UNIT I FUNDAMENTALS OF ROBOT

1.1 Introduction to Robotics

1.2 Robot – Definition
1.3 Robot Anatomy
1.4 Co-ordinate Systems
1.5 Work Envelope, types and classification
1.6 Specifications – Pitch, Yaw &Roll
1.7 Joint Notations
1.8 Types of Robot
1.9 Speed of Motion, Pay Load
1.10 Robot Parts and Functions
1.11 Need for Robots
1.12 Different Applications
1.13 Conclusions

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS:

In olden days manufacturing of different objects are carried out with mechanized machines and
these machines are controlled by people. In conventional manufacturing processes the requirement
of people is plenty because of the various activities such as material handling, parts transfer,
operating the controls of different devices and machines, painting, assembly, welding, packaging
and shipment of the product. This leads to the increased cost of labour and decrease in the
productivity because of the inefficient employees and human errors.
Robotics : is the science dealing with design, construction and operation of robots .
Most robots are designed to be a helping hand. They help people with tasks that would be
difficult, unsafe, or boring for a real person to do alone. Robots can range from simple machines to
highly complex, computer-controlled devices. Many of today's robots are robotic arms.
Definition:
Robotics is defined as a branch of science which deals with the study of applied
engineering science. It involves the principles, concepts and systems of Computer science,
Electrical, Electronics and manufacturing Technology.
Robotics is a science of designing and building robots for real life applications in
manufacturing and other non-manufacturing environments.
1.1.1 Laws of Robotics:
1. A Robot may not injure a human being or through inaction allow human being to be harmed.
2. A robot must obey orders given by humans except when that conflicts with the first law.
3. A robot must protect its own existence unless that conflicts with the First or Second laws.
Isaac Asimov’s Three Laws of Robotics
Law Zero A robot may not injure humanity, or, through inaction, allow humanity to come
to harm.(This law was added later to safeguard large populations of humans from robot
aggression.)
First Law A robot may not injure a human being, or, through inaction, allow a human
being to come to harm.
Second Law A robot must obey orders given by human beings, except where such orders
would conflict with the First Law.
Third Law A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not
conflict with the First or Second Law.
1.1.2 Brief History of development:
Mid 1700s –mechanical dolls were invented to play music
1801-Programmable machine for weaving threads or yarn into cloth
1946-Controller device to record electrical signals and playback
1952-Prototype NC machine, APT (Automatic Programming Tools) language developed
1961-68-Robot for tending die-casting machine, spray painting and mobile robots were developed
1973-Languages such as WAVE, AL, and VAL were developed
1974-78-Robots for Arc welding, RCC (Remote controlled compliance) robot, PUMA (Pneumatic
Universal Machine Assembly) robot and Drilling routines for aircraft components were developed.
1979-SCARA (Selective Compliance Arm for Robotic Assembly) robot was invented
1980-robot for Bin-picking was developed
After 1984 Robot program using Interactive Graphics have been carried out and the research aim
at developing a future robot which will be able to see, hear, feel, apply a force and move under
their own power.
1.2 DEFINITION OF A ROBOT:
Robot is defined as an automatic arm or artificial man.
 Fig.1

 as shown in figure we can define

 as a group of links connected together through certain joints to perform a certain task. The
links starts by a base and ending by the end effector. Each joint can be actuated by any type
of actuation (Hyd., pne. or electrical). The joint can be either prismatic or revolute. A
computer or a micro-controller is used to control the robot motion.
A robot is a reprogrammable, multifunctional, manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools
or specialized devices through various programmed motions for the performance of variety of
tasks.
1.2.1 According to Webster’s Dictionary
A robot is an automatic device that performs functions that normally ascribed to humans or a
machine in the form of a human.

1.2.2 According to (ISO 8373)

A robot is reprogrammable multipurpose manipulator programmable in three or more axes, which
may be either fixed to place or mobile, of use in industrial automation applications
 A re-programmable, multifunctional manipulator designed to move
material, parts, tools, or specialized devices through various programmed
motions for the performance of a variety of tasks.”
According to (Robotics Institute of America RIA)
“Force through intelligence.” “Where AI (Artificial Intelligence) meet the real world.”

1.3 ROBOT ANATOMY:

A robot consists of the following parts.

1. A Base
2. Manipulator
3. An End-effector
4. Drives (or) Actuators
5. Controller device
6. Sensors
7. Interfaces
Fig.1.3 (b) Basic components of a microprocessor based robotic system
1. Base: The body of the robot is kept on the base .The base is mounted properly on the floor
and is cemented to avoid vibration and jerk during operation of the robot.
2. Manipulator Arm: It consists of body, arm assembly and wrist of the robot. Manipulators
are used to position and orient the End-effectors/grippers. The end effectors are properly
adjusted to grasp the work or do some operation with the help of different interpolation
functions. A manipulator has a naturally simpler coordinate system to describe the end-
point location and orientation depending on the order of joints used in that manipulator.
Manipulator or rover is the main mechanism that provides the ultimate function of the
robot It consists of a base, the links, the joints and other structural elements that completes
a robot .Manipulator is A mechanism,usually consisting of a series of segments,jointed or
sliding related to one another,for the purpose of grasping and moving objects usually in
several degrees of freedom.It may be remotely controlled by a computer or by a human.In
other words manipulator is the main mechanism that provides the ultimate function of the
robot.It consists of a base,the links,the joints and other structural elements that completes a
robot.
Linkage mechanism of the robot is called Manipulator and is consists of number of joints and links.
The manipulator is responsible for generating the complex motions of the robot and moving the payload
along the desired trajectory or orienting it in the proper configuration
Manipulator: Main Parts

1. Links Fig 1.4(a) revolute joint

2. Joints
-Prismatic (Translation)
-Revolute (Rotary)

Fig 1.4 (b) Prismatic joint

"Manipulator is A mechanism, usually consisting of a series of segments, jointed or sliding relative to one
another, for the purpose of grasping and moving objects usually in several degrees of freedom. It may be
remotely controlled by a computer or by a human.“
In other words a manipulator is the main mechanism that provides the ultimate function of the robot It
consists of a base, the links, the joints and other structural elements that completes a robot .

3. End-effectors is a device which is used to grasp the work piece or hold the tool to perform
the desired task. The end effectors which are used to grasp the work part are called
Grippers and those which are used directly as a tool to perform operations such as welding,
spray painting etc.are called tools. The end-effector is the device that is connected to the
end of the last joint (hand) of a manipulator to handle objects, or performs required tasks
by a direct contact. It can be a dexterious hand, a simple gripper, a magnetic clutch or a
similar device that targets a direct contact to the processed material .The end-effector is
 the device that is connected to the end of the last joint (hand) of a manipulator to handle
objects, or performs required tasks by a direct contact. It can be a dexterious hand, a
simple gripper, a magnetic clutch or a similar device that targets a direct contact to the
processed material .
4. Drive systems provide the required power for the robot. Different types of motors such as
Hydraulic, pneumatic and electrical motors are used for providing the required energy and
that is utilized by the Actuators. Actuators are the source of the force and movements of
the manipulator joints. Stepper motors and hydraulic cylinders provide positional
movement, while servo motors, and pneumatic cylinders provide force for the movement
of the manipulator joints, which requires feedback loop for the control of the end-effector
position and orientation .Actuators are the source of the force and movements of the
manipulator joints. Stepper motors and hydraulic cylinders provide positional movement,
while servo motors, and pneumatic cylinders provide force for the movement of the
manipulator joints, which requires feedback loop for the control of the end-effector
position and orientation .
5. Controller devices are used to give the required input and command to limit the
movement or motion of different joints of a robot. There are different types of controllers
available for providing input signal and to control the movements. Proportional control,
Integral control, Derivative control, PID controller are some of the controllers used. The
Controller is a device that collects signals from the position sensors. It processes them and
generates the actuator signals to move the manipulator joints in harmony, so that the
manipulator tracks the pre-programmed motion. The controller provides the hardware
control level of the manipulator .
6. Sensors are used to monitor start and completion of an operation and to monitor different
process parameters and to monitor the whole robotic environment. The information
collected using sensors are feedback to the controlling system for further completion of the
task of the robot. Sensors are the devices those can convert information about the state of
the robotic system to electrical signal in the format that can be used by the robot controller.
By this means, they provide communication of robot to its environment. Robotic systems
may contain internal sensor devices such as shaft encoders connected at the manipulator
joints, and force-torque sensors at the wrist joint. They can also contain external sensor
 devices such as vision systems to detect the end-effector location, proximity sensors at
several locations to detect the state of materials and devices in the work environment .
Sensors are the devices those can convert information about the state of the robotic system
to electrical signal in the format that can be used by the robot controller. By this means,
they provide communication of robot to its environment. Robotic systems may contain
internal sensor devices such as shaft encoders connected at the manipulator joints, and
force-torque sensors at the wrist joint. They can also contain external sensor devices such
as vision systems to detect the end-effector location, proximity sensors at several locations
to detect the state of materials and devices in the work environment .
7. Interfaces are needed to transfer information/command signals from robotic environment
to outside environment i.e from work envelope of robot to the controller and drive systems.
 The Processor is generally a dedicated computer system built of many microprocessors or
microcontrollers to accomplish the higher level control action. The processor contains the
storage medium to keep the programs. It provides the joint positions to the controller for a
smooth movement of the manipulator along the programmed trajectories .
 An n-link kinematics system is made of a chain of links connected to each other by the
joints. The system is an open-chain, each joint can move freely independent from all other
joints. For the simplicity of the analysis we assume the first joint is moving in the base
coordinate frame, the second joint is moving in the coordinate frame of the first link, and
so on, the end-point is a fixed position in the n coordinate frame. Then, two joints may
either contribute to the movement of the end-point in two different directions, or, if the
joint movements are dependant to each other, then, the end-point may move only in a
single direction. The joints those contribute to the movement of the end effector in a new
and independent direction are called independent joints. The total number of the
independent joints determines the degrees of freedom (DOF) of that kinematics system .
 Many industrial robots were designed to have only four or five degrees of freedom to
reduce the cost and increase the reliability and stability of the manipulators. On the other
side, there are also many robot manipulators particularly designed for the working
environments with many obstacles in workplace with extra one or two joints instead of
exactly six. These kind of kinematics systems are called redundant kinematics systems.
The redundancy of extra joints provides flexibility to approach to the desired position and
 orientation in various configurations of the joint angles creating opportunity of obstacle
avoidance in the path planning

TYPES OF JOINTS:
The Robot is constructed using several links and joints. The joints used in Robots are broadly
classified into two types based on in which part of the robot the joint is used .They are
1. Body and arm joints
2. Wrist joints

Fig 1.5 construction of a robot(joints&links)

Fig 1.6 Six axes Puma manipulator

Based on the direction of motion of the output link with respect to the input link the joints are
classified into five types as follows.
1. Linear joint
2. Orthogonal joint
3. Rotational joint
4. Twisting joint
5. Revolving joint

Fig 1.7 Linear joint

1. Linear Joint (L): Linear motion is achieved by sliding action.

2. Orthogonal joint (O): Motion similar to that of linear joint but the input and output links are
perpendicular.
 Fig 1.8 Orthogonal joint
3. Rotational joint(R): Axis of rotation is perpendicular to the axes of the two connecting links.

Fig 1.9 Rotational joint

4. Twisting joint (T): Axis of rotation is parallel to the axes of both links.

Fig 1.10 Twisting joint

5. Revolving joint (V): Input link is parallel to the axis of rotation and the output link is
perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
Fig.1.11 Revolving joint
A joint provides movement of two contiguous links with respect to each others coordinate frames.
A prismatic joint provides a translational movement of the link with respect to the previous link
without any rotational effect.
A revolute joint provides purely rotation around z-axis of the coordinate frame of the previous link
with the joint displacement.

Fig 1.12 Planar kinematic system

In the figure a revolute and prismatic joint on a planar kinematic system is shown.’α’ represents
the revolute displacement of the base-joint,and ‘d’ is the displacement of the prismatic joint.This
kinematic configuration is abbreviated as RP,where the first letters stands for the base joint-
type,the second and further letters denote the other joint types counting from base to tip.
To properly understand the motions of robotic systems, mathematicians and engineers had to
develop a new system of kinematics. For this new system of kinematics, they had to develop ideal
joints that served as the focal points for relative motion between links. Three distinct types of
joints are necessary: prismatic (linear motion), revolute (rotational motion), and screw (linear and
rotational).
 There are several other types of joints theoretically possible in kinematics such as sliding ,
spherical, helical (screw), elliptic, and parabolic movements. However, they are out of the scope of
this presentation because of their rare application in industrial robotic manipulators.
Prismatic Joint
Prismatic joints, often called sliders, constitute purely linear motion along the joint axis. As shown
in the first animation to the left, the joint slides in one of two directions along a singular axis. This
type of motion can most often be visualized a link getting longer or shorter through the motion of
the prismatic joint. This type of motion is common in hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders.

Revolute Joint
Revolute joints constitute purely rotational motion along the joint axis. Revolute joints are the
most commonly found joint in industrial and research robots.

Fig.1.13 Revolute joint(3D)

Screw Joint
Screw joints are really just a combination of the first two types of joints. They constitute a
simultaneous rotation and linear motion along a joint axis. True screw joints have very few
applications. Screws are more often used in tools for a robot end effector rather than a joint of
motion for a robot.
N.B.:
We simply abbreviate this kinematics (types of joints) configuration, by RP where The first letter
stands for base joint type while the second and the further letters donate the joint types
counting from the base to the tip .

1.4 TYPES OF COORDINATE SYSTEMS:

A manipulator has a naturally simpler coordinate system to describe the end-point
location and orientation depending on the order of joints used in that manipulator.
A 3P (=PPP) kinematics configuration will end with simple formulation of the end -point
position in Cartesian coordinates, which is also called gantry or rectangular.
An R2P (=RPP) configuration is simply equivalent to a cylindrical coordinate system.
An 2RP (=RRP) configuration with the revolute joints moving around perpendicular axes of the
base frame is equivalent to a spherical coordinate system.
A 2RP configuration with the revolute joints in the same direction but shifted on x-axis gives
the selective-compliance-assembly-robot-arm configuration SCARA) SCARA robots are
commonly employed in assembly lines) .
A 3R (=RRR) configuration is inspired from the human arm kinematics, and is called
anthropomorphic or articulated manipulator. They are the most common configuration for
intelligent industrial robots
Fig 1.14 Typical reference coordinate frames in robot workplace
1. Cartesian coordinate body and arm assembly(LOO):
2. Cylindrical body and arm assembly(TLO)
3. Polar coordinate body and arm assembly(TRL)
4. Jointed arm body and arm assembly(TRR)
5. SCARA body and arm assembly(VRO)
Fig 1.15 types of coordinate system
1. Cartesian coordinate body and arm assembly (LOO)

Fig 1.16 Cartesian coordinate system

Robot must be able to reach a point in space within three axes by moving forward and
backward, to the left and right, and up and down.
Robot manipulator may be classified according to the type of movement needed to
complete the task.
- has three linear axes of motion.
- x represents left and right motion
- y describes forward and backward motion.
 - z is used to depict up-and-down motion.
The work envelope of a rectangular robot is a cube or rectangle, so that any work performed
by robot must only involve motions inside the space.

Fig 1.17 work envelope of Cartesian coordinate system

Advantages:
 They can obtain large work envelope because ravelling along the x-axis, the volume
region can be increased easily.
 Their linear movement allows for simpler controls.
 They have high degree of mechanical rigidity, accuracy, and repeatability due o
their structure.
 They can carry heavy loads because the weight-lifting capacity does not vary at
different locations within the work envelope.
Disadvantages:
  They make maintenance more difficult for some models with overhead drive
mechanisms and control equipment.
 Access to the volume region by overhead crane or other material-handling
equipment may be impaired by the robot-supporting structure.
 Their movement is limited to one direction at a time.

Application:
 Pick-and-place operations.
 Adhesive applications (mostly long and straight).
 Advanced munition handling.
 Assembly and subassembly (mostly straight).
 Automated loading cnc lathe and milling operations.
 Nuclear material handling.
 Welding.

Fig 1.18 cartesian coordinate body and arm assembly

-Cartesian coordinate robot is also called
-xyz robot
-Rectilinear robot
-Rectangular work envelope
e.g IBM RS -1(Box configuration)
A 3P (=PPP) kinematics configuration will end with simple formulation of the end -point position
in Cartesian coordinates, which is also called gantry or rectangular.
Gantry robot is another name used for Cartesian robots that are generally large and posses the
appearance of a gantry type crane.e.g Cincinati Milacron T3 800 series robot
-Repeatability,Rigidity
-Load carrying capacity

2. Cylindrical body and arm assembly (TLO)

Fig 1.19 cylindrical coordinate system body and arm assembly

An R2P (=RPP) configuration is simply equivalent to a cylindrical coordinate system.
-Arm attached to the slide
-Cylindrical work envelope
 e.g.GMF Model M-1A
-Load carrying capacity,Rigidity
Cylindrical-coordinated
Has two linear motions and one rotary motion.
Robots can achieve variable motion.
The first coordinate describe the angle theta of base rotation--- about the up-down axis.
The second coordinate correspond to a radical or y--- in out motion at whatever angle the
robot is positioned.
The final coordinate again corresponds to the up-down z position.
Rotational ability gives the advantage of moving rapidly to the point in z plane of rotation.
Results in a larger work envelope than a rectangular robot manipulator.
Suited for pick-and-place operations.

Fig 1.20 work envelope of cylindrical coordinated robot

Advantage:
 Their vertical structure conserves floor space.
 Their deep horizontal reach is useful for far-reaching operations.
 Their capacity is capable of carrying large payloads.
Disadvantage:
 Their overall mechanical rigidity is lower than that of the rectilinear robots because
their rotary axis must overcome inertia.
 Their repeatability and accuracy are also lower in the direction of rotary motion.
 Their configuration requires a more sophisticated control system than the
rectangular robots.
Application:
 assembly
 Coating applications.
 Conveyor pallet transfer.
 Die casting.
 Foundry and forging applications.
 Injection molding.
 Investment casting.
 Machine loading and unloading.
Fig .1.21 cylindrical body and arm assembly
3. Polar coordinate body and arm assembly (TRL)
Fig 1.22 Polar coordinate body and arm assembly
 Fig.1.23 polar coordinate body and arm assembly
An 2RP (=RRP) configuration with the revolute joints moving around perpendicular axes of the
base frame is equivalent to a spherical coordinate system.
-Telescopic arm
Spherical coordinate system
-Geometric advantage
-Reach
-Machine tool applications
e.g.Unimate 2000 series MAKER 110
4. Jointed arm body and arm assembly(TRR)
 Fig 1.24 Jointed arm body and arm assembly
-similar to human arm(Fore arm,Upper arm)
-mounted on vertical pedestal
-Two rotary joints (shoulder,elbow)
-Reach
e.g.Cincinnati Milacron T3(Model 776)
5. SCARA body and arm assembly(VRO)
SCARA-(Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm) is a special version of jointed arm
robot,whose shoulder and elbow joints rotate about vertical axes.
-substantial rigidity in the vertical direction
-compliance in horizontal plane
-ideal for assembly tasks
-Reach, rigidity
A 2RP configuration with the revolute joints in the same direction but shifted on x- axis gives
the selective-compliance-assembly-robot-arm configuration (SCARA .) SCARA robots are
commonly employed in assembly lines
 Fig 1.25 SCARA body and arm assembly
A 3R (=RRR) configuration is inspired from the human arm kinematics, and is called
anthropomorphic or articulated manipulator. They are the most common configuration for
intelligent industrial robots

Articulated (RRR)
 Fig 1.26 Articulated robot

1.5 WORK ENVELOPE:

The space within which the robot can manipulate its wrist end to perform the intended task .
The work volume is determined by the following characteristics.
i) The robot’s physical configuration
ii) The sizes of the body, arm and wrist components
iii) The limits of the robot joint movements

1. Cartesian Coordinates Robots:

Fig 1.27 Work envelope of Cartesian coordinate robot
- cubic volume of space
- 3-DOF in translation only
- motion along X,Y,Z orthogonal axes
- X - leftward and rightward motion
- Y - forward and backward motion
- Z - up and down motion
- Pick and place operation in furnace for parts handling
- Overhead operations in crane (large work area)
2. Spherical Coordinates Robots:
- 1 linear, 2 angular motions
- ‘r’ - radial in or out translation
- ‘θ’ -base rotation about vertical axis
- ‘Φ’ - elbow rotation about the axis perpendicular to the vertical axis and through
the base
- Reach space bounded by the outer and inner hemisphere.
 - For transferring parts on machine tools
- Picking components from the floor in Flexible Manufacturing System(FMS)

Fig.1.28 (a)Work envelope of Spherical coordinate robot

has one linear motion and two rotary motions.
the work volume is like a section of sphere.
the first motion corresponds to a base rotation about a vertical axis.
the second motion corresponds to an elbow rotation.
the third motion corresponds to a radial, or in-out, translation.
a spherical-coordinated robots provides a larger work envelope than the rectilinear or
cylindirical robot.
design gives weight lifting capabilities.
advantages and disadvantages same as cylindirical-coordinated design.
Fig 1.28(b) work envelope of polar or spherical coordinate robot
Applications:
 die casting
 dip coating
 forging
 glass handling
 heat treating
 injection molding
 machine tool handling
 material transfer
 parts cleaning
 press loading
 Stacking and unsticking.
 3. Cylindrical Coordinates Robots:

Fig 1.29 Work envelope of cylindrical coordinate robot

- Vertical and horizontal strokes combined to form a rectangular section
- Arm pivoted at the centre of the base form apportion of a circle by a swing
- Work envelope becomes a portion of a cylinder
- For handling parts in the machine tools or other manufacturing equipments
- Can’t pick up object from the floor on which the robot is mounted
The maximum volume that the end effector can reach

4. Revolute Coordinates or Jointed Arm Robots:

Fig 1.30 work envelope of Jointed arm robot
- Complex work envelope swept by combined motion of the waist, elbow and wrist
of the manipulator
- Good vertical and Horizontal Reach
- Swing similar to cylindrical coordinate robot
- Flexible and versatile
- All joints are rotary
- Loading and unloading components/tools in CNC machines and machining centres.
- Forging and metal working indust

1.6 SPECIFICATIONS
A robot must have the following essential characteristics:
Mobility: It possesses some form of mobility.
Programmability: implying computational or.
Sensors: on or around the device that are able to sense the envirsymbol- manipulative capabilities
that a designer can combine as desired (a robot is a computer). It can be programmed to accomplish
 a large variety of tasks. After being programmed, it operates automaticallyonment and give useful
feedback to the device
Mechanical capability: enabling it to act on its environment rather than merely function as a data
processing or computational device (a robot is a machine); and
Flexibility: it can operate using a range of programs and manipulates and transport materials in a
variety of ways.
1.6.1 Main Technical Specifications
Reach is the farthest distance a robot can expand its arm in the workspace. A painting robot
which does not require high accuracy may have longer reach than the assembly robots. A
typical assembly robot may have reach in the range from 0.40 to 0.80 meters
Precision (validity) is the accuracy of the manipulator end-point position. Accuracy of a
manipulator is limited both by the flexible bending of the manipulator mechanism and also by
the accuracy of the position feedback encoders, actuators and controller .
Repeatability is a measure of the ability of the robot to return to the same point time after
time. Repeatability is a more universal measure of positioning error, since it can be used to
compare the performance of different robots.
Repeatability refers to the robot’s ability to position its wrist end (or tool) back to a
point in space that was previously taught.
Repeatability (variability) error is the maximum deviation of position between the trials to
move the endpoint of the robot to the same point repeatedly. For example, if we make 100
trials to move to a point and the tip moves maximum 1mm away from that point, the
repeatability error of the robot for that point is 1mm. Most industrial robots have a
repeatability around 0.05 mm
Payload is the maximum load to be carried by the robot while satisfying all technical
specifications. Mostly, a robot can hold four to ten fold of its payload if in that application the
specified accuracy and speed is not important. Typical payload to weight ratio of the industrial
robots is in the range of 1/5 to 1/10 .
The workspace is the geometrical space defined by all possible end-point positions of a robot
mechanism. The shape of the workspace depends on the link and joint types and joint
displacement limitations. The accuracy and repeatability of a robot is valid only in the
workspace described by the manufacturer .
• Degrees Of Freedoms (DOF)
Minimum number of independent axes which define the mechanical motion
DOF =6 for general purpose robot
DOF<6 for deficient robot
DOF> 6 for redundant robot
• Type of Grippers (End effectors)
-Mechanical
-Vacuum
-Magnetized
-Adhesive
• Accuracy is a measure of the error in positioning the robot’s end point at any desired point
(positioning error).
-Accuracy is related to the control resolution
-Accuracy of the robot would be one half the distances between the two adjacent resolution
points.

Fig 1.31Accuracy and resolution

• Control loop and control strategy
• Drive system Hydraulic, pneumatic or electrical
• Sensors
 -Internal sensors are used to control position (encoders) and velocity of various joints
(tachometers)
-External sensors are used for workcell control. They are used to coordinate the operation of
the robots with other equipment in the cell and/or react intelligently to changes in its surrounding
environment (e.g part presence, etc)
 Tactile sensors (contact - touch, force)
 Proximity sensors (noncontact – range sensor measure distance)
 Others?
• Application welding, moving, assembling, painting……

• Speed
 It affects cycle time.
Other Specifications
• Motion Control Methods
 Point to point control
a sequence of discrete points
spot welding, pick-and-place, loading & unloading
 Continuous path control
follow a prescribed path, controlled-path motion
Spray painting, Arc welding, Gluing
• Programming Methods
- On line (Lead through)teach-by-showing the desired motion
‘ Manual and Powered’
-Off line ( doesn’t interrupt production)
Some of the typical robot specifications are given below.
1. Cincinnati Milacron

Model - T3586
Manipulator end effectors- 6 DOF,RRR-3A
Speed -900 m/s
Actuator -hydraulic
 Payload -100 kg.
Repeatability - ±1.25 mm
Applications -Forging,Investment casting,Machine tool
loading,welding,machining,Inspection

2. PUMA(Unimation)
Model -550
Manipulator end effectors- 6 DOF,RRR-3A
Speed -1000 m/s
Actuator -Electrical
Payload -3 kg.
Repeatability - ±0.10 mm
Applications -Machine tool loading, Part transfer, Assembly, welding, Inspection,
Education

1.7 DEGREES OF FREEDOM AND JOINT NOTATIONS:

1.7.1 Degrees of freedom
The degree of freedom or grip of a robotic system can be compared to the way in which the
human body moves.
For each degree of freedom a joint is required.
The degrees of freedom located in the arm define the configuration.
Each of the five basic motion configurations discuss previously utilizes three degrees of
freedom in the arm.
Three degrees of freedom located in the wrist give the end effector all the flexibility.
a total of six degrees of freedom is needed to locate a robot’s hand at any point in its work
space.
Although six degrees of freedom are needed for maximum flexibility, most robot employee
only three to five degrees of freedom.
The more the degrees of freedom, the greater is the complexity of motions encountered.
 the three degrees of freedom located in the arm of a robotic system are:
 The rotational reverse: is the movement of the arm assembly about a rotary axis,
such as left-and-right swivel of the robot’s arm about a base.
 The radial traverse: is the extension and retraction of the arm or the in-and-out
motion relative to the base.
 The vertical traverse: provides the up-and-down motion of the arm of the robotic
system.
the three degrees of freedom located in the wrist, which bear the names of aeronautical
terms, are
 pitch or bend: is the up-and-down movement of the wrist.
 yaw: is the right-and-left movement of the wrist.
 roll or swivel: is the rotation of the hand.
1.7.2 An n-link kinematics system
An n-link kinematics system is made of a chain of links connected to each other by the joints. The
system is an open-chain, each joint can move freely independent from all other joints. For the
simplicity of the analysis we assume the first joint is moving in the base coordinate frame, the
second joint is moving in the coordinate frame of the first link, and so on, the end-point is a fixed
position in the n coordinate frame. Then, two joints may either contribute to the movement of the
end-point in two different directions, or, if the joint movements are dependant to each other, then,
the end-point may move only in a single direction. The joints those contribute to the movement of
the end effectors in a new and independent direction are called independent joints. The total
number of the independent joints determines the degrees of freedom (DOF) of that kinematics
system .

Fig 1.32 (a) planer space(in the paper plane), a kinematics system
For example in a planer space(in the paper plane), a kinematics system made of two rotational
joints is shown in the figure.Inthis case the joint angular positions α and β contribute to the
movement of the end point in both x0 and y0 directions freely,and thus they are independent
joints.If the two joints were exactly on the same point of the plane, then the two joints would not
result in independent movements of the end point in two different dimensions.The end point would
move along a fixed circular trajectory proportional to α – β.

Fig 1.32 (b) Three dimensional world, an end-point frame

In our plane example,the position and orientation of the frame is expressed in the base frame by
three variables(dimension along x0,y0 and the angular orientation with respect to the x0
axis).Thus,we cannot have a planar kinematics system with four or over four degrees of freedom.
Similarly, in a three dimensional world,an end-point frame is expressed in the base frame by its
position along x-y-z axis,and angular rotation with respect to z(roll),y(pitch) and x axes(yaw),total
by six DOF.Thus in 3-D world,a kinematics system cannot have higher than 6 DOF even if it has
over 6 joints.
Half independent
In some cases, a joint is not designed to be stable along the range of movement, but it stays stable
only at the end points of the joint range. For example, in some pneumatic joints, the link moves
from one end to the other end but cannot stay somewhere at the mid. These kind of joints are
considered only to be half independent, and contributes only 1/2 to DOF of the system .
N.B.:
Many industrial robots were designed to have only four or five degrees of freedom to reduce the
cost and increase the reliability and stability of the manipulators. On the other side, there are also
many robot manipulators particularly designed for the working environments with many obstacles
in workplace with extra one or two joints instead of exactly six. These kind of kinematics systems
are called redundant kinematics systems. The redundancy of extra joints provides flexibility to
approach to the desired position and orientation in various configurations of the joint angles
creating opportunity of obstacle avoidance in the path planning.
1.7.3 Degrees Of Freedom for a Body and Arm Joints of a Robot.
Fig 1.33 Degrees Of Freedom for a Body and Arm Joints of a Robot

1. Rotational Traverse-rotation
about the vertical axis or axis
perpendicular to the base
2. Vertical Traverse – rotation
about the horizontal axis
perpendicular to the vertical axis
3. Radial Traverse – linear motion or extension of the telescopic arm in the radial direction.
Typical Configurations of a Body and Arm Joints of a Robot
1.7.4 Degrees Of Freedom for typical Wrist of a Robot
1. Roll – rotation of the wrist about the horizontal axis or axis of the wrist
2. Yaw – rotational swivel about the vertical axis perpendicular to the axis of the wrist
3. Pitch - rotational swivel about the horizontal axis perpendicular to the axis of the wrist

S.No Configuration Symbol

1. Polar TRL
2. Cylindrical TLL,LTL,LVL
3. Cartesian LLL
4. Jointed Arm TRR,VVR
Fig 1.34 Degrees Of Freedom for typical Wrist of a Robot

S.No Configuration Symbol

1. Two axis wrist(typical) X – XYZ : RT
2. Three axis wrist : TRT

The typical configuration of a robot is given using joint notations and the degrees of freedom as
follows.
L – TRL : TRT
Where, ‘L’ stands for Linear joint
‘TRL” for body and arm specifications i.e Polar coordinate robot and
‘: TRT’ gives the associated wrist configurations i.e three axis wrist with two twisting and
a rotational joint.

1.8 TYPES OF ROBOTS:

Robots are classified into the following six categories in general.
 Arm geometry: rectangular; cylindirical; spherical; jointed-arm (vertical); joined-
arm (horizontal).
  Degrees of freedom: robot arm; robot wrist.
 Power sources: electrical; pneumatic; hydraulic; any combination.
 Type of motion: slew motion; joint-interpolation; straight-line interpolation;
circular interpolation.
 Path control: limited sequence; point-to-point; continous path; controlled path.
 Intelligence level: low-technology (nonservo); high-technology (servo).
The following characteristics are considered for classifying robots.
1. Multiple task capability 2.Level of machine Intelligence 3.Kinematicstructure 4.Geometric
dexterity 5.Mobility 6.Actuator modules 7.Payload capacity 8.Precision, accuracy,
repeatability 9.sensory capability 10.operational envelope 11.Application groups.
i)On the basis of manipulating arm and joint configuration,
(a) Cartesian (b) Cylindrical (c) Spherical or polar configuration (d) Anthropomorphic or
articulated or jointed arm coordinates
ii) According to the pair of joints which provide DOF
RRP, RRR, RPP, PRR, PPP or a combination of all these
iii) Type of end effectors and number of fingers
-mechanical type
two fingered end effector
three fingered end effector and
multifingered end effector
-Magnetic pick up
-Vacuum or suction pick up
iv) based on robot movement
Fixed ,mobile and walking or legged robot
-Fixed sequence robot
-variable sequence robot
-playback robot
-NC robot
-Intelligent robot
v) based on the type of control
Non-servo (bang-bang type) or Servo(proportional feedback type)
 (a) Point-to-point robot (b) Continuous path robot
(c) Controlled path robot
vi) According to sensory systems
(b) Simple and blind robot(with internal sensors) (b) Vision robots (c) Moderately intelligent
robot( with external tactile and non-tactile sensors)
vii) According to the type of industrial applications
(a) part handling robot (b) Tool operating robot (c) Assembly robot
viii) According to the task they perform
Die casting,Investment casting,Forging,Pick and place operations,Machine tool loading and
unloading,welding,spray painting,inspection,assembly and education and training
ix) based on the skills of operation required
a) Low accuracy contouring (for spray painting,spot,welding.etc)
b) Low accuracy point to point(loading/unloading from heal treatment furnaces;die casting
m/c
c) Moderate accuracy contouring (arc welding, deburring etc.)
d) Moderate accuracy point to point(forging, loading/unloading m/c tools)
e) Close turbulence and assembly applications.
The robots listed above can be grouped into the following commercial application groups.
Industrial Robots, Medical Robots, Mobile robots (Wheeled, Legged), Hopping and Running
machines, Robotic Aircrafts and Boats, Robotic toys, Robots for Entertainment, Robots for
cleaning at Home and Industry.
The different types of robots based on the principle of operation,
kinematic structures and workspace are given in the following table.
Fig 1.35 kinematic structures and workspace
 1.9 SPEED OF MOTION AND PAYLOAD
- How quickly the robot can accomplish the given work cycle, measured at the wrist
(maximum allowable speed is 1.7 m/s) -
Hydraulic drives are faster than electrical drive robots( with arm extended from vertical axis to
a long distance) -
Determination of the most accurate speed depends on the following factors
o The accuracy with which the wrist must be positioned
o The weight of the object being positioned/manipulated
o The distances to be moved
1.9.1 Types of motion
A robot manipulator can make four types of motion in travelling from one point to another
in the workplace:
 Slew motion: simplest type of motion. robot is commanded to travel from one point
to another at default speed.
 Joint-interpolated motion: requires the robot controller to calculate the time it will
take each joint to reach its destination at the commanded speed.
 Straight-line interpolation motion: requires the end of the end effector to travel
along a straight path determine in rectangular coordinates.
 useful in applications such as arc welding, inserting pins into holes, or
laying material along a straight path.
 Circular interpolation motion: requires the robot controller to define the points of
a circle in the workplace based on a minimum of three specified positions.
 Circular interpolation produces a linear approximation of the circle and is
more readily available using a programming language rather than manual or
teach pendant techniques.
1.9.2 Path control
Commercially available industrial robots can be classified into four categories according to
the path control system.
 Limited-sequence: do not use servo-control to indicate relative positions of the
joints.
 They are controlled by setting limit switches and/or mechanical stops
together with a sequencer to coordinate and time the actuation of the joints.
 With this method of control, the individual joints can only be moved to their
extreme limits of travel.
  Point-to-point: these robots are most common and can move from one specified
point to another but cannot stop at arbitrary points not previously designated.
 Controlled path: is a specialized control method that is a part of general category of
a point-to-point robot but with more precise control.
 the controlled path robot ensures that the robot will describe the right
segment between two taught points.controlled-path is a calculated method
and is desired when the manipulator must move in the perfect path motion.
 Continuous path: is an extension of the point-to-point method. this involves the
utilization of more points and its path can be arc, a circle, or a straight line.
 Because of the large number of points, the robot is capable of producing
smooth movements that give the appearance of continuous or contour
movement.
1.9.3 Kinematic Control of Robot
 Non Servo Control- This type of robot move their arm in an open loop fashion. Such control could
be executed by sequence controller or limit switches.
 Servo Controlled Robot:-this type of robot incorporates feed back devices on the joints or actuator
of the manipulator. This type of control can position the end-effectors anywhere within the total
envelop. These is further classified as
 Point to point control- In it each joint or the axes of the robot is moved individually untill
the combination of the joint positions yields the desired position of the end effector.The
way each joint is to move to achieve final position is practiced before hand and stored in a
memory device.
 Continuous path control- Continuous path motion are produced by interpolating each joint
control variable from interpolating each joint control variable from its initial value to
desired final value. All the joints variables are interpolated to make the joints complete
their motion simultaneously, thus giving a co-coordinated joint motion.
1.9.4 Payload is the maximum load to be carried by the robot while satisfying all technical
specifications. Mostly, a robot can hold four to ten fold of its payload if in that application
the specified accuracy and speed is not important. Typical payload to weight ratio of the
industrial robots is in the range of 1/5 to 1/10 .
1.10 ROBOT PARTS AND FUNCTIONS
A robot consists of the following parts.
1.A Base
2.Manipulator
3.An End-effector
4. Drives (or) Actuators
5. Controller device
6. Sensors
7. Interfaces

Fig 1.36 Basic components of a microprocessor based robotic system

1.10.1 Main Components Of Robot
For a machine to qualify as a robot, it usually needs
these 5 parts:
1. Controller
2. Arm
3. Drive
4. End - Effector
5. Sensor
Controller
Every robot is connected to a computer, which keeps the pieces of the arm working together. This
computer is known as the controller(is a device that collects signals from the position sensors. It
processes them and generates the actuator signals to move the manipulator joints in harmony, so that
the manipulator tracks the pre-programmed motion. The controller provides the hardware control level
 of the manipulator). The controller functions as the "brain" of the robot. The controller also allows the
robot to be networked to other systems, so that it may work together with other machines, processes, or
robots

Fig 1.37 Parts of a robot

Arm
Robot arms come in all shapes and sizes. The arm is the part of the robot that positions the end-effector
and sensors to do their pre-programmed business.
Many (but not all) resemble human arms, and have shoulders, elbows, wrists, even fingers. This gives
the robot a lot of ways to position itself in its environment. Each joint is said to give the robot 1 degree
of freedom.
So, a simple robot arm with 3 degrees of freedom could move in 3 ways: up and down, left and right,
forward and backward. Most working robots today have 6 degrees of freedom.
Actuators
The actuator is the "engine" that drives the links (the sections) between the joints into their desired
position. without an actuator, a robot would just sit there, which is not often helpful.).
End- Effector
is the device that is connected to the end of the last joint (hand) of a manipulator to handle objects, or
performs required tasks by a direct contact.
Sensors
Most robots of today are nearly deaf and blind. Sensors can provide some limited feedback to the robot
so it can do its job . The sensor sends information, in the form of electronic signals back to the
controller. Sensors also give the robot controller information about its surroundings and lets it know the
exact position of the arm, or the state of the world around it . They can also contain external sensor
devices such as vision systems to detect the end- effector location, proximity sensors at several
locations to detect the state of materials and devices in the work environment .Robots can be designed
and programmed to get specific information that is beyond what our 5 senses can tell us. For instance, a
robot sensor might "see" in the dark, detect tiny amounts of invisible radiation or measure movement
that is too small or fast for the human eye to see.

1.10.2 Subsystems
The following are the subsystems of the main systems discussed above.
Actuators and transmission systems
Mechanisms
Power supplies
Power storage systems
Sensors (Internal and External)
Micro-Controllers and processors
Algorithms &Software (Higher level and Lower level)
Power Generation and Storage systems
Solar cells, Fuel cells, and Rechargeable cells are normally used for power generation and
storage purpose in a robot.
Sensors
The sensors used for giving feedback for successful operation of the robot are listed below.
Simple switches, Force sensors, Gyroscopes, Potentiometers and encoders, Tachometers,
Cameras and proximity sensors
Electronics
Effective electronic devices are mandatory for the efficient, economic and ease of operation of
the robot. Some of them are listed below.
A to D converters, D to A converters, Micro controllers, and Power Electronics
Algorithms and Software
Computer programs are needed to achieve the following functions.
• Control of motors and actuators
• Planning trajectory of individual actuator motions
• Planning trajectories of end effectors
• Accepting and acting upon sensor inputs
• Planning tasks
Power sources
The four power sources used in current robots are:
 Electric: all robots use electricity as the primary source of energy.
 Electricity turns the pumps that provide hydraullic and pneumatic pressure.
 It also powers the robot controller and all the electronic components and
peripheral devices.
 In all electric robots, the drive actuators, as well as the controller, are
electrically powered.
 Because electric robot does not require a hydraulic power unit, they
conserve floor space and decrease factory noise.
 No energy conversion is required.
 Pneumatic: these are generally found in relatively low-cost manipulators with low
load carrying capacity.
 Pneumatic drives have been used for many years for powering simple stop-
to-stop motions.
 It is inherently light weight, particularly when operating pressures are
moderate.
 Hydraulic: are either linear position actuators or a rotary vane configuration.
 Hydraulic actuators provide a large amount of power for a given actuator.
  The high power-to-weight ratio makes the hydraulic actuator an attractive
choice for moving moderate to high loads at reasonable speeds and
moderate noise level.
 Hydraulic motors usually provide a more efficient way of energy to achieve
a better performance, but they are expensive and generally less accurate.
Mechanical platforms- the hardware base
The list given below gives the hardware base or mechanical platform for the operation of the robot.The
interconnection between them is shown in the schematic diagram given below.
Sensors
Motors
Driving mechanisms
Power supplies
Electronic Controls
Microcontroller systems
Languages
R/C Servos
Pneumatics
Driving High-Current Loads from Logic
Controllers
Fig 1.38 Block diagram of mechanical plotforms and hardware interconnection

1.11 NEED FOR ROBOTS

 In olden days manufacturing of different objects are carried out with mechanized machines
and these machines are controlled by people. Robot is needed for effective control.
 Robots can replace human being and can save cost.
 Decrease in the productivity because of the inefficient employees and human errors. This
problem can be eliminated with the application of robots.

Hazard environments, such as those associated with spray painting, arc welding, grinding, deep sea
diving, radioactive materials handling
Difficult handling for human being
Repetitive work cycle in boring tasks, such as machine loading and inspection
Cost reduction and increased productivity
Robots can work up to 10 times faster than people in repetitive low-skill tasks, such as spot
welding, drilling and riveting
Multishift operation. Robots can work 24 hrs/day, do not take breaks or sick leave (third shift?)
 Perform 4A tasks in 4D environments
4A: Automation, Augmentation, Assistance, Autonomous
4D: Dangerous, Dirty, Dull, Difficult
Advantages of Industrial Robots

 Automation using Robotic technology proved itself by increasing the productivity, safety efficiency,
quality, and consistency of products.
 Robotic devices works in hazardous environments, without needing workplace comfort such as
lighting, air conditioning, noise protection etc.

 They work continuously for very long shifts of work periods without needing the work
requirements of human labor.
 They can be designed more accurate than human. In extra-ordinary applications such as medical
surgery robots, they can manage many surgery services which are impossible to be applied by a
human
 Robots can accomplish processing multiple tasks simultaneously

1.12 APPLICATIONS OF ROBOTS:

The potential manufacturing applications of industrial robots are,

1. Material handling

Depalletizing/palletizing (loading and unloading of parts into the pallets)

Transporting components
Transfer of components/tools
Bottle loading
Parts handling

2. Machine loading/unloading components

_
Loading parts to CNC machine tool
-Loading a punch press
-Loading a die casting machine
-Loading electron beam welding and laser beam welding machines
-Loading/orientating parts to Transfer machines
- Loading parts on the test machine
3. Spray painting
Painting of trucks/automobiles
Painting of agricultural equipment
Painting of appliance components
4. Welding
Spot welding
Arc welding
Seam welding of variable width
5. Machining - automated tool changing and monitoring of the processes
- Drilling
- Deburring
- Sanding
- Grinding
- Cutting
- Forming
6. Assembly
-Mating components
-Riveting small assemblies
7. Inspection
In-process measuring and quality control, searching the missing parts
8. Others
Heat-treatment, applications of adhesives, etc
The non-manufacturing areas of robotic applications are:
S.No Area of Application Field/operation
1. Hazardous environments
Exploration
i) Mining
Search and rescue
Tunneling for main roadways
Operations in short passages

ii)Municipal services Fire fighting

Underground (dangerous gas filled)

Sewer clearing
iii)Nuclear Maintenance of atomic reactors
iv)Space Space vehicles
v) Under seas Oil/mineral exploration
Salvage operations
2. Medical i) Rehabilitation engineering for
handicapped
ii) Non-invasive and invasive
diagnostics
iii)Surgery
3. Distribution i) Warehousing

ii) Retailing (for food industry or for

retail industry)
4. Agriculture Equipments manufacturing,automation
5. Hobby/household purposes Automation of washing,cutting
vegitables,toys for playing etc.
Military Applications of robots may be in both manufacturing and non-manufacturing areas

1.13 CONCLUSION
1.13.1 Automation
Hard automation: conventional machinery, packaging, sewing, manufacturing small parts
Cannot handle product design variations. Mass producton.Adjustibility possible.
Programmable Automation: Flexible because of computer control.Can handle variations.
Suitable for Batch production.
Autonomous: Endowed with decision making capability through use of sensors.
Extrapolating from nature
1.13.2 Robots Vs Nature
The natural activities that are performed by human being are done with robot.The activity and
the corresponding devices which perfomes those activities are listed below. The gap between
natural and artificial activities are shrinking.
Manipulation: Arms and fingers driven by motors and other forms of actuation
Vision: Cameras
Hearing: Microphones
Feel: Tactile sensors
Communication: Wires, fiber optics, radio
Brains: Computers and microprocessors
Smell:?? Artificial intelligence aim at developing this capability for the robot in future.
Taste:?? This capability for the robot is also at developing stage in Artificial intelligence.
1.13.3 Humans and Animals:
Humans are highly autonomous and intellectual and animals are somewhat autonomous.
Arms and Fingers to manipulate objects,legs for locomotion.Muscles as actuators!
Eyes provide vision,nose for smelling,ears for hearing,tongue for taste.Skin for feeling.
Nerves for communication and brain the controller
1.13.4 Intelligence level
The intelligent control robot is capable of perfoming some of the functions and tasks
carried out by human beings.
It can detect changes in the work environment by means of sensory perception.
Intelligent robot is equipped with a variety of sensors and sensor apparatus providing
visual (computer vision) and tactile (touching) capabilities to respond instantly to variable
situations.
Much like humans, the robot observes and evaluates the immediate environment by
perception and pattern recognition.
 Because its operation is so complex, powerful computers are required to control its
movements and more- sophisticated sensing devices to respond to its actions.
Extensive research has been and still concerned with how to equip robots with seeing
“eyes” and tactile “fingers”.
Artificial intelligence (ai) that will enable the robots to respond, adapt, reason, and make
decisions to react to change is also an inherent capability of the intelligent robot.

SUMMARY
Introduces the general concepts of robot classification.
Provided overview of all types of robot arm geometry and styles, considering degrees of
freedom, power sources, control systems, and path control.
The arm geometry is available in five basic configurations: rectangular, cylindrical,
spherical, jointed-arm, and scara.
The three degress of freedom located in the arm of robot system are the rotational traverse,
the radial traverse, and the vertical traverse.
The three degrees of freedom located in the wrist are pitch, yaw, and roll.
The four power sources used in the current robots are electric, hydraulic, pneumatic, and
electromechanical.
There are four types of motion that a robot manipulator can make in traveling from one
point to another in the workplace: slew, joint-interolated, straight line interpolation,
circular.
There are four types of path controls of robots: limited-sequence, point-to-point,
controlled-path, and continuous path.
Robot systems are usually classified as high-technology and low-technology group.