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Feasibility Study of a Heavy-duty Tractor - 2010-01-1932

Motorized Semi-trailer Hybrid Electric Published
10/05/2010
Combination

Marius-Dorin Surcel and Jan Michaelsen

FPInnovations

Copyright © 2010 SAE International

ABSTRACT The analysis of traction performances showed evident gains

both in tractive force and gradeability for the motorized semi-
The objective of this study was to evaluate the concept of a
trailer. Moreover, the use of motorized axles on the semi-trailer
heavy-duty tractor - motorized semi-trailer hybrid electric
would improve the longitudinal stability of the vehicle
combination, which would have electric drive axles on the
combination by decreasing the potential for sliding, especially
semi-trailer.
in off-highway conditions.
The scope of the project included an analysis of the general
The evaluation of the impact on greenhouse gas emissions
concept of a power-driven semi-trailer, the positioning of the
shows that the electric motorized semi-trailer concept would
concept of the heavy-duty tractor - motorized semi-trailer
offer important annual reductions for all the analyzed transport
hybrid electric combination in the general context of the
activities, with generally attractive payback periods.
technology, and the evaluation of the applicability of the
Exemplifying for the off-highway hauling of raw materials
concept for different duty cycles.
using off-highway vehicles, GHG emissions reduction would
be up to 108 tons/year per vehicle combination, with a payback
Several transport activities were analyzed to determine specific
period as low as 18 months, which is explained by very
duty cycles for heavy-duty vehicles: highway line haul and
important quantitative fuel savings coupled with a relatively
regional haul, construction haul, and off-highway hauling of
moderate increase in vehicle purchase costs. However, for
raw materials, such as forestry transport with Class 8 and
highway and regional haul, the relative increase of the semi-
off-highway tractor-trailer combinations.
trailer cost by a factor of three would make the concept
unattractive.
The concept of a heavy-duty tractor - motorized semi-trailer
hybrid electric combination was compared with a corresponding
The concept of a heavy-duty tractor - motorized semi-trailer
conventional combination (conventional tractor and semi-trailer),
hybrid electric combination would offer the best dynamic,
and with a combination of a parallel hybrid electric tractor with a
environmental, and economical advantages when implemented
conventional semi-trailer. PSAT simulations were conducted to
for off-highway transport of raw materials, such as forestry or
evaluate the fuel efficiency and the influence on traction and
mining transport, for which the relative cost increases are
stability was evaluated for each representative duty-cycle.
acceptable and payback periods are relatively short.
The simulation results generally predict comparable fuel
efficiencies for the heavy-duty tractor - motorized semi-trailer INTRODUCTION
hybrid electric combination, and the correspondent parallel Hybrid vehicle technology is already a reality for urban
hybrid electric tractor with conventional semi-trailer applications where stop-and-go driving cycles offer many
combination. Depending on the duty-cycle, both hybrid versions opportunities to recover and recycle braking energy, such as
would offer substantial fuel savings when compared to the delivery, waste management and public transportation, for
conventional tractor-semi-trailer combination, such as up to which minimum fuel savings of 15% have been proven. Hybrid
30% for off-highway hauling of raw materials. vehicle technology is gradually finding specific applications in

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the heavy-duty vehicle market, with several manufacturer
already offering Class 8 hybrid vehicles.
Regenerative braking and hybrid technology could be
interesting for forestry and mining applications, which are
characterized by difficult terrain and climatic conditions.
Operating a hybrid forestry truck would make it possible
to recover braking energy when the vehicle travels on forest
roads. The vehicle would use this energy during non-working
time (for powering the loader, when waiting, for other
idling, or for powering other auxiliary systems and devices),
and during times when power needs are higher, by assisting
the engine. The forestry truck can be equipped with a
smaller, more economical engine and will use significantly
less fuel.
Power-driven trailers have been tested and used in the last one
hundred years for surmounting traction issues in low adherence
conditions, such as those encountered in mining, forestry,
agriculture or military applications. These power-driven
trailers used or are using mechanical, hydraulic or electrical
traction systems.
The concept of a heavy-duty tractor - motorized semi-trailer
hybrid electric combination would have electric drive axles
on the semi-trailer [1]. The scope of this project was to analyze
the concept of a power-driven semitrailer and to evaluate the
applicability of the concept for different transport sectors.
A literature research was conducted to analyse the history of
the technology, the technical solutions and present applications,
the advantages and disadvantages of the system, as well as the
foreseen evolution. Despite the extensive research, not many
actual application of the power-driven trailer concept were
found. The mechanical traction systems, consisting of a
combustion engine and a transmission installed on the trailer or
on the dolly, are the most common, this technology being well
developed and known within the mining industry, particularly
in Australia. The hydrostatic systems are mainly used for
military and forestry applications, designed for difficult terrain
conditions but with limited loading capacity. Their main
disadvantage is the low travel speed range, limiting their
usefulness to applications that do not required high velocity,
such as off-road forestry or agricultural machineries. The
hydrostatic-mechanical systems, which use a combustion
engine and a hydraulic motor, suffer from energy losses in both
hydraulic and mechanical systems. The electric traction systems
presents infinitely variable transmissions, high reliability and
very effective braking capabilities. The disadvantages are
related to the larger space and tare weight requirements, and to
the accessibility to the electric energy (such as the limited
autonomy of battery systems). There are several examples of
electric traction systems for trailers and semi-trailers but, as far
as we know, they have not gotten past the patent or prototype
phases.
70 SAE Int. J. Commer. Veh. | Volume 3 | Issue 1
The project included the following stages: determining specific
duty cycles for different types of heavy-duty hauling,
evaluation of dynamic demands for each cycle, analyzing the
concept of a heavy-duty tractor - motorized semi-trailer hybrid
electric combination, assessing the fuel efficiency and dynamic
performances of the concept, and evaluating the commercial
potential of the concept.
SPECIFIC DUTY CYCLES FOR
HEAVY-DUTY VEHICLES
Several transport activities were analyzed to determine specific
duty cycles for heavy-duty vehicles: highway line haul and
regional haul, construction haul, and off-highway hauling
of raw materials, such as forestry transport with Class 8 and
off-highway tractor-trailer combinations.
ON-HIGHWAY HAULING
Two types of operations were considered: highway line haul
and regional haul.
Highway line haul operations are characterized by high
average speeds, long trips, more constant engine operation,
and overnight rest stops, which sometimes involve long idling.
The typical combination is a Class 8 three-axle tractor with a
two-axle semi-trailer, with a tare weight of 15,000 kg or more.
The semi-trailer could be a dry van-box, a reefer-van, a tanker,
a flat bed, a curtain trailer, a trans-container, or other [2].
Several vehicles have been monitored and a representative trip
was chosen. The corresponding duty cycle was determined by
simulation, using Otto 2000 software, which simulates the
performance of haul vehicles and estimates fuel consumption,
average travel speeds and trip times. Performance modeling
for haul operations is based on mathematical models and the
development of equations for the three factors that control
performance: the vehicle, the driving technique and the road
[3]. The duty cycle is shown in Figure 1. The vehicles models
correspond to the tractor and two-axle or four-axle semi-
trailers presented in Table 1.
Figure 1. Duty cycle for highway line haul.
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The regional haul is similar to highway line haul, but the trip
lengths are shorter, the haul includes some suburban-type
operation, and has none, or fewer, overnight stays. The average
speeds are lower, and they are relatively more frequent traffic
congestion situations. Two representative vehicles were
followed in operation for three months. The vehicles were
equipped with onboard computers and GPS systems. Based on
the analysis of these trips, a representative route was built
using the GPS profiles. The corresponding duty cycle was
determined by simulation, using the Otto 2000 software
(Figure 2), and the vehicles models also correspond to the
tractor and two-axle or four-axle semi-trailers presented in
Table 1.

Figure 2. Duty cycle for regional haul.

Table 1. Vehicles type specifications for highway line haul and regional haul

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CONSTRUCTION HAULING
A study conducted with four categories of dump trucks is
presented in [4]. Twelve different vehicles had been
instrumented and monitored during work shifts composed by 4
to 5 duty cycles each. A representative duty cycle, with duration
of 1.2 hours, is composed of loading at the charging point,
delivering the load to destination, dumping, and returning to
the charging point. The duty cycle is a combination of nine
operation modes defined by a function dependent on travel
speed (V, km/h), acceleration (a, m/s2) and engine power
demand (Dp, kW/kg). Engine power demand is given by the
equation:
(1)
Figure 3 shows the structure of a representative cycle and
Table 2 presents the definitions of operation modes. It can be
observed that idling is a significant part of the cycle, more than
half of the distance was covered in cruise mode, and
deceleration mode represents almost 15% of the total distance.
The duration of the round trip cycle is approximately 28 min.
Vehicle specification is presented in Table 3.
The analysis of the database allowed us to choose a route
on which the representative vehicle model could perform
a duty cycle with a structure similar to those presented in
Figure 3. The duty cycle, obtained by simulation, is shown in
Figure 4. The cycle corresponds to a round trip (going loaded
and back empty) on an 11 km length route, with total duration
of 29 min.
Table 2. Operation modes for dump duty cycle (adapted from [4])
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OFF-HIGHWAY HAULING OF RAW
MATERIALS
The off-highway hauling of raw materials, such as forestry
transport, includes transport with Class 8 tractor -trailers as
well as with off-highway tractor-trailer combinations. A large
amount of operational data for logging transport was analyzed
to determine representative trips and routes.
An example of a representative logging operation with Class
8 vehicles is a trip with a length of 158 km, from which 115 km
is on gravel forestry roads, and a total duration of 2 h 25 min.
The corresponding duty cycles is presented in Figure 5,
obtained through simulation using a vehicle model as detailed
in Table 4.
An example of a representative logging operation with off-
highway tractor-trailer combinations is a trip with length of
110 km on gravel forestry roads, and a total duration of 2 h 18
min. The corresponding duty cycle is presented in Figure 6,
obtained through simulation using the vehicle model detailed
in Table 4.
DYNAMIC DEMANDS
Kinetic energy variation (ΔEc, in kW) between two moments
(t0 and tf) can be calculated as a function of speed (V0 and Vf)
and of vehicle mass (Mv), with the following equation (adapted
from [5]):
(2)
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Table 3. Vehicle type specification for construction haul

Figure 3. Construction haul duty cycle structure

Figure 4. Duty cycle for construction haul.
(adapted from [4]).

Equation (3) gives the power dissipated by this variation: The operation modes can be defined based on kinetic energy
variation and fuel consumption (Cc), as shown in Table 5.

The structure of the analyzed duty cycles is presented in

Figure 7. Kinetic energy variation and fuel consumption were
(3) calculated using dynamic simulation.

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Figure 5. Duty cycle for off-highway hauling of raw Figure 6. Duty cycle for off-highway hauling of raw
materials with a class 8 tractor-trailer. materials with off-highway tractor-trailer.

Table 4. Vehicles type specifications for off-highway hauling of raw materials

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Table 5. Operation modes
Figure 7. Duty cycles structure for the analyzed
transport activities.
The cycles that would offer a more efficient usage of
regenerative braking and hybrid system would be those with
lesser cruise time and more engine braking and deceleration
(Figure 7), as well as those showing more substantial kinetic
energy losses and dissipated power (Table 6). Based on these
criterions, it can be preliminarily concluded that most
appropriate cycles would be those corresponding to the
off-highway hauling of raw materials.
HYBRID ELECTRIC SEMI-TRAILER
CONCEPT
The analysis of the concept considered the architecture of the
system, the degree of hybridization, and the secondary source
of energy.
SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
In the heavy-duty tractor - motorized semi-trailer hybrid
electric combination concept, besides the main power coming
from the combustion engine, the wheels of one or more trailer
axles are powered by electric motors [1].
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The system would improve the braking performances of the
vehicle combination and would increase the climbing ability.
When needed, the electric powered axles of the trailer would
assist the tractor’s power train. The trailer would be equipped
with means for controlling the power, speed and acceleration
and grade sensors would be used for automatically activate the
electric driven axles, either in acceleration or in deceleration
modes. A manual control would also be provided. The batteries,
installed on the trailer or on the tractor, would be recharged by
using a regenerative braking system or other sources of energy,
such as tractor’s engine or a fuel cell.
Several configurations are possible. Figure 8 presents the
version with the electric motor installed on the semitrailer’s
axle that it drives, whose motor is controlled by an electronic
control module that communicates with the vehicle’s electronic
control module. In another variant, the electric motor is always
installed on the semitrailer, but external to the axles: the axles
are driven through a drive shaft and a differential. Another
version uses wheel electric motors.
Two main architectures are possible for the hybrid electric
systems: series and parallel. In the case of the series systems,
the primary power source, which is a combustion engine, does
not power the drive train directly; it propels the vehicle through
the secondary power source, which is the electric motor.
For the parallel hybrids, the engine or the electric motor can
propel the vehicle independently, or in combination.
The heavy-duty tractor and motorized semi-trailer hybrid electric
combination corresponds to the parallel-split architecture, in
which the engine drives one or more axles (on the tractor), while
the electric motor drives other axles (on the semi-trailer, in the
case of this concept). Contrary to the classic parallel system, the
parallel-split version does not require any integration with
tractor’s power train and allows the use of wheel motors. On the
other hand, the control system would be more complicated,
because it must assure the synergy between tractor’s power train
and semi-trailer’s power train. The parallel-split architecture
would offer the advantage of supplementary traction, but it would
complicate the regenerative braking, the charging of the batteries,
and the control of propelling and braking, because in some cases
the semi-trailer axles could work in regenerative braking mode,
while the tractor’s drive axles could work in propelling mode [6].
DEGREE OF HYBRIDIZATION
Hybrid systems are also frequently classified as mild hybrids
and full hybrids according to the degree of hybridization,
based on the ratio between the energy supplied by the primary
source (combustion engine) and the energy supplied by the
secondary source (electric motor). The mild hybrids are not
intended to operate in pure electric mode: the electric motor
assists the engine for starting and launching the vehicle, or
accelerating it, or for powering some auxiliary systems. In the
case of full hybrids, additionally to the functionalities of mild
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Table 6. Dynamic demands for the analyzed duty cycles

hybrids, the electric motor is capable of propelling the vehicle
alone in certain conditions, such as starting and launching [7].
In the case of the heavy-duty tractor and motorized semi-trailer
hybrid electric combination, the semi-trailer’s motorized axles
would never be capable of the propelling the combination
by themselves, therefore this concept would be consider as a
mild hybrid. It should be mentioned that hybrid versions are
usually equipped with downsized engines compared to the
corresponding conventional vehicles.
SECONDARY ENERGY SOURCE
The electric energy can be stored using batteries, ultra-
capacitors or fuel cells. Batteries are still the most common

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Figure 8. Heavy-duty tractor - motorized semi-trailer hybrid electric combination with the electric motor on semi-trailer axle
electric storage system, and the majority of commercial hybrid
vehicles from class 4 to 8 use Nickel-Metal-Hydride (NiMH)
or Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) batteries. NiMH batteries are used,
among others, for the Allison hybrid power trains (330 V
Panasonic) and the Hino 714 medium-duty trucks (274 VDC
- 6.5Ah Panasonic). Presently, Li-Ion batteries are the most
used batteries for hybrid electric vehicles. The class 8 Mercedes
Benz Axor uses an 8 kWh water-cooled block of Li-Ion
batteries, and Eaton’s hybrid electric systems, which equip
Peterbilt and Kenworth vehicles, also use Li-Ion batteries,
such as the 340 VDC 7.2 Ah Shin-Kobe. The batteries
envisaged for the heavy-duty tractor and motorized semi-
trailer hybrid electric combination would be Li-Ion batteries
with 340 to 360 VDC voltage rating and approximately 14Ah
capacity.
Electric motors supply their maximum torque at low speeds,
and therefore they offer very good traction performances. The
peak efficiency of electric motors is 93 - 95 % for permanent
magnet motors and 92 - 93 % for induction motors, but it
decreases to 80 - 85 % at low speeds and loads. Besides their
higher efficiency, the permanent magnet motors are more
compact, whilst they are more expensive than the induction
motors [8].
FUEL EFFICIENCY EVALUATION
The scope of the simulation is to verify if the chosen
components are functioning correctly within the vehicle
model, and if the hybrid version fulfills the objectives of the
project, such as offering a better fuel efficiency without
sacrificing other performances.
PSAT (« Powertrain Systems Analysis Toolkit ») is a simulation
software developed by Argonne National Laboratory, which
allows conducting dynamic analysis of vehicle performance
and energy efficiency, to assist in developing and validating
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the vehicle and its components. Besides the component
models available in PSAT libraries, specific model files and
initialization files were created for specific components, such
as engines, transmissions, differentials, tires, as well as for the
complete vehicles. The model for the heavy-duty tractor and
motorized semi-trailer hybrid electric combination were
compared with the models of the corresponding conventional
combination (conventional tractor and semi-trailer), and with
the model of the most common combination of a parallel
hybrid electric tractor with a conventional semi-trailer, which
has the electric motor integrated in the tractor’s power train.
We saw that the heavy-duty tractor and motorized semi-trailer
hybrid electric concept corresponds to the parallel-split
architecture. The PSAT vehicle model that would represent
this configuration would be for a parallel hybrid vehicle with
four drive axles, where the tractor’s power train propels two of
the axles and the other axles are powered by electric motor(s).
The generic model is shown in Figure 9.
The duty cycles presented in figures 1, 2, 4, 5 and 6
were imported into the PSAT software. For calibration and
evaluation purposes, the results of PSAT simulations conducted
for each duty cycle with conventional vehicles models
were compared with the results of the corresponding Otto
simulations, because Otto software had been previously
validated for conventional vehicles through a multitude of test,
and therefore its results are proven to be very reliable. The
comparisons between Otto and PSAT simulation for each duty
cycle showed a very good similarity of the results, with an
average accuracy of 0.5 % and average precision of 3%.
Figure 10 illustrates the comparison between the speed graph
given by the duty cycle (input) and the speed graph obtained
through PSAT simulation (output), for the construction haul
duty cycle. It can be observed that the PSAT model for
conventional vehicle followed the duty cycle very well, which
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Figure 9. PSAT model of the heavy-duty tractor - motorized semi-trailer hybrid electric combination.
demonstrates the very good compatibility of the model with
the specification.
Figure 10. Comparison between input cycle and simulation
output for the construction hauling cycle.
The analysis conducted on system architecture, degree of
hybridization, and secondary energy source, allowed defining
the specifications presented in Table 7. The gross vehicle
weights (GVW) were chosen based on the information
provided by the fleets which are partners of PIT (Project
Innovations Transport), and on EPA recommendations [2].
Various combinations between diesel engines and electric
motors were tried to find solutions permitting to follow the
78 SAE Int. J. Commer. Veh. | Volume 3 | Issue 1
duty cycles and to obtain significant fuel savings, and the best
results found are presented below. However, considering that
the purpose of this study was to assess the feasibility of the
concept, and not to develop a vehicle, to simplify the analysis
one electric motor of 62 kW and 14 Ah Li-Ion batteries were
used for all these models.
Figure 11 summarizes the results obtained for the heavy-duty
tractor - motorized semi-trailer hybrid electric combinations,
and for the parallel hybrid electric tractor - conventional
semi-trailer combinations. It should be mentioned that these
models are equipped with derated (downsized) engines.
Comparisons with conventional combinations and with
parallel hybrid electric tractor - conventional semi-trailer
combinations equipped with normal engines turn out to be
interesting, and for this reason they were also presented in
Figure 11.
Figure 11 shows generally comparable results for the
heavy-duty tractor - motorized semi-trailer hybrid electric
combinations, and for the parallel hybrid electric tractor -
conventional semi-trailer combinations, both categories
equipped with derated engines. PSAT simulations predict that
these hybrid versions would obtain fuel savings from 10 - 12%
(for on-highway duty-cycles) to 30 % (for off-highway duty-
cycles), compared to conventional vehicles. These results
should be interpreted by taking into account that any simulation
method has limitations.
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Table 7. Specification of hybrid vehicles

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Figure 11. Summary of fuel consumption results.
DYNAMIC PERFORMANCES
EVALUATION
IMPACT ON VEHICLE WEIGHT
The distribution of the weight between drive axles and driven
axles determines the available traction and the auxiliary
traction systems installed on the trailer would increase the
available traction. The downturn would be the increase in
vehicle weight, caused by the additional mass of the hybrid
system: if this augmentation is substantial, it will eventually
cancel the effect of having additional drive traction available
[9]. The impact of the changes in vehicle weight on fuel
efficiency was therefore evaluated.
Table 8 presents the weights added by the hybrid systems for
the vehicles corresponding to the analyzed transport activities,
based on components’ masses from the PSAT library. They are
some differences between the masses of the same components
in different vehicles, which are explained by constructive
particularities, such as the electric motors cooling needs, and
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the length of cables. For example, the mass added by the
hybrid system is 264 kg for the class 8 Peterbilt hybrid vehicle,
and 181 kg for the class 6 and 7 Peterbilt hybrid vehicles [10].
The mass increase for the hybrid electric combination with
motorized semi-trailer would be more important, because of
superior size of certain components.
Table 8 shows that the masses added by the hybrid system
would translate in variations in gross vehicle mass of less than
1%. The impact on payload would not be an issue for highway,
regional and construction hauling, for which gross vehicle
weights are usually under the legal limits. However, it should
be mentioned that for off-highway hauling of forestry products,
the empiric rule is that every kilogram lost in payload would
cause 7 $ annual revenue loss, which for the 415 kg mass
added by the hybrid system would represent 2905 $ annual
revenue loss.
Regarding the influence on axle weight distribution, the
modifications would be insubstantial: for example, for the
highway and regional hauling 4 kg for tractor front axle,
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156 kg for tractor tandem drive axles, and 139 kg for semi- Table 8. Influence of masses added by the hybrid system on
trailer tandem axles. fuel consumption

The effect of change in mass on fuel consumption (ΔCc) can

be estimated with the following equation, adapted from
[5, 11, 12]:

(4)

The results are presented in Table 8 and they show that the
impact of additional masses on fuel consumption would be
less than 1%, which is negligible compared to the fuel savings
envisaged by the implementation of the hybrid systems,
estimated through simulations to be at least 11%.

IMPACT ON TRACTION
The tractive force of a vehicle can be calculated either from
engine and transmission characteristics or from the traction
forces at vehicle wheels. The tractive force of a vehicle
equipped with a primary power train and a secondary
independent traction system can be estimated with the
following equation, adapted from [12, 13]:

(5)

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Gradeability is defined by the equation [13]:
(6)
Table 9 presents the comparison between traction performances
of conventional vehicles and corresponding hybrid combinations
with motorized semi-trailers. Transmissions ratios corresponding
to the average duty-cycle speed were considered for calculation
purposes. The results show that they are considerable gains in
tractive force, from 5 to 16%, and gradeability, from 4 to 15%,
depending on application, when the two power trains, primary
and secondary, are simultaneously used.
IMPACT ON STABILITY
Vehicle stability represents the vehicle’s capacity to resist
sliding, skidding and rollover, and considering that the
movements are relative to the vehicle’s main axis, it can be
defined as longitudinal and transversal stability.
Table 9. Impact on tractive force and gradeability
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Transversal, or lateral, stability refers to a vehicle’s ability to
oppose transversal sliding and rollover relative to the line
defined by the centers of the contact areas of tires situated on
the same side of the vehicle. Lateral stability losses are caused
by road transversal gradients, vehicle speeding on curves, or
cross winds. Vehicle speed and road gradient at which rollover
occurs depend on vehicle dimensional characteristics (such as
wheel base, wheel track, and height of the center of gravity)
and road design (curve radius and friction coefficient) [12].
Therefore, it is obvious that a supplementary motorized axle
mounted low on the semi-trailer would not have a significant
influence on lateral stability.
Longitudinal stability represents a vehicle’s ability to resist
longitudinal sliding and rollover relative to a transversal axle.
The grade at which the longitudinal rollover happens is also
function of vehicle characteristics, such as the longitudinal
distance between the center of gravity and the rearmost axle,
and the height of the center of gravity. Consequently, a
supplementary motorized axle on the semi-trailer would not
have a significant influence on longitudinal rollover stability.
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The longitudinal stability at sliding is expressed by the
maximum slope that the vehicle can climb without sliding
(PLS). For a vehicle combination consisting of a three-axle
tractor with two drive axles and a loaded two-axle semi-trailer,
this slope is given by equation (7), which was derived by
considering equilibrium of normal and parallel forces to road
surface, equilibrium of moments, and considering that the
maximum usable thrust is the normal force at the drive axles
multiplied by the traction coefficient [14].
(7)
The dimensional parameters are defined in Figure 12.
For the combination consisting of a three-axle tractor with two
drive axles and a loaded two-axle semi-trailer with motorized
axles, the simplified methodology proposed by [15] was used,
which gives the following equation :
Figure 12. Dimensional parameters for the calculation of the maximum slope (adapted from [14]).
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(8)
In the normal conditions for on-highway transport, such as
highway haul and regional haul, the longitudinal stability at
sliding is not an issue. Therefore, we limited the analysis to
the off-highway hauling of raw material. The following
calculations illustrate the situation for a Class 8 vehicle
combination effectuating off-highway hauling of raw material
in difficult road conditions (gravel roads, with fR = 0.018
et µ = 0.3). Equations (7) and (8) were consequently applied.
The comparative results are presented in Table 10, and they
show that a motorized semi-trailer would allow improving the
longitudinal stability as it relates to sliding: the maximum
grade that vehicle could climb without sliding would increase
from 10 to 14%.
ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT ON
GHG EMISSIONS
The most important greenhouse gases emitted by the burning of
diesel fuel are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous
oxide (N2O). Emission factors have been developed based on
standard fuel properties and an assumed fuel combustion
efficiency of 98.5% [16]. These data show that the production of
the other two GHGs are extremely low compared with CO2, so
these values are usually not considered for estimation purposes.
Therefore, for evaluating the potential to reduce emissions of
GHGs, we have assumed that combustion of diesel fuel produces
2.73 kg CO2 equivalent per litter of fuel [17].
For highway and regional hauling the average annual mileage
from the Canadian Vehicle Survey was considered [18]. From
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Table 10. The impact on the maximum grade that the vehicle can climb without sliding

Table 11. The impact of hybrid combination conventional tractor - motorized semi-trailer on GHG emissions (annual data)

this data, the average annual mileage in the Province of Quebec these estimations, which show that the implementation of the
is of 120,983 km. For off-highway and construction hauling, heavy-duty tractor - motorized semi-trailer hybrid electric
the in-house data collected for logging transport and road combination concept could decrease the GHG emissions from
construction related transport were used. Table 11 presents 19 to 108 tonnes, depending on the type of transport operation.

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PRODUCTIVITY ANALYSIS Table 12 presents the comparisons between conventional

vehicles and hybrid vehicles, for each duty-cycle. The same
For the purposes of this study, the productivity analysis used
masses were considered for both categories of vehicles because,
the energy intensity, which represents the quantity of energy
as it was showed above, the effect of additional masses of
required per unit of production. For freight transportation it is
hybrid systems on fuel consumption would be less than 1%.
usually expressed by the quantity of fuel, in liters, necessary to
transport one tonne of freight over one hundred kilometers:
The hybrid combination conventional tractor - motorized
L/t-100km. The gains in energy efficiency occur when more
semi-trailer would therefore increase the productivity from 13
weight is carried or longer distances are traveled for the same
to 28 %, compared to the correspondent conventional vehicles.
amount of consumed fuel, or when less fuel is necessary for
the same transported weight and distance. For a given trip, the
energy intensity (Ee in L/t-100km) can be calculated as a ECONOMICAL ANALYSIS
function of consumed fuel (Cf, in liters), the payload (Lu, in
tones), and the traveled distance (D, in kilometers), with the ESTIMATION OF IMPACT ON
equation:
VEHICLE COST
For evaluating the impact of hybrid technology implementation
on vehicle cost, the actual costs of class 6 to 8 hybrid vehicles
existing on the market have been considered. According to the
(9) information provided by the fleets using hybrid vehicles

Table 12. The impact of hybrid combination conventional tractor - motorized semi-trailer on productivity

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(partners of PIT, such as Agropur and SAQ - Société des
alcools du Québec), which own conventional and hybrid
Kenworth 370 vehicles, the hybrid versions were C$40,000
more expensive than the corresponding conventional vehicles
(C$145,000 $ compared to C$105,000). According to the
manufacturer, the class 8 hybrid version is C$45,000 more
expensive than the homologue conventional version. Taking
into account that the hybrid combination conventional tractor
- motorized semi-trailer would have some supplementary
components as well, it was roughly estimated that an additional
7% would also be added to the cost of the vehicle in addition
to the cost of the hybrid system.
The cost increases for the assembly and for the components of
the hybrid tractor with conventional semi-trailer and of the
hybrid combination conventional tractor - motorized semi-
trailer, compared to the conventional combinations, are
presented in Table 13.
Table 13 shows that the impacts on total costs of the combinations
would be similar. However, the impacts on affected components,
which mean tractors for the hybrid tractor-conventional semi-
trailer and respectively semi-trailers for the hybrid combination
conventional tractor - motorized semi-trailer, are more important
Table 13. Impact on combination cost and component cost
86 SAE Int. J. Commer. Veh. | Volume 3 | Issue 1
for the motorized semi-trailer combinations. The greatest
increase, almost three times, was calculated for highway and
regional hauls. The lesser increase, roughly 22%, was evaluated
for the off-highway hauling of raw materials. This is mainly
because the cost of off-highway vehicles are much higher
(almost three time those of regular class 8 combinations) so that
the cost of the hybrid systems have less impact.
The economic impact was evaluated based on payback period
and cost of conserved energy (CCE) calculations. The payback
period was calculated by dividing the total additional cost
(C$48,000 for the hybrid combination conventional tractor-
motorized semi-trailer) by the yearly net savings. CCE,
expressed as the cost in dollars per liter of fuel saved, is
independent of the price of fuel, and represents the ratio
between the total additional cost and the savings. A small CCE,
generally less than 2.5, means that the price for a particular
measure to reduce fuel consumption is low, and therefore
attractive. Table 14 presents the results. The considered
average fuel price was 0.97 C$/L for on-highway transport and
0.80 C$/L for the off-highway transport (valid in September
2009 in Province of Quebec, Canada). The excise taxes are not
applied on fuel purchased for use in off-highway forest
operations in Quebec hence the lower cost.
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Table 14. Return on investment
The lowest payback period and CEE were calculated for the
off-highway hauling of raw materials by Class 8 vehicles (two
years and three months and CEE of 1.8) and by off-highway
combinations (a year and a half and CEE 1.2).
These types of operations would be the most appropriate for
the implementation of the concept of hybrid combination
conventional tractor-motorized semi-trailer. Nevertheless, it
should be mentioned that the market for this type of transport
is limited. Exemplifying for logging in Quebec, they are
roughly 150 off-highway vehicles and approximately 100
Class 8 vehicles involved in off-highway operations.
DISCUSSION
Several transport activities were analyzed to determine specific
duty cycles for heavy-duty vehicles: highway line haul and
regional haul, construction haul, and off-highway hauling of
raw materials, such as forestry transport with class 8 and
off-highway tractor-trailer combinations.
The analysis of the concept considered the architecture of the
system, the degree of hybridization, and the secondary source
of energy. It was found that the heavy-duty tractor and
motorized semi-trailer hybrid electric combination corresponds
to the parallel-split architecture, in which the engine drives one
SAE Int. J. Commer. Veh. | Volume 3 | Issue 1
or more axles (on the tractor), while the electric motor drives
other axles (on the semi-trailer, in the case of this concept). It
should be mentioned that hybrid versions are usually equipped
with downsized engines compared to the corresponding
conventional vehicles. The batteries envisaged for the heavy-
duty tractor and motorized semi-trailer hybrid electric
combination would be Li-Ion batteries with 340 to 360 VDC
voltage and approximately 14Ah capacity.
The evaluation of impact on fuel consumption was done by
simulation, using the PSAT software. The objective of the
simulation was to verify if the chosen components are correctly
functioning within the vehicle model, and if the hybrid version
fulfills the objectives of the projects, such as offering a better
fuel efficiency without sacrificing other performances. The
results show generally comparable results for the heavy-duty
tractor - motorized semi-trailer hybrid electric combinations,
and for the parallel hybrid electric tractor - conventional semi-
trailer combinations, both categories equipped with derated
engines. PSAT simulations predict that these hybrid versions
would obtain fuel savings from 10 - 12% (for on-highway
duty-cycles) to 30 % (for off-highway duty-cycles), compared
to conventional vehicles. Therefore the most favorable
applications would be for the off-highway transport of raw
materials.
87
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The impact of the hybrid system additional masses on fuel
consumption would be less than 1%, which is negligible
compared to the fuel savings envisaged by the implementation
of the hybrid systems. Concerning the traction performances,
the results show that there are considerable gains in tractive
force, from 5 to 16%, and gradeability, from 4 to 15%,
depending on the application, when the two power trains,
primary and secondary, are simultaneously used. A motorized
semi-trailer would allow to improve the longitudinal stability
with respect to sliding, the maximum grade that vehicle could
climb without sliding increasing from 10 to 14%.
The productivity analysis showed that the hybrid combination
conventional tractor - motorized semi-trailer would increase
the productivity from 13 to 28 %, compared to the correspondent
conventional vehicles.
The evaluation of the effects on GHG emissions predicts that
the implementation of the heavy-duty tractor - motorized
semi-trailer hybrid electric combination concept could
decrease the GHG emissions from 19 to 108 tones, depending
on transport operation.
The cost analysis shows that the impacts on total costs of the
combinations would be similar for both hybrid tractor-
conventional semi-trailer and conventional tractor-motorized
semi-trailer combinations. However, the impacts on affected
components, which mean tractors for the hybrid tractor-
conventional semi-trailer and respectively semitrailers for the
hybrid combination conventional tractor - motorized semi-
trailer, are more important for the motorized semi-trailer
combinations. The greatest increase, almost three times, was
calculated for highway and regional hauls. The lesser increase,
roughly 22%, was evaluated for the off-highway hauling of
raw materials.
The economic impact was evaluated based on payback period
and cost of conserved energy (CCE) calculations. The lowest
payback period and CEE were calculated for the off-highway
hauling of raw materials by Class 8 vehicles (two years and
three months and respectively CEE of 1.8) and by off-highway
combinations (one year and a half and respectively CEE 1.2).
These types of operations would be the most appropriate for
the implementation of the concept of hybrid combination
conventional tractor-motorized semi-trailer. Nevertheless, it
should be mentioned that the market for this type of transport
is limited. Exemplifying for logging in Quebec, they are
roughly 150 off-highway vehicles and approximately 100
Class 8 vehicles involved in off-highway operations.
The implementation of the concept would be therefore more
efficient for off-highway hauling of raw materials, such as
forestry and mining transport, for which the concept would
offer the best economic, environmental and dynamic
advantages. Moreover, the relative cost increase would be
acceptable and the payback period would be very short.
88 SAE Int. J. Commer. Veh. | Volume 3 | Issue 1
For highway and regional hauling, it should be mentioned that
there are presently in North-America 3.5 million tractors and
5.3 million semi-trailers [19], and normally a tractor uses
several semi-trailers for optimizing the operation. Furthermore,
for the big fleets semi-trailers are work tools that must have a
competitive price. Consequently, a three time relative increase
of the semi-trailer cost caused by the implementation of the
concept would be prohibitive for these types of operation and
limited to the cases where a tractor uses always the same
trailer, which is very rare. An additional possibility for highway
and regional haul would be to use the concept for reefer-vans:
a smaller and cheaper version of the hybrid semi-trailer would
be used exclusively for assuring the energy necessary for
the refrigeration system, which would also avoid the synergy
issues between the motorized semi-trailer and tractor power
train.
CONCLUSION
Contrary to the classic hybrid electric parallel system used for
Class 8 vehicles, the heavy-duty tractor and motorized semi-
trailer hybrid electric combination does not require integration
with tractor’s power train and offers better traction and stability
performances. The constructive disadvantages refer to the
complications brought to propelling and braking control
systems.
For highway and regional hauling, the concept would offer
efficiency performances similar to the classic hybrid tractor
system, but the relative increase of the semi-trailer cost caused
by the implementation of the concept would be prohibitive for
these types of operation.
The concept of a heavy-duty tractor - motorized semi-trailer
hybrid electric combination would offer the best dynamic,
environmental, and economical advantages when implemented
for off-highway transport of raw materials, such as forestry or
mining transport, for which the relative cost increases are
acceptable and the and payback periods are very short. We
consider that an eventual implementation should target at least
these types of operations.
CONTACT INFORMATION
Marius-Dorin Surcel, Eng., M.A. Sc., Researcher
marius.surcel@fpinnovations.ca
FPInnovations - Feric Division.
Jan Michaelsen, F.E., Program Leader
jan.michaelsen@fpinnovations.ca
FPInnovations - Feric Division.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research program was funded by the Ministère des
Transports du Québec (MTQ). The authors wish to thank
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Gaétan Leclerc, inventor, and Mario Bussières from MTQ, for
creating a very constructive base of discussions.
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doi: 10.4271/2010-01-1932
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