and compared
with the nominal thickness. If necessary,
these seams should be restored to their
original thickness with new layers.
Repairing heavily rusted or rusted-
through sheet metal and profiles is difficult
and can generally only be determined on
an individual basis. In any case, it should
be noted that only welded supporting
structures may be repaired by welding on
parts. Riveted and bolted supporting
structures may only be repaired by bolting
on new parts (GV connections). Welding
patches into the structure is not
recommended.
12 Bridge repair and renovation
cut-out holes, as this introduces very high
residual stresses into the supporting
structure due to the impeded welding
shrinkage. It is better to butt-weld new
parts to the existing cross-sections, as free
shrinkage is then possible in at least one
direction.
12.4 Road surfaces
When repairing the road surface, a
distinction must be made between
localized damage, damage in a continuous
lane or basic renewal of the road surface.
Localized damage, which only affects the
surface course and possibly the protective
layer, is repaired with bituminous layers,
whereby care must be taken to ensure that
the layers are properly connected at the
edges. When renewing the road surface of
a lane, the surface and protective layers
must be milled off by road milling
machines. If the cover sheet is uneven, the
sealing layer and even the cover sheet can
be damaged. The sealing layer exposed
after milling off the surface and protective
layer must be cleaned with a sweeping
suction machine and compressed air and
then checked. If it is undamaged and firmly
adhering over the entire area, it can be left
in place. Otherwise it must be removed
with a high-pressure water jet. The cover
plate surface must be prepared by
mechanical blasting or flame blasting
followed by brushing. When renewing a
lane, the same material is usually used as
for the subsequent layers. It is important
that the layers are properly connected at
the edges. In special cases, a longitudinal
joint can also be created, which is then
sealed. If the pavement is to be completely
renewed, the surface is milled off, the
12.4 Road surfaces
The sealing layer is removed with a high-
pressure water jet, the surface is
mechanically blasted or flame blasted and
then brushed off and the layer is built up
as for a new construction.
From the beginning of the use of the
orthotropic slab (1946) until around 1970,
zigzag-shaped flat steels were often
welded onto the cover plate to ensure a
good shear connection between the cover
plate and the decking (Fig. 12.4-1).
These staggered steels cause major
problems during pavement renewal, as
Figure 12.4-1 Stagger steels
Figure 12.4-2 High-pressure water jet process
1085
the coating can only be milled off up to its
upper edge. The coating remaining
between the staggered steels can only be
broken up, loosened and removed
economically using a high-pressure water
jet process (Fig. 12.4-2). The operating
pressure at the water jet nozzle is around
800 to 1200 bar. The exit velocity is about
30% higher than the sonic velocity. The
surface, including the staggered steels, is
then mechanically derusted and the
pavement is built up as for a new
supporting structure.
13 Bridge reinforcement
13.1 Introduction
EVA-MARIA EICHINGER-VILL
and JOHANN KOLLEGGER (until
13.2)
The chapter deals with the reinforcement
The strengthening of bridges made of
steel and prestressed concrete as well as
steel and composite structures. In contrast
to repair, strengthening refers to those
structural-constructive measures whose
aim is to increase the existing load-
bearing capacity of a bridge structure -
also due to a change in use.
The most important measures for
reinforcing concrete bridges as well as
steel and composite bridges are described.
In the area of concrete bridges, the
reinforcement of the deck structure with
bonded carbon fiber composites (CFRP
lamellas, CFRP mats and CFRP shear
angles), with external pre-tensioning with
steel or carbon fiber cables as well as the
cross-sectional reinforcement by shotcrete
or concreting are dealt with.
In the case of steel and composite
bridges, the roadway reinforcement and
the reinforcement of the overall system
are discussed. In addition, the system
modification is also dealt with and
illustrated using a concrete project from
construction practice.
13.2 Concrete bridges
The following methods are used for the
subsequent static reinforcement of
fractures.
reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete
[ÖVBB, 2003]:
• Cross-sectional reinforcement in the
tensile and/or compression zone with
concrete, steel, synthetic materials
(carbon fibers) or a
Combination of materials
• Cross-sectional reinforcement of the
shear reinforcement with steel or
plastics (carbon fibers)
• External pre-tension
• Strengthening by partially replacing the
concrete or injecting cavities and
cracks
• Modification of the support system
There are a wide variety of technical
design options for all of these
reinforcement measures, whereby the
individual measures are applied
individually or in combination depending
on the static, production-related and
usage-related requirements. It is the
responsibility of the planning engineer to
evaluate and implement the available
methods in accordance with the existing
standards and guidelines from a structural,
economic and ecological point of view.
13.2.1 Bonded carbon fiber
composites
13.2.1.1 General information
Subsequent reinforcement with carbon
fiber composites has gained significant
importance in recent years.
1088
value. The main area of application is the
reinforcement of components whose load-
bearing capacity is insufficient due to a
changed load situation or change in use
(e.g. increase in traffic loads), change in
the static system or ageing or wear of the
materials. In this context, CFRP mats are
mainly used to reinforce strongly curved
components.
Reinforcing bridge structures with steel
lamellas has been a well-known process
since the end of the 1960s. In the mid-
1990s, lamellas made of carbon fiber
composite materials (CFRP lamellas) were
introduced to the market and slowly
replaced the steel lamellas. Today, CFRP
laminates or, in rarer cases, CFRP mats are
used almost exclusively for reinforcement
measures. Carbon fibres are characterized
by their high strength with an additional
low dead load, and t h e y are also
resistant to corrosion. During installation,
CFRP laminates have the following
additional advantages over steel
laminates:
• Low-noise and low-vibration
installation
• Can be transported on castors
• No assembly joints thanks to long
OEM lengths
• Simple application due to the low
weight
• Simple crossings thanks to low
thickness
• Adaptation to any geometry (e.g.:
strapping of supports with circular
cross-section)
• No complex installation aids
• No protection against falling
• High cost efficiency, as the high
material costs are offset by low
installation costs
CFRP slats may only be used in Germany
by companies whose
13 Bridge reinforcement
process has a general building authority
approval from the German Institute for
Building Technology or an individual
approval from the responsible building
supervisory authority. CFRP slats may
only be used in bridge construction if the
slats are not directly exposed to the
weather.
CFRP strips are mainly used to
supplement the cross-section in the tensile
zone of the concrete. So-called CFRP
shear angles can be used to supplement
the cross-section of the shear
reinforcement, which are retrofitted in the
area of the shear force loading of plate
girders instead of internal shear stirrups.
The shear angles are anchored in the
compression plate of the beam.
13.2.1.2 Material requirements
Fibres are embedded in a plastic matrix to
produce fiber-reinforced plastics. The
global mechanical properties of the fiber-
reinforced plastic are determined by the
fibers, while the plastic matrix serves to
hold the individual fibers together in a
dimensionally stable manner. Today,
mainly pultruded CFRP flat profiles, so-
called CFRP laminates, and CFRP mats
are used in construction practice.
13.2.1.2.1 CFRP slats
CFRP laminates are unidirectional flat
profiles with a fiber content of between 60
and 70 % by volume. The width of the
laminates is between 40 and 150 mm and
the thickness between 1.0 and 2.0 mm.
Table 13.2.1-1 summarizes the permissible
material characteristics in relation to the
total cross-section of the CFRP lamella.
To ensure a minimum ductility of the
material
13.2 Concrete 1089
bridges
Table 13.2.1-1 Material characteristics for CFRP blades (in relation to the total cross-section)
Characteristic tensile strength in the longitudinal direction fuK,L = 1000-3500 N/mm²
of the fibers
Characteristic elongation at break in the longitudinal euK,L ≥ 1%
direction of the fibers
Mean modulus of elasticity in the longitudinal direction of EL,m = 100-300 kN/mm²
the fiber
Fiber content ρ = 60-70% by volume
Glass transition temperature of the matrix resin TG ≥ 100 °C
Slat thickness tL = 1-2 mm
Slat width bL = 40-150 mm

a characteristic elongation at break of at The adhesive is only bonded to each

least 1% is required.
The tensile strength and fracture
toughness of the lamellae are determined
in accordance with [DIN EN ISO 527-5,
1997]. The glass transition temperature of
the matrix resin is determined by
thermomechanical analysis according to
[DIN EN 61006, 2004].
13.2.1.2.2 CFRP mats
CFRP mats are textile fabrics or scrims.
They have thicknesses of 0.1 to 0.3 mm
and are usually supplied in widths of 100 to
800 mm on rolls. Due to their low
thickness, CFRP mats are particularly
suitable for reinforcing strongly curved
components. The actual lamination, i.e.
the formation of a shear-resistant bond
between the fibers
other, and thus to a dimensionally stable
tension member, when the mat is glued to
the concrete. The adhesive used therefore
also takes on the function of the matrix.
Depending on the requirements, up to ten
mat layers can be bonded together. Table
13.2.1-2 shows the permissible material
parameters in relation to the fiber cross-
section. The material parameters apply
parallel to the longitudinal direction of the
fibers, in the case of multidirectional mats
for each statically applied direction. In
order to ensure a minimum ductility of
the material, a characteristic elongation at
break of at least 1% is required, as with the
CFRP laminates.
The tensile strength and elongation at
break of the mats are determined in
accordance with [DIN EN ISO 527-5,
1997], whereby the corresponding
adhesive is used as a laminating resin in
the preparation of the specimen.

Table 13.2.1-2 Material characteristics for CFRP mats (in relation to the total cross-section)
Characteristic tensile strength in the longitudinal direction fuK,M = 1000-5000 N/mm²
of the fibers
Characteristic elongation at break in the longitudinal euK,M ≥ 1%
direction of the fibers
Mean modulus of elasticity in the longitudinal direction of EM,m = 100-650 kN/mm²
the fiber
Mat thickness per layer tL = 0.1-0.3 mm
1090 13 Bridge reinforcement

Mat width bL = 100-800 mm

 13.2 Concrete
bridges
Table 13.2.1-3 Material characteristics for adhesives
Characteristic bending tensile strength
Characteristic compressive strength
Average modulus of elasticity
Glass transition temperature
Shrinkage
13.2.1.2.3 Adhesive
Epoxy resin-based adhesive systems are
used for bonding between CFRP slats or
CFRP mats and the concrete. Adhesives for
bonding mats must have sufficient viscosity
to ensure that all fibers of a mat are
impregnated. Table 13.2.1-3 summarizes
the material characteristics for adhesives.
The mechanical values are tested in
accordance with [DIN EN 196-1, 2005] on
test specimens with the dimensions 160 ×
40 × 40 mm³. The glass transition
temperature is determined according to
[DIN EN 12614, 2005] and the shrinkage
according to [DIN EN 12617-3, 2002]. It
should be noted that using the adhesive at
temperatures higher than the glass
transition temperature can lead to a drop
in the mechanical properties of the
adhesive.
13.2.1.2.4 Primer resin
Low-viscosity epoxy resins with a glass
transition temperature of at least 40 °C
should be used for priming. A primer resin
should be used if the surface tensile
strength of the concrete substrate is low to
consolidate the substrate or to pre-treat the
concrete substrate when using CFRP mats.
1091
fK,t,k ≥ 15 N/mm²
FK,c,k ≥ 60 N/mm²
EK,m = 5-15 kN/mm² for lamella adhesives
EK,m = 2-19 kN/mm² for mat adhesives
TG ≥ 60 °C
< 0,1 %
The primer resins should be applied at a
higher temperature than the glass
transition temperature to prevent the
adhesive from being absorbed by the
concrete substrate. In the case of priming
resins, care must also be taken to ensure
that the mechanic properties of the resin
do not deteriorate at temperatures higher
than the glass transition temperature, as is
the case with adhesives.
13.2.1.2.5 Leveling mortar
Leveling mortars are plastic mortars that are
used to level out local irregularities when
bonding CFRP slats or CFRP mats. Care
must be taken to ensure that only leveling
mortars are used that have been tested in
the system with priming resin, adhesive
and CFRP slat or CFRP mat. The material
characteristics for levelling mortar are
summarized in Table 13.2.1-4.
Table 13.2.1-4 Material characteristics for
leveling mortar
Bending tensile strength ≥ 10 N/mm²
Compressive strength ≥ 40 N/mm²
Glass transition temperature ≥ 60 °C
13.2.1.3 Application of CFRP slats
Before attaching the slats, the substrate
must be wet blasted,
1092
High-pressure water jets, grinding or bush
hammering must be used to prepare the
substrate accordingly (see section
12.2.2.1). In order to check that the
concrete substrate, including any primer
resin and leveling mortar, has sufficient
load-bearing capacity, a tear-off test must
be carried out shortly before the lamella is
bonded and before the adhesive is applied.
The existing concrete substrate must have a
tear-off strength of at least 1.5 N/mm².
The slats are cut to length using a
hacksaw or angle grinder. After cleaning
and degreasing the lamella with a solvent,
the adhesive can be applied and the lamella
rolled onto the concrete surface. The
ambient temperature plays a major role in
the application of the slats. The processing
temperature of the epoxy resins used to
bond the lamella is at least 10 °C and a
maximum of 35 °C, although the substrate
temperature should be at least 3 °C above
the dew point temperature. Humidity
conditions also have a strong influence on
the reaction time of the resins. Therefore,
the relative humidity should not exceed
70% and the maximum moisture content
of the concrete should not exceed 4%. For
reasons of quality assurance, the air
temperature, relative humidity, substrate
temperature, substrate moisture and dew
point temperature should therefore be
recorded during the application of the
lamella.
When attaching the slat, ensure that the
substrate is level to guarantee sufficient
adhesion of the slat, whereby the
maximum deviation may be approx. 5 mm
per 2 m. If necessary, the evenness of the
substrate must be ensured with the help of
a leveling mortar if the unevenness is
more than 10 mm/2.0 m. For values
between 5 mm/2.0 m and 10 mm/2.0 m,
leveling must be carried out using adhesive
using the "wet-on-wet" method.
13 Bridge reinforcement
process directly when bonding the
lamella. In addition, voids and larger pores
in the concrete substrate must be filled with
an epoxy resin-based scratch filler before
bonding.
The adhesive is usually applied to both
the concrete substrate and the lamella. To
avoid air pockets, the adhesive is applied
to the lamella in the shape of a roof,
whereby the thickness of the adhesive
layer on the finished lamella should be 2
mm and not exceed 5 mm.
After bonding, the lamellas must be
inspected for cavities, whereby adhesive
tension measurements must be carried
out on parallel bonded reference pieces. The
tolerance of the flatness of the bonded
lamella should be a maximum of 3 mm
over 0.30 m. The bonded lamella must not
be drilled or tapped.
13.2.1.4 Prestressed CFRP slats
CFRP slats can be pre-stressed during
application. Pre-stressing reduces the risk
of shearing due to a shear fracture in the
tensile zone. The pretensioning force in the
lamella reduces the elongation of the steel
reinforcement and thus reduces the
deflection as well as the maximum crack
widths and can even result in partial
closing of the cracks. This increases the
reliability and, in particular, the durability
of the structure.
To apply the prestressing force, it is
possible to first apply the adhesive and
then prestress it or to apply the adhesive
to the already prestressed l a m e l l a and
then press it onto the component.
However, without additional anchoring of
the lamella, only shear stresses of max.
 13.2 Concrete
bridges
10 N/mm² can be transferred. Therefore,
higher shear stresses must be activated
using special anchoring systems. Ideally,
the contact pressure of such systems is 5
N/mm², which means that shear stresses
of up to 15 N/mm² can be transferred
with C25/30 concrete.
The simplest way to generate the
necessary contact pressure is to clamp the
slat under the supports. However, this is
usually not possible for technical reasons.
Furthermore, anchor plates held by steel
rods or aramid tubes can be used, which
are anchored in the pressure area of the
support. With the help of such anchoring
systems, the tensioning forces are
introduced into the structure as normal
forces. There are currently a number of
systems that have been used as
reinforcement measures not only under
laboratory conditions but also in real
structures [Andrä/Maier, 1999, Meier et
al., 2001 and Bossart, 2001].
13.2.1.5 Dimensioning
When transferring the forces from the
CFRP lamella to the component to be
reinforced, the concrete cover is subjected
to high stresses, which is why it must be in
correspondingly good condition. If the
minimum requirements necessary for force
transmission cannot be met, the
reinforcement measure must be preceded
by a corresponding repair measure
(chapter 12) in order to increase the
properties of the concrete substrate.
When designing components that are
subsequently reinforced with CFRP
laminates, it must be taken into account
that the bonding behavior of bonded
laminates differs fundamentally from the
bonding behavior of embedded
reinforcing bars with regard to the failure
mechanism [Pichler, 2003].
1093
13.2.1.5.1 Determination of internal forces
Bonded CFRP lamellae exhibit brittle
composite fracture behavior, i.e. the
lamellae detach abruptly from the concrete
substrate when the breaking load of the
composite joint is reached. As a result, the
reinforced component fails without
warning. Accordingly, the design
regulations of the relevant standards must
be extended for concrete components. In
contrast to a reinforcing bar embedded in
the concrete, the anchorage is the decisive
element for bonded CFRP laminates, as
this is usually weaker than the laminate
itself. For this reason, internal forces
calculation methods using plastic
redistributions must not be used for the
component to be reinforced. Only the
linear elastic determination of internal
forces according to the theory of elasticity
may be used for the component to be
reinforced.
13.2.1.5.2 Principles of mathematical
verification
CFRP lamellae can be used both to
increase the load-bearing capacity and to
improve the serviceability. For this reason,
the computational verifications for the
ultimate and serviceability limit states are
carried out. The main influencing factors
in the design of carbon fiber elements are
their tensile strength and tensile
elongation. Only tensile forces may be
assigned to the lamella. In addition, a
distinction must be made between
verifications for the entire component to
be reinforced and verifications for the
lamella itself.
1094 13 Bridge reinforcement

13.2.1.5.3 Verification in t h e ultimate γ1 = 1. 4when there is a risk of large

limit state expansions in the concrete
and thus detachment effects
In principle, the design of components occur
reinforced with CFRP laminates is based
on the same design principle as the design Partial safety factor for assembly:
of conventional components: γm = 1.1 for an application under
very good and controllable
The installation
Rd ≥Ed
γm = 1.2 conditions must be
The design value of the action Ed must be checked by trained
determined in accordance with [DIN EN specialist personnel and
1990, 2002]. The reinforcement is carried the installation conditions
out for the load determined in this way must be checked,
according to the decisive action although individual weak
combination. zones cannot be
The resistance is determined in completely ruled out
accordance with the provisions of [DIN
EN
1992-2, 2005], whereby for the reinforcing γm = 1.4 with greater variation of the
steel, Construction site
the partial safety factors according to conditions due to
[DIN EN 1992-2, 2005] are to be used for personnel or application
the prestressing steel and the concrete conditions
itself and the design values are to be
determined using these. The design value Partial safety factor for the production of
of the tensile strength of the lamella fud,L carbon fiber elements:
and the tensile elongation εud,L can be γf = 1. 0for controlled running
determined using the following equations. Production, otherwise
The corresponding partial safety factors significantly higher values
were determined using a probabilistic
For the dimensioning of the component
analysis [Bergmeister, 2003].
to be reinforced and for the determination
fuk,L of the required
fud,L = cross-section and the necessary slat
cf ,L,t ⋅ γ1 ⋅ γ m ⋅γ lengths, the pre-fabrication of the slats must
γ f
be
The expansion state of the unreinforced
εuk,L component at the time the lamella is
εud,L
γ cf ,L,e ⋅ γ1 ⋅ γ m ⋅ γ attached must be taken into account.
=
f In accordance with the guidelines of the
German
Partial safety factor for the carbon fiber Institut für Bautechnik [DIBt, 1998] and
element: the Österreichische Vereinigung für Be-
γcf,L,t = 1,2 ton- und Bautechnik [ÖVBB, 2002], the
characteristic value of the bond breaking
γcf,L,e = 1,2 strength must be determined in order to
Partial safety factor for an expansion limit: determine the resistance of the
reinforcement system itself.
excessiveELexpansion
⋅ tL ⋅ fctm in the
γ1 = 1. 0if there is no premature
concrete
Detachment occurs due to
 13.2 Concrete 1095
bridges
Tk,max = 0.5 ⋅ bL ⋅ kb ⋅ kT ⋅

Where bL is the slat width in mm, tL

the lamella thickness in mm, EL the elasticity
1096
modulus of the lamella, fctm the surface
tensile strength of the concrete substrate in
N/mm² (calculated value 3.0 N/mm²) and
kT a correction value for the temperature
influence (0.9 for external components,
otherwise 1.0). The factor kb is calculated
as follows
2 - bL
kb = 1.06 ⋅ / b ≥ 1,0
1 + b /400L
Where b is the beam width or the distance
between adjacent slats.
The associated anchoring length lt,max
can be determined as follows:
EL ⋅ t
lt,max = 0.7 ⋅
L
fctm
This means that the bond breaking force
cannot be increased arbitrarily by
increasing the anchorage lengths (Fig.
13.2.1-1). For this reason, even very long
anchorage lengths do not generally allow
larger lamella tensile forces to be
anchored [DIBt, 1998].
It is therefore of great importance that,
in addition to compliance with the design
rules, the bonding is also examined in
detail, whereby both the end anchorage
areas and the free stresses are analyzed.
Figure 13.2.1-1 Relationship between
characteristic bond breaking force and
anchorage length
13 Bridge reinforcement
cke must be observed. In the area of the
end anchorage, it must be verified that the
design value of the bond breaking force is
greater than the design value of the
existing lamella tensile force.
For the free section, only the areas with
shear force loading must be
It must be demonstrated that the change in
tensile force in the lamella is transmitted by
the bonding.
can be made. The area between two
adjacent cracks is decisive for this,
whereby the largest possible crack spacing
is to be used for the design
[Niedermeier/Zilch, 2001].
In the case of dynamic loading of the
component, it must be demonstrated for the
purpose of verifying the fatigue resistance
for the fatigue-effective combination of
actions that the amplitude of the stresses
in the lamella or in the mat does not
exceed 100 N/mm².
13.2.1.5.4 Verification in the
serviceability limit state
According to [DIN EN 1992-2, 2005], two
verifications are generally required for the
serviceability limit state:
• Verification of deflections
• Verification of crack width limitation
The action combination to be used for the
respective verification can be taken from
[DIN EN 1990, 2002]. When verifying the
deflections, the cross-section of the
existing laminate or mesh reinforcement
can be introduced into the calculation with
the corresponding modulus of elasticity
and the corresponding distance from the
bending compression edge, whereby the
different bond behavior of the
reinforcement and reinforcing steel
reinforcement does not have to be taken
into account.
The verification of the crack width
limitation can usually be omitted, as the
crack width is limited by
13.2 Concrete
bridges
the crack spacing as well as the crack
width can be reduced by the carbon fiber
reinforcement. However, if the
reinforcement is intended specifically to
limit the crack width, the mathematical
verification can be carried out in
accordance with fib Bulletin 14 [fib, 2001].
13.2.1.6 Constructive measures
With regard to the mutual spacing of the
lamellas, it should be noted that the
minimum spacing should be selected in
such a way that the adhesive leakage can
be controlled, thus ensuring a high-quality
bond. In addition, compliance with the
minimum distances should prevent
overlapping of force application areas and
thus failure due to local stress peaks.
To ensure the function of the bonded
lamella or mat, the force transmission
between the reinforcement and the
concrete substrate is important.
Constructive measures must therefore be
taken to enable the forces to be transferred
to the concrete cover. The concrete
strength of the concrete to be reinforced
h
> lv
ZL
2.h
Figure 13.2.1-2 End anchoring of a CFRP slat
1097
component must be at least C16/20 and
the reinforcing steel reinforcement must
have a concrete cover of at least 1.0 cm. In
addition, the concrete substrate to which
the lamella or mat is to be bonded must be
designed or pre-treated in such a way that
no planned tensile stresses occur normal to
the adhesive joint, i.e. the evenness of the
concrete substrate must be guaranteed.
As mentioned, the end anchorage is a
very sensitive area, which is why
additional design measures must be taken
here to ensure force transmission.
Lamellae, which serve to increase the
bending load-bearing capacity of the
component, should always be guided from
support to support. In the case of internal
columns of continuous systems, the
lamellae should be guided at least 1.0 m
into the bending compression area to
absorb the field moments beyond the zero
crossings of the tensile force line [Pichler,
2003].
The end anchoring of lamella
reinforcements must be designed as shown
in Figure 13.2.1-2 [ÖVBB, 2002]. If the
existing beam height is not sufficient to
anchor the force VL via the bonding, the
CFRP shear angles or mats must be
anchored to the top of the beam.
Steel bracket
CFRP shear angle
or mat
VL/2 VL/
2
1098
13.2.2 External pre-tension
13.2.2.1 General information
If a concrete bridge needs to be reinforced
due to changes in use or problems with the
load-bearing capacity, the structure can be
post-tensioned. Only in rare cases are the
tendons placed inside the concrete cross-
section (post-tensioning with full bond),
but usually outside (external post-
tensioning). External pre-tensioning is the
technically simpler solution in terms of
control and replaceability of the tendons,
as the tendons are relatively easy to inspect
and can also be replaced if the prestressing
steel is damaged. If the prestressing cables
are in the concrete cross-section, this is of
course not possible. However, there are
structural advantages due to the
subsequent bond, which means that the
forces resulting from the pre-tensioning
can be introduced over the entire length.
As the static advantages of the full bond
are not as great as the
Table 13.2.2-1 Advantages and disadvantages of external pre-tensioning (according to [Bothe, 2000])
Advantages of external pre-tensioning
Checking the prestressing steel
Interchangeability of the prestressing steel
Change in preload force during the
period of use due to retensioning
Better manufacturability of reinforced
concrete in problem areas
Elimination of weather-dependent grouting
inputs
13 Bridge reinforcement
However, since the enormous installation
costs are rather low, external prestressing
is used almost exclusively in the
reinforcement of concrete bridges.
With the help of external pre-
tensioning, the full load-bearing capacity
and serviceability of the structure should be
restored, whereby an attempt is made to
compensate for the deficiencies resulting
from insufficient slack or pre-tensioned
reinforcement. Table 13.2.2-1 summarizes
the advantages and disadvantages of
external prestressing [Bothe, 2000].
The force transmission can be
influenced by any choice of tendon cable
routing. The principle here is to transfer
high prestressing forces to the part of the
bridge to be reinforced by means of a
suitable tendon guide and the deflection
of the tensioning cable. Nevertheless, in
the case of external prestressing, the
tendons are guided in a straight line
between the deflection saddles due to the
constructively simpler handling and
slightly less favorable static conditions are
accepted.
Disadvantages of external pre-tensioning
Elimination of positive composite properties and
their consequences (utilization of the stress
increase in the prestressing steel, crack-
distributing effect of the prestressing steel)
Low protection of the prestressing steel against
external influences such as fire and vandalism
Reduction of the possible center of gravity
distances between the substructures
13.2 Concrete
bridges
13.2.2.2 Clamping systems
In terms of durability, external tendons
offer the advantage that they are easy to
inspect in the open and can be re-
tensioned or replaced if necessary.
However, visual inspection of the
anchorage and deflection areas of external
tendons is normally not possible or only
partially possible. The possibility of
determining the tensioning force in
external tendons by means of a lift-off test
or other suitable methods and re-
tensioning the tendon if necessary may
well be of interest to the project owner.
However, it has been shown that
practically no use is made of this in
Europe and the USA [Kollegger et al.,
2004].
Different systems for external
prestressing are offered by prestressing
companies (see Table 13.2.2-2). It must be
ensured that the prestressing method used
has a European technical approval (ETA)
in accordance with ETAG 013. Whether a
product has a valid European technical
approval or not must be checked.
1099
can be checked most easily via the website
of the EOTA (European Organization for
Technical Approvals, www.eota.be).
External tendons can, for example,
consist of four greased strands encased in
a PE sheath, which are guided in a square
PE sheath as a band. Due to the shape of
the sheathing tube, these tendons can be
stacked so that a tendon with 16 strands is
obtained when four tapes are used.
Another way of forming external tendons
is to fix the metal strands in a thick-walled
HDPE duct with spacers and then grout
the tendon with cement mortar.
13.2.2.3 Pre-stressed carbon fiber cables
The utilization of the excellent fiber and
strength properties of carbon fiber
elements, such as low weight, resistance to
corrosion and high tensile strength in the
longitudinal direction of the fibers, is
predetermined in the property of an
independent

Table 13.2.2-2 List of common clamping systems for external pre-tensioning (as at
01.08.2003)
Clamping system Manufacturer Internet address
Strand tensioning method DSI-DYWIDAG www.dywidag-systems.com
DYWIDAG type W for external pre- Systems International
tensioning GmbH
Strand tensioning system DYWIDAG
type CM
VT-CMM D strand tensioning Pre-tensioning www.vorspanntechnik.com
method for external pre-tensioning technology GmbH&Co
KG
Tensioning method SUSPA wire EX for SUSPA-DSI GmbH www.suspa-dsi.de
external pre-tensioning
External tendons B+B type EMR Bilfinger and Berger www.bbv-roxheim.de
Vorspanntechnik
GmbH
1100
tensioned load-bearing element has only
been used in isolated cases to date.
However, it has been shown that the high
elongation and load-bearing reserves of
carbon fibers can only be used
economically in combination with
external pre-tensioning of the carbon
fiber tension members due to their low
tensile strength. The inserted carbon fiber
tendons are usually external tendons or
stay cables, which are made of several
wires, usually arranged unidirectionally or
in hexagonal form similar to prestressing
steel, and joined together to form a
tendon.
The carbon fiber wires are
manufactured using a pultrusion process
with a minimum diameter of 5 mm. The
wires are resistant to corrosion. However, it
is important to protect them from UV
radiation. Depending on the wire
manufacturer, the wires have breaking loads
of 50 to 70 kN. Each wire consists of at least
12,000 carbon fibers, with a fiber content
of 65 to 75%. The elongation at break of
tendons made of carbon fibers is 1.5 to
2.0%, while prestressing cables with steel
wires of grade St1570/1770 only have an
elongation at break of around 0.8%
[hump foreman, 1998]. The weight is
about one fifth of prestressing steel. This
low weight can be of great advantage in
the course of strengthening measures.
When using carbon fibre wires for the
pre-tensioning of concrete, it must be
taken into account that, in contrast to
tendons with steel strands, carbon fibre
wires are not ductile due to their linear-
elastic behavior until they break. The
ductility of the structure to be reinforced
must therefore be ensured by the slack
reinforcement.
The reason for the still rare use of pre-
stressed carbon fiber cables is not only the
currently high material and production
costs but also the external costs.
13 Bridge reinforcement
This can lead to a high transverse pressure
sensitivity and thus a premature risk of
fracture of the carbon fiber tension
member. However, it is precisely these
transverse compressive forces that are
required to be able to transfer the tension
forces from the prestressed tendon into the
anchorage and into the concrete in a
prestressed structure. For this reason,
special anchorage systems for force
transmission are required for tendons
with CFRP wires in order to be able to
make optimum use of the material
properties of carbon fiber cables.
At the Swiss Federal Laboratories for
Materials Science and Technology
(EMPA) in Dübendorf, Switzerland, a
grouting anchorage for tendons made of
CFRP wires was developed and patented
worldwide back in the 1980s in
collaboration with BBRV-
Vorspanntechnik. This grouting
anchorage consists of a steel sleeve with a
conical inner shape in which the tendon is
embedded in a hardenable grouting
compound consisting of aluminum oxide
balls and epoxy resin. To transfer the
transverse compressive forces in the
anchorage, a grade material is used as the
grout body, which has a low modulus of
elasticity in the tapered area close to the
load and a high modulus of elasticity in
the widened area of the anchorage away
from the load, whereby the maximum
modulus of elasticity is achieved by
uncoated aluminum oxide spheres [Meier,
1996].
By grading the gradient material, the
stress peak in the load application area is
reduced and the stress curve is smoothed
over the length of the anchorage - in
analogy to the gradient method for carbon
fiber lamellas with variable prestressing
force over the anchorage length. However,
the production of an anchorage system
with graded grouting material is extremely
difficult
13.2 Concrete 1101
bridges
and costly. In addition, production is only
possible in a standing position in the
factory and not on the construction site.
In a research project carried out
between 1997 and 1999 by the Chair of
Solid Construction at the Technical
University of Munich, together with a
subsidiary of Dyckerhoff & Widmann AG,
Munich, a conical grouting system similar
to the Swiss model was developed for
unidirectionally guided parallel wire
bundles, whereby a homogeneous resin
component was used as the grouting
material [Windisch, 2000]. This simplifies
production, as the anchoring can also be
cast in a horizontal position. In order to
enable the tension forces to be transferred
as evenly as possible from the tension
element to the anchorage, the dimensions
of the anchor body had to be greatly
increased compared to the anchorage Fig. 13.2.2-1 Conically segmented tapered
developed at EMPA. This leads to anchor body
problems with a larger number of wires
due to the increasing weight of the steel The taper of the steel cone towards the end
sleeve, the difficulty of injecting the of the grouting away from the load
grouting material without pores under ensures that the stress concentration is
construction site conditions and the shifted. At the same time, the opposing
injection time. inclinations of the individual cone
For this reason, a conical grouted segments enabled the grouting body to be
anchorage for tendons made of carbon supported along the steel sleeve and
fiber composite material was developed at prevented pull-out. By appropriately
the Institute of Reinforced Concrete and selecting the heights h and inclinations α
Concrete Structures at the Vienna of the individual cone segments and the
University of Technology in cooperation overall opening angle β of the anchor
with the company Vorspann-Technik, body, the stress state in the anchorage can
Salzburg. This new development is be specifically adjusted [Gaubinger et al.,
characterized by its innovative geometry 2002].
and represents a novelty in the field of The anchoring system has already been
carbon fibre anchoring technology. successfully tested in the laboratory
Compared to existing anchoring systems, [Horvatits/ Kollegger, 2003] and was also
the specially selected shape of the anchor used in 2003 to reinforce an existing
body (Fig. 13.2.2-1) has optimized the prestressed concrete bridge, the 35 m long
mechanic efficiency of the anchorage and Golling (A) highway bridge. In this
at the same time simplified the project, tendons made of 37 carbon fiber
manufacturing process. wires with a diameter of 5 mm and a
Thanks to the special design, a gentler breaking load of 1900 kN were used. Both
clamping of the carbon fiber tendon was the installation of the tendons and the
achieved by widening the grouting body at
the anchorage close to the load.
1102
The anchoring and pre-tensioning of the
cables went completely smoothly [Horva-
tits/Kollegger, 2003 and Kollegger/Bran-
dauer, 2004].
13.2.3 Cross-section supplement
If the existing concrete cross-section is no
longer sufficient to bear the loads assigned
to it due to damaging influences or a
change in use, a reinforcement measure in
the form of a cross-sectional addition is
necessary. In this case, a new concrete
layer is applied to the existing concrete
base. This enlarges the cross-section and
increases the load-bearing capacity of the
structure if the cross-sectional addition is
carried out correctly. In this context,
particular precautions must be taken to
ensure sufficient bonding between the old
and new concrete as well as uniform
hydration.
13.2.3.1 Cross-section
supplementation with shotcrete
The use of shotcrete is the standard
method for reinforcing reinforced
concrete and prestressed concrete
structures, whereby a distinction is made
between wet and dry spraying methods
depending on where the water is added.
In the dry spraying process, the mixing
water is added to the mix immediately
before it exits the spray nozzle. The
advantage lies in the low-energy transport
and the achievement of a high discharge
speed, which in turn ensures a good
adhesive bond. Alternatively, the wet
spraying process can also be used. In this
process, the water is already added in the
mixer, whereby the mix is transported
under compressed air or with
13 Bridge reinforcement
of a pump.
Appropriate qualification of the nozzle
operator is necessary for proper execution.
In this context, little rebound material
should be produced. As the rebound
contains a higher percentage of coarse
aggregate than mortar, the mixing ratio
changes compared to the ready-mix. This
factor is decisive for the finish quality of
the new concrete layer.
In addition, good adhesion to the
substrate and a perfect coating of the steel
inserts are required, whereby the
shotcreting is applied in relatively thin
layers as part of the reinforcement
measures. Beforehand, any damaged
concrete parts are removed and the
concrete substrate is cleaned by wet
blasting to remove any remaining loose
parts and to open up the pores, which is a
prerequisite for a good bond. When the
shotcrete hits the concrete substrate,
cement milk and very fine particles are first
pressed into the open pores. This thin film
of mortar allows the larger aggregate
particles to adhere. Due to the enormous
force with which they impact, the
aggregates are hammered deeper and
deeper into the concrete substrate. When
produced properly, the shear and tensile
strength in the bond joint is equivalent to
that of concrete produced in a single pour.
Shotcrete can be produced in all standard
strength classes. It is relatively watertight
and has a natural resistance to frost stress.
When determining the cement content,
it must be taken into account that a high
cement content reduces the rebound, but
supports shrinkage. For this reason, a
cement content of 300 to 400 kg/m³ in the
initial mixture has proven itself in
practice, depending on the maximum
grain size of the aggregate in the dry
spraying process [Schäfer, 1996]. A
slightly higher cement content is required
for the wet spraying process.
13.2 Concrete
bridges
Figure 13.2.3-1 Stress-strain diagram of normal shotcrete and fiber shotcrete
to be applied.
The W/B value can be set directly in the
wet spraying process and is in the range
between 0.4 and 0.5. In contrast, it is much
more difficult to set a specified W/B value
in the dry spraying process, as the amount
of water added is regulated by the nozzle
guide on the spray nozzle. Careful
workmanship is required, as if the water
content is too high, the shotcrete runs off
the surface and if it is too low, the rebound
is increased. If the consistency is set
correctly, the W/B value should not
exceed 0.5. Although the addition of
setting accelerators leads to a higher initial
strength, the concrete has a significantly
higher porosity after hardening.
To achieve a perfect bond, the surface
must be moistened. Spalling of the
shotcrete due to excessive shrinkage is
prevented by prolonged moistening during
the initial hardening phase. If fly ash is
added to the shotcrete, a better bonding
effect, final strength and impermeability
can be achieved, whereby the proportion
of fly ash is generally a maximum of 20 to
25% of the cement weight.
In order to increase ductility, steel
fibers can be added to the shotcrete. A wide
variety of fibers can be used,
1103
which differ in shape, size and tensile
strength. The proportion of steel fibers is
between 40 and 100 kg/m³. It should be
noted that the fiber content can decrease
by up to 35% due to rebound. The
advantage is that the tensile and
compressive strength of the shotcrete
increases by approx. 30% before cracking,
whereby after the strength has been
reached, the deformation capacity of the
added steel fibers can absorb a further load
(Fig. 13.2.3-1). In addition, the addition of
steel fibers causes several fine cracks to form,
which are usually below the critical limit for
corrosion.
To protect the steel fibers themselves
from being destroyed by corrosion, the last
layer of shotcrete is applied in the required
concrete cover in the form of steel-free
shotcrete. Some companies already offer
stainless steel fibers or fibers made of
plastics, but their use usually fails for
economic reasons.
13.2.3.2 Cross-section
supplementation through
concreting
If no excessively high forces or only
compressive forces directed perpendicular
to the joint are to be transferred and no
force transmission via adhesive bonding is
required, concreting with conventional
shaping is the best option.
1104
used for this purpose. To achieve a better
bond between the old and new concrete,
dowels are usually used to counteract the
shear forces in the bond joint. Another
way to achieve a better shear bond
between old and new concrete is to
prepare the old concrete substrate with
hard-grain epoxy resin coatings. These
create a better interlock between the old
and new concrete. This coating is applied
in the following steps [Schäfer, 1996]:
• Exposing the grain surface of the
existing concrete using wet blasting or
high-pressure water jetting to achieve a
load-bearing concrete substrate that is
free from contamination
• Application of a primer made of
solvent-free epoxy resin with injection
quality, whereby the consumption
depends on the absorbency of the
concrete substrate
• Sanding the primer with fire-dried
quartz sand (0.3/0.8 mm)
• Removal of excess sand after a
temperature-dependent waiting time
until the surface is ready for foot traffic
• Creation of an epoxy resin coating
from a leveling mortar filled with
quartz sand in a ratio of 1:1, whereby
the actual consumption depends on the
unevenness
• Sealing the covering with a crushed
chrome ore slag with a 3/8 mm grain
size
• Removal of the excess chrome ore slag
after a temperature-related waiting
time until the flooring can be walked
on
This method is characterized by its simple
execution, robustness and insensitivity to
faults. Coating the old concrete surface
with epoxy
13 Bridge reinforcement
resin guarantees the full shear load-bearing
capacity of a monolithic reinforced concrete
component produced without a
construction joint. However, if this is not
sufficient, additional anchors can be used,
whereby a better force transmission can be
achieved by a suitable profile design of the
connection joint.
In order to prevent the new concrete
from yielding when reinforcing columns, a
constricting stirrup reinforcement is used
to compress the connection joint. For
economic reasons, formwork is only used
from a thickness of 100 mm [Ruffert,
1983].
In principle, lightweight concrete can
also be used to reinforce supporting
structures. The great advantage lies in its
low dead weight compared to conventional
concrete, which means that more favorable
static conditions can be achieved. A
disadvantage of using lightweight concrete
for structural maintenance is its porosity,
which greatly favors corrosion of the
reinforcement.
As already mentioned, high-pressure
water jetting is very well suited as a
preparatory measure prior to the casting
of a new component in order to guarantee
a load-bearing concrete substrate without
damaging the reinforcement. This is
exemplified by the widening of the
Reichsbrücke bridge in Vienna (Fig.
13.2.3-2).
The bridge was built between 1976 and
1978. The total length of the structure is
900 m with maximum spans of 196.61 m
in the area of the Danube. As part of the
reconstruction and repair of the structure
in 2003 and 2004, the existing 3.65 m wide
footpath and cycle path was demolished
and rebuilt with a simultaneous widening
to 5.27 m, among other things.
In order to retain the connecting
reinforcement, the sidewalk slab was
removed
13.2 Concrete 1105
bridges

Figure 13.2.3-2 Reichsbrücke in Vienna

Fig. 13.2.3-3 Removal of the sidewalk slab using high-pressure water jetting
1106
using high-pressure water jetting (Figure
13.2.3-3). Figure 13.2.3-3 shows the robot,
the existing concrete sidewalk slab and the
0.8 m length of exposed connecting
reinforcement.
13.3 Steel and composite bridges
GÜNTER RAMBERGER
and FRANCESCO AIGNER
Before a bridge reinforcement is planned,
the structure must first be subjected to a
general overhaul, during which all
damaged areas are recorded. On the load-
bearing structures, these are in particular
corrosion damage, fatigue cracks, static
fractures, plastic deformations, loose
fasteners, damage to composite slabs such
as exposed reinforcement, cracks through
which water can seep, etc., as well as
damaged bearings, and on the non-load-
bearing structure, damage to the road
surface, roadway transitions, guidance
systems and railings, corrosion damage to
non-load-bearing structures. It must then
be checked whether the original condition
can be restored by appropriate repairs or
whether weakening (e.g. rusting, etc.)
remains. If the structure shows systematic
fatigue cracks, i.e. fatigue cracks at similar
points in approximately the same form
(e.g. of 20 cross beams, 7 have fatigue
cracks at approximately the same point),
it can be assumed that the fatigue
resistance for all components at this point
will be exhausted in a short time and only
replacement of these parts will bring the
desired success.
After this investigation, the load-
bearing capacity of the bridge must be
checked by recalculation, taking into
account the weakening that has occurred.
This must first be based on the as-built
plans.
13 Bridge reinforcement
and assess the materials used with regard
to their mechanical, technological and any
chemical properties that can be determined
from the documents. If no as-built plans
are available, the entire supporting
structure must be measured. New as-built
plans are then drawn up. To determine
the material properties in this case, a
sufficient number of samples must be
taken at points that have no significance
for the load-bearing capacity and the
material properties required for an
assessment must be determined. Before
starting the recalculation, it must be
clarified for which loads and on which
basis (standards) the structure is to be
assessed with regard to load-bearing
capacity and serviceability.
The results of the recalculation then
show whether the structure is sufficiently
load-bearing and serviceable for the new
load or in the weakened state, or whether
the entire structure or only parts of the
structure need to be reinforced. There are
no general statements as to which
reinforcement measure leads to the desired
result with the least effort for which
structure. Reinforcement measures in
particular require an individual
engineering solution. However, some
generally valid statements can be made.
The first step is to clarify how the
reinforcements are connected to the
structure. Rivet, SLP and GV screw
connections can be carried out without
any problems. In the case of tension rods,
any weakening of the cross-section due to
new holes must be taken into account. For
welded connections to existing structures,
there are only no problems if the structure
is a welded construction and if the material
is designated as suitable for welded
constructions in the as-built documents.
This means that it can almost generally be
stated,
13.3 Steel and composite bridges
that for all steel bridges built before 1950
and for all riveted or bolted supporting
structures, additional investigations are
required with regard to the weldability of
the material.
The oldest steel bridges are made of
welded iron. Welding iron was obtained
from molten pig iron by stirring it in the
air and adding iron oxide (hammer blow)
and obtained in a soft-pig iron state. Hot-
rolled welder's iron generally exhibits a
toothed structure and may be interspersed
with impurities. When stressed in the
rolling direction, the yield strength of the
welded iron is between 180 and 250
N/mm2, the tensile strength between 280
and 380 N/mm2 and the elongation at break
A5 between 15 and 40%. In contrast to the
perfectly usable properties when stressed
in the rolling direction, the mechanic
properties in the thickness direction are
extremely poor. The chemical analysis of
the piece shows C contents between 0.10
and 0.25%, but generally higher S and P
contents than the current standards for
general mild steels allow. The notched bar
impact strength normally exhibits very
wide variations. Contrary to the
designation
"Welding iron", these steels are not
generally suitable for arc welding. In
special cases, a detailed inspection of the
steel in the weld seam area can show
suitability for welding, but the welding
process used must be adapted to the
material.
In all mild steels (Martin, Bessemer,
Thomas flux steel), the steel was obtained in
a liquid state. It is more homogeneous
than the welded iron and usually shows
only a few line inclusions. As was
customary in the past, the steel was
usually cast in coke in a rimmed state (no
deoxidation). The resulting ingot shows a
so-called "bacon layer" on the outside and
"segregation zones" on the inside. The
bacon
1105
The first layer is characterized by material
with a low degree of impurity, while the
segregation zones are characterized by a
higher degree of impurity. When hot
rolling this material, the structure is
generally retained. The outer speck layer
and the inner segregation zone can also be
detected in sheet metal and profiles (e.g.
with a Baumann sulphur imprint). In
zones of severe deformation, e.g. in the
transitions from the web to the flange of I-
profiles, the segregation can reach the
surface. In the past, higher strengths were
achieved almost exclusively by increasing
the carbon content. However, a higher
carbon content can lead to martensite
formation and thus to embrittlement
during welding with subsequent cooling
from the weld pool. A chemical analysis
must always be carried out first when
welding these flux-cored steels with
otherwise unknown properties. For carbon
contents above 0.20% and carbon
equivalents above 0.40%, special measures
must be taken during welder- ing in order
to avoid hardening, which can be the
cause of brittle fractures that are not
apparent. If possible, the segregation zones
should not be melted during welding. The
statements on welding apply not only to
bonding welds on the structure, but also to
all temporary welds, even if they are
subsequently ground down and removed
(no tacking and welding on of assembly
aids!).
Loose rivets must be removed and re-
driven. If it is uneconomical to use a rivet
column due to a few missing rivets, the
rivets can also be replaced with class 10.9
GV screws with the largest possible
diameter and full pre-tension.
All repair and reinforcement measures
carried out are listed in the
1106
to document the status documents.
After these general topics, the following
sections deal with specific reinforcement
measures.
13.3.1 Roadway reinforcement
As the local loads in particular have
increased far more than the overall loads
on bridges in recent decades and the fatigue
stress on directly loaded components is
also becoming more significant,
reinforcements of the roadway are of great
importance. In the case of road bridges
with buckle plates and filler concrete and
reinforced concrete slabs on longitudinal
and transverse girders, there is a good
opportunity to reinforce the roadway if
these originally non-integrated
components are replaced by reinforced
concrete slabs in combination with
longitudinal and transverse girders. This
keeps the total load
Fig. 13.3.1-1 Reinforcement by reinforced concrete slabs in composite [Ramberger et al., 1990].
Figure 13.3.1-2 Reinforcement by additional cross beams [Ramberger et al., 1990].
13 Bridge reinforcement
(almost) unchanged, but the load-bearing
capacity is significantly increased. If it is
not possible to weld on shear studs
because the material is not suitable for
welder, screws can also be used as shear
studs (Fig. 13.3.1-1).
Girder gratings and orthotropic slabs
for roadways can be significantly
reinforced by installing additional cross
girders. These can be arranged in the
middle of the field or in the third points
between the existing cross girders. The
additional cross girders can be installed
from below without disrupting traffic.
This reduces the span of the longitudinal
girders and the load on the cross girders,
thus significantly increasing the load-
bearing capacity and stiffness of the
roadway structure (Fig. 13.3.1-2).
If these measures are not sufficient,
the roadway structure can be removed in
sections and replaced with a new one.
13.3 Steel and composite bridges
Cross section
reinforced
1%
1%
Figure 13.3.1-3 Reconstruction and reinforcement of a railroad bridge [VA TECH VOEST MCE].
construction (orthotropic slab or shoring
slab) and these are included in the load-
bearing capacity of the main girders, e.g.
as a co-acting chord. A new roadway
construction usually also reduces the load
on the main girders and thus reinforces
the system.
Figure 13.3.1-3 shows the
reconstruction and strengthening of a
railroad bridge by removing the open
roadway and placing a transversely
oriented orthotropic roadway slab, which
also forms the upper chord of the girder.
Fig. 13.3.1-4 shows the reinforcement of
a railroad bridge dating from 1889, in
which the deck structure was removed and
replaced by a continuous longitudinal
girder with a hat cross-section, which was
connected to the truss nodes with
transverse washers in the existing
diaphragm plates there using GV bolt
connections. In this case, the longitudinal
girder was also used as the third bottom
chord of the main truss girder.
1107
Cross section
old
SOK 274,200
13.3.2 System reinforcement
When reinforcing beam bridges with solid
wall girders, a distinction must be made as
to whether the bending moments or the
shear forces are the cause of the
reinforcement measures. Reinforcements
for shear forces are difficult to carry out,
as web reinforcements are only effective if
they are also connected directly to the
chords. Reinforcements for bending
moments, on the other hand, are much
easier to carry out, as it is usually
sufficient to add lamellas to the chords. In
the case of deck bridges with orthotropic
deck slabs, the stress on the deck can also
be reduced by means of the deck
reinforcements discussed under 13.1.1
using additional cross girders, so that the
load-bearing capacity of the main girders
is increased.
In special cases, the connection of the
main beams to a closed cross-section via
bracing can also reduce the bending stress
in open cross-sections, as the stress from
cross-section warping is eliminated and
only the
1108 13 Bridge reinforcement

Figure 13.3.1-4 Reinforcement of the Rosenburg bridge

13.3 Steel and composite bridges 1109

centric bending stress remains.
If the aforementioned measures are not
sufficient, additional main beams can be
installed. In the case of deck bridges, these
can be installed below the roadway
without disrupting traffic. In general,
additional truss girders are easier to install
than additional solid wall girders, as the
individual bars are lighter and easier to
handle. Additional beams are of course
arranged in such a way that the local
stresses on the cross beams are also
reduced and the cooperation of the chord
is improved. They are therefore arranged,
for example, in the middle or in the third
points between the existing main beams.
They must be connected to the existing
main beams by appropriate cross beams
and bracings.
main girders in such a way that the cross-
section acts as a whole. Figures 13.3.2-1
and 13.3.2-2 of the Haseltal Bridge in
Spessart show an example of a very
effective bridge reinforcement, where the
load-bearing capacity of the bridge was
significantly increased by additional main
truss girders and additional truss cross
bracing.
The load-bearing capacity of the main
girders of steel bridges can also be
significantly increased by external pre-
tensioning. The mode of action is
comparable to external pre-tensioning for
reinforced concrete bridges (see 13.2.2).
With steel bridges, particular attention
must be paid to force transmission and
force redirection. It should also be noted
that additional normal compressive forces
are introduced into the structure with all
external pre-tensions,

Longitudinal section through bridge axis

Reinforced ' supporting structure
LV LV LV
ZLV ZQV QV ZQV QV ZQV QV QV ZLV ZLV QV QV ZQV QV ZQV ZQV ZQV ZQV QV QV ZLV ZLV QV
0 5 9 13 12 21 25 29 33 3741 45 49 53 57 61 65 69 73 77 81

H = 3700
QV Transverse association
ZQV Additional cross-bracing
LV Storage association
ZLV Additional warehouse association

Top view (deck lifted off)

old

LV LV
QV QV QVQV QV QV QVQV QVQV QV

reinforced
HT
Catwalk
FW Gutter
FW
HT

LV LV
ZQV QV ZQV QV QV ZLV ZLV QV QV ZQV QV ZQV ZQV QV LQV QV QV LZV LZV QV QV

Fig. 13.3.2-1 Reinforcement of the Haseltal bridge in Spessart - longitudinal section [Ramberger et al.,
1990].
 1110 13 Bridge reinforcement

Cross-section in the field

area 29000
Normal cross section
1500 111500 3000 111500 1500

2% 2% old
2.5%
2.5% 2%

Web plate height

3700 to 5000
Parabola
reinforce
2% 2% 2.5% d
2.5% 2%

Reinforcement Pipe 30°

of the
transverse
stiffeners

18526

Cross-section at QV old
2% 2% 2.5% 2.5%
2.5% 2%

reinforce
2% 2% 2.5% d 2.5% 2%

Integration of
the cross Tubes
stiffeners

1 profile

Cross-section in the column area

old
2% 2% 2.5% 2.5%
2.5% 2%

reinforce
2% 2% 2.5% d 2.5% 2%

LV ZLV

5416 7680 5430 5237

Fig. 13.3.2-2 Reinforcement of the Haseltal bridge in Spessart - cross-section [Ramberger et al., 1990].
13.3 Steel and composite bridges 1111

Lifting and reconstruction of the Prater Bridge

0) Initial situation 5) April to July 1997

Working range

Sidewalk
Danube city bridge upstream
Cycle
path

Upstream box Undercurrent

box

1) January, February 6) July to October 1997

1996
Sidewalk

Work area
Cycle
path

Danube city bridge Undercurrent

working range

Sidewalk
2) March to June
1996
7) November, December 1997
Sidewalk

Work area

Danube city bridge Work area

Sidewalk

3) July to October 1996

Sidewalk

Work area
8) Finished bridge

Danube city bridge

Cycle Sidewalk
4) November 1996 to March 1997
path

Work area

Fig. 13.3.3-1 Lifting and reconstruction of the Prater Bridge over the Danube in Vienna [MA 29]
1112
which may have an unfavorable effect
(stability!) on previously low-stressed
components. Careful examination of the
entire structure is always necessary with
external pre-tensioning of steel structures.
13.3.3 System change
The external pre-tensioning mentioned in
the previous section already represents a
change to the structural system without,
however, changing the view of the bridge.
If there is sufficient free space under
the bridge, the load-bearing capacity of
the main girders can be significantly
increased by under-tensioning the spans.
Reinforcement by pylons and
overstressing works in a similar way,
turning a continuous girder bridge into a
cable-stayed bridge. In both cases, care
must again be taken to ensure that
additional normal forces are introduced
into the existing structure.
Fig. 13.3.3-2 Elevation of the Prater Bridge over the Danube in Vienna - view [MA 29]
13 Bridge reinforcement
Only in rare cases can additional
simple vertical supports be arranged to
reduce the span of main girders. In some
cases, inclined supports from the piers to
the bridge beam or additional arched
structures as supports are possible.
The Prater Bridge over the Danube in
Vienna is an interesting example of the
strengthening of an existing three-span
beam bridge by modifying the system.
Due to the damming up of the Danube by
a power station located downstream of the
bridge, the bridge had to be raised by
around 1.80 m. In the course of this
raising, the roadway was also raised by six
lanes. In the course of this lift, the
roadway was also widened from six to
eight lanes and the footpaths originally
located on both sides of the bridge deck
were relocated under the new cantilevered
roadway slab. To increase the load-bearing
capacity, the bridge was provided with
additional haunches in the area of both
current piers, thus increasing and
reinforcing the cross-section in the area of
the column moments. To minimize the
field moments
13.3 Steel and composite bridges
the bridge had to be given a new shape.
This was achieved by raising the inner
supports relative to the wall bearings. The
reinforcement was thus limited to the
(much smaller) area of high column
moments, which could be absorbed by the
bridge reinforced by haunches and
additional plates. On the right-hand
abutment, a
1113
reinforcement for the shear force was
necessary. This was achieved by installing
an additional truss girder. To carry out
the measures described, the bridge, which
has a twin box cross-section, was divided
lengthwise in the middle and one half was
reinforced and lifted in turn, while the
other half remained in operation (Figures
13.3.3-1 and -2).
Literature
[Abel/Tiarks, 2003]
[ACO Drain Passavant]
[Aigner, 1968-1]
Nößlach-
[Aigner, 1968-2]
[Aigner, 1990]
and
[Albrecht, 1976]
[Allround scaffolding, 2000]
extended
[Alsen/Schäfer, 1970]
gate in Giessen. Concrete and reinforced concrete construction 65 (1970), pp. 135-137
[Andrä/Maier, 1999]
[Andrä/Saul, 1974]
[Andrä/Zellner, 1969]
wire-
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[Zichner, 1982]
[Zilch et al., 2000]
[Zilch et al., 2002]
[Zilch et al., 2004]
[Zilch et al., 2009]
[Zilch/Jähring, 1998]
[Zimmermann, 1985]
capacity of
engineering work
[ZTV-LSW, 1988]
Literatur
e
Zerna, Wolfgang and H.-D. Köpper: Pre-tensioning with range-
white compound. Civil engineer 65 (1990), pp. 221-226
Zichner, Tilman: Temperature difference due to weather conditions
flow and heating of massive bridges. Bonn: Federal Minister of
Transport - Research Road Construction and Traffic
Engineering, Booklet 212, 1976
Zichner, Tilman: Determination of load assumptions for temperature
differences ∆ϑ for consideration in DIN 1072 for solid bridges.
Bonn: Research work commissioned by the Federal Minister of
Transport (F.A. 15.112 R 81 F), 1982
Zilch, Konrad, M. Hennecke and E. Penka: Development of a
Management system for bridges of municipal developers. In:
Solid Construction 2000 - Research, Developments and
Applications (ed. K. Zilch). Düsseldorf: Springer-VDI-Verlag,
2000
Zilch, Konrad, C. Gläser, G. Zehetmaier and M. Hennecke:
Application of high-performance concrete in bridge
construction. Concrete and reinforced concrete construction
97 (2002), pp. 297-302
Zilch, Konrad, G. Zehetmaier and C. Gläser: Fatigue after
proof for solid bridges. In: Betonkalender 2004 (ed. K. Berg-
meister and J.-D. Wörner), Part 1, pp. 309-406. Berlin: Ernst &
Sohn, 2004
Zilch, Konrad, H. Weiher and Ch. Gläser: Monitoring im Beton-
construction. In: Betonkalender 2009 (ed. K. Hump foreman, F.
Fingerloos and J.-D. Wörner), Part 2, pp. 137-183. Berlin: Ernst
& Sohn, 2009
Zilch, Konrad and A. Jähring: External pre-tensioning for im
Ground plan of curved box girder bridges. In: External
prestressing and segmental construction (ed. J. Eibl), pp. 233-
244. Berlin:
Ernst & Sohn, 1998
Zimmermann, Josef: Load-bearing behavior and system load-bearing
Beams with pre-tension without bond. Aachen: Dissertation,
RWTH Aachen University, 1985
[ZTV-ING, 2003] ZTV-ING: Contract terms and guidelines for
constructions ZTV-ING. Federal Highway Research Institute:
Sammlung Brücken- und Ingenieurbau, Baudurchführung,
Zusätzliche Technische Verkehrsblatt-Sammlung Nr. S 1056.
Dortmund:
Verkehrsblatt-Verlag Borgmann, 2003
ZTV-LSW: Additional technical regulations and guidelines
for the construction of noise barriers on roads (ZTV- LSW 88).
Federal Ministry of Transport, Road and Transportation
Research Association (FGSV), 1988
[ZTV-RISS, 1999] ZTV-RISS: Additional technical contract terms
 Literatur 1181
and e
Guidelines for filling cracks in concrete elements. Dortmund:
Verkehrsblatt-Verlag, 1999
1182 Literatur
e
[ZTV-SIB, 1990] ZTV-SIB: Additional technical contract terms and
Guidelines for the protection and repair of concrete
components. Federal Highway Research Institute. Dortmund:
Verkehrs- blatt-Verlag, 1990
[Zucker, 1921] Zucker, Paul: Die Brücke - Typologie und Geschichte ihrer
artistic design. Berlin: Ernst Wasmuth a. G., 1921
[Zuse,1993] , Konrad: Der Computer - Mein Lebenswerk.
Berlin: Springer-Verlag,1993
Bridge directory

Name Place, region Pages

Aji River Bridge near Osaka, Japan 90
Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge Kobe-Naruto, Japan 73, 75,450-453
Allegheny Suspension Bridge Pittsburgh 64
Allier Bridge near Boutiron near Boutiron, France 81/82, 304
Amperbrücke Inning A96 near Inning am Ammersee 398, 401-403,
954/955
Anji Bridge Across the Xiache River, China 7
An-Lan bridge Southwest China 9
Anping Bridge China 4/5
Argentobel Bridge Allgäu 167
Arminius Street Dortmund 951/952
Arno Bridge Florence Florence 432
Assos stone slab bridge Assos, west coast of Asia Minor 10
Augarten Bridge Vienna 1000
Augustus Bridge Dresden 24, 26/27
Cologne highway bypass Cologne 316/317
Bamberg chain suspension bridge Bamberg 62/63
Baodai Bridge near Suzhou, China 6
Bendorf bridge over the Rhine Bendorf, near Koblenz 86-89, 99, 236/237,
313,355
Biesenbach viaduct Southern Black Forest, Hegau 53
Blue wonder Dresden 54-57
Böckingen bridge Heilbronn 273/274, 341
Pùnt la Resgia arch bridge near Innerferrera, Grisons 407
Arch bridge over the Britz connecting Berlin 403/404
canal
Bosphorus Bridge Istanbul 74, 79, 102/103
Britannia Bridge over North Wales island of Anglesey 44, 61
the Menai Strait
Bronx-Whitestone Bridge New York 71
1172 Bridge directory

Name Place, region Pages

Brooklyn Bridge New York 66-69, 91, 452
Bridge to the Siele near Olpe 347/348
BW 2/3 across the Neckar Stuttgart 835/836
Chazelet reinforced concrete bridge Chazelet near Saint-Benoit- 76
du-Sault, western France
Clifton Bridge with Bristol 61
Cresta forest bridge near Sufers, Switzerland 288, 361/362
Diepmannsbachtal bridge A1 near Remscheid 277
Dill Valley Bridge Haiger near Haiger 936/937
Dirschau Vistula Bridge Dirschau, Tczew 45-47, 104, 106
Danube bridge Metten near Metten 329-334
Danube bridge Schwabelweis Near Regensburg 907/908
Danube Canal Bridge Vienna Vienna 230/231
Danube city bridge Vienna 430-434, 919
Danube crossing near Fischerdorf near Deggendorf 404/405, 847-849,
956
Dordogne bridge near Cubzag near Cubzag, near Bordeaux 47/48
Three-country bridge Weil-Huningue Weil on the Rhine 126, 129/130,
156-159
Echelsbach bridge over the Ammer near Echelsbach, Upper Bavaria 77
Railroad bridge Ingolstadt Ingolstadt 121/122, 136-139
Melk railroad bridge Melk, Lower Austria 273/274, 935/936
Railroad bridge over the Vienna 358
Praterhauptallee
Railroad overpass BW 228 near Cologne 340, 342, 935
Elbe canal bridge near near Magdeburg-Rothensee 400
Rothensee
Elbe bridge Dömitz near Dömitz, Mecklenburg 397, 399, 403, 955
Elbe bridge Pirna Pirna 409/410, 957
Elbe bridge Torgau Torgau 251, 341
Elbe bridge Vockerode A9 near Vockerode 275/276
Elbe bridge Wittenberge A14 near Wittenberge 117
Elorn Bridge Albert Louppe near Plougastel 82/83
Elster Valley Bridge near Jocketal, Vogtland 35
Elster Valley Bridge Pirk Pirk an der Weißen Elster 372/373
Elz valley bridge Near Kaisersesch, Eifel 309-311, 821
Angel Bridge Rome 17-19
Bridge directory 1173

Name Place, region Pages

Etzelsbachtal bridge A38 815/816
Euphrates Bridge in Babylon Babylon 10/11
Falkenstein Bridge Tauern Railway Salzburg-Villach 226/227, 376/377
Firth of Forth Bridge Queensferry/Scotland 54
Föhrer Bridge Berlin 354
Franzensbrücke Vienna 1000
Freiberger Straße, bridge over the Tharandt near Dresden 121, 125/126,
146/147
Freiberger-Mulde bridge Siebenlehn 937
Peace Bridge Plauen Plauen/Vogtland 367-369
Friedrich Ebert Bridge Bonn 92/93
Pedestrian bridge over the Rhine-Herne Oberhausen 60/61
Canal
Gahlensche Straße, bridge over the Bochum 121, 124/125,
144/145
Ganter Bridge near Brig 94/95
Garabit bridge over the Truyère near St. Flour 47/48, 51
Gärtnerplatz bridge Kassel 97-99
George Washington Bridge New York 70/71, 75
Geratal bridge Ichtershausen Railroad line Nuremberg - 180/181, 823/824
Erfurt, near Erfurt
Gessental bridge Ronneburg, Thuringia 126, 131, 162-164
Glemstal bridge Schwieberdingen Schwieberdingen, 99/100
near Stuttgart
Glienicke Bridge Berlin 107/108
Gmündertobel Bridge near Teufen, Canton Appenzell 77
Golden Gate Bridge San Francisco 71/71, 75
Göltzschtal bridge on the A 72 A72, near Reichenbach 374/375
Göltzschtal bridge, railroad bridge near Mylau, Vogtland 34-37, 115
Grand-Pont over the Saane Fribourg 62
Border bridge over the Oder Frankfurt an der Oder 956/957
Grand Duchess Charlotte Bridge Luxembourg 389
Schierstein harbor bridge Wiesbaden 100/101
Hamana Bridge Japan 89/90, 313
Hammer railroad bridge Düsseldorf-Hamm route 386, 394
Würgau slope bridge near Würgau 316
Haseltal bridge Spessart 1109/1110
1174 Bridge directory

Name Place, region Pages

Havel bridge Luckenberg Luckenberg, Brandenburg 121, 123, 138/139,
353/354
Hell Gate Bridge New York 70
Hellespont ship bridge Bosphorus 11
High bridge Brunsbüttel North-East Sea Canal 261, 912/913
Höga-Kusten Bridge Sweden 74, 75
Wooden arch bridge over the Delaware near Trenton 39
Wooden bridge over Freiberger Straße Tharandt near Dresden 121, 125/126,
in the forest botanical garden in 146/147
Tha- randt
Wooden truss bridge over Connecticut 40/41
the Chikapoe
Timber truss bridge over near Washington 39/40
the Pontomac
Hooghly River Bridge Calcutta 95, 446/447
Horrem, railroad overpass Horrem near Cologne 950/951
Houston Ship Channel Crossing near Baytown, Texas 447/448, 899
Huangpu-Zhujiang Bridge Guangdong Huangpu, China 75
Humber Bridge Kingston upon Hull 74, 75
Humboldt harbor bridge Berlin 60, 126/127,
148-151
Inn bridge Neuötting near Neuötting 275/276
Inn bridge Zuoz Zuoz in the Engadin 79/80
Isar bridge Grünwald Munich 77, 409, 957/958
Jakobs Greek Chain Bridge Pennsylvania 61
Jiangyin-Changjiang Bridge Jiangsu Province, China 75
Judith Bridge Prague 30
Maiden bridge Berlin 58
Kamp bridge Rosenburg 1108
Kamp bridge Zwettl 920, 931-934
Cape Shui Mun Bridge Hong Kong 449/450
Charles Bridge Prague 30/31
Karun Dam Bridge near Shushtar, Persia 12-14
Kehlheim pedestrian bridge Kehlheim 60, 218/219
Kettiger Hang bridge between Andernach 316, 319
and Koblenz
Kocher valley bridge Near Geislingen 353, 833/834
Bridge directory 1175

Name Place, region Pages

Krämerbrücke Erfurt 24, 28-30
Crown Prince Rudolf Bridge over the Vienna 920/921
Danube
Laasan bridge over the Striegau water near Laasan, Lazany 41

La-Ferté footbridge Stuttgart-Zuffenhausen 121, 123/124,

140-143
Lahn Bridge Balduinstein Balduinstein, near Limburg 86/87, 312
Lautrupsbach viaduct Near Flensburg 126, 128/129,
154/155
Le Pont de Brotonne near Rouen 96, 228/229
Loschwitz Elbe Bridge Dresden 54-57
Luckenberg bridge over the Havel Brandenburg 121, 123, 138/139,
353/354
Luding Bridge Sichuan Province, China 61
Luren Bridge Luoyang, China 6
Machfeld Canal Bridge Vienna Vienna 284
Magnetic needle bridge near Osaka 90
Main bridge of the Nato ramp Between Sulzbach and 405
Niedernberg
Main bridge Hoechst, Frankfurt 94, 238, 328/329
cable-stayed bridge
Main bridge Nantenbach Nantenbach 345-347
Main bridge Retzbach-Zellingen Retzbach and Zellingen 835, 849
Main bridge Veitshöchheim Veitshöchheim 839
Main Bridge Würzburg Würzburg 108/109
Main-Danube Canal footbridge Essing near Essing 284/285
Mangfall bridge A8 highway (Munich-Salzburg) 232/239

Manhattan Bridge New York 69, 71

Maracaibo Bridge Venezuela 94, 327
Maria Pia steel arch bridge over the with postage 47
Duoro
Mariensteg Wernstein-Neuburg Wernstein (A)-Neuburg (D) 126, 130, 160/161
am Inn
Marne Bridge Esbly Esbly 84
Menai Road Suspension Bridge North Wales island of Anglesey 61
Monongahela Bridge Pittsburgh 65
1176 Bridge directory

Name Place, region Pages

Moselle bridge Bernkastel-Kues Bernkastel, Kues 277, 343, 346,
952-954
Moselle bridge Thörnich Thörnich, near Trier 88, 314/315
Mulde Bridge Dessau near Dessau 847/848
Müngsten Bridge over the Wupper Solingen - Remscheid
Nahe bridge Kirn Kirn 293, 301
Neckar bridge near Mannheim near Mannheim 169
Neckar bridge Neckarrems Neckarrems 87, 823
Nesenbachtal bridge Stuttgart 105/106
Nesenbach viaduct Stuttgart 344/345
New Nibelungen Bridge over the Worms 88, 173
Rhine
New Ohio River Bridge USA 427/428, 898
Niagara Bridge Niagara 65-68
Nibelungen Bridge over the Rhine Worms 87-89, 99, 312/313
Nihonbashi Bridge Tokyo 37
Normandy Bridge Honfleur, near Le Havre 92, 234/235,
445/446
Nößlach bridge Brenner highway 811
Ohio Bridge Covington/Cincinnati Covington and Cincinnati 65/66, 68
Ohio River Bridge Portsmouth 897
Öresund Bridge Copenhagen-Malmö 431
Orke bridge in Vöhl Vöhl-Ederbringhausen, Hesse 283/284
Erfurt bypass L1055 near Erfurt 356-358
Osormort Viaduct Barcelona 220/221
Perlach-Unterhaching A8 (near Munich) 361, 945/946
frame structure
Pfaffenberg bridge ÖBB-Tauern Railway 806/807, 809/810
Pleichachtal Bridge A7 (Fulda-Würzburg) 316, 318
Pons Aelius, Ponte St. Angelo Rome 17/18, 22
Pons Aemilius Rome 17, 22
Pons Milvius Rome 20
Pons Sublicius Rome 14
Pont du Gard Nimes 19, 21
Ponte Cestio Rome 17, 21
Ponte Fabricio Rome 17/18, 21
Bridge directory 1177

Name Place, region Pages

Ponte Molle Rome 17, 20
Ponte Mulvius Rome 17, 20, 104
Ponte Rotto Rome 17/18, 20
Ponte Santa Trinità Florence 30-32
Ponte Vecchio Florence 7, 30
Prague Saddle II Stuttgart 100
Prater Bridge Vienna 1024, 1030,
1111/1112
Puente de Alcántara Toledo 23/24
Puente de la Barqueta Seville 224/225
Pujin Bridge across the yellow river, China 3
Qiongzhou-Haixia Bridge Imperial Connecting Hainan Island 74
with mainland China
Bridge Vienna Vienna 259, 922,
1102-1104
Diepoldsau Rhine bridge Diepoldsau, Canton of St. 427
Ilverich Rhine bridge Gallen Meerbusch 432
Oberkassel Rhine bridge Düsseldorf 92, 269, 433,
435,568, 900, 914,
920, 922/923
Rhine bridge Schierstein Wiesbaden-Mainz 59/60, 911
Rhine bridge Tavanasa near Tavanasa in Graubünden 78/79
Rhone bridge Avignon 24, 27/28
Rialto Bridge Venice 30, 32/33
Rio Caroni Bridge Brazil 839
Rio Peixe Bridge Brazil 86, 303/303,
825/826
Risorgimento Bridge Rome 76/77
Roman Danube Bridge near Turnu Severin, Romania 15/16
Roman Rhine Bridge near Neuwied 14/15
Roman Rhine Bridge between Mainz and Mainz- 14/15
Kastel
Ronatobel Bridge Rossau Switzerl 361/362
Bridge and 101/102, 999
Runyang-Changjiang Bridge Saale Vienna 74, 75
Bridge Alsleben Jiangsu Province, China 85, 305/306
Alsleben (between Halle and
Saale bridge Bad Kösen Aschersleben) 365-367
Bad Kösen, Thuringia
1178 Bridge directory

Name Place, region Pages

Saale bridge Beesedau A14 near Beesedau, near Bern- 113, 408/409, 954
burg
Saale bridge on the A72 A72, near Hof 373/374
Saale bridge Jena-Göschwitz A4 near Jena 116, 126, 127/128,
152/153
Saale bridge Salzmünde A143 near Salzmünde, Saxony- 116
Anhalt
Sacramento footbridge Redding, California 222/223
Saint Jean bridge over the Garronne Bordeaux 47
Salginatobel Bridge near Schiers in Prättigau 1/2, 79, 80/81,
210-212
Schierstein Bridge Wiesbaden-Mainz 59/60, 911
Schierstein harbor bridge Wiesbaden 101/102
Castle bridge over the Spree Berlin 33/34
Cable-stayed bridge over Ludwigshafen Ludwigshafen 433
station
Cable-stayed bridge Dubrovnik Dubrovnik 96, 238-240
Schuylkill bridge, brass wire suspension Philadelphia 61, 62
bridge
Schwarzbachtal bridge Wuppertal 920, 926-930
Villeneuve bridge over the Seine near Villeneuve 302/303
Selterstor Bridge Pouring 294-300
Severn Bridge At Bristol 74, 75
Severn Bridge in Coalbrookdale Coalbrookdale 41/42
Sky bridge Scotland 259/260
Bircherweid tensioning bridge Bircherweid, Switzerland 456/457, 459/460
Tensioning belt bridge Freiburg Fribourg 103/104
Tension ribbon bridge over the Vltava Prague-Troja 457, 459
Tensioning bridge over the Sávaza Near Hvezdonice 457
Prestressed concrete bridge near Oelde near Oelde, Münsterland 84/85
Prestressed concrete bridge in Aue Aue, Ore Mountains 85, 306/307, 309
St. Lawrence river bridge Quebec/Canada 54
Zeulenroda reservoir bridge near Zeulenroda 106/107
Stone bridge Regensburg 24-26, 30, 108
Star bridge Weimar 33
Stolma Bridge Near Bergen, Norway 89, 313, 826, 835,
837
Bridge directory 1179

Name Place, region Pages

Storebælt Bridge Korsor/Denmark 74, 75
Storkower Canal Bridge near Blossin, State of 360
Brandenburg
Stralsund crossing Stralsund - Island of Rügen 109/110
Strömsund Bridge Sweden 91
Sunniberg bridge near Klosters, Prättigau, Canton 216/217, 891-893
Graubünden
Sunshine Skyway Bridge Florida 447
Sutong Bridge over the Changjiang Jiangsu Province, China 95/96
Syra Valley Bridge Plauen, Vogtland 367/368, 369
Tacoma Narrows Bridge Tacoma, Washington State 72/73, 423, 454
Albrechtsgraben viaduct A71 near Suhl 803-805
Pöhl viaduct A 72, near Pöhl, near Plauen, 374/375
Vogtland
Schnaittach viaduct Highway A9 260/261
(Berlin-
Nuremberg)
Siebenlehn viaduct Siebenlehn, near Meissen 192, 275, 957
Trockau viaduct A9 near Pegnitz-Trockau, Upper 819/820
Franconia
Viaduct Wilde Gera Highway A71, near 121/122, 124,
Gräfenroda, near Oberhof, 132-135, 278
Thuringia
Wilkau-Haßlau viaduct Near Zwickau 937/938
Viaduct Zahme Gera Highway A 71 near 177, 355, 513
Geschwenda, near Ilmenau
Tatara Bridge Hiroshima, Japan 92
Tar elevated bridge Bremen Bremen 342
Teltow Canal Bridge Berlin-Tempelhof 345/346
Devil's Valley Bridge A4, near Jena 796, 802
Theodor Heuss Bridge Düsseldorf 91/92
Theodor Heuss Bridge Mainz 14, 59
Tiefenbach bridge Ilsenburg Ilsenburg, Harz Mountains 286
Ting Kau Bridge Hong Kong 177
Gateway to Dresden A4 near Dresden 352/353
Trisanna Bridge Near Giggl, Tyrol 920, 924/925
Tsinglung Bridge Hong Kong 75
Perlach-Unterhaching overpass Munich 360/361, 945/946
Unkelstein Bridge B9 (Cologne-Mainz) 309/310
Verrazano-Narrows Bridge New York Bay 72, 73, 75
1180 Bridge directory

Name Place, region Pages

Lully viaduct Canton of Fribourg 347/348
Waal Bridge Tiel near Tiel, Netherlands 327/328
Wadi Kuf Bridge Libya 94, 327/328
Wahren viaduct Leipzig 370-372
Wan Xian highway bridge over the Sichuan Province, China 77
Yangtze River
Weibrücken across the Wei River, China 3
Weidendammer Bridge Berlin 58
Wörlitz Bridge Wörlitz near Dessau 42
Xiang Jia Tang Bridge China 427/428, 897
Yangluo Hubei Wuhan, China 75
Zamalong Bridge near Xining, China 4
Zhoushan-Xihoumen Zhejiang Province, China 74, 75
Zwickau Mulde Bridge near Glauchau 300/301
Zwickauer-Mulde bridge Wilkau-Haßlau 937/938
Directory of persons and companies
Ackermann and Partner,
architectural office 218
Agrippa, Marcus Vispanius 19
Aigner, Francesco 1022, 1034
Aigner, Franz 226, 895
Alsen, Klaus 101, 294-296 Ammann,
Othmar Hermann 70-72
Ammannati, Bartolommeo 31
Andrä, Wolfhart 86
Apollodorus, from Damascus 15/16
Architects AX5 154
Armisén, Javier Manterola 220 Bachmann,
Hugo 256, 471, 756-758,
760-767, 769, 771-775
Baker, Benjamin 54
Baumann, Helmut 355
Baumann, Karl 760, 761, 766
Baumann, Theodor 260
Baur, Willy 86, 87, 90, 320, 326
Bay, Hermann 99, 628 Becker,
Manfred 803/804
Bergermann, Rudolf 2 , 446, 450, 461
Hump foreman, Konrad 489, 1038, 1044,
1061,
1093, 1098
Bernasconi, Andrea 38
Bernhardt, Klaus 120
Bernoulli, Jacob and Johann 43, 536
Bessemer, Henry 45
Billington, David P. 2 , 62, 78-80
Boissanger, de 47
Bonatz, Paul 2
Boyer, Léon 47 Brown,
Sir Samuel 61
Brühwiler, Eugen 2
Brunel, Isambard Kingdom 62
Burkhardt, Hans-Günther 120
Burr, Theodore 39
Cauchy, Augustin Louis Baron 43
Chaley, M. J. Joseph 62 Cornelius,
Volker 331
Cruciani 227, 796, 805-813
CSTB 234
Cue, Alexander Mc 66
Curbach, Manfred 829, 830, 835, 840, 847,
848, 849, 965
Darby, Abraham 41
Dauner, Hans-Gerhard 347
DEGES 132, 499, 940, 956, 1007
Dietleyn 62
Dietrich, Richard J. 132, 162, 282
Dischinger, Franz 90, 300, 306, 309, 375, 380,
636, 638, 639
Doehring, C. F. W. 304
Dost, Ferdinand 35
Dreßler, Andre 146
Dubas, p. 579
Düvel, Olav 128
École des Ponts et Chaussées 43/44, 46, 82
École polytechnique 43/44, 46, 82
Eibl, Josef 461, 540, 555, 694/695, 849
Eichinger, Eva-Maria 1057 Eiffel,
Gustave Alexandre 47-49 Eilzer,
Wolfgang 352, 409, 957
Ellet, Charles 65
Ellis, Charles Alton 71 Emperger,
Friedrich Ignaz 76, 77
Ernst, Martin 543
Euler, Leonard 43, 537, 580
Fehling, Ekkehard 97, 98
Fehse, Werner 320
Feichtinger Architects 156
Feichtinger, Dietmar 129, 156
Feistel, Dieter 28, 354, 356, 363-365
Fink, Josef 409, 957, 1034
Finley, James 61, 62
Finsterwalder, Ulrich 85-89, 100, 102, 103,
232, 236, 305, 306, 312, 313, 315, 354, 355,
414, 456, 821, 825
Company
– Adam Hörnig 132, 513
– Agroman - Modeste Fraile 220
– Auteried & Co. 230
1182 Directory of persons and
companies
– Auxini, S. A. 224 – Universal 101
– Beyer & Co. 226 – Vetsch 238
– Bilfinger and Berger 156, 238, 1101 – Walter - Bau AG 176
– Gustavsburg Bridge Construction Institute – Wayss & Freytag 77, 83, 84, 99
51 – Wayss and Freytag & Heidschuch 76
– Campenon-Bernard 84, 234 – Wolff & Müller 104
– Charles Nepveu 47 Fischer, Uwe 125, 146
– Construzioni Cimolai Armando Spa 238 Fowler, John 54
– DEMAG 91 Frank-Jakob-Bluth, Architects 169
– Dörnen steel structures 280, 951 Freundt, Ursula 745, 1004
– DSD Dillinger Stahlbau 148 Freyssinet, Eugène 81-86, 304, 305
– Dyckerhoff & Widmann, DYWIDAG 85, Gaddi, Taddeo 29
86, 101, 136, 232, 236, 309, 314, 825, 1099 Gädeke, Kathrin 146
– Echterhoff 280 Galileo, Galileo 43, 536, 537
– Ensidesa, S. A. 224 Gebert, Gregor 408, 409
– Enterprise Campenon Bernard 228 Gerkan, Marg and Partners, Architects 60, 144,
– Felten & Guilleaume 55 148
– Friedrich Maurer Sons 218 Girmscheid, Gerhard 412, 414, 417, 418, 421,
– Fritz Spieker 154 423, 424, 428, 435, 850, 853, 858, 860, 862,
– Kemmer Brothers 138 868, 871, 873, 876, 900
– Gerdum and Breuer 152 Göppert, Knut 124, 144
– GLS construction and assembly 160 Grawe, Wigand 128, 154
– Green & Bilfinger 236 Günther, Gerhard 399
– Hein, Lehmann 91 Guyon, Y. 625, 627
– Heinrich Klostermann 138 Harpalos 11
– Hermann Assner 299 Heinzerling, Friedrich 15
– Building construction and civil Hennebique, Francois 76
engineering 156 Hodgkinson, Eaton 44
– Hochtief 952 Homberg, Helmut 91, 548
– John A. Roebling's Company 62, 64 Hooke, Robert 43, 536, 624
– Karl Kübler 99 Hoshino, Kunio 2
– Queen Mary's Hut 55, 56 Hoshino, Masaaki 321, 629
– M. A. N. 51 Howe, William 40, 41
– Mannesmann Handel; steel tubes 148 Hyatt, Thaddäus 74 Engineering
– Augsburg-Nuremberg machine factory 51 office
– Max Bögl and Bögl/Walter 156, 819 – A. Pauser 230, 919
– Max Früh 140 – Ammann & Withney 72
– MSD Machine-to-machine and steel – Bänziger and Köppel 216, 427
construction 144 – Bonk & Herrmann 146
– NOE formwork technology 513 – Brändli and Partners 216
– Pfeifer rope and lifting technology 156 – Bung 167, 173
– Porr 95, 101,230 – Carlos Fernández Casado 220
– Porr Technobau 148 – Fritsch 177
– Preiswerk & Cie AG 154 – Gustav Lindenthal 70
– RW mounting 160 – IBB Fehling and Jungmann 98
– Schaffizel wood industry 162 – Kinkel and Partner 152
– Schmees & Lühn, timber and steel – Adhesive 152
engineering construction 146 – König and Heunisch 300
– Setra 234 – Köppl 162
– Shasta Constructors Inc. 222 – Leonhardt, Andrä & Partner 86, 132, 148,
– Sogea 234 361, 444
– Steel construction Illingen 104
– Stanglmeier / Luitpold Aukofer 218
– Thyssen Guss 148
List of persons and companies 1183

– Peter and Lochner 140 Lund 304

– Schlaich, Bergermann and Partners 60, 61, Maillart, Robert 1 , 2, 77-80, 99, 210-212
100, 104-106, 177 Mandroklos 11
– Schuessler Plan 940 Mang, Herbert 624
– Contactor 136 Mangerig 739, 741, 746
– Verheyen 173 Martin, Pierre Émile 45
– VIC Bridge and civil engineering 138 Martin, Rainer 803, 804, 821
– Zilch and Müller 299 Marx, Steffen 120
– Trebes 154 Mathivat, Jacques 96, 228
Grübl, Peter 96 Mautner, Karl 83
Ingerop 234 Iyengar, Mehlhorn, Gerhard 316, 321-324, 331, 525,
K. T. 625 528, 543, 554, 613, 617, 619, 624, 626,629,
Johansson, Bernt 579, 583, 585, 586, 588, 589 638, 640, 649, 679, 732
Jungwirth, Dieter 629, 849 Mehmel, Alfred 626, 627
Kargel, Erhard 130, 160 Melan, Joseph 69, 77, 282, 805
Keil, Andreas 122, 136 Menn, Christian 2 , 94, 96, 216, 356, 355, 450,
Kepler, Johannes 43 541, 545, 546, 548, 647, 826, 827
Keuser, Manfred 538, 552, 821, 823/824 Moisseiff, Leon Solomon 69-71, 72
Kingsley, William C. 66 Möller, Max 302, 303
Kitzler, Julius 55 Monier, Joseph 76
Kleb, Thomas 127, 152 Morandi, Riccardo 94, 327, 328
Koechlin, Maurice 47 Mörsch, Emil 76, 77, 85, 801
Koenen, Matthias 76 Murphy, Henry C. 66
Koepcke, Claus 54-57 Naumann, Gerd 839
Kolb + Ripke, Architects 138 Naumann, Joachim 108/109, 113, 120, 121,
Kollegger, Johann 1022, 1097, 1099, 1100 126
König, Gert 96, 300, 1059 Navier, Claude-Louis-Marie-Henry 44, 320,
Krumbach, Guido 431 536
Kuhlmann, Ulrike 274, 276, 277, 341, 343, Nepveu, Charles 47
345, 350, 397, 399, 401, 935, 940, 946, 947, Newton, Isaac 43
952 Nouguier, Emile 47
Kupfer, Herbert 232 Lagrange, Ohlig, Rudolf 101
Jean Louis 43 Lambot, Joseph Pablo, Juan J. Arenas de 224
Louis 73, 76 Pantaleón, Marcos J. 224
Langer, Joseph 385 Parler, Peter 30/31
Lavigne, Charles 234 Pauli, Friedrich August v. 35
Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm 43 Lentze, Pauser, Alfred 2 , 96, 101/102, 230, 249, 259,
Carl 45, 46 375, 431, 434, 805, 919
Leonhardt, Fritz 1 , 2, 73, 85-87, 90, 166, 231, Perronet, Jean-Rodolphe 43
243, 251, 254, 256, 326, 335, 355, 361, 375, Peter, Jörg 509/510
410, 411, 423, 424, 444, 450, 453, 507, 541, Pfohl, Hans 320, 629
546, 647, 796, 832, 833, 839, 896, 1012, 1020 Poisson, Simeon-Denis 43
Li Bing 9 Poitzsch, Peter 123, 138 Ponte,
Lichte, Ulf 738, 739, 741, 745, 746 Antonio da 32
Lindenthal, Gustav 70 Pöppelmann, Matthias Daniel 24, 26
Lindlar, Hans-Gerd 120 Quadrig 234
Link, Michael 98 Rackwitz, Rüdiger 525, 534
Litzner, Hans-Ulrich 120 Ramberger, Günter 471-475, 488, 975-980,
Lohmer, Gerd 99, 101, 232, 236, 309 983-990, 991, 1106, 1109, 1110
Long, Stephen H. 40, 41 Reissner, Eric 665, 695
Lrpic, Veljko 238 Rieppel, Anton von 50
1184 Directory of persons and
companies
Knight, August 537 Steinman, David Bernard 69, 70, 71
Knight, Wilhelm 69, 70 Stephenson, Robert 44
Robaglia 47 Strasky, Jiri 222, 457, 461 Strauss,
Röbling, Johann August 62-67, 90, 91, 452 Joseph Baermann 71
Roebling, Washington 65-68 Stritzke, Jürgen 120, 350, 353, 357, 543, 799,
Rubin, Helmut 562, 579 800, 801, 805, 832, 834
Rüsch, Hubert 547, 629 Strobl, Wolfgang 129, 156
Saint Bénezet 27 Stüssi, Fritz 70, 71, 579
Saul, Reiner 275, 350, 423, 432, 447, 449, 450 Svensson, Holger S. 403, 423, 447, 896
Savov, Zlatko 238 Tamms, Friedrich, architect 92, 99
Schäfer, Horst 298 Telford, Tomas 61
Schäfer, Horst-Georg 1056, 1100, 1102 Thomas, Sidney Gilchrist 45
Schäfer, Wolfgang 294-296 Tiedje, Wilhelm, architect 99
Schambeck, Herbert 88,89, 94, 96, 236, 238, Triborough Bridge Authority 71
310, 311, 313, 315, 328, 329, 354, 355, 450, Trost, Heinrich 543, 629, 638, 639
821, 825 Vicat, Louis Joseph 62, 64
Schickhofer, Gerhard 38 Schinkel, Virlogeux, Michel 96, 234, 446
Karl Friedrich 33 Schinz, Rudolph Vockrodt, Hans 28, 29, 354
Eduard 46 Vockrodt, Hans-Jörg 28, 29, 363-365,368,750
Schlaich, Jörg 2 , 59, 60, 122, 124, 126, 136, Vogel, Thomas 2, 849 Vogler,
148, 218, 246, 249, 250, 258, 349, 409, 446, Otto M. 355 Walraven,
450, 545 Walther, René 427, 456, 540
Schlaich, Mike 461 Warren Roebling, Emily 68
Schleicher, Claus 354, 356 Weise, Torsten 152
Schleicher, Wolfram 541, 551, 552, 748 Wetzel, R. 440
Schmackpfeffer, Heinz 408, 409, 543, 940 Wetzel, Roland 140, 509/510
Schmidt, Michael 97, 98 Wicke, Manfred 256, 258, 261
Schober, Hans 60, 126, 148, 151, 349, 409 Wilke, Robert 35/36
Schubert, Johann Andreas 35/36 Wittel, Andrea 144
Schüller, Matthias 123, 140 Wittfoht, Hans 303, 833
Sedlacek, Gerhard 120, 399, 523, 579, 583, Wöhler, Friedrich 537
585, 586, 588, 589, 745 Wölfel, Roland von 121, 132, 278, 406,
Séguin, Camille 62 837/838, 847/848
Séguin, Marc 62 Wölfel, Wilhelm von 4- 6, 8, 9-13, 15-17,
Siemens, Carl Wilhelm and Friedrich 45 20-23
Sofresid 234 Zilch, Konrad 96, 120, 189, 299, 300, 1012,
Sogelerg 234 1022, 1063, 1094
Splingard 35 Zuse, Konrad 537
Sporschill, Karl 238
Standfuß, Friedrich 108/109, 306
 Subject index
A Response spectrum method
Peeling of coating parts 1047
Demolition 193
Sealing 1022 Drainage of
the hydration water
heat 731
Lifting bearing forces 342
Lift-off protection 343
Reduction of pre-tension
by virtue of 659
A-frame 510
Settlement 187
Lowering measures 342,
952
Settling block 844
Bracing 830, 956 Clearances
– of reinforcing steel 657
– of the tendons 660
Fall protection 1006
Abrasive corrosion 1018
Downforce 404 aerodynamic
Stability 454 aero-wing-
like transverse
cut 73
Amplitude spectra 762,
763, 764, 766
Requirement category 645,
660
Quotation processing 181
Anchor head 435
Anchor plate 981
Delivery of the
Segments 863
Impact, detection
against 714
Contact pressure 953
Hanger connection 385
B
783 Beam bridges 302, 303,
Response behavior 793 309, 321, 335, 336, 337, 340,
A-pylon 418, 449, 879 342
Aqueduct of the Romans 19, Ballasting 343
20, Barretts 517
21, 22 Construction 184
Construction joint 659, 828, Soil expertise 519
840, Ground improvement 515
1021 Construction costs 202, 203, 204,
– with tendon 205
coupling 318, 320, Building culture 108, 109, 110,
321 111, 112, 115, 116, 202, 206
Archivolte 16 Architecture,
Aesthetics 196, 202, 205 revolution in the 83
elevated Site management 185
Track 407 Suspension of Construction supervisor 185
the draw frame Construction method 176
carrier 418
Support bench 500, 698
Support force, influence
area 488 Support Reinforced earth
force controlled construction 501
Storage 489 458
Support force measurement
489
Support cross member 472
Buoyancy safety 514
Widening 840, 849
Eye stick 61
Infill 405
Implementation planning
183,
864, 876
Rounded support moment
678
Balanced cross-section 255
Support beam 54
Tender 178, 180
Exceptional effects 529,
530, 531
Exchange 192
Interchangeability 609
Selection of executed
Tensioning strap bridges
1186 Directory of persons and
companies
Building inspection 367,
1009 Building inspection
monitoring 1009
Reduction in construction time
271
Construction stages 535, 553
Load class 1078
Limitation of crack width
– in longitudinal direction,
Proof 689
– in transverse
direction,
proof 690
Limitation of
voltages 683
Auxiliary cable 69
BELFA, load
vehicle 364, 1045
Design points 543
Design situations 526
Design values 526 Design
values for
Impacts 527
1186
Bernoulli hypothesis 615,
731, 736
Acceleration response
468, 784
Acceleration variable 1063,
1066
Bessemer process 45
Destination
– the carbonation of the
Concrete 1042
– of the chloride
content of the
concrete 1042
– of the degree of
compression and the
condition of the clamping
steels 1043
Concrete attack 642
Concrete arch bridge, on
widest stretched 77
Concrete cover 643, 660
Concrete compressive stress
– Limitation of 650
the
– Proof of the
permissible 684
Concrete replacement
system 1078 Concrete
roadway, on steel
overlying box 406
Concrete roadway slab 278
Precast concrete
parts (in the
Composite
construction) 449, 940
Concrete joint 501, 506
– preloaded 827
Concrete-wood
composite
bridges 289
Concrete-timber
composite,
Detail 408
Concreting sequence
953
Concreting gaps 658
Concreting condition
948
Concrete sleepers 964
Reinforcing steel
stress - verification
of
permitted 685
Dents 579, 580, 585, 586,
588
Assessment
- the position of the
reinforcement and the
concrete cover 1043
– of the load capacity 1055
– of cracks in concrete 1040
reinforced elastomer
bearing 966
reinforced
earth,
Construction method 501
Reinforcement arrangement
658 Reinforcement training
on
free panel edges 253
Reinforcement corrosion
641 Bending-torsional
gation 454
Sheet gradation 335
Block dowel 446
Soil replacement 516
Ground movement 785
Soil compaction 515
Soil stabilization 516
sheet
– compressive force
396, 957
– introduction
386
– form 380
– cantilever 833
– foot clamping 402
– foot point 402, 406
– fighter 382
– folding process 167
– construction 396
– assembly 954
– transverse pane
383
– cross section 381
– Cross-section height
at apex 383
– thrust 408
– span 380
– stability 402
Subject index
Arch bridge 1 , 2, 4, 5, 6, 7,
12, 14, 16, 17, 18, 20, 24, 26,
27, 29, 31, 33, 37, 39, 41, 47,
77, 79, 80, 81, 82, 85, 167,
168, 224, 225, 226, 362, 363,
365, 367, 375, 376, 378, 380,
382, 384, 385, 397, 403, 404,
406, 407, 408, 409, 956
– real 384, 406
– anchored in itself 409
– with elevated
roadway 378
– Static systems 379
Planking 961
Drilling 517
Bored pile 728
Bored pile wall 498
Slope wing 497
Slope cone 498
Slope inclination 498
Glulam elements 286
Cross laminated timber panels 287
Elongation at break 414
Bridges
– building price 108, 117, 118,
120, 126, 131
– construction weir 12
– existed 189
– drainage 176
– inspection scaffold 175
– management 1059
– types with difficult to
assess response
behavior 786
Well foundation 514
BS wood 361, 407
Federal Chamber of
Architects 109
Federal Engineer
chamber 109, 111, 118,
120
 Subject index 1187
– Permissible – stability, estimation Federal Foundation
652
Concrete sheathing 344 cation 384 Building culture 109
Concrete substrate 1071 – stitch 385
Concrete composite belt – Supports on the 383 C
275
Concrete composite – system 954 Caisson 67
panels,
Cost comparison 279 – Wall thicknesses of the box Caisson disease 67
Concrete tensile stress, in the transom area 383 Catwalk (auxiliary cable bridge) 452
Permissible – abutment 507 CFRP slats 1088
652 – Drawstring 397
1188 Subject index

CFRP mats 1088 Compressed air caisson 67 – Temperature 663

Chloride Compression preload 342 – variable 663
– intrusion 1013 Dowel recess 447 Impact combination
– salary 1012 Dowel group 944 tion 682
– corrosion 1019 Ductility 414 Ductility Impact model 561
testing Single compression member 710
D method 787 Railway bridges, stock in
Perineal area 879 Deflection, Germany 191
Damping 417, 780 discontinuous 315 Rail transport 532
– decrement 756 dynamic effects Reinforced concrete bridge, first 76
– properties 444 kings 755, 760 Iron bridge, first 41
– dimension 756, dynamic measurement 1064, Iron bridge, the first on
767 1065, 1066, 1067 the European
– ring 435
– System 423 Dynamic coefficient 757 Continent 41
Durability 196, 201, dynamic increment 757 Elastic mounting 470,
209, 271, 1010 DYWIDAG tensioning 472, 475
Continuous monitoring 98, drive 86, 232, 1097 Modulus of elasticity
99, of concrete 635
1062, 1063, 1067 E Elastomeric bearing 966, 967,
Surface layer 959, 960, 1023 real arch bridge 384, 406 968, 969, 970, 971, 972, 973,
Expansion joint 1021 Effective stiffness 592 974, 979, 980
Strain gauge 1063,
1064, 1065, 1066 Natural frequency 769 – reinforced 966
Elongation stiffness Tare weight composite 444, – soft 980
591
Decohesion corrosion 1019 448 – unanchored 969
Decohesion theory 1019 Dead load moment 949 – anchored 969
Decompression 647 Dead load cut sizes 951 Elegance 292
– Proof of the 665, 687 Residual stress 731, 736 Electronic hose
Monument protection 281 Binding length 517 scale 1064
Diagonal infill 405 Uniqueness 180 Element (VU invoice) 331
Diagonal connections 339 Simple test 1036 EMS scale 779
Diagonals, pre-tension in Simple abutment 497 Final creep number 635
the 405 Influence line 544 End crossmember 402
Diagonal truss 405 clamped sheet 363, Decision-making
Seal 959 384 – as part of structural
Sealing layer 959, 1022 Suspension bracket 54 bridge maintenance 1060
DINA, tapered edge Single-stroke mounting 340, Drainage 503
stake 441 935 Draft 195, 196, 197, 201,
Documentation 188 Single-leg cantilever 830 202, 204, 209, 210, 214, 215,
Double dowel 941 Bearing, support force- 218, 232, 236, 238
controlled 489
Double composite transverse Single-mass transducer – elements 174
cut 275, 409, 449, 953 780 Calibration of the – basis 169
Wire rope suspension bridge 64 Superstructure 860 – Principles 890
Drain line 504 Application criteria 877 – Criteria 891
Three - arch solution 403 Insertion 571 – planning 169
Three-hinged arch 363 Swimming in 955 – process 755
Three-hinged beam with Clamping degree 354 – diary 172
bottom Clamping ratio 696 – variants 197
horizontal crown-middle
joint 56 One-piece – goal 210
superstructure 406
Drill moments 298 Impacts 521 Epicenter 779
Subject index 1189
Print size 1063, 1066 – on abutment 692 Earthquake
Compressed air – permanent 528, 661 – activity 778
foundation 514
1190 Subject index

– stress 783, 793 778, 781, – effect 405 – with auxiliary 409, 830,
Roadway pylon 957
– events 782 – elevated 407 – with support beam 832
– intensity 779 – education 959 – with launching 832
– isolation 468, 475 – heating 732 gantry cantilever
bridge 89
– Characteristic – coating 959 Cantilever bridge,
values 779
– encumbran – covering, Concrete construction 87, 88, 302,
ces 535 maintenance 312,
– -Magnitude 779 setting 1084 313, 314, 315, 316
– device 465 – thick, plate 292 Cantilever wagon 87, 829,
Earth pressure 694 – open 962 884
Earth-anchored – boards, wooden 285 – top lying 884, 888
suspension bridge – rust completion 954 – bottom 884, 888
450
Determination of the – trough 955 Frequency tuning 770
required
Cross section of Fast-Track-Project 871 Fritz Leonhardt Prize 118
prestressing FE Frost cracks 1011
steel 671
Fatigue crack 399 – -Model 665 Fugue 1021
Fatigue resistance 572 – -net 330 Joining technology 900, 1025
Fatigue-appropriate detail – -Invoice 330, 331, 663, Fillers 440
training 350 665 Foundation 514
Fatigue analysis 602 Renewal Field bias voltage 827 Functional exclusion 180
of a directional Precast recess 945 Veneer plywood panels 287
roadway 406 Production lines 862 Footbridge 430, 759,
replacement Manufacturing processes
871
– area for wheel loads 663 – Parallelism 868 760, 762, 763, 764, 765, 766,
– coefficient method 786 Humidity 440 767, 768, 769, 770, 771, 773
– last 563, 786 Moisture size 1063, Pedestrian traffic 531
– model 625 1066
– temperature 738 Fish belly carrier 303 G
field
– temperature 738 Surface corrosion 1018 Fitness for purpose 196,
distribution vibration shallow foundation 406, 198, 209
519 514 flat grate shear plate curved beam
Upgrading 190
– of vaulted and arched ndication – circular 60
1048
bridges 368 Flat steel hanger 385 Curved supporting structure 432
Euler reference Flutter oscillation 423, 454 Joint 827
voltage 581 Splitting of trains 496, 502 Planning for building permit
application (HOAI phase 4) 178
Euler buckling – building 502 Riveted connection 446
stress 584 – position 497 Geogrid 502
European Macroseismic Scale – veneer 499 geometric imperfections
(EMS scale) 779 – walls 498 tion 563
Exposure classes 643 Fourier decomposition 760 Total cross-section value 593
external pre-tension 88, Cantilever 86, 406, 443, 825, Total system 559
606, 840, 870, 1096 826, 829, 830, 831, 832, 835, Total composite
837, 913, 936, 954 transverse
cut 594
F - more hip 830 Closed bridge 288
 Subject index 1191
Factory production – first prestressed Speed size 1063, 1066
839 concrete bridge in 86 Design 206, 207, 208,
Specialist catalogs 174 – in the balance beam
Timber framing
– breakdown 405 principle 829 209, 243
– beam 336 – classic 825 Coved carriers 335
– node 343 – with prefabricated Use of force 1024,
parts 833
– composite 344, 345, – with auxiliary 832, 1034
bridge 346 bracing 957 Arch bridge 362
1192 Subject index

Arch thickness 5 Main girder web 278 I

Lattice girder bridge 45 HDPE pipes 441 Imperfection
Sliding plate 843 Leverage law 43 – geometric 563
Sliding surface 917, 978, Manufacturing – structural 563
979, organization
980 tion 857 Civil Engineering Prize 118
Lubricant 843 Production site 850, Internal anchoring 629
Sliding plate 976 857 anchored curved
Sliding shoe 844 Manufacturing cycle 855 bridge 409, 450
Sliding safety 514, 720 HiAm (cone tapered Inspection, visual 1040
Limiting diameter of the stake) 440 Repair 190, 365,
concrete Auxiliary stiffening bar 884 367, 1069
steels 657
Limit moment line from Auxiliary construction – of the road surface 1084
954
Traffic loads 668 Auxiliary warehouse 844 – from rusting 1084
Limit shear force 600 Auxiliary pylon 830, 843, intensity 779
Large-area formwork 957 Interaction 755
Auxiliary support 829,
843
element 940 Backfill material 503 Internal tendon without
Ground failure safety 514, Backfill 503 Backfill, traffic bond 308
720 load Internal pre-tension 606
Basic frequency 756 Basic to 692
idea of the pre-chip High-performance concrete J
nens 304 299, Japan Meteorological Agency
Primer 1090 353 (JMA) 779
Foundation 167, 514, 515, Maximum bar spacing values JMA 779
519, 720, 721, 728 for reinforcing steel 657
Basic values of traffic loads Height-adjustable bearing 980 K
530 Hollow pillar 509 Cables
Hollow slab 292
Appraiser 172 Wooden beam bridge 3 – distances 416
Wood-concrete composite – arrangement, harp-like 92
H 361 – arrangement, multi-
Hammerhead 512 Wooden plank flooring cable system 92
961
Wooden track panel 38,
Suspension bridge 8 , 61, 62, 285 – bridge 62
63, Wooden cantilever – levels 412, 430
65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 73, bridge 3
74, 218, 450, 452, 454 Wooden blasting - catwalk 452
plant 14
– Earth-anchored 450 Horizontal movement 360 – assembly 73, 892
– first with fully effective Horizontal force bearing – saddle bearing 453
980
Stiffening beam 65 Horizontal loads 531 Spherical bearing 978
– anchored in itself 450 Howe, system of 40 Chamber wall 500
– Stitch of suspension HPC 96 Fighter 382
cable 452
– fake 450 H-pylon 418, 882 Fighter location 380
– stiffened 55 Lifting cylinder 844 Transom support 382
– Compilation (with largest Casing tubes, concrete Canal suspension bridge 64
spans) 75 cover of the 661 Capacity measurement 793
Hanger 385, 454 Cladding tubes, HDPE Cap construction 399
441
Subject index 1193
– level, inclined 399 Hopping frequency Carbonation 1014,
760
– assembly 954 Hydration of the young 1042
– vibrations 399 Concrete 732 Kastenfangedamm 17
Suspension unit 282, Hydration of the Box girder 545, 659
283
Harp arrangement 92 Cement 324 – Profile 546
Main load model 529, 531 Hydration cracks 1011 deformation
Principal moments 298 Heat of hydration 750 – Torsional stress
545
Main test 189, 1036- windy 73
1194 Subject index

Box abutment 496, 497, Cantilever prestressing 827 Langer's beam 385 Longitudinal
555, 695 Cantilever sash 497, 502 compressive forces from main
Chain suspension bridge 61 Corbel bridge 9 circularly load-bearing effect 448
Safety against tipping 514 curved Longitudinal section,
soft elastomer Carrier 60 haunched 341 Longitudinal
warehouse 980 Circular ring carrier 59 shear force bearing capacity
Bascule bridge 58 Creep redistribution 831 time 605
Climbing formwork 878 Creep distortion of the Longitudinal system 541
Climate impact 732 Concrete 634 Longitudinal displacement 935
Knagge 362 Criteria for draft 891 critical Longitudinal tensile stresses from
Carbon fiber cable 1097 frequency local load
combined pile - plates rich 770 introduction 449
Noise
Foundation 721 – harassment 519
Consoles, wide L – enclosure 1007
cantilevered 432 Bearings 464, 966, 967, 968, – protection 1002, 1003,
Construction height 335, 381 969, 971, 972, 973, 974, 975, systems 1004
structural timber 976, 978, 979, 980, 981, – protective 104
construction 1022 cover 104
protection 361 – protective slats
Continuity span – lift 534 Load
members 828 – arrangement 471 – spread 694
Contractor procedure 518 – types 475 – introduction, concen-
Controls 860 – Elastomeric bearing 965, trated 708
967,
Control corridor 968, 969, 970, 971, 972, 973, – introduction 601
501 length
Cone anchoring 440 974 – history 948
Convection 733 – height adjustable 980 – model 543
concentrated load – Spherical caps – model 1 530
978
introduction – Linear tilting 975 – model 2 530, 531
708 pad bearing
Coping bolt 276, 470, 969 – list 488 – position 663
Coupling joint 318, 320, – Point tilt 975 – distribution area 663
321, bearing
322, 323, 629, 659, 1012, – Roller bearing – distribution angle 663
975
1021 – damage 975, 980 Ongoing monitoring 1036
Coupling point – Sensor-equipped 489 Empty conduit 831, 842
841
Basket arch 363 – base 504 Teaching scaffold 168, 795, 796,
Correction of the gradient 316 – Steel 975 797, 798, 799, 800, 801, 802,
bearing
Corrosion – structural 803, 804
engineer
476
– susceptibility 344 – position, over- – Cruciani system 227, 796,
– mechanism 1016, 1017 test 1052 805-813
– medium 1017 – Pot bearing 975 Shoring condition 640
– process 1016, 1018 – Offset plan 488, 975, 981 Lightweight concrete 294, 837
– protection 399, 414, 436, – ways 731 Linear tilting pad 975
453,
1012 – resistance 487 Strand stroke 341
– blasting cracks – Train path 975 Pitting corrosion 1019
1011
 Subject index 1195
Cost 870 Storage 175, 463, 465, 467, Lock-in effect 765
Cost savings 273 Cost 468, 469, 470, 471, 472, 473, logarithmic attenuation
comparison 474, 475, 476, 477, 487, 492, decrement 756
– Concrete composite 279 493, 494 Localized corrosion 1016
panels
– Stretching beam – elastic 470, 472, 475 Long-line process 852
material
alien 444 – with fixed points 470, 474 Long, system of 40 air-jet spinning
Force size 1063, 1066 – oblique-angled 542 processes 62, 64,
Force reduction Proof of position safety 829 73, 450
coefficient 789, 790 Launching 571, 915
1196 Subject index

M Moment limit line 544 Surface corrosion 1050

Magneto-inductive testing of Monitoring 98, 1062, 1068 Top strap cleats 936
ropes 1052 Monocable pendant Top knot 337
Magnitude 779 bridge 453 Assembly Acceptance procedure (HOAI
Maillot arch 78 phase 9)
Object database 1061
Macroelement – stiffener 945 Open roadway 962
corrosion 1017 – calculation 568, 570, 571 Public institutions 172
Deficiency 1009 – measures 343, 953 In-situ concrete construction 839
Dimensional accuracy – process 395, 894, 936 Site-cast concrete displacement
854
Match-cast method 852 Mountability 360 vandalism stake 519
Material (vandalism
– insert 362 loading) 760, 766 P
– fatigue 560, 572, 1024, Parallel
1031 N – wire cable 62, 414, 440
– characteristic values, CFRP Sustainability of the – Wire rope, prefabricated 73
slats,
-Mats 1089 Building 300 - splitting of trains 497
– samples, sampling 1044 Trailing 847 – stranded cable 441
– change 346 Retensionability 609 Parallel wire ropes 62
mechanical leanness Addendum 188 Proof Parallelism of production
293 – the limitation of the processes 868
Multi-girder system 404 crack width in Pendulum frequency 762
Melan construction 77 longitudinal direction Persian bridge construction
Mercalli intensity 779 tion 689 wise 12
Measured variable – the limitation of the Pile foundation 514, 517,
1062, 1063 crack width in transverse 721
Microelement corro- direction Pile shell area 517
sion 1016 tion 690
Minimum spacing of – Decompression 665, 687 Pile - slab foundation, combined
tendons 660 721
Minimum concrete cover – of the permissible concrete Pillars 507, 508, 509, 510,
643, compressive stress 684 511, 513, 556, 710, 711, 715,
644 – of the permissible 716
Minimum concrete strength reinforcing steel
classes 643 voltage 685 – fork 356
Minimum reinforcement - of the permissible – head training 509
658, prestressing steel
659, 679, 714 voltage 687 – cross sections 509
Mixed construction, – guidance for – shaft 512
clamping resistance
concrete 609, warehouse - slimmer 716
841 698
Mixed construction 362, – against impact 714 – table 829
410, 445, 449 Model support Shunt voltages 343
Mixing system 409 method 711 modified Nominal dimension 644 Non-linear
Central girder arch Mercalli inten- methods of
bridge 386 sity (MMI) 779 Determination of internal forces 713
Center girder bridge 429, 430, Möllerträger 303 Normal forces in the yield beam 417
432 Emergency plan 1068
MMI 779 Zero measurement 493, 1063
Modal analysis 98, 783, 784 Service life 196, 201
Modal form 1062
Modeling 538, 539 O
Overhead cantilever wagon 884
 Subject index 1197
Arrow height 380
Arrow ratio 380
Pilgrim step procedure 936,
951
Mushroom bridge,
development 309
Mushroom head 310
Planning
approval 172
Planning approval
Conclusion 166
Planning parameters 242
Level of detail used in planning
172
Planning competition 114,
117
Plan 169
1198 Subject index

Plasticizing 750, 1024, Shear force bearing capacity Friction 618, 670, 844
1026, 1032, 1034 278 Relaxation, stress changes
Plates Cross frame 278 staking in prestressing steel 674
Cross frame system 406
– beam 273 Cross section Resonance 533
– bridge 291, 292, 293, 294, – aero-wing-like 73 Resonance oscillation 762
299, 300, 301, 660-662 – art 242 Residual surface load 663
– thick 251 – supplement 1100, 1101 Revolution in the
– Thickness of the concrete – form, concrete 292 Construction 83
roadway slab 292 bridges 284 Directional roadway,
– form, wooden renewal
bridges
– cross section 244 – geometry 242 staking of a 406
– slenderness 293 – height at the top of Technical guidelines and standards 171
the
– systems made of 287 Sheet 383 Tear
plywood
– systems, transversely – classes 562 – distanc 653
pretensioned 286 – Choice 241 e 591
– systems, glued 286 – values 609, 661 – Format
ion of
crack
width
– systems, nailed 286 – values, calculation 675 – limitation 605, 649, 659
– systems, bolted 286 – values, concrete 611, – Proof of limitation
gross
– tectonics 778 662 in longitudinal direction 689
– prestressed, Calculation – values, concrete net 612, – Proof of limitation in
example 660-662 676 transverse direction 690
Pontoon bridge 10 – Values, non-material – Calculated value of the 653, 657
612, 676
Portal pylon 418 – values, prestressing – fluctuation 1020
Price index 182 steel 610 Cross system cracks
541
Presses Cross member – in concrete 1011
845
– Train pressure Cross member connection – in concrete, assessment
844 339
Press contact area 500 Transverse displacement 158, lation 1040
Primary preload 192, 799, – in the surface layer 1047
800, 818, 918, 919, 920, 921,
– centric 840 923, 925 Robustness reinforcement 679
Principle of Point tilt bearing 975 Transversely prestressed panel
prestressed Pylons 435, 513, 878, 954 systems 286
concrete 307 Transverse tension 625, 698
Trial load 367, 1044
Audit 183 R
Testing, simple 1036 Wheel load, replacement area for 663
Test method 1039 Wheel traffic 531
Test target 1039 Rigid frame bridges 350, 351,
Pseudo acceleration 781 352, 353, 354, 355, 356, 358,
Pseudo displacement 360
Response spectrum 781 Frame corner moment 360
punctiform rust Frame structure 361
education 1047 Ramming 517
Driven piles 517
 Subject index 1199
Pipe framework 346 Roman bridges, formation,
Pipe node made of together punctiform 1047
Cast steel 349 presentation of selected 20, Rust appearance, flat
Pipe cross-section 344 21, 22, 23 1048
Roller bearings 975 Rust Feedback effect 766
Vibration pressure compaction 515
– cantilever 832 Boundary conditions 870
constructi 435 Room joint 502 S
on
– temporary
– types 418 spatial framework 347 Seasonal fluctuation of
Realization competition temperature effects 741
Q application 168 Refurbishment 1069
QS plate 38, 286 Slide rule principle 316 Remediation procedure 1070
Crossbar 881 Calculated value method Saddle elements 892
Cross-influence lines 713 Friction life stresses Damage 1009
544 Cross-tensioned chung 1020 Cause of damage 1009
composite Fretting corrosion 1020
plate 401
1200
damage-equivalent shear Welding iron 44
stress vibration width 604 Welder 192, 270, 271,
Formwork carriage 731, 900, 903, 909, 910,
846, 939 crest 1032, 1105
Weld seam connection
– area 381 detail 399
– height 397 Normal shrinkage force
597
– reduction 367 Shrinkage distortion of
the
Misaligned bearing 542 Concrete 635
Rail fastening 964 Vibrations 417, 533
Ship's bridge 3 , 11 Vibration hazard 770
slender pillar 716 Vibration problems 754,
Slenderness of the panel 755
293 Slenderness ratio, Vibration damper 771, 773
Stiffening girder for Segment
composite tied arch – Delivery of the 863
bridges 397 – construction 849, 868,
869,
Slurry wall 517 Beak 870, 871, 873, 876, 877
lifting device – construction with a
teaching
tion 845 scaffolding
858
Snow loads 535 – arch bridge 7 – first with compound 84
Cutting edge support 499 – bridge 849
Redistribution of internal building 854
forces – geometries
with sectional - production 850, 854
Building 636 – production, process
Roadbed 962 for 853
Ballast superstructure – assembly 854, 858, 862
964 – relocation 861
Inclined sash 497
Angled cable 65, 68, 775, 776 – pre-tension 861
Cable-stayed bridges 90, 91, Rope
92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 216, 226, - art 414, 436
232, 326, 410, 412, 414, 415, – bridge 9
423, 424, 425, 429, 430, 433, – levels 954
435, 436, 439, 443, 444, 446, – Stiffness change 416
448, 450, 878 - fully sealed 414,
– Stiffness 414 439
– System 327 Ropeway 63
– Systems 411 seismic performance
Angled cable, dynamic criteria 788, 790
properties 776 seismic coefficient 787,
Inclined stem frame 788
bridge 351 Lateral guide 844
Scraped shelf 961 Secant module 414
Walking formwork Secondary tendons 841
513
Subject index
Siemens-Martin process 45
Simpson's rule 617
Nominal form 564
Special design 180
Solar radiation 242,
733
Gap
– corrosion 1049
– Tensile stress 401
– tension reinforcement 472, 626
– tears 401
– Tensile stress 698
Tensioning strap 457
Tensioning strap bridges 101,
102, 103, 220, 456, 457, 459
– Selection of executed
Bridges 458
Prestressed
concrete bridge
- first 85, 306
– First known
draft 85
Prestressed concrete, principle
307
Fitted bed 607
Tensioning bed pre-tensioning 607
tendon
– Connection of the precast
Crossbeam to pylon
uprights 883
- external 1097
– guidance 301, 621
– internal without 308
compound
– Minimum distances 660
of the
Tensile strength
– course 672
– loss 631, 671
Tension rod steel bundle 414
prestressing steel
– cross-section,
determination of the
required 671
– stresses, verification of the
permissible 687
– voltage, permissible 654
Subject index 1201
Step frequency 760 Countersunk – tempered 1019
box 67
Shrinkage cracks 1011 Sensor 1062, 1063, 1064 Stress change in prestressing
Thrust flow difference 604 Sensor-equipped bearings steel due to relaxation 674
Push garland 941 489 Voltage limitation 683
Shear skin 405 Settlements 534 Stress cracks 1011
Shear force introduction Short-line method 852 Stress crack corro-
400 Safety model 561 sion 1018
Thrust distortion 696 Seepage layer 504
Protective layer 959
1202
Voltage peak 331, 1024,
1033, 1095
Clamping method 308, 527,
606, 616, 619, 1097
– Baur-Leonhardt 86
– BBRV 1098
– Bilfinger and Berger 670,
672, 1097
– Dywidag 86, 232, 1097
– Freyssinet 83
– LEOBA 86, 320
– with subsequent
bonding 608
– Suspa 1097
– Prestressing technology
1097
Clamping operation 867, 900
Span ranges with two
Cable levels 424
Chipboard plywood panels
287
Blasting unit 361
Spray mist area 506
Sheet pile abutment 498
Bar spacing of the
reinforcing steel,
maximum values of the
657
tied arch
– bridge 378, 384, 396, 954,
956
– designs 399
– system 396, 403
– composite bridges 954, 956
– -composite bridges,
compilation of selected
Bridges 398
Bar printing sheet 397
Reinforced concrete semi-
circular arch 409
Reinforced concrete
pylon 878
Reinforced concrete
composite
plate 951
Reinforced concrete
double-jointed
frame 350
Cast steel node 61
Cast steel pipe knots 349
Subject index
permanent effects 528, Preservation of substance 189
661 Synchronous action 766
Stationary precast plant Synchronization effect 766
850 System
Static height 660 – Amendment 636
Static measurement 1064, – damping 423
1065, 1066, 1067 – of the cable-
static systems of arched stayed bridges
327
bridges 379 – mutations 212, 213, 214
Dam bridge 12 – stiffness 454
Stiffness of the stay cable pre-tension 565
bridge 414 Stiffness change of
t
heT
Rope 416 Time of day-dependent progression
Stiffness requirement 242 the replacement temperature
Stone arch bridge 16 distribution 740
Stone slab bridge 4 , 10 bar
Stitch of suspension – cellar 843
cables for – length 840
suspension bridges
452
Butt jointing of – pushing 87, 90,
clamping elements procedure 326,
842 839, 840
Road bridges, stock in Dew
Germany 190 – medium 1010
Road traffic 529 – salt 1010
Strut framework 336 – salt water, access
– Postless 432 from 1014
Struts, angled 278 Technical implementation
Drawbeam 423, 424, 425, planning 864
430, 431, 433, 443, 881 Teflon plates 844
– Suspension 418 Sub-processes 871
– made of Partial safety factors for
concrete 426 actions 526
– made of steel
429
– in composite Partial prefabrication 944
construction 427 Plate anchor 1004
– Normal forces in the Temperature
418
– system 428 – Building reactions 734
– Stiffening beam 329 – claim 731, 732,
Current pillar 508 structural 740, 741, 743, 746, 754
imperfections – Conditional twisting 738
tion 563 – elongation, uneven
Supports 507, 508, 510, 511, 736
512, 513, 710, 711, 715, 716 – effects 534, 663,
 Subject index
Steel-wood composite
bridges 288
Steel cladding pipes
441
Steel box with overlying
concrete roadway 406
Steel bearing 974
Steel upper belt 345
Steel composite construction
275
Steel reinforcement beam
399
1203
– on the sheet 383 732
– head 511 – developmen 734
t
Support moment 135, 350, – reactions 748
569, 638, 670, 682, 741, 826, – difference, vertical 742
829, 916, 1112, 1113 temporary
Support fluid 517 – Support or bracing 830
Support line 363
Support line effect 375 – on-site 850
Submission 182 manufacturing
– Pre-tension of
the pylons 435
1204 Subject index

Scheduling 876 Maintenance 189 Underfilm Bonding 38, 98, 285,

Thomas procedure 45 corrosion of the under- 1090, 1091, 1094, 1095
Depth vibration 515 rock 1048 Laying position 866
Deep foundation 514, 728 Untensioned beam 218 Laying technique 866 glued
Tilger 771, 772, 773 Unanchored elastomeric panels
Pot bearing 976 Torsional warehouse 969 systems 286
moments, lost formwork 940 Loss of
Plate 298 V pre-tensioning
Torsional vibration 424 vandal loading (willful power 674
Torsional stiffness 274, 402, incitement) 760 Surveying 854
424 variable influences 529, nailed panel
Load-bearing capacity, 663 anchored systems 286
assessment 1057 elastomer Publication organs
Support cable 954 warehouse 969 179
Suspension ropes 457 Anchoring area 879, Pipework 517
Load safety 196, 197, 209 882 Sliding track 839
Structural cross-section 241 Anchoring stem 879 Displacement bearing 843, 844
Structural system 167 Responsibility of the Move 955
Trapezoidal frame structure Engineers 2 Displacement states 867
361 Bandage system 402 Displacement response 469,
Release agent 843 Connections, riveted 446 780
Widening 192 compound Possibility of soiling 399
U
Superstructure, one-piece 406
Superstructure – arch bridge 397, 957 Screwed panel
construction 409
Superstructures 540 – bridges, concrete-timber systems 286
Elevations 831 289 Shunting system 843, 844,
– bridges, steel-wood 288
Checking the storage – bridge systems 397 954
position 1052 – half-timbered Reinforcement 191, 828, 1087
Overvoltage reserve 671 construction 348 Stiffened suspension bridge 55
Monitoring, – fugue 344, 409, 410, 446, Stiffening beam
running 1036 590, 593, 596, 599, 600, 605, bending 405 Stiffening
UHPC 97, 293 941, 948, 1024, 1027, 1092, beam/extension beam
Ultra high-strength 1100, 1102 carrier 396, 403, 457
concrete 97,
98, 293 - plate, cross-tensioned 401 Distortion variable 1063,
Environment – load-bearing effect 590, 1065
206 593
Reassignment of external – full-wall bridge 340 VFT design 944
Tendons 843 Compaction of the soil 515 Visualization 205, 206
Reverse cable 69 Displacement pile 518 Visual inspection 1040
Deflection angle 618, 670 Twisting, temperature- Solid plate 292
Wrapping 454 conditional 738 Fully locked ropes 414,
Non-genuine suspension Doweling detail 400 Process 439
bridge 450 uneven for segmental thermal Solid wall arch 284 Stem
temperature insulation
elongation 735 position 853
discontinuous deflection 315 Allocation 182 – beak 843, 844
cantilevered cantilevered Reference variable 1062, – carriage 825
structure below 1063
car 888 692 Bottom chord knot 338
Substructures 174, 495, 500, Subsurface classification,
501, 504, 507, 510, 513, 554, seismic 791
 Subject index 1205
Potting 439 Pre-dimensioning 661, 668
Grouting mortar 981 Pre-expansion 613
Quenched and tempered Prestressed slab bridge,
prestressing steel 1019 Live load Calculation
on rear example 660-
filling 692 662
Traffic load groups 530 prestressed
concrete
joint 501, 506, 827, 828
1206 Subject index

Retention dimension – before the concrete Effective concrete surface 656

644, 660 hardens 308, 606, 607 Profitability 196, 202,
Pre-assembly station 877
951 W Weekly cycle 839
Preliminary planning Balance beam 825
166
Regulations 172
Feed rate 862
– armor 87, 813, 814, 815, Balance beam principle 829 Z
816, 817, 818, 819, 820, 821, Wall thicknesses of the box at Time advantage876
822, 823, 824, 825 Transom area 384Cement injection 440
– stations 937 Thermal expansion coeffi-centric primary prestressing
Pre-tensioning, basic idea 304 cient 734 Heat ning 840, 841
Pre-tensioning force development from the Drawstring 278, 396
– Reduction at coupling Hydration of Push-pull presses 844
joints 659 the cement 324 Draw bascule bridge 58
– limited 86 Heat flow 734 Train paths 346, 966, 980 Tensile
– required 665 Maintenance aisle stresses on working
501
– First application in Water binding agent value joints from the heat
concrete bridge 1015 development from the
construction on test W/B value 1015 hydration of the cement
specimen 82 Displacement transducer 324
1063, 1064
– external 88 Path size 1063 permissible
– internal 88 wide – Concrete compressive stress,
overhanging
– without compound Consoles 432 Proof of the 684
85
– Course 672 World cultural heritage – Reinforcing steel
– Losses 674 109, 110 stress, verification of
Workshop form 564 685
Pre-tension 527, 606, 616, Competition 108, 109, 111, – Prestressing steel
849, 951, 952, 953 115, 116, 117, 119, 120, 126, stress, verification of
687
– as mixed construction 128, 144, 169, 180, 224, 236, Additional slats 346
308
– limited 86 273, 334, 414, 806, 825 State
– first application in Wheatstone measuring – rating 1054
concrete bridge bridge 1065 – database 1061
construction on
Test specimen 82 Abutment 495, 496, 497, Access of de-icing salt
– external 192, 606, 608, 498, 499, 501, 502, 503, 504, water 1014
609, 614, 840, 870, 1096 505, 506, 507, 554, 694, 695, Forced
– eccentric, composite 696, 697, 698, 699, 706, 707, – stress 731, 737
loose 841 708, 709 - moment 302, 621, 670
– in the diagonals 405 – simple 497 – moments from pre
– internal 606 – Effects on 692 ning 302
– Mixed construction – box-shaped 496 – cut size 351, 606,
841
– with subsequent – Verification 620, 638
composite 308, 607, 608, management for the – cut size, time-dependent
698
615, 616, 841 - wall 496, 500, 706 638
– with Resistance model 561 Double joint
immediate
 Subject index 1207
Composite 308, 309, Wind loads 535 Sliding - arch 363, 382
606, wind box – frame 350
607, 614, 616
– without compound 192, carrier 73 two-part slab beam,
308,
309, 606, 614, 841 Wind currents 423 crossmemberless 316
Angle size 1063, 1066