UNIT 2: WIRELESS NETWORKS

2.1 Introduction to wireless networks

Wireless networking enables the same capabilities and comparable speeds of a wired network
without the difficulties associated with laying wire, drilling into walls, or stringing Ethernet
cables throughout an office building or home. Every room in a wireless home or office can be
connected to the network, so adding more users and growing a network can be as simple as
installing a new wireless network adapter. Reasons to choose wireless networking over
traditional wired networks include:

 Running additional wires or drilling new holes in a home or office could be prohibited
(because of rental regulations), impractical (infrastructure limitations), or too expensive
 Flexibility of location and data ports is required
 Roaming capability is desired; e.g., maintaining connectivity from almost anywhere
inside a home or business
 Network access is desired outdoors; e.g., outside a home or office building

IEEE Wireless Networking Specifications

IEEE 802.11 is the most popular wireless LAN solution to most administrators, known also as
Wi-Fi. The IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers) released the 802.11
specifications in June 1999. The initial specification, known as 802.11, used the 2.4 GHz
frequency and supported a maximum data rate of 1 to 2 Mbps. In late 1999, two new versions
were released. The 802.11b specification increased the performance to 11 Mbps in the 2.4 GHz
range while the 802.11a specification utilized the 5 GHz range and supported up to 54 Mbps.

Unfortunately, the two new specifications were incompatible because they used different
frequencies. This means that 802.11a network interface cards (NICs) and access points cannot
communicate with 802.11b NICs and access points. This incompatibility forced the creation of
the new draft standard known as 802.11g. 802.11g supports up to 54 Mbps and is interoperable
with 802.11b products on the market today.
802.11 Specifications

The 802.11 specifications were developed specifically for Wireless Local Area Networks
(WLANs) by the IEEE and include four subsets of Ethernet-based protocol standards: 802.11,
802.11a, 802.11b, and 802.11g.

802.11

802.11 operated in the 2.4 GHz range and was the original specification of the 802.11 IEEE
standards. This specification delivered 1 to 2 Mbps using a technology known as phase-shift
keying (PSK) modulation. This specification is no longer used and has largely been replaced by
other forms of the 802.11 standard.

802.11a

802.11a operates in the 5 - 6 GHz range with data rates commonly in the 6 Mbps, 12 Mbps, or 24
Mbps range. Because 802.11a uses the orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM)
standard, data transfer rates can be as high as 54 Mbps. OFDM breaks up fast serial information
signals into several slower sub-signals that are transferred at the same time via different
frequencies, providing more resistance to radio frequency interference. The 802.11a specification
is also known as Wi-Fi5, and though regionally deployed, it is not a global standard like 802.11b.

802.11b

The 802.11b standard (also known as Wi-Fi) operates in the 2.4 GHz range with up to 11 Mbps
data rates and is backward compatible with the 802.11 standard. 802.11b uses a technology
known as complementary code keying (CCK) modulation, which allows for higher data rates.

802.11g

802.11g is the most recent IEEE 802.11 draft standard and operates in the 2.4 GHz range with
data rates as high as 54 Mbps over a limited distance. It is also backward compatible with
802.11b and will work with 11 Mbps products. 802.11g offers the best features of both 802.11a
and 802.11b.
Ad Hoc (Peer-to-Peer) Mode vs Infrastructure Mode

2.1.1 Ad hoc
The 802.11 specification defines two types of operational modes: ad hoc (peer-to-peer) mode and

infrastructure mode. In ad hoc mode, the wireless network is relatively simple and consists of

802.11 network interface cards (NICs). The networked computers communicate directly with

one another without the use of an access point. In infrastructure mode, the wireless network is

composed of a wireless access point(s) and 802.11 network interface cards (NICs). The access

point acts as a base station in an 802.11 network and all communications from all of the wireless

clients go through the access point. The access point also provides for increased wireless range,

growth of the number of wireless users, and additional network security.

Figure 2.1 ad-hoc modes of 802.11 specifications

In ad hoc mode, also known as Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS) or peer-to-peer mode, all
of the computers and workstations connected with a wireless NIC card can communicate with
each other via radio waves without an access point. Ad hoc mode is convenient for quickly
setting up a wireless network in a meeting room, hotel conference center, or anywhere else
sufficient wired infrastructure does not exist.
2.1.2 Infrastructure WLAN (Infrastructure Mode)

In infrastructure mode, all mobile and wireless client devices and computers communicate with
the access point, which provides the connection from the wireless radio frequency world to the
hard-wired LAN world. The access point performs the conversion of 802.11 packets to 802.3
Ethernet LAN packets. Data packets traveling from the LAN to a wireless client are converted by
the access point into radio signals and transmitted out into the environment. All wireless clients
and devices within range can receive the packets, but only those clients with the appropriate
destination address will receive and process the packets.

Figure 2.3 infrastructure modes of 802.11 specifications

A basic wireless infrastructure with a single access point is called a Basic Service Set (BSS).
When more than one access point is connected to a network to form a single sub-network, it is
called an Extended Service Set (ESS). The 802.11 specification includes roaming capabilities
that allow a client computer to roam among multiple access points on different channels. Thus,
roaming client computers with weak signals can associate themselves with other access points
with stronger signals. Alternately, by setting up multiple access points to cover the same
geographic area and by using different non-overlapping frequencies, client workstation
networking loads can be better balanced. A wireless LAN NIC may decide to “reassociate” itself
with another access point within range because the load on its current access point is too high for
optimal performance. These capabilities can have a positive impact on overall network
performance.

IEEE 802.11 WLAN Components

IEEE 802.11 networks consist of four major components:

Stations: Stations are computing devices with wireless network interfaces. Typically, stations
are battery-operated laptop or handheld pocket PCs.

Access points: Frames on an 802.11 network must be converted to another type of frame for
delivery to a wired network. Devices called access points (AP) perform the wireless-to-wired
bridging function.

Wireless medium: To move frames from station to station, the standard uses a wireless medium.
Typical WLANs utilize an RF physical layer.

Distribution system: When several APs are connected to form a large coverage area, they must
communicate with each other to handle the movements of mobile stations. The distribution
system (DS) is the logical component of 802.11 used to forward frames to their destination.
Usually, the DS is implemented as a combination of a bridging engine and a distribution system
medium, which is the backbone network used to relay frames between APs. In most cases,
Ethernet is used as the backbone network technology. Most APs operate as bridges. They have at
least one wireless network interface and at least one Ethernet network interface. The Ethernet
side can be connected to an existing network, and the wireless side becomes an extension of that
network.
Figure 2.4: infrastructure modes of 802.11 specifications

2.1.3 Infrared communication

IR, or infrared, communication is a common, inexpensive, and easy to use wireless

communication technology. IR light is very similar to visible light, except that it has a slightly
longer wavelength and not visible to human eyes. For example when you hit a button on your TV
remote, an IR LED repeatedly turns on and off, 38,000 times a second, to transmit information
(like volume or channel control) to an IR photo sensor on your TV. IR sources are all around us.
When you use your TV remote, an IR LED is used to transmit information to your TV. So, how
does the IR receiver in your TV pick out signals from your remote among all of the ambient IR?
The answer is that the IR signal is modulated. Modulating a signal is like assigning a pattern to
your data, so that the receiver knows to listen.

A common modulation scheme for IR communication is something called 38 kHz modulation.

There are very few natural sources that have the regularity of a 38 kHz signal, so an IR
transmitter sending data at that frequency would stand out among the ambient IR. 38 kHz
modulated IR data is the most common, but other frequencies can be used.

When you hit a key on your remote, the transmitting IR LED will blink very quickly for a
fraction of a second, transmitting encoded data to your appliance.
2.2 IEEE 802.11 architecture

Figure 2.4: Independent and Infrastructure Basic Service Sets

The IEEE 802.11 standard defines two kinds of services: the Basic Service Set (BSS) and the
Extended Service Set (ESS). The BSS is the basic building block of a wireless LAN. A BSS
consists of stationary or mobile wireless stations and possibly a central base station (e.g., an AP).
When a station is in the BSS, it can communicate with the other members of the BSS.

The BSS without an AP is a stand-alone network and cannot send data to other BSSs. Such BSSs
are called Independent BSSs (IBSS). Typically, IBSSs involve a small number of stations set up
for a specific purpose and for a short period of time (e.g., creating a short-lived network to
support a single meeting in a conference room). IBSSs are also referred to as ad hoc networks.

Infrastructure BSSs are distinguished from ad hoc networks by the use of an AP. See Figure 2.4
(b). APs are used for all communications in an infrastructure BSS, including communication
between mobile nodes in the same service set. An infrastructure BSS is bounded by the coverage
distance from the AP. The coverage area of a single AP is called a cell. All mobile stations are
required to be within reach of the AP.

802.11 allow wireless networks of arbitrarily large size to be created by linking BSSs into an
ESS. An ESS is created by chaining BSSs together with a backbone network. All the APs in an
ESS are given the same Service Set Identifier (SSID), which serves as a network name for its
users. APs in an ESS operate in a manner such that the outside world can use the station's MAC
address to talk to a station without worrying about its location in the ESS.

Figure 2.5: Extended service set

Figure 2.5 shows three BSSs corresponding to three APs. There is an equal level of overlap
between BSS 1 and BSS 2, and between BSS 2 and BSS 3. Such overlap is necessary to provide
stations with seamless connectivity if they move from one BSS to another. In the figure, the
router uses the station's MAC address as the destination to deliver frames to a station; only the
AP with which that station is associated delivers the frame. When stations move between BSSs,
they will find and attempt to associate with an AP with the strongest signal and the least network
traffic. This way, a mobile station can transition seamlessly from one AP in the network to
another, without losing connectivity.
2.1.4. Radio communication

Radio Waves

Radio waves are the basic unit of wireless communication. By varying the characteristics of a
radio wave—frequency, amplitude, or phase—these waves can be made to communicate
information of many types, including audio, video, and data. Radio waves that carry information
are called radio signals, and the process of encoding intelligence onto a radio wave so that it can
be transmitted over the air is called modulation. In the process of modulation, the information or
message to be transmitted-a human voice, recorded music, or a television signal—is impressed
onto (modulates) a “carrier” radio wave that is then transmitted over the air. When a radio signal
is received, the information is converted back into its original form (demodulated) by a receiver
and output as sound, images, or data.

Figure 2.6: frequency (number of cycles per second)

Radio waves are distinguished from each other by their frequency or their wavelength.
Frequency represents the number of cycles a radio wave completes in one second, and is the
most common description of a radio communication signal. The international unit of frequency
measurement is the hertz (Hz), which represents one cycle per second. Radio signals can also be
identified by their wavelength. Signals with long wavelengths have lower frequencies, while
those at higher frequencies have shorter wavelengths. Commercial AM radio signals, for
example, consist of very long waves (approximately 100 to 300 meters), that may complete a
million cycles per second (1megahertz (MHz)). Microwave signals, on the other hand, are very
short (as little as 0.3 centimeters) and may complete hundreds of billions of cycles per second
(100 gigahertz (GHz)).

The radio spectrum is divided into “bands” that correspond to various groups of radio
frequencies. These bands are identified by their frequencies or wavelengths, or by descriptive
terms that have been adopted over time. Several types of descriptive names have been attached to
various portions of the spectrum. One method denotes relative position in the spectrum: very low
frequency (VLF), high frequency (HF), very high frequency (VHF), super high frequency (SHF),
etc. Another method derives from usage developed in World War II to keep secret the actual
frequencies employed by radar and other electronic devices: L-band, S-band, and K-band.

Figure 2.7: Frequency band designations

Frequency bands are also known by the services that use them-the FM radio broadcast band, for
example, occupies the range (band) of frequencies from 88 to 108 MHz

2.3 Introduction to WPAN

Wireless networking standards like 802.11b and Wi-Max typically focus on providing PC-to-PC
or PC-to-ISP connectivity over the range of a building or a metropolitan area. However, many
applications have far less stringent range requirements, such as connecting peripherals wirelessly
to a mobile device or adding components to a home theater system. Personal area networks
(PANs) are a perfect fit for these applications: they offer signal ranges in the neighborhood of 1
m to 100 m, and a wide variety of data rates. Moreover, since the kinds of devices we wish to
equip with PANs are often mobile and lightweight, power is at a premium. Thus, the low power
consumption of PAN radios is very important to their acceptance. In this chapter, we will discuss
two different approaches to PAN technology. The first, Bluetooth, has already been widely
deployed in hundreds of millions of devices. It offers data rates of up to 3 Mbps and ranges of up
to 100 m, with far lower power consumption than 802.11b. Its middleware layer builds on top of
the PHY and MAC layers to provide a high degree of interoperability among Bluetooth-equipped
devices. This low power consumption and interoperability guarantee have fueled Bluetooth's
acceptance in the mobile phone community. The second of these technologies, 802.15.4
(zigBee), goes even further than Bluetooth in exchanging speed for power. 802.15.4 Offers data
rates of up to 250 kbps, and can easily support links with a very low duty cycle. Hence, it is
suitable for deployment in battery-powered devices that must survive for up to a year between
charges. 802.15.4 Has already found wide acceptance in the sensor network community.

2.4 Bluetooth IEEE 802.15 architecture

802.15.1, more commonly known as Bluetooth, is a low-data-rate, low-power wireless
networking standard aimed at replacing cables between lightweight devices. The Bluetooth stack
defines many components above the PHY and MAC layers, some of which are optional. This
design permits the Bluetooth Special Interest Group to compose these components into
application-specific profiles, as discussed below. In this section, we will provide a brief
description of several of these components;

Figure 2.7: Bluetooth Protocol Stack

2.1 Transport layer

The Bluetooth transport layer is roughly equivalent to the traditional OSI PHY and MAC layers.
All Bluetooth devices are required to implement this layer in hardware. The transport layer is
composed from the radio, baseband, and link manager layers, which are described below.

2.1.1 Radio Layer

The radio layer dictates the frequency, power, and modulation used by Bluetooth antennas.
Bluetooth occupies 79 channels of 1 MHz each in the 2.4 GHz spectrum, from 2.402 GHz to
2.480 GHz. Devices use only one of these channels at a time, hopping between them as
described below. There are also guard bands reserved at either end of the spectrum, at 2.400
GHz–2.402 GHz and at 2.480 GHz–2.484 GHz. The initial revision of Bluetooth offers a
maximum data rate of 1 Mbps, or about 723 kbps when all packets overhead is taken into
account. Bluetooth receivers are required to have a bit-error rate (BER) of 0.1% or less.

2.1.2 Baseband and Link Layers

At the baseband layer, Bluetooth devices form into piconets and/or scatternets. Piconets consist
of one master device that communicates directly with up to 7 active slave devices. Piconets can
also have up to 250 parked (i.e., inactive) slave nodes at any given time. Multiple piconets can
also be combined into a single multi-hop scatternet.

Communication within a piconet occurs directly over the one-hop link between a master and a
slave; slaves cannot communicate directly. Bluetooth uses a basic time-division duplexing
(TDD) scheme, where time is divided into 625 μs slots. The master may communicate with a
slave during the odd-numbered slots, and slaves respond during the even-numbered slots. Each
packet may consume 1, 3, or 5 slots. After each packet, the piconet hops to a different Bluetooth
channel; the next channel's frequency is determined using a pseudo-random number generator.

Bluetooth defines three power-saving modes. In hold mode, devices only handle slots reserved
for synchronous links, and sleep the rest of the time. In sniff mode, the device stays asleep most
of the time, waking up periodically (from every 1.25 ms to every 40.9 s) to communicate.
Finally, in parked mode, the device shuts down its links to the master device, excluding the PSB
link. The master device can wake up parked devices by beaconing them over the PSB link.
2.2 Middleware Layer

The middleware layer consists of several software components that are designed to encourage
interoperability among Bluetooth devices. Many of the components in this layer are optional;
generally, only high-powered devices (like PCs) will implement the entire stack. The
components in the middleware layer communicate with the transport layer using the standardized
Host Controller Interface (HCI). Some of these components include:

 Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP): provides TCP- and UDP-like
features into ACL links
 RFCOMM: emulates IrDA infrared links on top of L2CAP
 Telephony Control Protocol Specification (TCS): controls phone operations
 AT: controls phone operations using the legacy Hayes ("AT") command set
 Bluetooth Network Encapsulation Protocol (BNEP): encapsulates Ethernet packets in
Bluetooth packets
 Object Exchange Protocol (OBEX): supports IrDA's object synchronization features
In the interest of promoting interoperability between Bluetooth devices, the Bluetooth SIG also
defines profiles, which provide universal protocols for common application-specific tasks. Each
profile is created by combining Bluetooth components with profile-specific software. For
example, the File Transfer Profile (FTP), which allows Bluetooth-equipped devices to exchange
files, consists of a specified client/server protocol built on top of the Radio, Baseband, Link
Manager, L2CAP, RFCOMM, SDP, and OBEX components. The Bluetooth SIG defines 24
standard profiles, with several more in draft stages.

802.15.4/ZigBee

Although Bluetooth's power requirements are much lower than that of 802.11b, it is still assumed
that Bluetooth-enabled devices will be recharged every few days.

The IEEE 802.15.4 standard defines the PHY and MAC for very low-power, low-duty network
links. This standard is intended for deployment on long-lived systems with low data rate
requirements, where devices must be able to operate autonomously for months or even years
without recharging the battery.
The main objectives of an LR-WPAN like ZigBee are ease of installation, reliable data transfer,
short-range operation, extremely low cost, and a reasonable battery life, while maintaining a
simple and flexible protocol. The raw data rate will be high enough (maximum of 250 Kbit/s) to
satisfy a set of simple needs such as interactive toys, but is also scalable down to the needs of
sensor and automation needs (20 Kbit/s or below) using wireless communications.

Two different device types can participate in a ZigBee network:

 Full-function devices (FFD) can communicate directly with any other devices in the
network. An FFD has routing capabilities and can be configured as the PAN coordinator.
 Reduced-function devices (RFD) can only communicate with FFDs. does not have
routing capabilities. RFDs can be configured as end nodes only.

One FFD can optionally act as a coordinator node, which regulates media access. This node
periodically sends beacons that identify the PAN it is coordinating.

An FFD can talk to RFDs or other FFDs, while an RFD can talk only to an FFD.

Network topologies (1)

Two or more devices communicating on the same physical channel constitute a WPAN. The
WPAN network must include at least one FFD that operates as the PAN coordinator.

The PAN coordinator initiates, terminates, or routes communication around the network. The
PAN coordinator is the primary controller of the PAN.

The WPAN may operate in either of two topologies: the star topology or the peer-t o-
peertopology.

2.5 Security Mechanisms in Wireless networks

2.7.1 WEP
2.7.2. WPA
2.7.3. WPA2