Combined Science Notes

ABSOLUTE VISION COLLEGE
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CHEMISTRY SECTION
COMBINED SCIENCE NOTES
FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION OF LIQUID AIR
*This process produces major gases in air that are Nitrogen (78%) and Oxygen (21%),
*Fractional distillation can be conducted in two stages : kkkk

STAGE 1 = LIQUEFACTION
*Air is filtered to remove dust , the cooled to -550C to remove water and carbon dioxide ,
*The remaining gases are repeatedly cooled until it reaches -2000C. At this stage, Nitrogen and
Oxygen becomes liquids.
STAGE 2 = FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION
*The liquid air is passed into the fractionating column,
*The column is warmer at the bottom than it is at the top ,
*Nitrogen boils first at -1960C at the bottom and rises to the top , where it is piped of f and
stored ,
*Liquid Oxygen remains and boils at -1830C , so it collects at the bottom of the column.
FORWARD IN EXCELLENCE!!!
COMPILED BY: K.Dangare
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MATTER
*An atom is the smallest particle of an element.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
*An atom consists of sub – atomic particles that are : electrons , protons and neutrons ,
*Electrons are negatively charged, protons are positively charged and neutrons have zero charge,
*Electrons are found in the shells whereas protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus ,
*Both the protons and the neutron have a mass of one .The mass of electron is 1 1840 of
the proton .
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Particle Charge Mass Allocation

Electron -1 1 Shells
1840
Proton +1 1 Nucleus
Neutron 0 1 Nucleus
*ATOMIC NUMBER: It is the number of protons contained by one atom of the element
E.g : Atomic number of Carbon is 6 , therefore it contains 6 protons ;Atomic number of Calcium
is 20 therefore it contains 20 protons.
*ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION : It shows the arrangement of electrons in an atom of an

element .
*First shell contains a maximum of two electrons , any other shell from second shell and
above carries a maximum of 8 electrons ,
*Electrons will first fill first level , when this is full (with two electrons), the electrons will go
to the next level in the second shell. When second shell is full with 8 electrons ,the electrons
will go to the third shell.
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NAMES OF FIRST 20 ELEMENTS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE
Name of Symbol Electronic Name of Symbol Electronic

Element Atomic Configuration Element Atomic Configuration
number number
Hydrogen 1 H 1 Sodium 11 Na
Helium 2 He 2 Magnesium 12 Mg
Lithium 3 Li Aluminium 13 Al
Beryllium 4 Be Silicon 14 Si
Boron 5 B Phosphorus 15 P
Carbon 6 C Sulphur 16 S
Nitrogen 7 N Chlorine 17 Cl
Oxygen 8 O Argon 18 Ar
Flourine 9 F Potassium 19 K
Neon 10 Ne Calcium 20 Ca
MASS NUMBER: It is the sum of protons and neutrons found in the nucleus of an atom of
element ,
e.g Oxygen has 8 protons and 8 neutrons , therefore mass of oxygen = 8+8 = 16;
Sodium has 11 protons and 12 neutrons therefore mass of Sodium = 11 + 12 = 23
NUCLIDE NOTATION
*Nuclide Notation can be indicated by the Chemical Symbol :
where X = Symbol of element; y= mass number and z = atomic number
e.g shows nuclide notation of Nitrogen where 14 = mass number,7 = atomic number and N=
Symbol of Nitogen
ISOTOPES
*Isotopes are forms of an element with different mass numbers e.g and ; and ;
and
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HOMEWORK
**a)Describe the properties of group I , II , VII and VIII,
b)State the use of halogens
THE REACTIVITY SERIES
*It is a list of metals that are arranged in order of their reactivity,
*The most reactive metals are found at the top of the series whilst the least reactive at the
bottom of the series.
THE REACTIVITY SERIES
Sodium Na Most reactive
Calcium Ca
Magnesium Mg Increasing
Aluminum Al -ease of loss of electrons
Zinc Zn - reactivity with Oxygen and water
Iron Fe -power of displacement
Tin Sn
Lead Pb
Hydrogen H least reactive
Copper Cu
Mercury Hg
Silver Ag
Gold Au
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REACTIVITY OF METALS WITH OXYGEN
*Metal s from Magnesium to iron in the series readily form an oxide layer in air e.g
Magnesium reacts with oxygen in air to form magnesium oxide
** Magnesium + Oxygen Magnesium oxide
**Zinc + Oxygen Zinc Oxide
**Iron + Oxygen Iron Oxide
***Copper will only react with oxygen upon heating
REACTIVITY OF METALS WITH WATER
**Metals at the top of the series e.g Magnesium , Zinc and iron will all react very slowly with
water that is they all react with steam,
**They react with water to form metal – oxide and hydrogen gas,
** metal + water metal oxide + hydrogen
*** magnesium + water magnesium oxide + hydrogen
**Metals at the bottom of the series do not react with water e.g Copper
REACTIVITY OF METALS WITH DILUTE ACIDS
**Metals above Copper in the series react with dilute acids to form hydrogen gas and salt,
Metal + acid Salt + hydrogen
e.g Magnesium + hydrochloric acid magnesium chloride + hydrogen
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INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES
MANUFACTURE OF SULPHURIC ACID
THE CONTACT PROCESS
*Raw materials are : sulphur , or a sulphide ore , oxygen from air and water,
**Three stages are essential in the manufacture and these are :
1)Preparation of sulphure dioxide
Sulphur + oxygen sulphur dioxide
*At this stage sulphur is burnt in air or sulphide ore is heated in air,
2)Preparation of sulphur (VI) oxide
Sulphur dioxide + Oxygen sulphur trioxide
*During this stage , purified sulphur dioxide and air are passed over a vanadium (v) oxide
catalyst at a temperature of 4500C.
3)Preparation of sulphuric acid
Sulphur trioxide + water sulphuric acid.
*This stage is performed in two parts:
Firstly the sulphur trioxide is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid to produce oleum .The the
oleum is then diluted to give concentrated sulphuric acid.
NB:SULPHUR TRIOXIDE cannot be added directly to water since the reaction is violent and
dangerous.
THE INDUSTRIAL USES OF SULPHURIC ACID
*Used in making fertilizers such as ammonium sulphate,
*used in making synthetic fibres , plastics , detergents , car batteries , dyes and drugs,
*it is used in petrol refining and for cleaning metals and paper making
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MANUFATURE OF AMMONIA
THE HABER PROCESS
*Ammonia is manufactured by synthesis from its elements
NITROGEN GAS + HYDROGEN GAS AMMONIA GAS
*Nitrogen is obtained by the fractional distillation of liquid air and hydrogen by electrolysis of
water,
*The gases are dried and compressed to about 350atm and heated to 4500C.Iron is used as a
catalyst . These conditions are necessary to obtain satisfactory yield of ammonia.
THE INDUSTRIAL USES OF AMMONIA
*Used to manufacture ammonium nitrate and dyes
METALS AND NON METALS
*Metals consists of three or less electrons in the outermost shell whereas non metals consists
of four electrons and more in the outermost shell .
CALCULATING MOLECULAR MASS
*The relative molecular mass (Mr) is equal to the sum of the atomic masses.
*Mr has no units ,
*When Mr is expressed in grams ,it becomes the mass of one molecule.
e.g One molecule of H2SO4 =(2×1) +32 + 16×4 = 98g
**One molecule of water ,H2O = 1×2 + 16 = 18g
**One molecule of CO2= 12 +16×2 = 44g
CONVERTING FROM GRAMS TO MOLE
**number of moles =
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n=
e.g Calculate how many moles are
a) 15g of H atoms
b)34g of ammonia molecules NH3
SOLUTIONS
a) Mass of H atoms = 15g
**Relative atomic mass of H= 1

number of moles = = 15
b)Mass of ammonia = 34g
Mr of NH3 = 17
number of moles = =2
AVOGADRO CONSTANT
**One mole of any substance will always consist of the same number of particles known as
the Avogadro Constant.
The Avogadro Constant = 6.02 × 1023
**One mole of atoms is always 6.02 × 1023 atoms
**One mole of molecules is always 6.02 × 1023 molecules Ar
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION
×
% composition = × 100
e.g What are the % composition of elements in H2O ?
Mr of H2O = 2 +16 = 18
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×
%composition of hydrogen = × 100 = 11,1 %
×
%composition of Oxygen = × 100 = 88,9%
EMPIRICAL FORMULA
*The empirical formulae of a compound shows the simplest ratio of the number of atoms of
each element in a compound,
*To calculate the empirical formula of a compound ,the mass or % of each element in the
compound is divided by its Ar which gives the number of moles of each element.
**The empirical formula is the simplest ratio of these number of moles,
e.g A compound is found to contain 27,3% Carbon and 72,7% of oxygen .What is its empirical
formula ? (C= 12 ;O=16)
Element mass mass÷Ar Number of moles Simplest ratio

Carbon 27,3 27,3 ÷12 2,27 ,
=1:2
,
Oxygen 72,7 72,7÷16 4,54
THE CONCENTRATION OF THE SOLUTION
**The concentration of a solution is the number of moles of solute dissolved in one litre
(1dm3)of solution.
Concentration =
**1dm3 = 1000cm3
**Unit of concentration = moldm-3 or mol/dm3 or M
e.g 400cm3 of NaCl solution were found to contain 0,5 a mol of NaCl . What was the
concentration of the solution?
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,
Concentration = =1,25M
,
FORMATION OF IONIC BONDS
**Ionic bonds can be formed by the transfer of electrons,
**Ionic bonds are formed between metals and non metals ,
Example : Sodium metal burns in chlorine to form the ionic compound Sodium Chloride
Sodium + Chlorine Sodium Chloride
2Na + Cl2 2NaCl
*During this reaction , sodium and chlorine atoms forms ions ,
***An ion is an atom which is electrically charged,
*The Sodium atom will loose its electron and Chlorine atom will gain that electron :
Na Na+ + e-
Cl + e- Cl-
*Both Sodium and Chlorine achieve a rare gas structure,
*The electrostatic attraction between the opposite charged ions of Sodium and Chlorine is called
ionic bond
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*ionic bonding in NaCl
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FORMATION OF COVALENT BOND
*Covalent bonds are formed by the co sharing of electrons between covalent atoms,
*A covalent bond consists of two shared electrons.
e.g : The covalent bond between hydrogen atoms
**By sharing their electrons, each hydrogen atom achieves the stable electron structure of the rare
gas helium
Example 2: Draw the electron diagram of molecule of water:
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HOME WORK
1)Briefly describe the fractional distillation of liquid Air (8)
2a)Name the sub atomic particles (1)
b)Give the differences between sub atomic particles (3)
3a)Define the term ‘Atomic number ‘ (1)
b)What do you understand by the term ‘ electronic Configuration’ (1)
c)Write down the electronic configurations of the following elements :
i)Oxygen (1) ii)Magnesium (1)
4a)Define mass number (1)
b)Given that the nuclide notation of Sodium atom is
i)State the mass number of Sodium atom (1)
ii)Calculate the number of neutrons of Sodium atom (2)
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5a)Define an isotope (1)

b)Give any two atoms that are isotopes (2)
6)Explain giving examples how you would distinguish between a metal and a non metal (2)
DUE DATE : THURSDAY 24 MAY 2018
Homework
1. Calculate how many moles are in:

a) 36g of H2o [2]
b) 9,8g of H2O [2]
2. calculate the molecular mass of
a) nitric acid HNO3 [2]
b) ammonium nitrate NH4NO3 [2]
3. State the Avogadro constant. [1]
4. Calculate the percentage of each element in the following
compounds calcium carbonate, Ca l O3 .[3]
5. Calculate the empirical formula from the following data: nitric
acid :%hydrogen =1,6 ; %nitrogen =22,2 %; %oxygen= 76,2 %
[6]
6. Draw labeled diagram to show how bonds are in the following
compounds:
a) Magnesium chloride [3]
b) Water [3]
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ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
*An acid is a substance which forms hydrogen ions in solution (i.e a proton donor)
*Water will ionize acids e.g
HCL (aq) H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
pH
*The acidity of a solution is related to a pH scale of 0 to 14
pH 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Increasing acid Strength Increasing base strength
neutral
*pH is a numerical value and has no units ,
*pH is related to the concentration of acids and bases ,
UNIVERSAL INDICATOR
*The colour of universal indicator solution or paper varies throughout the pH range .
pH scale 123 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Colour red orange yellow green blue purple
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REACTION OF ACIDS WITH BASES
*When acids and bases react together , a salt and water is formed
i.e acid + base salt + water
e.g Hydrochloric acid + Sodium hydroxide Sodium Chloride + water
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) Na(aq) + H2O(l)
REACTION OF ACIDS WITH METALS
*Acids reacts with metals to form salts and hydrogen gas
Acid + metal salt + hydrogen
e.g Hydrochloric acid + Magnesium Magnesium Chloride + Hydrogen gas
2HCl (aq) + Mg(s) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
HOME WORK
*Write down an equation for the reaction between Hydrochloric acid with
a)Zinc b)Calcium Carbonate c)Sodium hydroxide
Due date : Friday 15 June 2018
Time : 8am
INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES
*Nitrogen and Oxygen gases are produced by the fractional distillation of liquid air ,
ELECTROLYSIS
*definition: It is the decomposition of a compound by electricity
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ELECTROLYTIC CELL
*This consists of connecting wires, cathode, anode, battery and electrolyte.
*Electrolyte is a substance which react when electricity is passed through it ,
*Electrodes : these are materials that conduct electricity (wires , rods or plates ) which makes
an electrical contact with the electrolyte,
*Cathode: it is a negative electrode
*Anode: It is a positive electrode
ELECTROLYSIS OF LEAD (II) BROMIDE
*Carbon electrodes are used ,
*This experiment must be carried under high pressure which is required to melt lead
bromide into liquid state ,
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*The metal lead is produced at the cathode and bromine gas is produced at the anode ,
The electrode reactions are as follows :
**at the cathode : Pb+(l) + 2e- Pb(l)
**at the anode : 2Br-(l) Br2(g) + 2e-
ELECTROLYSIS OF DILUTE SULPHURIC ACID (WATER)
*Carbon electrodes are used.
**Ions formed by the reaction:
H2SO4(aq) 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
H2O(aq) H+(aq) + OH-(aq)
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**The electrode reactions are as follows :
AT THE CATHODE : H + ions receives electrons and then combine to form molecules :
2H+(aq) + 2e- H2(g)
AT THE ANODE :
*Sulphate ions (SO42-(aq)) and OH-(aq) ions move there where OH-(aq) ions are discharged
preferentially ,
* OH- loose electrons to form water and oxygen
4OH-(aq) 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e-
N.B : the sulphate ions will never be discharged
N.B : Hydrogen gas is discharged at the cathode whilst Oxygen is discharged at the anode.
USES OF OXYGEN AND HYDROGEN
**Oxygen is used in steel making , welding and medical uses ,
*Hydrogen is used in the welding , making of fertilizers and in the manufacture of margarine.
ELECTROPLATING
**The purpose of electroplating materials is to protect them from rusting and to decorate them,
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**Metals e.g steel can be plated using electrolysis
EXPERIMENT TO SHOW ELECTROPLATING OF IRON WITH COPPER
AT THE ANODE
Cu(s) Cu+(aq) + 2e-
AT THE CATHODE
** Cu+(aq) + 2e- Cu(s)
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*The ions in solution that are deposited as copper atoms at the cathode are replaced by
the ions that dissolves form the anode .
*In the process , copper atoms form a thin layer of metal firmly attached to the nail to be
plated.
OXIDATION AND REDUCTION
OXIDATION
DEFINITION 1
*It is the addition of oxygen to a substance e.g. combustion.

I. S(o) + o2 (g) SO2(g)
II. 2CO(g) +O2 (g) 2CO2(g)
DEFINATION 2
It is the removal of hydrogen from a substance

I. e.g 2NH3(g) N2(g) + 3H2(g)
Heated iron
DEFINATION 3
it is the loss of electrons

e.g Na (aq) Na + te
Mg (aq) Mg2t t 2 e----
REDUCTION
It is the opposite of oxidation.

DEFINATION 1
It is the removal of oxygen from a substance eg 2NaNO3(S) 2NaNO2(S) +O2(g)
DEFINATION2
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It is the addition of hydrogen to a substance

Ethene ethane
C2H4(g) + H2(g) C2H6(g)
DEFINATION 3
It is the gain of elections
e.g Nat(ag) + e Na (s)
2t
Cu(aq) + 2e Cu(s)
REDOX REACTIONS
Redox reaction, both oxidation and reduction occur.

Redox reaction also occurs in the reaction of copper oxide with hydrogen.
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EXTRACTION OF IRON FROM IRON CORE
THE BLAST FURNACE
The blast furnace is used to extract the iron from ore.
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RAW MATERIALS FOR THE BLAST FURNACE
Iron ore (Fe2O3) Calcium carbonate /calcium carbonate CaCO3; coke/ carbon/c.
MAIN REACTIONS
1. FROMATION OF CARBON MONOXIDE
Carbon monoxide is produced in the blast furnace when coke first burns in compressed
hot air.
a) C(S) + O(2)(g) CO2(G) –DH
The carbon dioxide then reacts with more carbon to produce CO
b) CO2(G) +C(s) 2CO(g)
2. REDUCTION
Iron (iii) oxide is reduced by CO to produce iron.
Fe2O3 + 3CO(G) 2Fe(c) +3CO2(g)
3. REMOVAL OF IMPURITIES
limestone (calcium carbonate) is used to remove impurities as liquid slag
in the blast furnace.
In a process ; heated limestone decomposes to form calcium oxide and
carbon dioxide
CaCO3(S) HEAT CaO(s) + CO2(g)
CaO (Calcium oxide) will combine with earthly impurities such as silican
(iv)oxide (sand)to form a liquid slag.
CaO(S) + SiO2(s) CaSiO3(S)
CALCIUM OXIDE + SILICXAN DIOXIDE CALCIUM SILICATE.
ALLOYS OF IRON
MATERIALS PROPERTIES USES
Cast Iron Up to 4% Carbon .Very Engine blocks
brittle
Mild steel 0,2% Carbon .Easily Car bodies , bridges , rail
machined and welded .Low road , equipment , bolts etc
cost
Stainless Steel 18% Carbon , 6% nickel. Cooking utensils , hospital
Resists corrosion and equipment , equipment for
staining chemistry industry
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ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Hydrocarbon- Definition: it is a compound which contains hydrogen and carbon.
SATURATED HYDROCARBONS
Saturated hydrocarbons contain single covalent bonds only.
ALKANES
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons. This means that molecules of alkanes consist of
carbon and hydrogen atoms only and single covalent bonds only.
Examples of alkanes are: methane, ethane and propane.
STRUCTURES OF METHANE; ETHANE AND PROPANE
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ALKENES
Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons

Unsaturated compounds contain double or triple bonds between carbon atoms.
General formula for alkene is CnH2n. Examples of alkenes are: ethene and propene.
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USES
Methane, ethane and propane can be used as a fuel.
Ethane is used to make ethanol and plastics
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ALCOHOLS
*Alcohols are organic compounds containing hydroxyl group , -OH,
*They are named after alkanes ,
*The alcohols form homologous series with general formula C nH2n+1OH
STRUCTURE OF ETHANOL
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PRODUCTION OF ETHANOL
FERMENTATION
*Fermentation is the breakdown of food in form of sugars to produce alcohol and carbon
dioxide by yeast
Enzyme(zymase)
* glucose alcohol (ethanol) + carbon dioxide
*The enzyme in yeast (singled celled organism) will breakdown the carbohydrate to form
carbon dioxide and alcohol in the absence of oxygen.
*The condition for fermentation have to be carefully controlled because yeast is a living
organism,
*The temperatures should be kept moderate at about 300C - 350C (since higher
temperatures will denature the enzyme and on lower temperatures the enzyme will work
slowly)
*The pH should be lowered enough,
*On a large scale production of ethanol , the ethanol can be concentrated by fractional
distillation.
USES OF ETHANOL
*1)Ethanol is blended with petrol for use as a fuel,
2)Ethanol is an excellent solvent of organic compounds so is used in the production of

drugs , cosmetics e.t.c
3)ethanol can be used as the alcohol in alcoholic drinks.
HOMEWORK
1)Define the term global warming
2)List the causes of global warming
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PRODUCTION OF BIOGAS
Energy can be recovered from the waste manure by fermentation.
The gas obtained fermenting manure is called biogas.
Organic waste (manure) fermentation methane +CO2
Biogas is a mixture of gases including methane, Co2 and hydrogen sulphide.

Gases like methane from biogas can now be used in the production of energy e.g.
in gas comps, cooking, gas hot plate etc.
This fermentation should be carried out in the absence of O2 for the effective
function of bacteria.
In the process of fermentation, manure (human and animal waste) is put into a
sealed pit and the bacterial action (digestion) on the manure will give off gas
which is collected.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE PRODUCTION OF BIOGAS
THE ROLE OF BACTERIA
Bacteria will digest manure in the absence of o2 to release the biogas.
CONDITIONS REQUIRED FOR THE PRODUCTION OF BIOGAS

Optimum temperature of between 35oC and 55oCare required.
Ph of the solution should not be too acidic or too alkaline
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Home work
1. Draw and label the pH scale.[3]

2. Outline the fractional distillation of liquid air[8]
3.
a) Define electrolysis [2]
b) Draw and label fully the components of an electrolytic cell
4.
a) Briefly describe, with aid of diagrams and cathode reactions, the electrolysis of
lead bromide.[6]
b) What do you understand by the following terms:
i. Electrolyte
ii. Electrode
iii. Ion [3]
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Due dates: form 4=Tuesday o3 July 2018
: form 3= Thursday 05 July 218
Home work
5. Draw and label the pit scale.[3]

6. Outline the fractional distillation of liquid air[8]
7.
c) Define electrolysis [2]
d) Draw and label fully the components of an electrolytic cell
8.
c) Briefly describe, with aid of diagrams and cathode reactions, the electrolysis of
lead bromide.[6]
d) What do you understand by the following terms:
iv. Electrolyte
v. Electrode
vi. Ion [3]
Due dates: form 4=Tuesday o3 July 2018
: form 3= Thursday 05 July 218
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PHYSICS SECTION
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
DETERMINING DENSITY OF LIQUIDS EXPERIMENTALLY
*A container can be put on a balance , first empty , then holding a known volume of the
liquid,
NB: If a measuring cylinder is used , the volume can be read directly.
*The mass of the liquid is the difference between the two measurements,
*Density is found by dividing mass by volume .
MASS, WEIGHT AND CENTRE OF MASS
MASS
DEFINITION: It is the measure of inertia.
*Inertia is the measure of how a body is resistive to motion eg It is more difficult to push a
100kg ma ss forward than to push a 40kg mass because a 100kg mass has more inertia than a
40kg ma ss,
WEIGHT
DEFINITION : It is a force that acts on objects due to gravitational field or the force which
gives objects an acceleration of 10ms-2.
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*So from F=ma, *weight = ma = mg,
*Mass is measured using a beam balance,
*Weight is measured using a spring balance,
MOMENTUM
Definition: It is the product of mass and velocity of a body:
P = m×v
Where p = momentum ; m = mass and v = velocity
NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION
*Each and every body will remain in its state of rest or constant speed unless acted upon
by the external resultant forces.
NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION
*The rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the applied force and it takes
place in the direction of the applied force
** rate of change of momentum = = m( )
Where m = mass ; v = final velocity ; u = initial velocity and t = time
But = acceleration (a)
Therefore
Therefore F=ma
F = ma , where F = resultant force; m = mass and a = acceleration
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NEWTON’S THIRD LAW
*For a force acting , there is an equal and opposite reaction force .
PRESSURE
*It is the force acting per unit area
*Pressure =
*The SI unit of pressure is Newton per metre squared (N/m 2). One N/m2 is called one Pascal,
where Pa represents Pascal.
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PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS
*Pressure =
But weight = mg where mass = density × volume
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But volume = cross sectional area × height
*mass = density (p) × Area (A) ×height (h)
= phA
*From weight = mass × gravity
*weight = phAg
*Pressure = phg
Where g= acceleration due to gravity ; h = height of the liquid column ; p = density of the fluid.
THE HYDRAULIC PRESS MACHINE
*The hydraulic press machine uses the principle that liquids transmit pressure from one place to
another.
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*When force f , is applied to the piston of cross - sectional area a which has a small cross –
sectional area than A.
* Pressure produced P= fa
*This pressure is transmitted by the liquid to the larger piston of area A.
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*The force produced on A = P ×A ( Pressure × area)
HOME WORK
*BRIEFLY DESCRIBE HOW;
1) A lift pump (Blair pump) operates
2) Force pump (bicycle pump) operates
3) Hydraulic jack operates
MANOMETER
**It is an instrument used for measuring the pressure of gas .
*A manometer consists of a U- tube containing water. When both ends are open , the atmospheric
pressure is exerted on the water surfaces K and L and they will be at the same horizontal
level . When the end L is connected to a gas tap by a length of rubber tubing and the tap
turned on , the surface L which result that the level K rises until the pressure at M on the
same horizontal as L becomes equal to the gas pressure.
**Pressure of gas = atmospheric pressure + pressure due to water column MK.
*The pressure on the column MK should be calculated by pgh,
**The atmospheric pressure is approximately equal to 100kN/m 2.
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THE HYDRAULIC CAR BRAKING SYSTEM
OPERATION
*When the brake pedal is pressed down , the piston in master cylinder pushes in on brake fluid.
*The brake fluid simultaneously transmits the pressure equally to all the four wheel cylinders.
*The wheel cylinder pistons push out against the brake shoes .
*The brake shoes push against the wheel drums and the resulting friction slows down and stops
the car.
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SIPHON
-A siphon is used to move liquid from higher level to a lower level without moving the source
e.g removing water from fish tank or removing fuel from a fuel tank into a container .
A siphon is a bent tube made up of glass , rubber , or plastic tubing with its short arm dipping
into the tank of liquid and its longer outside.
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*The level , I , should be at a lower level than the level of , X, the source.
*To start the siphon , it must first be filled with liquid and then the liquid will continue to flow
out .
*The molecular forces between the molecules will allow the liquid to continue to flow.
MACHINES
*Machines are the devices that enables us to do jobs more easily using only relatively
small force or effort .
DEFINITIONS
*Velocity ratio , V.R. =
*Mechanical advantage M.A. =
**Efficiency =
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= × 100
HOME WORK
QUESTION: A load of 50N is raised 2m by a machine when the effort moves 6m in its own
direction . If the efficiency of the machine is 60% . Calculate
a)the work output
b)the value of force
c)The work wasted in the machine
d)Describe ways of improving efficiency in the machine
LEVERS
*Levers are machines which use the turning effect or moment of a force .
QUESTION : A crowbar was used to lift a load of 50N through a distance of 0,8m by applying
a force at the opposite end as shown on the diagram below.
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*Calculate: a) effort b) mechanical advantage c) velocity ratio of the same machine
d)Given that in practice the effort is 30N. Calculate the efficiency.
PULLEYS
*Pulleys are machines which use ropes or chains round wheels to raise loads .When the rope
is pulled down , the bottom set moves up with the load but the top set does not move .
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**The velocity ratio for a pulley system is equal to the number of pulleys , so in the
diagram above , there are 4 pulleys that is the V.R. is 4.
INCLINED PLANES
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*An inclined plane helps to raise heavy loads such as cars .Used as a machine , the force , F ,
moves from the bottom , O, to the top , A, along OA while the load weight W moves through
vertical distance from level B to level A , a distance AB .
V.R. =
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GEARS
( )
**Velocity ratio for gears , V.R. = ( )
N.B: We cannot get equal work output as is put into the system by the effort because part of
it is used to overcome friction and mass of the moving parts as well as being lost as heat
energy.
**The efficiency in machine can be improved by reducing friction in moving parts of the
machine by using oil or ball bearings and by keeping the parts as light as possible (reducing
mass in the machine).
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PETROL AND DIESEL ENGINES
*A petrol or diesel engine converts heat energy from the combustion of fuel into kinetic
energy,
*An engine operates on a cycle from a number of movements that are repeated over and
over again.
THE PETROL ENGINE
1)On the inlet stroke , the piston moves downwards drawing in air and petrol vapour from
the carburetor through the open inlet valve,
*The role of the carburetor is to supply fuel and air.
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2)On the compression stroke , the piston moves upwards and the valves closed .The petrol
and air mixture is compressed,
3)The gases are now ignited by a spark from the spark plug . The explosion of the petrol / air
mixture will give off a lot of heat energy which cause a large raise in pressure in the cylinder
resulting in the piston being forced down in the power stroke,
4)On the exhaust stroke , the piston rises and the exhaust valve open causing the exhaust
gas to be pushed out of the cylinder,
The piston would be kept moving between the power strokes by a flywheel which is driven
by the crankshaft.
THE DIESEL ENGINE
*The diesel engine also operates in the same way as the petrol engine with the few
differences that are as follows :
**the diesel engine has no spark plugs ,
**in the diesel engine , a fuel injector replaces the carburetor.
*As the piston moves down , air is drawn into the cylinder,
*When the piston moves up , it compresses air which causes the air to become very hot.
**At this stage , fuel is now pumped into the cylinder by a fuel injector and it ignites
because of high temperatures .
**This result in explosion forcing the piston down on the power stroke.
EFFICIENCY OF PETROL AND DIESEL ENGINES
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*The efficiency of petrol engines is about 25% (this means that only 25% of the chemical
energy supplied by the fuel becomes kinetic energy, and therefore the rest of energy is lost
as heat energy,
*The efficiency of a diesel engine is about 40%,
**This means that fuel economy is higher in diesel engine and therefore a diesel engine will
travel further on one litre of fuel.
**Both petrol and diesel engines cause pollution through incomplete combustion of their fuels.
This is because the air supply in the cylinders is limited and that result in incomplete
combustion which produce carbon monoxide
THE THEORY OF CONDUCTION
*When a metal conductor is heated on one end , the other end soon feels warm ,
*The hot end gains energy and the free electrons there carry the energy to neighboring
metal atoms ,
*Therefore energy will pass along the metal to the other end of that metal by the
movement of electrons .
*If a non – conductor , such as a plastic teaspoon is dipped into hot water , the molecules at
the hot end vibrate with increasing amplitude about their average positions disturbing the
neighboring molecules.
*This disturbance will travel along to the other end of the spoon .
*Therefore heat will be passed from one layer of molecules to the next while the average
position of the layers remains the same.
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CONVECTION
*It is the transfer of heat from one point in a fluid to another by the movement of
substance itself,
*When a water in a kettle is heated , the water at the bottom of the kettle becomes warm
first and expands hence that warm water would have a smaller density than the cold
water above it,
*The warm water rises , carrying the heat with it and the cooler water falls to the bottom
and can be heated in turn,
*The water warmed at the bottom of the kettle moves to other parts in paths called ,
“convectional currents”.
*This causes all the water in the kettle to become hot and the water boils.
*In a room , the air in contact with hot radiator becomes warm .This air expands and has
lower density than the colder air above it.The warm air rises or circulates in the room and
its place next to the radiator is taken by cold air.This becomes warmed and rises.
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EXPERIMENTS TO SHOW CONVECTION IN LIQUIDS AND GASES
CONVECTION IN LIQUIDS
*A small coloured crystal (potassium permanganate) is placed on the bottom of a beaker full
of cold water by a straw,
* Heat is supplied at the edge of the beaker near the coloured crystal .
*The movements of the water can be seen as the crystal dissolves, moving up , across the
water surface and then down again as water falls.
CONVECTION IN GASES
EXPERIMENT 1
*A foil rotor is held over a low flame ,
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*warm gases will rise from the flame and as they pass the vanes of the rotor , they push
it around .
*This shows that warm fluid rises in a convection current.
EXPERIMENT 2
APPARATUS
*Cardboard box with two chimneys and a glass front , candle , brown paper.
PROCEDURE
*A lighted candle is placed under one chimney,
*A smoldering piece of brown paper is held above the other chimney .
OBSERVATION
*Smoke is found to come out of container on the side of the chimney where a lighted
candle is placed .
CONCLUSION
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*Air surrounding the candle is heated and then expand becoming less dense and rise coming
out through this chimney . A mixture of air and smoke will enter the box to replace that
displaced air , hence would be a continuous circulation of smoke from one chimney to the
other.
HEAT TRANSFER
*Heat energy can travel from one place to another through conduction , convection and
radiation,
*Convection is the transfer of heat from one point in a fluid to another by the movement of
substance itself,
*Conduction is whereby heat energy can be transferred from one point to another in a solid,
*Radiation is the transfer of heat from one place to another without any help from the
materials between these places i.e heat energy can travel in a vacuum by a process of
radiation.
*Radiant energy (infra – red radiation) will travel from the sun to reach some of the objects
on the earth,
*When this energy fall on the bodies , some of the energy can be absorbed and transmitted
and some of the energy is reflected ,
*This absorbed energy will raise the temperature of the object.
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EXPERIMENT TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN GOOD AND BAD EMITTERS AND ABSORBERS OF INFRA
– RED RADIATION
MATERIALS
*2tin cans , sand paper , black paint , water and thermometer
PROCEDURE
*One of the tin cans is cleaned so that its surface shines using a sandpaper,
*The outside of the other can is painted using black paint,
*Both cans are then filled with water to about 75% of their heights and the initial
temperature is measured using the thermometer,
*These cans are placed on sunlight for about ten minutes with their lids on,
*After this time, temperature for each can is measured and recorded,
*These conductors are then removed from the sunlight and placed for about five minutes
with their leads on in a cool place .
**CONCLUSION :black surfaces absorbs most heat and also emits (radiate) the most heat
energy.
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GOOD AND BAD CONDUCTORS
EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THE DIFFERENCES IN THE CONDUCTIVITIES OF METALS
*Long rods of same length but different materials are pushed into a small tank
*The rods are coated with wax and match sticks are stuck at equal distances along the rod,
*Hot water is poured into the tank,
*The rate at which heat is conducted along the rod is shown by the match sticks falling off as
the wax is melted ,
*The match stick on copper rod falls first showing that copper is the best conductor followed
by aluminum , brass and perhaps iron.
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ELECTROMAGNETISM
EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE THAT A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR HAS A MAGNETIC

FIELD AROUND IT
*A straight wire is passed through the centre of a piece of card held horizontally ,
*A current is passed through the wire,
*Iron filings are sprinkled on the card,
*The card is gently tapped in order to set iron filings sprinkled in a concentric circles,
**Plotting compasses placed on the card will settle along the field lines and show the
direction of the field at different points,
**When the current direction is reversed ,the compasses point in the opposite direction
showing that the direction of the field reverses when the current reverses.
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FIELD DUE TO A SOLENOID
*A solenoid is a long cylindrical coil,
*A solenoid produces a field which is similar to that of a bar magnet ,
*In the diagram below , end A behaves like a N pole and end B like a S pole
THE MOTOR PRINCIPLE
*It is when one magnetic field is affected by another field to produce a force,
AN EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THAT A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

EXPERIENCE A FORCE
*A flexible wire is supported loosely in a strong magnetic field ,
*This flexible wire is connected to low voltage of high current supply,
*When the switch is closed ,the current will flow which causes the wire to jump downwards
or upwards. This is because when the current is switched on ,the current will set up the
magnetic field around the coil which will interact with the magnetic field due to magnets to
produce the move .
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THE D.C ELECTRIC MOTOR
*A simple D.C motor work from the direct current,
*This consists of a rectangular coil of wire mounted in a magnetic field (refer to the diagram
below),
*Each end of the coil is connected to half a split ring called the commutator which rotates
with the coil,
*Two carbon brushes are pressed lightly against the commutator by springs,
*These carbon brushes are connected to the electrical supply ,
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*When the current is switched on , the current will set up the magnetic field around the coil
which will interact with the magnetic field due to magnets to produce the turning effect,
*If the coil rotates either in anticlockwise or clockwise direction until it is in a vertical position
,the brushes will now be in line with the gaps in the commutator and the current stops .The
momentum will cause the coil to overshoot the vertical resulting in commutator halves
changing contacts from one brush to the other . This will result in the reversal of current in
the coil and therefore a coil rotate continuously in either clockwise or anticlockwise direction.
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FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE ROTATION OF THE COIL
*The speed of rotation of the coil can be increased by:
1)increasing the amount of current passed,
2)using a stronger magnet (increasing strength of the magnetic field),
3)increasing the number of turns on the coil ,
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
*It is the production of electricity from magnetism
AN EXPERIMENT TO INVESTIGATE THE ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
*A straight wire and the magnetic field is set as shown in the diagram below
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*The wire is first held at rest between the poles of the magnets and the galvanometer is
observed ,
*The wire will then be moved in each of the directions shown by the letters a,b,c,d,e,f,
*it is only when the wire is moving upwards (in direction a) or downwards (in the direction d )
when there is a deflection on the galvanometer indicating an induced current in the wire,
*this deflection will be in opposite directions in each case and only lasts while the wire is in
motion.
***when the conductor (wire) cuts the magnetic field , an e.m.f is induced which causes
current to flow.
N.B : e.m.f (electromotive force) is a measurement of energy that causes current to flow
through a conductor.
**In another experiment , a magnet and coil are used .The magnet is pushed into the coil
one pole first then held still inside it.It is next withdrawn .The galvanometer shows that
current induced in the coil in one direction as the magnet moves in and in the opposite
direction as it is removed.There would be no deflection when the magnet is at rest.
N.B:The results are the same if the coil is moved instead of the magnet i.e only relative
motion is needed.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE MAGNITUDE OF INDUCED e.m.f
**the induced e.m.f increases with increase of
1)the speed of motion of the magnet or coil,
2)the number of turns on the coil ,
3)the strength of the magnet
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AC GENERATOR
*this is a device which produce the electrical energy from mechanical energy,
*this (alternating current) ac generator consists of a rectangular coil between the magnetic
field,
*the ends of the coil are joined to two slip rings on axle and against which carbon brushes
press.
*as the coil rotates , it cuts the field lines and an e.m.f is induced in it,
*this e.m.f varies over one complete rotation.
*As the coil moves through the vertical position with ab uppermost, ab and cd are moving
along the lines and no cutting occurs hence the induced e.m.f is equal to zero,
*during the first quarter , rotation , the e.m.f increases to maximum when the coil is
horizontal,
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*this is because sides ab and dc will be cutting the lines at the greatest rate,
*In the second quarter rotation , the emf decreases to zero when the coil is vertical with dc
uppermost,
*after this , the direction of the emf reverses because , during the next half rotation , the
motion of ab is directed upwards and dc downwards ,
*this induced alternating emf generated which acts first in one direction and then the other
would cause ac to flow in a circuit connected to the brushes.
GRAPH TO SHOW VARIATIONS OF INDUCED p.d IN A ROTATION
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SIMPLE dc GENERATOR
*This consists of a commutator like that in the d.c motor.
*the brushes are arranged so that the coil goes through the vertical and changeover of contact
occurs from one half of the split ring of commutator to the other,
*in this position , the emf induced in the coil reverses and so one brush is always positive and
the other negative.
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N.B: Voltage from a generator depends on the strength of the magnetic field cutting the (cut
by) the rotating coil and the number of times per second a turn in the coil cuts that magnetic
field.
ELECTROSTATICS
*Their are two charges which are positive (protons ) and negative (electrons),
*These charges can be transferred from one material to another either by friction or
induction,
*the charges obtained by rubbing materials may be positive or negative,
*it is negative if electrons from the rubbing material are transferred to the charged object,
*If rubbing causes electrons to be removed from the object , the object has a positive charge,
*by testing the forces between charged rods , we find that like charges repel and unlike charges
attract.
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THE GOLD LEAF ELECTROSCOPE
*This instrument consists of a cap , A , connected by a metal rod to a gold leaf , L , at the
bottom B of the rod,
*a metal case , C , with glass windows surrounds the leaf and is insulated from the cap A.
*The electroscope is charged negatively for example by touching the cap A with a rubbed
polythene rod,
*this action will cause a small amount of negative charge on the rod to be transferred by
contact to the cap and some of this charge moves to the leaf,
*since the like charge repel , the leaf diverges (opens).
*If a positive charge e.g rubbed glass is brought near the metal cap , it attracts electrons from
the metal leaving positive charge in the gold leaf and in the bottom of the metal support ,
since the positive charge repel one another , the leaf diverges (opens).
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PRODUCTION OF LIGHTNING
*The friction between the air and clouds causes the water particles to collide and become
charged such that the top of the cloud becomes positive and the base of the cloud becomes
negative,
*The charge on the lower part of the cloud causes the ground to become positively charged
i.e the negative charge on the clouds drive the electrons on the ground surface ,
*lightning would occur when the negative charge beneath the cloud is discharged to the
ground .
N.B : a TINY PROPORTION OF ENERGY IS EMITTED AS LIGHT , BUT MOST OF IT GOES INTO THE
HEATING THE AIR .The heated air then expand explosion producing the shock wave which
eventually reaches our ears as thunder .
DANGERS OF LIGHTNING
*lightning causes high voltage,
*lightning causes electrocution and heating effects which results in fire.
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THE LIGHTNING CONDUCTOR
*A tall building is protected by a lightning conductor consisting of a thick copper strip fixed on
the outside of the building connecting metal spikes at the top to a metal plate in the ground,
*negatively charged clouds will induce the positively charge on the spikes of the conductor,
*this also causes the earthed plate to be charged negatively.
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*the negative charge on the earth plate will be immediately dissipated into the surrounding
earth ,
*the negative ions will then be attracted to the spikes and become discharged by giving up
their electrons which pass down the conductor and will escape to earth ,
*these discharged positive ions are repelled upwards which has a negligible effect in
neutralizing the negative charge on the cloud,
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS AGAINST LIGHTNING
*buildings either in rural areas or urban should be protected from lightning damage by fixing ,
to the side of the building a long pointed iron rod with its lower end buried in the earth.
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CURRENT ELECTRICITY
OHM’S LAW
*The current through a conductor is proportional to the p.d across it so long as the
temperature stays constant.
*the relationship between voltage , resistance and current is such that :
( )
Resistance =
( )
V = IR where V= voltage , I = current and R = resistance.
*the unit of resistance is the ohm and its abbreviation is (omega)
LIMITATIONS OF OHM’S LAW
*Metals and carbon obey ohm’s law whilst semiconductors and diode valves do not,
*this also depend on the nature shape of the material and its temperature.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT RESISTANCE
1)Length of wire
2)thickness (cross sectional area of wire)
*the resistance ,R, of a piece of material of uniform cross- section is found experimentally to
be proportional to its length , l ,it is also found that the resistance is inversely proportional to
the area of cross – section A.
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AN EXPERIMENT TO VERIFY OHM’S LAW
*An experiment is carried out to find the characteristic graph for a component i.e the
relationship between voltage and current,
*in this circuit , the component under test is connected in gap A-B ,
*this component to act as a resistor may be a length of wire or a small carbon resistor.
*the voltmeter measures voltage across the test item and the ammeter measures current
through it.
*the voltage is altered by changing the number of batteries and in each case the current is
read,
*a graph of current (I) against voltage (V) can be drawn,
*For the resistor , or length of wire, since the graph is a straight line , it means that it obeys
ohm’s law.
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*The resistance of the resistor , R , can be determined by calculating the inverse of the gradient
of that graph.
RESISTORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL
RESISTORS IN SERIES
Diagram
*If three resistors , R1 , R2 and R3 are wired in series , their combined resistance RT is the sum of
their separate resistances i.e if resistors in the diagram above are equivalent to R T then
RT = R 1 + R 2 + R 3
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*if the resistors are wired in parallel and equivalent to RT , R T can be represented by :
1/ RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 +1/R3
ELECTRICAL POWER AND ENERGY
*Energy , E , can be calculated using the formula E =VIt , where , v = potential difference between
two points , t = the time for which the electrical energy is supplied and I =current .
*Power can be calculated using the formula P=VI where P=power , v= potential difference
between two points and I = current
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CALCULATING THE COST OF ELECTRICITY
*For domestic use , the electrical energy supplied is measured in units called kilowatt-hours ,
symbol kwh,
*one kilowatt-hour is the amount of electrical energy used by a one kw device during one
hour.
*The general equation can be used :
i.e energy used (units) = power(kw) × time(hours)
QUESTION: Calculate the number of units used by:
a)A 4kwh heater , on for 3hours,
b)300w television , on for 10hours,
c)A 3kw water heater , on for 20min.
ELECTRICAL HAZARDS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
HAZARDS
*Contact with live wires on damaged cable insulation may result in injury or death,
*the wires may overheat further and cause fire
PRECAUTIONS
*An electrician should check domestic wiring on regular bases ,
*cables should be kept away from water and damp conditions ,
*a three pin plug should be fitted to all electrical devices that are to use mains electricity ,
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*you should not handle appliances with wet hands ,
*you should put on rubber footwear when using appliances,
*you should avoid overloading circuits ,
*you should always use insulated cables.
WIRING OF A THREE PIN PLUG
*The insulation on the connection wires may be colored so that the correct connections can be
made to the plug e.g brown or red for live , light blue or black for neutral and then green or
yellow for earth,
*the pins of a three - pin plug are marked L for the live , N for neutral and E for earth
respectively ,
*a small amount of insulation may be removed from each of the wires either by using a pair
of wire strippers or a penknife.
*in doing so , care should be taken to avoid cutting or nicking any of the wires strands (or
else they will break off when the wire is bent )
*These wire strands will then be twisted gently together and then bent in a clockwise
direction round the terminal stud or screw.
*the cord grip , if provided should be tightened to grip the cord gently .
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SOLAR COOKER
The solar cooker
*In a solar cooker , a curved reflecting surface is used to reflect heat energy which will be
absorbed by a black pot
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SOLAR WATER HEATER
The solar water heater
*In a solar water heater system , the copper tubes are partly embedded in a copper plate
mounted on a good thermal insulator in a metal frame ,
*Solar radiation will fall on the tubes and the plate through the window and the water in the
tubes is warmed and stored in an insulated tank ,
*the water will circulate by convection,
*These plates and tubes have blackened surfaces to act as good absorbers of radiation ,
*Copper is used in tubing because it is a good thermal conductor.
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ABSOLUTE VISION COLLEGE

04699979/+263 784 581 349/0773 243 675

223 Msasa Avenue Old Marimba Park Mufakose