Long Jump

INTRODUCTION
Long Jump also known as the ‘Broad jump’. It is a track and field athletic event in
which athletes sprint along a runway and jump as far as possible from a wooden take-off board into
the sandpit. This sport requires a lot of speed, strength, stamina and agility to have a great landing.
HISTORY
The long Jump is the only known jumping event that has its roots connected to the Ancient Greece’s
Olympics pentathlon events dated 776 B.C. The long jump was initially added as a sport because it
had the characteristics that could help the people in crossing the obstacles such as streams and
ravines. Moreover, it is said that the sport took place in the ancient Greek Olympics as it was
supposed to be an act of training for warfare.
In the ancient long jump event, the athlete were only allowed to run a short distance with weights
also known as ‘Halteres’ (weighing between 1- 4.5 kg. /35.27 - 158.73 oz.) in both the hands that
swung forward as the athlete jumped (took-off) and swung backward just before landing. It is often
said that the swinging of weights forward and backward not only increased the momentum of the
athlete but also the length (distance) of the jump.
The below vase image depicts the long-jump event that took place at the ancient Olympic Games.

Photo Source: Wikipedia

The jump took place from a simple board which was known as the ‘bater’ (now known as take-off
board) and the jump ended on the land called ‘skamma’ (dug up area now known as the sandpit).
The Long jump has been a part of the modern Olympics held at Athens, Greece since 1896. In the
year 1914, Dr. Harry Eaton Stewart (Physician and Physical Education Instructor from USA)
recommended the ‘running broad jump’ as a standardized track and field event for women. But,
until the 1948 Olympic Games the women’s long jump was not added to the Olympic athletics.
OBJECTIVE
The main objective of the game is to step correctly on the board and to cover the maximum
distance possible with a horizontal jump.
PARTICIPANTS
The male and female athletes from various countries take part in the long jump competitions
individually that is commonly conducted by the International Association of Athletics Federation
(“IAAF”) which is the only global governing body. Moreover the athletes from the continents
of Asia and Africa have dominated the sport in both men’s and women’s event.
EQUIPMENT
1) SHOES
Jumpers use cleated shoes for grip and stability and to withstand the pressure of the take-off stride.
2) CLOTHING
Comfortable, close fitted vests and shorts are worn by jumpers that allow free movement.
PLAYING AREA
 The playing area in the long jump sport consists of a runway, takeoff board, plasticine and sand pit.

 The runway for long jump is about forty meters long and 1.22 m (4 ft.) in width.
 The takeoff board is a white colored rectangular piece of wood that is 1.22 m (4 ft.) in length and is twenty
centimeter (7.87 in.) in width and ten centimeter (3.93 in.) in depth.
 The plasticine is placed at least one meter from the landing area to determine the fault takeoffs which is
commonly red in color.
 The landing Area is filled with silicon sand which is commonly 2.75 meters (9 ft.) in width, nine meters (29.52
ft.) in length and at least thirty centimeters (11.81 in.) in depth.

TECHNIQUES AND GAMEPLAY

Commonly, there are five main components of the long jump that are (1) the approach run (2) the
last two strides (3) takeoff (4) action in the air (5) the landing.
1) APPROACH RUN
The objective of approach is to accelerate with a maximum speed towards the takeoff board.
The approach run can vary between twelve to nineteen strides at novice and intermediate levels
whereas for elite level it varies between twenty to twenty-two strides. However, depending on the
individual the approach run can be changed. The most important factor for the distance covered
during the jump is the speed that is built during the approach run.
2) THE LAST TWO STRIDES
The last two strides are a crucial part of the approach run because they decide the velocity of the
athlete’s jump; the greater it is, the better the jump. Usually, the penultimate stride is longer than the
last one as it helps in lowering one’s center of gravity to prepare the body for the maximum possible
upward thrust. Moreover, at the final stride (the shortest step) before the take-off, the body begins to
rise upwards in preparation of the jump.
3) TAKE OFF
The objective of the takeoff is to maximize the vertical velocity while maintaining the balance and
control. This phase is the most important part of the long jump as the athlete tries to keep its foot
flat on the ground because if the athlete jumps off either over the heels or toes then that could give a
negative impact on the jump. As it is observed that when the takeoff takes place over heel then the
velocity decreases and it also strains the joints whereas if the takeoff takes place on toes then it
decreases the stability.
One more thing that the athlete needs to keep in mind is that while placing the foot flat he / she needs
to maintain proper body position, keeping the torso upright and moving the hips forward and up to
gain the maximum distance from board contact to the release.
4) ACTION IN THE AIR
Once the athlete is in the air, he / she has very little control over the direction and landing. Commonly,
the three types of flight techniques used in long jump are-

 Hitch-kick- This technique is also known as “running in the air” in which athletes make a cycling action that
is they rotate their arms and legs in the air to maintain an upright body position.
 Sail- In this style of flight, athlete moves his/her both arms in a vertical direction and lifts the leg into a toe-
touching position after the takeoff.
 Hang- In this technique, athlete extends his/her arms to reach a maximum distance from the hips at the
leaping point. It is maintained until the athlete reaches the apex of the jump; at that point the legs are pushed
forward in readiness for landing.

5) LANDING
At the time of landing, athlete’s main objective is to glide into the pit with hands in the forward
direction. They need to ensure that they do not to fall back into the landing pit as that will decrease
the distance covered by him/her.

SCORING
The measurement is taken from the takeoff board (line) to the nearest point of contact on
the landing (back of the heels). The chief judge coordinates the work of the other judges
and validates the attempt of the athlete by indicating a fair jump with a white flag and a foul
jump with a red flag whereas the other judges record all the attempts made by the competitors
and verify the results at the end of each round.
Most championship competitions involve six jumps per competitor, although a number of them, those with
the shorter marks, are often eliminated after three jumps. Moreover, if the competitor’s marks are tied then the
athlete with the next best distance is declared as the winner. At major championships the format is usually a
qualification session followed by a final. The record of the longest distance jumped is taken in consideration
from the best of the three attempts and the athlete is declared as the winner.

Triple Jump
INTRODUCTION
Triple Jump, also called hop, step & jump is a track and field athletic event. The long jump and
triple jump are together referred to as the "Horizontal Jumps". In this event, athletes sprint along a
runway then from the take-off board they jump forward, land on the takeoff foot, then take a step onto
the other foot and finally jump into the sandpit.
OBJECTIVE
The athlete who covers the greatest distance from the board to the sandpit is declared the winner.
HISTORY OF TRIPLE JUMP
As per the historical sources on the ancient Olympic Games, it is mentioned that occasionally jumps
of fifteen meters or more had taken place. This led the sports historians to have a conclusion that
there must have been a series of jumps which provided the basis for the triple jump.
Moreover, there is no reported evidence except the authors of victory poems who recorded some
details about the event that it must have been included in the ancient Olympics.
The triple jump was a part of the inaugural modern Olympics in 1896 Athens, Greece. Although at
the time the event consisted of two hops on the same foot and then a jump. But the new format of
hop, skip and jump was standardized in 1908.
In fact, the first modern Olympic champion was James Connolly (American Athlete and Author) in
triple jump event. Later in 1996, the women’s triple jump was introduced into the Atlanta Olympic
Games. Francoise Mbango won the gold and became the first female athlete from Cameroon to win
an Olympic medal in 2004 Athens, Greece.
 Viktor Saneyev of the Soviet Union won a hat-trick of Olympic men’s Triple Jump titles from 1968 to
1976 and Christian Taylor of the US had won Olympic titles in 2012 and 2016.
PARTICIPANTS
Male and female athletes (jumpers) compete as individuals in triple jump events.
World Records

#. Category Name Record Year

1. Men Jonathan Edwards 18.29 m 1995

2. Women Yulimar Rojas 15.74 m 2022

Olympic Records

#. Category Name Record Year

1. Men Kenny Harrison 18.09 m 1996

2. Women Yulimar Rojas 15.67 m 2021

World Championship Records

#. Category Name Record Year

1. Men Jonathan Edwards 18.29 m 1995

2. Women Inessa Kravets 15.50 m 1995

EQUIPMENT
Triple Jump – Shoes
Cleated shoes with cushioned soles are used by jumpers to have a good grip on the surface and to
firmly support the feet on landing.
Triple Jump – Clothing
Close-fitting, lightweight vests and shorts with athlete’s ID on both sides of the vest are worn by the
athlete to lower wind resistance.
PLAYING AREA
 The playing area in the Triple jump sport consists of a runway, take-off board, plasticine and sand pit.

 The runway for Triple jump is about forty meters long and 1.22 m (4 ft.) in width.
 The take-off board is a white colored rectangular piece of wood that is 1.22 m (4 ft.) in length and is
twenty centimeter (7.87 in.) in width and ten centimeter (3.93 in.) in depth.
 The plasticine is placed at least 13 meters (42.7 feet) from the landing area for men and 11 meters
(36 feet) for women to determine the fault take-offs which are commonly red in color.
 The Landing Area is filled with silicon sand which is commonly 2.75 meters (9 ft.) in width, nine
meters (29.52 ft.) in length and at least thirty centimeters (11.81 in.) in depth.

TECHNIQUES
The Approach Run
The objective of this technique is to accelerate to a maximum speed at the take-off. Athletes judge
the approach run up in a way such that the leading foot lands as close as possible to the end of the
take-off board without stepping or crossing the take-off line (A band of Plasticine is placed after the
take-off board). Commonly the boards are set 40 feet (12.19 m.), 32 feet (9.75 m.) and 24 feet (7.31
m.) from the pit.
After the approach run, the three phases of the triple jump are the hop, step and the jump phase.
These three phases are done in one continuous sequence.
Hop
The main technicality of this technique is to land (hop) on the same foot as that from which the athlete
has taken off and by focusing all momentum forward. The hop landing is starting of the step phase.
Step
In this phase, the athlete utilizes the backward momentum of the take-off leg to immediately execute
a jump forward on the opposite leg. By this way, the athlete maintains horizontal velocity, distance
and gets prepared for the next phase i.e. the jump.
Jump
This phase starts with the landing in the “step” phase with the same foot and then is similar with that
of the long jump. One of the three primary flight techniques is used by the athletes to cover a
significant distance- Hitch-kick, Sail or the hang technique.
OFFICIALS
Chief Judge
Coordinate the work of the judges and validate the attempt of the athletes by indicating a fair jump
with a white flag and a foul jump with a red flag.
Other Judges
Record all attempts made by the competitors and verify the results at the end of each round.
SCORING
Most championship competitions involve six jumps per competitor in which the athletes those with
shorter marks are eliminated after three jumps. Moreover, if the competitors are tied, the athlete with
the next best distance is declared the winner.
This event requires speed, power, strength and amongst all balance. At major championships the
format is usually a qualification followed by final.
 High Jump

INTRODUCTION
High Jump is a track and field athletic event in which athletes jump unaided over a four-meter
long horizontal bar placed at predetermined height without dislodging it. High jump and pole
vault events are together referred as "vertical jumps".
HISTORY
The first recorded high jump events took place in Scotland in the 19th century. From that time,
the techniques used in this event have gone through a series of changes.
TECHNIQUES USED EARLIER
1) SCISSORS TECHNIQUE
This technique was first used by the early jumpers over the 19th century. This is an introductory
technique now commonly used by the young athletes as this lets them gain confidence and
moreover it is user-friendly. In the scissors high jump, the athletes do a straight thirty degree angle
running to the bar. Then the athlete goes over the bar by placing the leg closest leg over the bar and
then followed by the other leg. The main point of the scissors technique is that the athletes land in
standing position on their feet over the mats.
2) EASTERN CUT-OFF TECHNIQUE
In the eastern cut-off technique the athlete rotates the trunk into a horizontal position at the peak of
a jump. The athlete lifts the pelvis part higher than the simple scissors technique. This ultimately
results in a higher bar clearance. The only draw-back of this technique is that this requires
tremendous flexibility for higher jump.
3) WESTERN ROLL TECHNIQUE
In the western roll technique the athlete clears the bar from his / her side such that the takeoff leg is
tucked under the rest of the body. This technique probably did not improve much the effectiveness of
the bar clearance when compared to eastern cut-off. Moreover, it did not require very much
flexibility. The only benefit of this was that it helped a larger number of athletes in clearing the bar.
4) STRADDLE TECHNIQUE
In this technique the athlete clears the bar with facing down and the body stretched along the bar.
In straddle technique the part of the leg is lower than the bar at the peak of the jump. This allows the
pelvis to rise to a greater height with improved effectiveness of the bar clearance.
5) FOSBURY FLOP
This is a complete new technique which first appeared in the mid -1960’s. This technique is known
as the Fosbury Flop after the American High Jumper ‘Dick Fosbury’ who won the American
University (National Collegiate Athletic Association-“ NCAA “) Indoor and Outdoor Championships
using this technique. In 1968 Olympics held at Mexico City, Fosbury, won the gold medal in high
jump event and set a record of 2.24 meters (7.34 ft.) by using this technique. Moreover, this
technique became more popular among the people. In this technique Fosbury cleared the bar on his
back, with his body horizontal and perpendicular to the bar. Fosbury Flop is most commonly used
technique in the field of high-jump.
Later on, High Jump became part of the 1896 Summer Olympics held at Athens, Greece for Men and
in 1928 the women’s event was added to the Olympics held at Amsterdam.

OBJECTIVE
The main objective of this sport is that, the athlete needs to jump over a crossbar that is placed over
a certain height without touching it. The crossbar should not be knocked down from its position during
the overall process.
PARTICIPANTS
Since, the high jump event was added to the modern Olympics in 1896, the popularity and demand
of this game grew among the various nations with the passing time. At present, the male and female
athletes participate individually in the high jump events.
EQUIPMENT
1) CROSSBARS
Crossbars are made of lightweight material such as fiber-glass or aluminum having a length of
approximately four meter (13.12 ft.) and twenty nine to thirty one millimeter (1.14 – 1.22 in.) in
diameter. Its maximum weight is up to two kilogram (70.54 oz.)
2) SHOES
Jumpers wear sprinting shoes that have spikes in front and in the back (heel). These spikes present
on the shoes offer the jumper, the traction that he / she needs.
3) CLOTHING
Close-fitted leotard or vest and shorts are worn by athletes to help them clear the bar.
4) HIGH JUMP UPRIGHTS
These are the two vertical uprights that support the horizontal crossbar in such a way that it does
not fall if it is touched by a participant trying to jump over it. They must be installed 4.02m ±
0.02m apart.
PLAYING AREA
The semicircular runway track is made of rubberized material that is laid over concrete. The radius
of the runway is twenty meter (65.61 ft.) which further leads to the landing area that is the landing
mat.
The landing mat area is made of plastic-covered layers of foam-rubber on which the athletes land
after jumping over the cross-bars.
It is six meter (19.68 ft.) in length, four meter (13.12 ft.) in width and it shall be covered by a spike
proof protective mat. The overall height of the mat shall be minimum 0.70 m (2.29 ft.).

TECHNIQUES AND GAME PLAY

1) START
Before starting, the athlete spots his / her position from which he / she has to begin her approach for
a perfect landing.
2) THE APPROACH RUN
It is the most important part of the high jump than the takeoff. If an athlete starts with a wrong
approach run then clearing the high bar becomes more challenging. Most of the athletes use a “J
shaped” approach in which first three to five strides head in a straight line at 90 degrees to the bar
and the final four-five strides being run in a curve. Some of the athletes prefer to run all the strides in
a curve which is known as a “C shaped” approach.
3) LINK BETWEEN APPROACH AND TAKEOFF
In the second last stride, the leg on the outside of the turn is bent, while the other leg (takeoff leg) is
fully extended.
4) THE TAKEOFF
The athlete pushes off the takeoff leg and prepares for the rotation that he / she will make with the
legs, hips and shoulders.
5) DRIVE
This is the extension of the takeoff. The athlete relaxes the body to concentrate on the position and
continues the rotation by even raising the free leg to the level of the takeoff leg to prepare for
achieving a horizontal position with back towards the crossbar.
6) ARCH
When the athlete tips the shoulders back and brings the heels under thighs at that moment the
athlete forms an arch shape which enables her hips to rise over the crossbar.
7) LANDING
When the athlete’s hips have crossed the bar, then he / she flexes the hips, raises the chest and legs
simultaneously. A correctly executed landing includes landing on the shoulders and not on the neck.

SCORING
The event organizers set a minimum qualifying height which must be jumped over with athletes
having 1.5 minutes for each attempt. All competitors have three attempts per height, although they
can elect to ‘pass’ that is advance to a greater height despite not having cleared the current one. If
the competitors are tied on the same height then the winner is the one with fewest failures at that
height. If competitors are still tied then thereafter, a jump-off takes place to decide the winner. The
jump-off starts at the next greater height. Each jumper has one attempt and the bar is lowered and
raised until one jumper succeeds at one height. The jumper who clears all the heights amongst others
is declared as the winner.

Pole Vault
INTRODUCTION
The Pole Vault is an athletic (track and field) event that is organized by the World
Athletics formerly known as International Association of Athletics Federations (“IAAF”) for
both men and women. In this sport the Competitors sprint along a runway carrying a long,
flexible pole that they plant in a box and transfer the Kinetic energy produced from running to
the potential energy stored in the pole to lever themselves over a crossbar that is
suspended several meters above the ground between two upright stands. The height of the
crossbar is raised after every round and all the athletes (vaulters) are given three attempts.
 HISTORY & ORIGIN
Poles were practically used as a mean of passing over natural obstacles in marshy places such as
the province of Friesland in the Netherlands, along the North Sea, and the great level
of Fens in England across Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire, Lincolnshire and Norfolk. The
artificial draining of these marshes created a network of open drains /canals that intersected each
other. Moreover, to cross these drains every house kept a stack of jumping poles and used them
for vaulting over the canals.
Modern pole vaulting was originated around 1850 in Germany when the sport was adopted by
a gymnastic club. The first recorded pole vault competition was held in England in 1812. This
sport was included in the Summer Olympics held at Athens, Greece, since its inception in 1896.
The Men’s Pole Vaulting became a medal event in the same year whereas the Women’s pole
vaulting was included in the 2000 Summer Olympic Games held at Sydney, Australia.
VARIANTS
Broad jumping is a closely related sport in which the athletes use a pole to gain distance rather
than height. It is widely practiced in and around North Sea but has never become a competitive sport.
OBJECTIVE
The main objective of pole vault is that the vaulter has to clear a cross bar supported with the help
of upright stands and the player has to ensure that he / she gets down on the landing mat without
getting the crossbar down.
PARTICIPANTS
Since, Pole Vault was introduced to the modern Olympics in 1896 after which the popularity of the
sport grew exponentially in different nations. The list of Asian countries athletes who take part in
Pole Vault are from China, Korea, Japan, Iran, Kazakhstan and Iraq. Many non- Asian countries
athletes have also taken part in Pole Vault like the Great Britain, Russia, Germany, Chez Republic
and Greece.
Each Country selects one player for both male and female events for the competitions. This
selection takes place in various stages organized by the authorities of the respected countries or
the federations involved.
EVENTS
Men and Women participate individually in the competitions country-wise.
World Record Holders in Pole Vault

# Category Name Record Year

1. Men Armand Duplantis 6.18 m (20 ft. 3 1/4 in.) 2020

2. Women Yelena Isinbayeva 5.06 m (16 ft. 7 in.) 2009

 Olympic Record Holders in Pole Vault

# Category Name Record Year

1. Men Thiago Braz da Silva 6.03 m (19 ft. 9 1/4 in.) 2016

2. Women Yelena Isinbayeva 5.05 m (16 ft. 6 3/4 in.) 2008

World Championship Records in Pole Vault

# Category Name Record Year

1. Men Dmitri Markov 6.05 m (19 ft. 10 in.) 2001

2. Women Yelena Isinbayeva 5.01 m (16 ft. 5 in.) 2005

EQUIPMENT
The most important equipment used in Pole Vault is:
1) RUNWAY
The Runway used in this sport is a straight, 40–45 m (131-147 ft. 6 in.) long stretch of all-
weather polyurethane track to which the pole vault box or slide way and the crossbar lies at the
end.
2) POLE VAULT BOX / SLIDE WAY
This is commonly made from stainless steel and is shaped trapezoidal. The box is one meter (3 ft.
3 in.) long and deepens up to twenty centimeter (8 in.) and narrows up to fifteen centimeter (6 in.)
3) CROSS BAR
Crossbars are made of lightweight material such as reinforced plastic or aluminum having a
length of approximately four meter (13.1 feet) that rests on two long uprights with adjustable
heights. The pegs, positioned on the inside support the uprights and allow the crossbar
to raise and lower as per the competition progresses.
4) LANDING MAT
The overall size of the pole vault landing area shall be a minimum of nineteen feet - eight
inch (6.03 meters) wide and usually twenty feet - two inch ( 6.15 meters) deep is made of plastic-
covered layers of foam-rubber on which the athletes land after jumping over the cross-bars.
5) POLE
This is a long, flexible pole usually made of carbon fiber or fiberglass. The pole used in pole
vault can be of any length or diameter depending on the athlete’s preference.
6) POLE VAULT SHOES
Vaulters wear running shoes with cleats on the outer sole for a better grip on the runway.
7) POLE VAULT CLOTHING
Vaulters wear close-fitting sports vest and shorts so that they can reduce
the danger of snagging the pole while running and jumping.

TECHNIQUES AND GAME PLAY

1) THE GRIP
Before starting, the athlete should place the right hand palm facing down and the left hand palm
facing up at the end of the pole. The best way to get the exact point where to grip is by placing
the left foot such that it is parallel to the left hand and the right hand is about 1-2 feet (12-24
inches) above the left.
Note: The above mentioned technique is for right- handed athlete but for a left-handed athlete the
right hand should be parallel to the right leg and the left hand should be about 1-2 feet (12-24
inches) above the right.
2) 8-10 STRIDES AWAY FROM THE BOX
Now the athlete needs to know the exact distance for building up the speed and momentum for a
great jump. Therefore, the athlete measures the strides by holding the pole and running down
the runway but away from the pit.
Note: The athlete has to end the stride with the left foot to get a proper jump and landing.
3) RUNNING WITH THE POLE
The athlete needs to keep in mind that the pole should be over the shoulder or at the hip while
running with it.
4) PLANTING THE POLE IN THE POLE VAULT BOX
Now, as the athlete is close to the box they should plant the pole in the box at the start of the third
stride with the left foot on the runway then right and finally the left foot while taking off.
Usually this is called as SNAP, CRACKLE and POP.

 SNAP: In this the left leg is on the ground and arms push the pole in front of the Vaulter.

 CRACKLE: In this the right leg is on the floor and the arms push the pole above the head.
  POP: In this the left leg is on the ground and the pole and arms are extended above the head while the
athlete is ready to jump.

5) C POSITION
This is the position at which the Vaulter (athlete) is off ground and the extended arms put the
pressure on the pole and the knee drives up with trail leg back.
6) CORD POSITION
In this position the Vaulter is still applying pressure on the pole. The Vaulter should draw a straight
line with respect from the top hand through the trail leg to the box.

7) L POSITION
The Vaulter still applies pressure on the pole with the knee driving while swinging a straight trail
leg in the air.
8) J POSITION
Now, in this position the Vaulter has the lower end above the shoulders forming a J-shape.
9) I POSITION
This is nothing but the neutral position in which the head and legs are together in straight line with
right hand above the left hand.
10) DOTTING THE I-POSITION
In this position the right hand is still above the left but the head turns slightly downwards with feet
together extending upwards.
11) U POSITION
This is the final and the most important step in which the Vaulter releases the pole and pikes over
the bar with chest in a curved shape and arms and legs extended to avoid touching the bar.
12) LANDING ON THE MAT
Finally, the Vaulter lands on the mat leaving the pole behind and the height of the jump
is recorded.

SCORING
Once the Vaulter is ready to start, they have three attempts to clear the height. If a height is cleared,
the Vaulter advances to the next height, where they will have three more attempts. Once the
Vaulter has three consecutive misses, they are moved out of the competition as per
the rules. The highest height they have cleared is their result and who ever scores the highest
height when the final result is declared; they are declared as the winner.