2016 IEEE Second International Conference on Big Data Computing Service and Applications

Fault-Diagnosis for Reciprocating Compressors

Using Big Data

Keerqinhu∗ , Guanqiu Qi† , Wei-Tek Tsai†‡ , Yi Hong∗ , Wenxiang Wang∗ , Guangxin Hou∗ , Zhiqin Zhu§
∗ Research Center of China National Offshore Oil Corporation, Beijing, 100010, China
† Schoolof Computing, Informatics, and Decision Systems Engineering
Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85287, USA
‡ State Key Laboratory of Software Development Environment

School of Computer Science and Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, China
§ College of Automation, Chongqing University, Chongqing, 400044, China

keerqh@cnooc.com.cn, guanqiuq@asu.edu, tsai7@yahoo.com, {826422484, 326260390}@qq.com,

hougx@cnooc.com.cn, zhiqinzhu@126.com

Abstract—Reciprocating compressors are widely used in the
petroleum industry, and a small fault in reciprocating com-
pressors may cause serious issues in operation. Monitoring and
detecting potential faults help compressors to continue normal
operation. This paper proposes a fault-diagnosis system for com-
pressors using machine-learning techniques to detect potential
faults. The system has been evaluated using 100TB operation
data collected from China National Offshore Oil Corporation, and
the data are first de-noised, coded, and then SVM classification
is applied, with 50% of data used for training, the remaining for
testing. The results demonstrated that the system can efficiently
diagnose potential faults in compressors with 80% accuracy.
Keywords—Reciprocating Compressor, Big Data, RPCA, SVM;
I. I NTRODUCTION
Reciprocating compressors are widely used in the
petroleum industry. It is important to keep reciprocating com-
pressor working properly. A reciprocating compressor operates
at a high-temperature, high-pressure, flammable, explosive,
corrosive working environment, and it is used in the offshore
oil and gas production. So comparing to other equipment used
on land, reciprocating compressor requires a high reliability
[22], [28], [27].
Currently monitoring of reciprocating compressors is done
by human inspection. Regular maintenance and fault diagnosis
after a system failure are common methods. Thus, it is difficult
for current methods to predict the potential faults in advance.
The US oil and gas industry spent about 30% of the total
repair cost ($75 billion) in 1980 due to improper equipment
maintenance [11]. Furthermore, it is important to identify and
repair any failed equipment. Many tiny faults that are not fixed
in time finally result in disasters. For instance, the explosion of
British North Sea Piper Alpha platform shocked the world on
July 6, 1988 [24]. The disaster killed 167 out of 228 workers.
The total insured loss was about £1.7 billion (US$3.4 billion).
The explosion was caused by the failure of a frozen pump was
not identified and fixed in time. The pump was down at the
running time, and eventually caused an irreparable disaster.
The Deepwater Horizon drilling rig exploded in the Gulf of
Mexico on April 20, 2010. High-pressure methane gas from the
well expanded into the drilling riser and rose into the drilling
rig, where it ignited and exploded, engulfing the platform [23].
The explosion killed 11 workers and injured 16 others. The
sinking of platform resulted in a massive offshore oil spill in
the Gulf of Mexico. Thus, real-time fault diagnosis system is
used to reduce the maintenance costs and improve working
efficiency of equipment [13], [16], [18].
Until now, a large amount of methods based on pressure,
vibration, and acoustic emission (AE) signals have been used
to diagnose faults in reciprocating compressors [22]. Its in-
stallation condition and working condition vary. Therefore,
it is difficult to map between fault and working status on
reciprocating compressors. With the development of online
testing technology [14], [20], [26], real-time information needs
to be processed by hundreds of engineers in offshore oil fields.
So the analysis costs are expensive.
In most cases, fault diagnosis of reciprocating compressors
uses a real-time signal-processing model [12], [4]. Recipro-
cating compressors in offshore oil platforms usually work in
a salty and foggy environment, and the harsh environment
makes traditional solutions not accurate. In addition, the real-
time information often contains different parameters, such as
vibration, temperature, and displacement. The relationships
among these parameters are complex as they are related to
each other. Thus, it is difficult to determine the root cause
for a system failure. It is important to identify the relevant
information from the large number of data from heterogeneous
multiple sources.
Traditional fault-diagnosis methods focus on monitoring,
and they can detect faults only after the compressor fails
to work. This paper proposes a fault-diagnosis system using
the big-data approach. An automatic recognition model is
proposed based on a data-driven classification method. The
main contributions of this paper are as follows:
1) A new fault-classification model for compressors based
on machine learning;
2) Multiple category SVM recognizes normal and fault data
to identify potential faults;
3) Experimentation with data collected from real systems.
This paper is structured as follows: Section II presents the
proposed framework; Section III discusses the fault-diagnosis

978-1-5090-2251-9/16 $31.00 © 2016 IEEE 72

DOI 10.1109/BigDataService.2016.27
process; Section IV evaluates the proposed framework and
analyzes experiment results; and Section V concludes this
paper.
II. A RCHITECTURE
China’s coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilome-
tres (9,000 mi) long, and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East
and South China Seas. China has a large number of oil and gas
reserves under the bottom of the sea. Many drilling platforms
are built to explore oil and gas. As four seas are vast and
span from north to south, the condition of diverse ocean area
varies a lot from surface water to deep oceanic trenches. So
compressors in different ocean areas face different conditions.
A large number of data needs to be processed to monitor
the status of compressors as each compressor generates about
3 GB of data per hour. A drilling platform often has hundreds
of compressors, but it is often located far away from the land
and does not have enough computing capacity to process the
data. Thus large volumes of data are sent from platforms to a
cloud for processing.
Two types of data can be obtained from compressors:
structured and unstructured data. Structured data are related
to the status of compressors such as temperature, speed, and
acceleration; unstructured data are from video surveillance.
This paper focuses on analyzing structured data. The proposed
data analysis system has two parts:
1) Learning part: It analyzes data to develop a model to
predict the future working status;
2) Analysis part: It uses the model to generated to predict
the status of compressors and to identify potential faults.
The proposed analysis framework is shown in Figure 1.
The data analysis process runs in a cloud environment. The
proposed framework has three parts:
• Data Management: It saves all the data from com-
pressors in repositories hosted on a cloud.
• Data Analysis: It uses data mining and machine
learning methods to filter, classify, and analyze data.
First, it filters all noises in the original data. Then
the filtered data are classified and analyzed. Finally, it
formalizes a monitoring model based on the analyzed
data. The formalized model is used to predict potential
faults. As more data are collected, the model will be
continuously updated.
• Visualization: The analyzed data are presented as
figures and tables to technicians for decision making,
real-time support, and machine management.
Figure 2 shows the concurrent design for reciprocating
compressor data analysis. This is similar to the scalability
architecture commonly used in SaaS [15], [21]. Many ma-
chines work at the same time and the corresponding data are
continuously sent to a cloud for analysis. The data will be
classified and assigned to different clusters for analysis. Each
cluster has multiple servers to handle different tasks in parallel.
The two-level architecture not only automatically balances
the workloads across multiple clusters and servers, but also
scales up with increasing loads with automated expansion.
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The high-level load balancer differentiates and allocates data
analysis tasks to different clusters based on domain informa-
tion. The compressors from the same ocean areas have the
same or similar conditions. To improve data analysis, it is
better to cluster the compressor data based on the ocean area.
The specialized data are stored in the same or closely related
databases. The clustered data are assigned to one or several
closely related servers to process. The servers need to use the
designated databases corresponding to the clustered data. And
the same type of data from the one domain is assigned to one or
several clusters that specialize in analyzing this type of data.
In a low-level, each cluster has its own local load balancer
and it will dispatch data analysis tasks to different servers
within the cluster. The analyzed data of each server is saved
in local database and shared to other servers in same cluster.
Data collector merges all analyzed data from each cluster. The
finalized results will be sent to technicians.
Concurrent algorithm shown in Algorithm I is proposed
to solve the distribution and collection of analysis workloads.
Based on domain information, unclassified data from machine
mi is assigned to domain di . Then domain di assigns its
workloads to cluster ci , according to the computation capacity
of each cluster and data type. In each cluster, the assigned data
are analyzed. The results from each cluster are merged to form
the final results.
Algorithm 1 Concurrent Algorithm for Data Analysis
Input:
Unclassified data from machine mi , domain di , cluster ci
Output:
n result ri , intermediate analyzed result iri
Analyzed
1: ci = i=1 mi
2: for analyze all ci do
3: return iri
4: end for
n
5: di = i=1 ci
6: ri = (n, di , iri )
7: for merge all di do
8: return ri
9: end for
III. FAULT D IAGNOSIS
Fault affects normal operation of industrial system. Al-
though varieties of approaches are applied to fault diagnosis,
accidents still happen in industrial production. Due to the
complexity of industrial system, fault diagnosis is always a
challenge work. Especially for reciprocating compressor in
petroleum industry, any small fault may cause serious disaster.
Numerous irreparable disasters of petroleum industry hap-
pened in history. To avoid these disasters, different approaches
of fault diagnosis are applied to reciprocating compressor.
Existing methods focus on monitoring, and cannot detect
potential faults at the first moment, due to the large size of
data. To efficiently diagnose faults of reciprocating compressor,
a novel big-data based framework is proposed to analyze the
large-size data of reciprocating compressor. The proposed big-
data based framework is designed to recognize fault state
and classify identified faults of reciprocating compressor for
repairing.

Fig. 1. Big Data Analysis Architecture in a Cloud Environment
A. Fault Diagnosis
Figure 3 shows the fault-diagnosis process. The operating
data are acquired by sensors of reciprocating compressor.
The acquired data are about the vibration status of different
component, temperature, and humidity. The source data of
reciprocating compressor D consists of a few data vectors
d1 , d2 , ...dn , where di is the operating data at one moment.
The source data has been randomly divided into training data
and testing data [17], [19]. In this paper, half of data are used
for training and the rest of data are used for testing. Then both
training and testing data are de-noised by RPCA [25], [5]. All
spike noises of data are isolated by RPCA. Then an online
dictionary learning and sparse coding process are implemented
for data feature extraction. All source data are used in online
dictionary learning [6], [8]. The calculated sparse coefficients
of training data are used in multiple category SVM classifier
training [9], [2]. The trained SVM classifier is used in testing
data classification.
The fault-diagnosis processes of reciprocating compressor
data shown in Figure 3 has three main processes.
• Robust Principal Component Analysis (RPCA): As
an unsupervised dimensionality reduction method, it is
applied to source data to reduce spike noise.
• Dictionary Learning: It extracts the features of the
de-noised operating data.
• SVM Classification: It is an efficient classifier for
vector classification with high accuracy. The leaned
data are classified by a multiple category based SVM
classifier.
All the data are firstly de-noised by RPCA and used for
training the dictionary. The trained dictionary is used for
sparse representation of all the de-noised data. At last, the
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sparse coefficient get from the training data are used for SVM
classifier training. And the sparse coefficients get from the
testing data can classified by the trained classifier. As each
sparse coefficient is corresponding to a source data vector,
when the sparse coefficient is classified, the data are classified.
B. Robust Principal Component Analysis
The size of source data obtained from server is large. And
the source data have many noises. Directly doing fault classi-
fication on source data with noises may not produce accurate
results. A common strategy is to de-noise the source data first.
Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is a way to de-noise
data using Gaussian distributed noise, widely used in signal
and image processing [1]. However, signals of compressors
usually come with spike noise, that is difficult to be de-noised
by PCA. To solve spike noise issues, a novel RPCA method
is proposed for processing compressor signals.
1) Problem Formulization of Data De-noise: In compressor
data, the rank of data matrix is low in most cases. In that case,
the data from compressor can be decomposed into a low rank
matrix and a sparse spike noise matrix. Then the source data
can be re-written as follows:
D=L+S , (1)
where D is the source data of compressor, L is the low rank
matrix of signal, and S is a sparse noise matrix. To find L, and
S as the best description of source data, a restriction function
is proposed in Equation 2.
min rank(L) + γS0 , (2)
L,S
If one solves the problem in Equation 2 for appropriate γ, one
may recover the pair (L, S) that generated the data D. However,
Equation 2 is non-convex, minimize both rank(L) and S0
        

    

      

   

               

               
 

                           

               

   

Fig. 2. Two-level Data Analysis Framework


Fig. 3. Fault Diagnosis of Reciprocating Compressor Data

are NP-hard to approximate. To solve this non-convex problem, In ALM for RPCA, we define
Peng and Marelaxes L0-norm to L1-norm and replace rank D = (L, S)
with a nuclear norm:
f (x) = A ∗ +λE1 , (4)
min L∗ + λS1 ,
L,S (3) h(x) = D − S − L
This relaxation can be motivated by observing that L∗ + Then the Lagrange function is show in Equation 5
λS1 is the convex envelope of rank(L) + λS0 . So that,
the L0 and S0 can be calculated by L0 , S0 = arg min L∗ + L(L, S, Y, μ) = L ∗ +λS1 + < Y, D − L − S >
L,S , (5)
λS1 . where D = L0 +S0 , L0 is the low rank matrix and S0 +μ/2D − L − SF
is a sparse matrix.
The Optimization Flow is just like the general ALM
2) Augmented Lagrange Multiplier (ALM) for RPCA: To method. The initialization Y = Y0 ∗ is to make the objective
solve that problem, ALM algorithm [7] is proposed for RPCA. function value< D, Y0 ∗ > reasonably large.

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 According to the objective Equation 5, the objective func- Then the problem can be written as follows:
tion of S can be rewritten as: m
 2
f (S) = λ||S||1 + < Y, D − L − S > min li − Dicxi 2 + λxi 1 , (11)
2 , (6) i=1
+μ/2 · ||D − L − S||F
Optimize 11 can find a xi for each li .

f(S) = λ||S||1 + < Y, D − L − S > The optimization algorithm contains two steps. The first
2 , (7) step is sparse coding process, shown in Algorithm III. And the
+μ/2 · ||D − L − S||F + (μ/2) ||μ−1 Y ||2 second step is dictionary learning process, shown in Algorithm
IV.

f(S) = λ||S||1 + (μ/2) (2(μ−1 Y · (D − L − S)) Algorithm 3 Online Dictionary Learning

2 , (8)
+||D − L − S||F + ||μ−1 Y ||2 ) Input:
x ∈ Rm ∼ p(x)
Output:
2 A trained dictionary Dic
f(S) = (λ/μ) ||S|| 1 + 1/2||S − (D − L − μ−1 Y )||F , (9)
1: A0 ∈ Rk×k ,B0 ∈ Rk×k
2: for t = 1 to T do do
Then the RPCA problem can be solved by a itera- 3: Sparse coding: compute using LARS
tive algorithm. For Algorithm II, any accumulation point Δ 2
(L∗,S∗)(Lk ∗,Sk ∗) is an optimal solution to the RPCA problem xt = arg min lt − Dict xt 2 + λxt 1
xt ∈Rk
and the convergence rate is at least When the low rank matrix 4: At ← At−1 + αt αtT
5: Bt ← Bt−1 + αt αtT
Algorithm 2 RPCA via ALM 6: Compute Dict using Algorithm IV using Dict−1 as
Input: warm restart, so that
Source data D ∈ Rm×n Dt = arg min 1t ( 12 T r(DT DAt ) − T r(DT Bt ))
Output: D
end for
(L∗k+1 and S∗k+1 )
7:

1: Y0∗ = sgn(D)/J(sgn(D));
2: while not converged do Algorithm 4 Dictionary Update
3: //Line 4-12 solving the problem of (L∗k+1 , S∗k+1 ) =
Input:
arg min L(L, S, Yk∗ , μk )
L,S Dic = [d1 ..., dk ] ∈ Rk×k
4: A0k+1 = A∗k , Ek+1
0
= Ek∗ , j = 0; B = [b1 ..., bk ] ∈ Rk×k
5: while not converged do A = [a1 ..., ak ] ∈ Rk×k
j
6: (U, S, V ) = svd(D − Ek+1 + u−1 ∗
k Yk );
Output:
j+1 T An updated Dic
7: Lk+1 = U Sμk−1 [S]V ;
1: Repeat
8: Sj+1 j+1 −1 ∗
k+1 = Sλμ−1 [D − Sk+1 + μk Yk ]; 2: for j = 1 to k do do
9: end while 3: Update the j-th column to optimize
10: ∗
Yk+1 = Yk∗ + μk (D − L∗k+1 − S∗k+1 ); μk+1 = ρμk ; 4: 1
uj ← A[j,j] (bj − Daj ) + dj
11: k = k + 1; 1
12: end while dj ← max(uj  ,l) uj
2
5: end for
6: Until convergence
and the sparse matrix of source data D is separated, the noise
of the source data are eliminated.
When the dictionary is trained, an Orthogonal Matching
C. Sparse Coding Pursuit (OMP) algorithm is used to get the sparse vector. In
Figure 4, all the data are used for the dictionary learning. Then
When the input source data are de-noised, a sparse coding when the dictionary is trained, the testing data and the training
algorithm with online dictionary learning is used. It extracts data are represented using the trained dictionary. The OMP
the core information of the de-noised data so that features of algorithm as it is the fastest resolution algorithm.
the data will be more separable. Each de-noised source data
li is a vector, that contains the information of the compressor.
D. The SVM classifier
As the sparse theory [10], each vector li , be decomposed into
two parts, the dictionary and the sparse vector: SVM classifier is used to classify the de-noised data. This
classifier uses a Gaussian radical basis function (RBF) kernel
li = Dicxi +λxi 1 , (10) [3] that is denoted in Equation 12.
where the Dic is a dictionary that contains common informa- 2
k(vi , vj ) = φ(vi )T φ(vj ) = exp(−γvi − vj  ) , (12)
tion of all the vectors li in L. And xi is a sparse feature vector
of li In that case, classify the corresponding feature vector can Where γ is the parameter of RBF widths. vi and vj represent
help us classify the input vector li . the ith and jth feature vector of the training images. φ is

76
 ) #  
 
    !
"  #
(  % $
   
 $

  #   #
   
 %  % 
Fig. 4. Sparse Representation of Reciprocating Compressor Data & $  & $ 

the infinite dimensional feature mapping function of the RBF & $'  & $' 
kernel.    
In this work, , an one-against-one strategy is applied to train
l(l − 1)/2 non-linear SVMs, where l is the number of faults * +  
categories. Given the training vectors vi ∈ Rn , i = 1, ..., s, in
tow classes, with class labels yi ∈ −1, 1. The SVM solves the  
following constraint convex optimization problem: 
s

2 Fig. 6. Data Analysis Workflow
min((1/2)ψ + C ξi )
i=1
, (13)
s.t.yi (ψ T φ(vi ) + b) ≥ 1 − ξi ξj > 0 suction valve reed broken, 2) suction valve leakage, 3) exhaust

s valve reed broken, 4) exhaust valve leakage, and 5) piston-rods
where C ξi ) is the regulation term for the non-linearly settling. The size of each group is 21 KB. The total size of
i=1
separable datasets. (vi ) + b) is the hyper-plane. The optimal ψ five million groups is about 100 TB.
should satisfy Equation 13. All experiments are done by using Matlab 2014a and Visual
Studio 2013 community edition mixed in a private cloud with
s
300 servers. Each server uses 8-core & 16-thread Intel Xron
 E5-2670 CPU with 16GB memory. The accuracy rate of fault
ψ= yi αi φ(vi ) , (14) diagnosis is the most important criterion and this is used for
i=1
evaluation.
where αi is the Lagrange multiplier. The decision function There are two steps in the experiment. The first step is data
for these two classes are expressed as follows pre-processing, and the second step is fault diagnosis. Figure
 s  6 shows the workflow of data analysis. In data pre-processing,

T the original data are divided into normal and faulty data. Then
sign(ψ φ(v) + b) = sign yi xi k(vi , v) + b , (15)
i=1
the faulty data are randomly picked as training and testing
data. The proposed solutions do fault analysis on training and
Using this one verses one SVM classifier, the de-noised testing data. The analyzed results of testing data are used to
data can be classified into a few groups. verify the analyzed results of training data. The verified results
are used in dictionary learning of training data.
IV. E XPERIMENTS AND A NALYSES
A. Data Pre-processing
Experiments are done to evaluate the proposed system
using data from China National Offshore Oil Corporation In data pre-processing, the original data are classified into
(CNOOC). The data are collected from operating compressors normal and faulty condition data. Only faulty condition data
in offshore oilfields, and contains five million groups of data are used to do fault diagnosis. According to the obtained
from different operation conditions. These conditions contain operating data, experiments are used to verify the validity and
normal operation conditions and five faulty conditions: 1) effectiveness of data pre-processing.

77
 TABLE I. ACCURACY OF FAULT C ONDITION D ISCRIMINATION valve reed broken faults are successfully identified. Similarly,
Attempt 1 2 3 4 5 92.9% of exhaust valve leakage faults are diagnosed, and the
Accuracy(%) 99.3 100.0 98.3 97.5 96.9 rest 7.1% faults are diagnosed as suction valve leakage faults.
Attempt 6 7 8 9 10
Accuracy(%) 97.0 97.5 97.5 97.0 98.7
In this group experiment, piston-rods settling faults have the
lowest accuracy rate of fault diagnosis. Only 71.4% of piston-
rods settling faults are identified. 7.1%, 7.1% and 14.3% of
piston-rods settling faults are diagnosed as suction valve reed
broken faults, suction valve leakage faults and exhaust valve
reed broken faults respectively.
In the second group of experiments, all exhaust valve reed
broken faults are 100% identified. Only 61.5% of piston-
rods settling faults are diagnosed. The accuracy rates of fault
diagnosis in suction valve reed broken faults, suction valve
leakage faults, and exhaust valve leakage are 76.9%, 92.3%,
and 92.3% respectively. The fourth group experiment has the
best performance. Only 83.3% of suction valve leakage faults
 are identified. The rest 16.7% of suction valve leakage faults
are diagnosed as piston-rods settling faults. The other four
Fig. 7. Accuracy Rate of Fault Diagnosis types of faults are identified.
Figure 7 shows the results of ten-group experiments. The
In data pre-processing, half of normal condition and faulty accuracy rate of diagnosing each fault is marked in different
condition data are used as training data, and the rest of data color. In most cases, more than 85% faults can be identified.
are used as testing data to test the proposed system. Before Some types of faults have 100% accuracy rate of fault diagno-
doing fault diagnosis, the proposed system differentiates nor- sis. Only two types of faults have more than 60% accuracy rate
mal condition and faulty condition by using SVM classifier. of fault diagnosis in all experiments. The high accuracy rates
The same experiments are repeated ten times using different prove that the proposed fault diagnosis system can efficiently
training and testing data randomly selected from normal and diagnose faults from large data automatically. Figure 8 shows
faulty data. the analysis of fault-diagnosis results. The expected fault iden-
tification rate of five faults is 70%. Only fault identifications
The accuracy rates of ten attempts are shown in Table of piston-rods setting in 2nd attempt and exhaust valve reed
I. The second attempt has the highest accuracy rate 100%, broke in 6th attempt are lower than expectations. All other
and the fifth attempt has the lowest accuracy rate 96.9%. The results are better than expectations. In total 50 analyses (10
average accuracy rate is 97.97%, i.e. Almost 98% of faults can times for each fault), 25 analyses (50% of all analyses) have
be identified. The high accuracy of data identification increases 100% fault identification rate. The results of proposed system
the confidence in diagnosis. are better than expectation. The proposed system is efficient
to do fault diagnosis.
B. Fault Diagnosis
The proposed system is applied identify potential faults V. C ONCLUSION
after data pre-processing.
This paper proposed a fault-diagnosis system for compres-
Half of data (about 50 TB) are used for training, and the sors. The machine learning method is used to get a pattern to
rest (about 50 TB) for testing. In both procedures, RPCA does recognize working state and faulty state automatically. The
de-noise operation first. Then it does dictionary learning. After proposed system is evaluated using operational data from
that SVM classifier is applied to the learned data. Training oilfields, the results indicated that the system can identify most
results are used by testing process to get the final results. of these faults automatically with more than 80% accuracy.
Table II shows the dictionary learning time of training
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Fig. 5. Fault Diagnosis Experiment Results

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Fig. 8. Analysis of Fault-Diagnosis Results

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