AP 3rd Grading

Topic Overview
 Political
 Economical
 Social Cultural
 Rise of the modern world
 Monopolized
 Medici in Florence
 Patron
 Renaissance
 Reasons why did the Renaissance happen in Italy
 Humanities
 Father of Humanities
 Important people of Literature in Renaissance
 Important people of Art in Renaissance
 Important people of Science in Renaissance
 Important Women of Renaissance
 Reformation
 Protestant
 Reformist
 Important Reformist People
 Exploration
 Colonialism
 Imperialism
 First Stage of Colonialism and Imperialism
 3 Gs
 Why they explored Asia?
 Instruments used in exploration
Compass
Astrolabe
 The Exploration of Portugal (1420 – 1529)
 Important People of the Exploration of Portugal
 The Exploration of Spain (1469)
 Important people of the Exploration of Spain
 Important people of the First Stage of Colonialism and Imperialism
 The Effects of the first stage of Colonialism and Imperialism
 Age of Enlightenment
 Reasons why the Age of Enlightenment Happened?
 Important people of the Age of Enlightenment
 Scientific Revolution
 Important inventions of the Scientific Revolution
 Important people of the Scientific Revolution
 Industrial Revolution
 Important people of the Industrial Revolution
 Important inventions of the Industrial Revolution
 The American Revolution
 Reasons why the American Revolution Happened
 Important people of the American Revolution
 Laws that were in place before the Americans claimed independency
 Steps of the American Revolution
 French Revolution
 Important people of the French Revolution
 Reasons why the French Revolution Happened
 The 3 estates of France
 Constitution Assembly
 September 1791
 Second Stage of Imperialism and Colonialism
 Important people and countries of the Second Stage of Imperialism and Colonialism
 Countries that colonized and the countries that got colonized
 Doctrine of Manifest Destiny
 White Man’s Burden
 System of Capitalism
 Types of Territories Established
 Protectorate, concession, sphere of influence
 The exploration of Middle Africa
 The Development of Nationalism in the Soviet Union
 Important people in The Development of Nationalism in the Soviet Union
 Reasons why The Development of Nationalism in the Soviet Union happened
 Facts about Russia
 Growth Nationalism in Latin America
 Important Countries in the nationalism of Latin America
 Reasons why nationalism grew in Latin America
 Nationalism: History

Political: Politics is the art or science of government, and it deals with the organization and administration
of power. In this context, political refers to anything related to government or the exercise of power.
Political systems can take different forms, such as democracies, dictatorships, monarchies, and republics.
Political events can shape the course of history and have a profound impact on society.

Economical: Economics is the study of how individuals, businesses, and societies allocate resources to
satisfy their needs and wants. Economic systems can vary greatly, from market economies where prices
are determined by supply and demand to command economies where the government controls
production and distribution. Economic policies and events can have a significant impact on people's lives,
including income, employment, and standard of living.

Social Cultural: Social and cultural factors refer to the beliefs, customs, values, behaviors, and social
structures that shape a society. Social and cultural factors can include things like religion, language,
ethnicity, gender roles, social class, and family structure. These factors can influence how people interact
with each other and how they view the world. Understanding social and cultural factors is important for
understanding the context in which events and decisions take place.

Rise of the modern world: The rise of the modern world refers to the period of history from the 15th
century to the 18th century when Europe underwent significant changes that transformed it from a
medieval society to a modern one. This period was characterized by significant cultural, political, and
economic changes, including the Renaissance, the Age of Exploration, the Scientific Revolution, and the
Enlightenment.

Monopolized: To monopolize something means to have complete control over it. In economics, a
monopoly occurs when a single company or group of companies control the production or distribution of
a particular product or service. Monopolies can lead to higher prices and lower quality for consumers, as
well as limited innovation and competition. Monopolies can be regulated or broken up by governments to
promote fair competition.

Medici in Florence: The Medici family was a wealthy and powerful family from Florence, Italy, who played
a significant role in the political, economic, and cultural development of the city during the Renaissance.
The Medici family supported artists, philosophers, and writers, and they were also major patrons of the
arts. They used their wealth and influence to gain political power and played a significant role in shaping
the culture of Renaissance Italy.

Patron: A patron is a person or organization that supports or sponsors something, such as the arts,
sciences, or education. Patrons can provide financial support, as well as other resources and assistance, to
help individuals or organizations achieve their goals. In the context of the Renaissance, patrons played a
significant role in supporting artists, writers, and thinkers, and many of the great works of the period were
created with the support of patrons.

Renaissance:

The Renaissance was a period of cultural and artistic rebirth that occurred in Europe from the 14th to the
17th century. It originated in Italy and spread across Europe, marking a transition from the medieval
period to the modern world. During the Renaissance, there was a renewed interest in the classical arts,
literature, philosophy, and science, and many new ideas and discoveries were made.

Reasons why did the Renaissance happen in Italy:

The Renaissance happened in Italy for several reasons. Italy was at the crossroads of trade routes
between Europe and Asia, which made it a center for commerce and culture. Additionally, Italy had a
strong economy and a wealthy merchant class that supported the arts. The rediscovery of classical texts in
Italy also played a role in the Renaissance, as it sparked a renewed interest in humanism and the liberal
arts.
Humanities:

The humanities are academic disciplines that study human culture, such as literature, philosophy, history,
and the arts. The humanities are important because they help us understand the human experience and
our place in the world. They also provide us with the critical thinking and communication skills needed to
navigate complex social and political issues.

Father of Humanities:

The term "father of humanities" is often attributed to Francesco Petrarca, an Italian scholar who lived in
the 14th century. Petrarca is considered to be one of the founders of humanism, which emphasized the
study of classical texts and the liberal arts.
Important people of Literature in Renaissance:

The Renaissance saw a flourishing of literature, with many important writers producing works that are still
studied and admired today. Some of the most significant writers of the Renaissance include William
Shakespeare, Miguel de Cervantes, Dante Alighieri, and Giovanni Boccaccio. Shakespeare's plays, for
example, are known for their complex characters, intricate plots, and timeless themes, while Cervantes'
Don Quixote is considered one of the greatest works of fiction ever written. Dante's Divine Comedy is also
a landmark work, combining epic poetry with political and religious commentary, while Boccaccio's
Decameron is known for its humor and eroticism.

Important people of Art in Renaissance:

The Renaissance was a period of great artistic achievement in Europe, and some of the most important
artists of all time emerged during this time. One of the most famous artists of the Renaissance was
Leonardo da Vinci, who is known for his paintings like the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper. Michelangelo,
another famous artist of the period, is best known for his sculpture of David and the painting on the
ceiling of the Sistine Chapel.
Other important artists of the Renaissance include Sandro Botticelli, who painted The Birth of Venus and
Primavera, and Raphael, who is known for his paintings like The School of Athens and Sistine Madonna.

Important people of Science in Renaissance:

The Renaissance was also a period of great scientific advancement, and many important scientists and
inventors emerged during this time. Perhaps the most famous of these is Galileo Galilei, who made
significant contributions to the fields of astronomy and physics. His observations of the moons of Jupiter
and the phases of Venus provided evidence for the heliocentric model of the solar system.

Another important figure in Renaissance science was Leonardo da Vinci, who made significant
contributions to fields like anatomy, optics, and engineering. He is also known for his detailed drawings of
the human body, which helped advance our understanding of anatomy.
Other important scientists of the Renaissance include Nicolaus Copernicus, who proposed the heliocentric
model of the solar system, and Johannes Kepler, who refined this model and developed the laws of
planetary motion.

Important Women of Renaissance:

Although women were generally excluded from public life during the Renaissance, there were still many
important women who made significant contributions to art, literature, and science. One of the most
famous of these women was Artemisia Gentileschi, who was a prominent painter of the Baroque era. Her
paintings often depicted strong, heroic women, and she is regarded as one of the greatest female artists
of all time.
Other important women of the Renaissance include Caterina Sforza, who was a noted military leader and
diplomat, and Christine de Pizan, who was a writer and philosopher. Isabella d'Este, who was a patron of
the arts and a collector of rare books and manuscripts, was also an important figure during this time.

Reformation:
 The Reformation was a period of religious upheaval in Europe that began in the early 16th century. It was
a response to the corruption and abuses of the Catholic Church, and it led to the establishment of various
Protestant denominations.

Protestant:

Protestantism is a branch of Christianity that emerged during the Reformation. It encompasses a wide
range of denominations, including Lutheranism, Calvinism, Anglicanism, and many others. Protestants
reject many of the teachings and practices of the Catholic Church, and they emphasize the importance of
personal faith and direct access to God through scripture. The Reformation had a profound impact on
European society and culture, and it played a significant role in shaping the modern world.

Reformist refers to someone who advocates for changes to a system or organization, often with the goal
of improving it. This can refer to political, social, or religious systems.
Important Reformist People throughout history include:
1. Martin Luther: A German theologian who challenged the Roman Catholic Church's teachings and practices
in the 16th century, leading to the Protestant Reformation.
2. John Calvin: A French theologian who developed the system of Christian theology known as Calvinism,
which emphasized the sovereignty of God and predestination.
3. John Locke: An English philosopher who wrote extensively about government, human rights, and the
nature of knowledge in the 17th century. His ideas helped lay the foundation for liberal democracy.
4. Mahatma Gandhi: An Indian independence activist who used nonviolent civil disobedience to lead India to
independence from British rule.

Exploration refers to the act of traveling to new places for the purpose of discovery or gaining knowledge.
This can refer to travel within one's own country or to other parts of the world.

Colonialism refers to the practice of one country establishing and maintaining political and economic
control over another country or territory. This often involved the exploitation of resources and labor in
the colonized territory for the benefit of the colonizing country.

Imperialism is a broader term that refers to the practice of one country or group of countries extending
their power and influence over other countries or territories. This can take many forms, including military,
economic, and cultural domination. Imperialism often involves the exploitation of resources and labor in
the colonized territory for the benefit of the imperial power.
During the Age of Exploration, European powers established colonies and engaged in imperialism in many
parts of the world, including the Americas, Africa, and Asia. This led to the exploitation and subjugation of
many people and cultures, as well as the spread of European influence and culture around the globe.

First Stage of Colonialism and Imperialism:

The first stage of colonialism and imperialism refers to the period of European exploration and
colonization of the Americas, Africa, and Asia from the 15th to the 18th century. It began with the
Portuguese voyages of exploration in the early 1400s, which were followed by Spanish, Dutch, British, and
French expeditions.

3 Gs:
 The 3 Gs refer to the primary motives behind European exploration and colonization during the first stage
of colonialism and imperialism: Gold, Glory, and God. Gold refers to the search for wealth and riches,
including precious metals and spices. Glory refers to the desire for fame and recognition, including the
establishment of empires and the conquest of new territories. God refers to the desire to spread
Christianity and convert non-Christians to the faith.

Why they explored Asia?

One of the main reasons for European exploration of Asia was the search for new trade routes and
markets. The Ottoman Empire controlled the traditional land routes to Asia, making it difficult for
Europeans to trade with Asia. Therefore, they sought new sea routes to reach the rich markets of Asia,
including China, India, and the Spice Islands.

Instruments used in exploration:

Compass: A compass is a navigational instrument that uses the Earth's magnetic field to determine
direction. It was used by European explorers to navigate the seas and oceans.

Astrolabe: An astrolabe is an instrument used for solving problems related to time and the position of the
stars. It was used by European explorers to determine their latitude while at sea.

The Exploration of Portugal (1420 – 1529):

The exploration of Portugal began in the early 1400s when Prince Henry the Navigator sponsored voyages
of exploration along the West African coast. Portuguese explorers such as Vasco da Gama and
Bartholomew Dias later made significant voyages to India and around the southern tip of Africa,
respectively. The Portuguese were motivated by a desire to find a new sea route to Asia, bypassing the
Ottoman-controlled land routes. They also sought to spread Christianity and establish trading
relationships with African and Asian societies.

Important People of the Exploration of Portugal:

1. Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460): Prince Henry was a patron of exploration and played a key role in
Portugal's Age of Discovery. He founded a navigation school and sponsored many expeditions along the
coast of Africa.
2. Vasco da Gama (c.1469-1524): Da Gama was a Portuguese explorer who led the first expedition from
Europe to India by sea. He opened up a direct sea route from Europe to Asia, which allowed for the trade
of spices and other goods.
3. Bartolomeu Dias (c.1450-1500): Dias was a Portuguese explorer who sailed around the southern tip of
Africa in 1488, which opened up a new sea route to Asia.
The Exploration of Spain (1469):
The union of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile in 1469 marked the beginning of Spain's Age
of Discovery. Their marriage united the kingdoms of Aragon and Castile, and they worked together to
fund and support expeditions to explore the New World.

Important people of the Exploration of Spain:

 1. Christopher Columbus (1451-1506): Columbus was an Italian explorer who sailed for Spain and is credited
with discovering America. He made four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean and is known for opening up
the New World to exploration and colonization.
2. Hernán Cortés (1485-1547): Cortés was a Spanish conquistador who is best known for his conquest of the
Aztec Empire in Mexico. He led a small army of men and defeated the much larger Aztec army, which led
to the downfall of the Aztec Empire.
3. Francisco Pizarro (c.1475-1541): Pizarro was a Spanish conquistador who conquered the Inca Empire in
South America. He led a small army of men and captured the Inca emperor Atahualpa, which led to the
downfall of the Inca Empire.

Important people of the First Stage of Colonialism and Imperialism:

1. King Leopold II of Belgium (1835-1909): Leopold II was the king of Belgium and is known for his
exploitation of the Congo. He claimed the land as his personal property and forced the local population to
work in rubber plantations, which led to widespread atrocities and human rights abuses.
2. Sir Francis Drake (c.1540-1596): Drake was an English explorer and naval commander who led the second
expedition to circumnavigate the globe. He is also known for his role in defeating the Spanish Armada and
for his piracy against Spanish ships.
3. Bartolomé de Las Casas (1484-1566): Las Casas was a Spanish historian and Dominican friar who is known
for his defense of the rights of Native Americans. He wrote several books that argued against the
mistreatment of Native Americans and called for their rights to be protected.

The Effects of the first stage of Colonialism and Imperialism:

The first stage of colonialism and imperialism had significant effects on the world. The colonization of the
Americas led to the genocide of Native American populations, the enslavement of Africans, and the
exploitation of resources. European countries gained immense wealth and power through their colonies,
which led to the rise of capitalism and the modern global economy. The first stage of colonialism and
imperialism also led to the spread of Christianity and Western culture, which had a lasting impact on the
world.

Age of Enlightenment:

The Age of Enlightenment was an intellectual and cultural movement that took place in Europe during the
17th and 18th centuries. It emphasized reason, logic, and science as the primary sources of authority and
legitimacy, and rejected traditional sources such as religion and the monarchy. The Enlightenment is often
associated with the rise of modernity, individualism, and secularism.

Reasons why the Age of Enlightenment Happened?

The Age of Enlightenment was a product of the scientific revolution, the Renaissance, and the political
upheavals of the time. These factors led to a growing sense of skepticism and a rejection of traditional
forms of authority, as well as a greater emphasis on the importance of the individual and the pursuit of
knowledge.

Important people of the Age of Enlightenment:

 The Age of Enlightenment was marked by the contributions of numerous important figures in philosophy,
science, literature, and politics. Some of the most notable figures include:
 John Locke: A philosopher who argued for the importance of individual rights and the social contract
theory.
 Voltaire: A writer and philosopher who advocated for freedom of speech and religious toleration.
 Jean-Jacques Rousseau: A philosopher who emphasized the importance of education and the social
contract theory.
 Montesquieu: A political philosopher who developed the theory of the separation of powers in
government.
 Adam Smith: An economist who developed the theory of capitalism and the free market.

Scientific Revolution:

The scientific revolution was a period of rapid scientific discovery and advancement that took place in
Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries. It was marked by a shift from the traditional Aristotelian view
of the natural world to an empirical, evidence-based approach. This led to groundbreaking discoveries in
areas such as physics, astronomy, and medicine.

Important inventions of the Scientific Revolution:

The scientific revolution led to a number of important inventions and discoveries, including:
 The telescope: Invented by Galileo Galilei, the telescope allowed for the observation of celestial objects
and paved the way for the development of modern astronomy.
 The microscope: Invented by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, the microscope allowed for the observation of
microscopic organisms and led to the development of modern microbiology.
 The laws of motion: Developed by Isaac Newton, the laws of motion laid the foundation for modern
physics and mechanics.
 The scientific method: Developed by Francis Bacon, the scientific method provided a systematic approach
to scientific inquiry and experimentation.

Overall, the scientific revolution had a profound impact on the way people viewed the natural world and
led to significant advances in many fields of study.

Important people of the Scientific Revolution:

The Scientific Revolution, which took place from the 16th to the 18th century, was a period of great
scientific advancements and discoveries. Some of the important people of this era include:

Galileo Galilei: A physicist, mathematician, and astronomer who made significant contributions to the
field of physics, including the law of falling bodies and the principle of inertia.

Isaac Newton: A mathematician, physicist, and astronomer who is famous for his laws of motion and the
law of universal gravitation.

Johannes Kepler: A mathematician and astronomer who discovered the laws of planetary motion.

Robert Boyle: A chemist and physicist who is known for Boyle's law, which states that the pressure and
volume of a gas are inversely proportional.
 Francis Bacon: A philosopher, statesman, and scientist who is considered the father of the scientific
method.

Industrial Revolution:

The Industrial Revolution was a period of significant social and economic changes that took place in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries. It was characterized by the mechanization of production, the growth of
factories and the use of steam power. The Industrial Revolution began in Britain and spread to other parts
of Europe and North America.

Important people of the Industrial Revolution:

James Watt: A Scottish inventor who developed an efficient steam engine that was widely used in textile
manufacturing and transportation.

Eli Whitney: An American inventor who is known for inventing the cotton gin, a machine that
revolutionized the cotton industry.

Henry Bessemer: An English inventor who developed the Bessemer process, a method of mass-producing
steel.

Richard Arkwright: An English inventor who is credited with inventing the water frame, a spinning
machine that revolutionized the textile industry.

Samuel Slater: An English-born American industrialist who is known as the father of the American
Industrial Revolution. He brought textile machinery designs from Britain to the United States and
established the first cotton-spinning mill in the country.

Important inventions of the Industrial Revolution:

Spinning jenny: A spinning machine invented by James Hargreaves that allowed one person to spin
multiple threads at once.

Power loom: A mechanized loom invented by Edmund Cartwright that allowed for the mass production of
textiles.

Steam engine: Invented by James Watt, the steam engine was a revolutionary invention that powered
machinery and transportation.

Telegraph: A communication system that allowed messages to be sent over long distances using electrical
signals.

Sewing machine: Invented by Elias Howe and Isaac Singer, the sewing machine revolutionized the clothing
industry by allowing for the mass production of clothing.
The American Revolution:

The American Revolution was a political upheaval that took place between 1765 and 1783 in the thirteen
colonies that became the United States of America. The revolution was sparked by tensions between the
colonies and the British government, which imposed taxes and other policies without representation.
Important events and figures of the American Revolution include:

Boston Tea Party: In 1773, American colonists staged a protest against British tea taxes by throwing tea
into Boston Harbor.

George Washington: The commander-in-chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolution,
and the first President of the United States.

Declaration of Independence: A document adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, which
declared the thirteen American colonies independent from British rule.

Battle of Saratoga: A turning point in the American Revolution in which American forces defeated a British
army and convinced France to support the revolution.

Treaty of Paris: Signed in 1783, the Treaty

Reasons why the American Revolution Happened:

The American Revolution was the result of a variety of factors, including political, economic, and social issues
that had developed over time between the British government and the American colonies. The British
government had long viewed the colonies as a source of revenue and had imposed a series of taxes and
regulations to that end, such as the Stamp Act and the Townshend Acts. The colonists, on the other hand, felt
that they were being unfairly taxed without representation in the British Parliament, leading to the famous cry
of "no taxation without representation." Additionally, the British government had imposed a series of
regulations and restrictions on the colonies that limited their ability to govern themselves, such as the
Quartering Act and the Proclamation of 1763. These factors, along with the increasing sense of American
identity and the influence of Enlightenment ideas about natural rights and self-government, led to the growing
belief among many colonists that they should break away from British rule and establish their own
independent nation.

Important people of the American Revolution:

The American Revolution involved a wide range of people, from political leaders to soldiers and ordinary
citizens. Some of the most important figures include:

George Washington: The commander-in-chief of the Continental Army and one of the most important leaders
of the American Revolution.

Thomas Jefferson: The primary author of the Declaration of Independence and one of the key figures in the
development of American democracy.
 John Adams: A prominent lawyer and statesman who played a key role in the Continental Congress and later
became the second President of the United States.

Benjamin Franklin: A writer, inventor, and diplomat who played a key role in securing French support for the
American cause.

Paul Revere: A silversmith and member of the Sons of Liberty who is best known for his "midnight ride" to
warn of British troop movements.

Laws that were in place before the Americans claimed independency:

Before the American colonies claimed independence from Great Britain, a series of laws and regulations had
been put in place to regulate colonial trade and establish British control over the colonies. Some of the key
laws included:

Navigation Acts: A series of laws that restricted colonial trade to British ships and required certain goods to be
shipped only to England or other British colonies.

Proclamation of 1763: A proclamation by King George III that prohibited colonists from settling west of the
Appalachian Mountains.

Stamp Act: A tax on printed materials, including legal documents, newspapers, and playing cards.

Townshend Acts: A series of laws that placed taxes on a variety of imported goods, including glass, lead, and
tea.

Coercive Acts: A series of laws passed in response to the Boston Tea Party that closed the port of Boston and
increased British control over the colonial government.

Steps of the American Revolution:

The American Revolution involved a series of steps and events that ultimately led to the colonists' declaration
of independence from Great Britain. Some of the key steps include:

The Stamp Act (1765): A tax on printed materials that was met with widespread protests and resistance by the
colonists.
 The Boston Tea Party (1773): A protest by colonists in which they dumped tea into Boston Harbor in response
to British taxes on tea.

The First Continental Congress (1774): A meeting of colonial representatives that called for a boycott of British
goods and the establishment of militias in the colonies.

The Battles of Lexington and Concord (1775): The first military engagements of the Revolutionary War, in
which colonial militias clashed with British troops.

The Declaration of Independence (1776): A document in which the colonies declared their independence from
Great Britain and established a new nation based on the principles of democracy and natural rights.

French Revolution

The French Revolution was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France from 1789 to 1799. It was
a time of great change as the French monarchy was overthrown, and the French Republic was established. The
French Revolution was influenced by a variety of factors, including Enlightenment ideas, economic inequality,
and political corruption.

Important people of the French Revolution:

1. Maximilien Robespierre: Robespierre was a French lawyer and politician who became one of the most
influential leaders of the Revolution. He was a key figure in the Reign of Terror, which saw thousands of
people executed as part of a campaign to eliminate political enemies and enforce revolutionary ideals.

2. King Louis XVI: King Louis XVI was the last king of France before the Revolution. He was executed in 1793
after being accused of high treason.

3. Napoleon Bonaparte: Napoleon was a military general who rose to prominence during the Revolution. He
eventually became the leader of France and established a new form of government known as the
Napoleonic Empire.

4. Jean-Paul Marat: Marat was a radical journalist who played a key role in inciting the people of France to
revolution. He was assassinated in 1793.

Reasons why the French Revolution happened:

1. Economic inequality: The French economy was in a state of crisis, and the poor were suffering as a result.
The wealthy elite, on the other hand, continued to live in luxury and pay little or no taxes.

2. Political corruption: The French monarchy was seen as corrupt and inefficient, with many people feeling
that it had lost touch with the needs and desires of the people.

3. Enlightenment ideas: The French Revolution was heavily influenced by Enlightenment ideas, which
emphasized the importance of reason, liberty, and equality. These ideas inspired many people to demand
political and social change.

The 3 estates of France:

 The French Revolution was driven by a deep sense of inequality, with the vast majority of the French
population living in poverty while a small elite enjoyed enormous wealth and privilege. The French population
was divided into three estates:

1. The First Estate: The First Estate was made up of the clergy, who owned vast amounts of land and enjoyed
many privileges.

2. The Second Estate: The Second Estate was made up of the nobility, who also owned large amounts of land
and enjoyed many privileges.

3. The Third Estate: The Third Estate was made up of the vast majority of the French population, including
peasants, merchants, and artisans. They had few rights and were heavily taxed.

Constitution Assembly:

The National Assembly was a revolutionary assembly formed by the representatives of the Third Estate on
June 17, 1789, after they were locked out of a meeting of the Estates-General. The Assembly adopted the
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, a document that laid out the basic principles of the
Revolution, including liberty, equality, and fraternity. The Assembly also drafted a new constitution, which
established a constitutional monarchy in France.

September 1791:

In September 1791, the National Constituent Assembly of France passed the first French Constitution, which
established a constitutional monarchy in France. This was a significant moment in the French Revolution, as it
marked the end of absolute monarchy in France and the beginning of a new era of constitutional government.

Second Stage of Imperialism and Colonialism:

The Second Stage of Imperialism and Colonialism occurred from the mid-19th century to the mid-20th
century, and was characterized by increased competition between European powers for colonies and
territories in Asia and Africa. This period saw the emergence of new imperial powers, including Germany, Italy,
Japan, and the United States, and the consolidation of imperial power by existing powers such as Britain and
France.

Important people and countries of the Second Stage of Imperialism and Colonialism:

Some of the important people of this era include King Leopold II of Belgium, who was responsible for the
brutal exploitation of the Congo; Cecil Rhodes, the British imperialist who was instrumental in the colonization
of South Africa; and Otto von Bismarck, the German Chancellor who oversaw the colonization of German East
Africa. Some of the important countries involved in imperialism and colonialism during this period include
Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Japan, and the United States.

Countries that colonized and the countries that got colonized:

During this period, European powers colonized much of Asia and Africa. Britain colonized India, Burma, and
Malaya, as well as large parts of Africa, including Kenya, Uganda, and South Africa. France colonized Algeria,
Indochina, and much of West Africa. Germany colonized parts of East and West Africa, as well as some Pacific
islands. Italy colonized Libya, Eritrea, and Somalia. Portugal colonized Angola, Mozambique, and parts of East
Timor. Spain colonized the Philippines, and the United States colonized the Philippines and Puerto Rico.
Doctrine of Manifest Destiny:

The Doctrine of Manifest Destiny was a belief held by many Americans in the 19th century that it was their
divine mission to expand westward and spread American ideals and culture across the continent. This belief
was used to justify the colonization of Native American lands and the annexation of territories such as Texas,
California, and Hawaii. The doctrine was used to justify American imperialism and territorial expansion
overseas, particularly in the Pacific and Caribbean regions.

White Man’s Burden:

The term "White Man's Burden" refers to the idea that it was the moral duty of white people to bring
civilization and enlightenment to people of color who were considered less developed and inferior. The phrase
was popularized by the British poet Rudyard Kipling in a poem that was published in 1899. It became a
justification for European imperialism, especially in Africa and Asia, and the colonization and exploitation of
the people and resources of those regions.

System of Capitalism:

Capitalism is an economic system characterized by private ownership of the means of production, goods and
services are produced for profit in a competitive market, and investment and reinvestment of capital to
produce and distribute goods and services. It emerged in the late 18th and early 19th centuries in Europe and
the United States and has become the dominant economic system in the world.

Types of Territories Established:

The three main types of territories established during the second stage of imperialism and colonialism were
protectorates, concessions, and spheres of influence. A protectorate was a territory that was technically
independent but was under the control of a stronger power, which provided military protection and
sometimes controlled foreign affairs. A concession was a territory that a foreign power gained exclusive
control over for economic exploitation, such as mining or trade. A sphere of influence was a region where a
foreign power had exclusive trading rights and sometimes political influence, but did not exercise direct
control over the territory.

Protectorate, concession, and sphere of influence

are three different types of territories established by imperialist powers during the colonial era.

Protectorate: A protectorate is a form of indirect rule in which a colonial power extends its authority over a
weaker state or territory, while leaving its internal affairs and local government in place. The local government
is allowed to operate, but the protectorate power has the right to intervene in matters such as foreign policy
and trade. Protectorates were established to expand the sphere of influence of a colonial power without the
need for a large military presence or the expense of direct rule.

Example: Britain established a protectorate over the Sultanate of Brunei in 1888.

Concession: A concession is a form of direct rule in which a colonial power gains control of a territory through
a contractual agreement with the local government or ruler. The colonial power is granted exclusive rights to
 exploit the territory's resources, and often has significant control over its economy and infrastructure.
Concessions were established primarily to secure economic benefits and resources for the colonizing power.

Example: In the late 19th century, European powers such as Britain, France, and Germany established
concessions in China to exploit its resources and gain access to its markets.

Sphere of Influence: A sphere of influence is a form of indirect rule in which a colonial power gains economic,
political, and military influence over a weaker state or territory without establishing formal political control.
The colonial power establishes a presence in the territory through trade agreements, investment, or military
alliances, and gains control over key aspects of its economy and government.

Example: In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, European powers and the United States established
spheres of influence in China, which allowed them to control key ports, railways, and industrial centers, and to
influence Chinese politics and government.

The Exploration of Middle Africa:

The exploration of Middle Africa refers to the exploration of the interior regions of Africa in the late 19th and
early 20th centuries by European explorers and adventurers. It was motivated by a desire to find new
territories to colonize, as well as a search for scientific knowledge and adventure. The explorers faced many
challenges, including disease, difficult terrain, hostile tribes, and limited supplies. Some of the most famous
explorers of this period include David Livingstone, Henry Morton Stanley, and Richard Burton. Their
explorations helped to pave the way for the colonization of Africa by European powers.

The Development of Nationalism in the Soviet Union:

The Soviet Union was created after the Russian Revolution of 1917, which brought the Bolsheviks to power.
The Soviet Union, officially known as the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), was a federal socialist
state that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was made up of 15 republics that were spread across Eastern Europe
and Asia. Nationalism played an important role in the formation and development of the Soviet Union, as it
helped to unite the various ethnic groups that made up the country.

In the early years of the Soviet Union, there was a strong emphasis on internationalism and the idea of a world
revolution. However, as the country developed, the Soviet leadership recognized the importance of
nationalism in maintaining the unity of the country. Soviet leaders saw nationalism as a way to promote
loyalty to the Soviet state and to create a sense of shared identity among the various ethnic groups that made
up the country.

Important people in The Development of Nationalism in the Soviet Union:

The development of nationalism in the Soviet Union was influenced by several key figures, including Joseph
Stalin, who served as the leader of the Soviet Union from the late 1920s until his death in 1953. Stalin's
policies emphasized the importance of national unity and the need to create a sense of shared identity among
the various ethnic groups that made up the country.

Another key figure was Nikita Khrushchev, who led the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964. Khrushchev's policies
emphasized the importance of decentralization and gave greater autonomy to the various republics that made
up the Soviet Union. This helped to foster a sense of national identity among the different ethnic groups.

Reasons why The Development of Nationalism in the Soviet Union happened:

Nationalism played an important role in the formation and development of the Soviet Union. The country was
created after the Russian Revolution of 1917, which overthrew the Tsarist government and brought the
 Bolsheviks to power. The Bolsheviks were committed to the idea of a world revolution and believed that the
working class would unite across national boundaries to overthrow capitalism.

However, as the Soviet Union developed, the leadership recognized the importance of nationalism in
maintaining the unity of the country. The Soviet Union was made up of many different ethnic groups, and
nationalism was seen as a way to create a sense of shared identity and promote loyalty to the Soviet state.

Facts about Russia:

Russia is the largest country in the world, spanning two continents and covering more than 17 million square
kilometers. It is home to more than 144 million people and has a rich cultural heritage that spans centuries.
Russia has played an important role in world history, from the time of the Tsars to the Soviet era and beyond.

Growth Nationalism in Latin America:

Nationalism played a key role in the growth of Latin America in the 19th and 20th centuries. Latin American
countries had been colonized by European powers, and nationalism emerged as a way for these countries to
assert their independence and establish their own identities. Nationalism in Latin America was also fueled by a
desire to break free from economic and political domination by foreign powers.

Important figures in the growth of nationalism in Latin America include Simón Bolívar, who led the struggle for
independence in several Latin American countries, and José Martí, a Cuban writer and politician who played an
important role in the struggle for Cuban independence. Nationalism in Latin America was also driven by a
desire to promote social justice and to create a more equitable society. This led to the rise of movements such
as socialism and communism in many Latin American countries.

Important Countries in the nationalism of Latin America:

Nationalism emerged in Latin America during the early 19th century and spread to many countries, including
Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Mexico, Peru, and Venezuela. Each of these countries had its own
unique path towards nationalism, influenced by their individual histories and cultures.

Reasons why nationalism grew in Latin America:

Nationalism grew in Latin America as a response to colonialism and imperialism by European powers. The
region had been dominated by Spain and Portugal for centuries, and after gaining independence, many Latin
American countries struggled to define their own identities. Nationalism provided a way for these countries to
assert their independence and celebrate their unique cultures, languages, and histories. Nationalist
movements also aimed to reduce the power of foreign influence in the region and promote economic
development and social progress.

Nationalism: History:

Nationalism is a political and social ideology that emphasizes the importance of national identity and unity. It
emerged as a powerful force in Europe during the 19th century, fueled by the French Revolution and the rise
of industrialization. Nationalism spread to other parts of the world, including Latin America, as countries
sought to assert their independence and develop their own unique cultures and identities. In some cases,
nationalism has led to conflict and even war, as competing national interests clash. However, it has also played
a vital role in shaping modern societies and promoting social and political change.