Chapter 1 Introduction

BASIC ELECTRONICS
Objectives
 Understanding basic electronic terms.
 Understanding operations of basic electronic
devices and circuits.

 Be able to analysis and design single amplifier
stages.
Basic Electronics 2023

Syllabus
1. Introduction
2. Semiconductor Diodes.  Grading
3. Diode Applications.  Tests & Projects: 30%
4. Bipolar Junction Transistors.  Midterm exam: 30%
5. DC Biasing—BJTs.
 Final exam: 40%
6. BJT AC Analysis
7. Field Effect Transistors
8. FET Biasing.  References:
9. FET Amplifiers.
10. BJT and JFET Frequency 1.Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, Robert Boylestad
and Louis Nashelsky. Pearson
Response.
11. Power Amplifiers. 2. Electronic Principles , 8th Edition, By Albert Malvino and
David Bates, McGraw-Hill  University Library
12. Operational Amplifiers.
3. Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume III –
13. Power Supplies (Voltage Semiconductors, By Tony R. Kuphaldt
Regulators).

Electronics Fundamentals: Circuits, Devices and Applications
Thomas L. Floyd, David M. Buchla
Internet resources
 https://www.falstad.com/circuit/circuitjs.html
 https://www.analog.com/en/design-center/design-tools-and-
calculators/ltspice-simulator.html
 https://wiki.analog.com/university/courses/electronics/text/glossary

Chapter 1
Introduction

SI Fundamental Units
Quantity Unit Symbol

Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Electric current Ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Luminous intensity Candela cd
Amount of substance Mole mol

Some Important Electrical Units
Except for current, all electrical and magnetic units

are derived from the fundamental units. Current is a
fundamental unit.
Quantity Unit Symbol

Current Ampere A
Charge Coulomb C
These derived units are
Voltage Volt V based on fundamental
units from the meter-
Resistance Ohm W kilogram-second system,
hence are called mks
Power Watt W units.

Engineering Metric Prefixes
P peta 1015 m milli 10-3
T tera 1012 m micro 10-6
G giga 109 n nano 10-9
M mega 106 p pico 10-12
k kilo 103 f femto 10-15

Error, Accuracy, and Precision
Error is the difference between the true or best accepted value and the
measured value. Accuracy is an indication of the range of error in a
measurement.
Precision is a measure of
repeatability.
} Error Precise,
but not
accurate.

Rounding numbers
Rounding is the process of discarding meaningless digits. Rules
for rounding are:
1. If the digit dropped is greater than 5, increase the last retained

digit by 1.
2. If the digit dropped is less than 5, do not change the last
retained digit.
3. If the digit dropped is 5, increase the last retained digit if it
makes it even, otherwise do not. This is called the "round-to-
even" rule.

Current
Current (I) is the amount of charge (Q) that flows past

a point in a unit of time (t). The defining equation is:
Q
I=
t
One ampere is a number of electrons having a total
charge of 1 C moving through a given cross section in 1 s.

Resistance
e
Resistance is the opposition to current.
One ohm (1 W) is the resistance if one ampere (1
A) is in a material when one volt (1 V) is applied.
Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance.
1
G=
R
Components designed to have a specific amount
of resistance are called resistors. Color bands
Resistance material
(carbon composition)
Insulation coating
Leads

Resistance color-code
Color Digit Multiplier Tolerance
Black 0 10 0
Resistance value, first three bands: Brown 1 10 1 1% (five band)
Red 2 10 2 2% (five band)

First band – 1st digit Orange 3 10 3
Second band – 2nd digit Yellow 4 10 4
Green 5 10 5
Blue 6 10 6
*Third band – Multiplier (number of Violet 7 10 7
zeros following second digit) Gray 8 10 8
White 9 10 9
Gold ±5% 10 -1 5% (four band)
Fourth band - tolerance Silver ± 10% 10 -2 10% (four band)
No band ± 20%
* For resistance values less than 10 W, the third band is either gold or silver.
Gold is for a multiplier of 0.1 and silver is for a multiplier of 0.01.

What is the resistance and tolerance
of each of the four-band resistors?
5.1 kW ± 5%
820 kW ± 10%
47 W ± 10%
1.0 W ± 5%

Alphanumeric Labeling
• Two or three digits, and one of the letters R, K, or M

are used to identify a resistance value.
• The letter is used to indicate the multiplier, and its

position is used to indicate decimal point position.

Variable resistors
Variable resistors include the potentiometer and

rheostat. The center terminal of a variable resistor
is connected to the wiper. R
3
1 2
Shaft
Wiper Variable resistor

Resistive (potentiometer)
element
To connect a potentiometer as a rheostat, one of Variable resistor

the outside terminals is connected to the wiper. (rheostat)

Wire resistance
Sometimes, the resistance of wires must be accounted for. The

equation for wire resistance is:
l
R=
A
where  = resistivity
l = length
A = cross sectional area

The electric circuit
A basic electric circuit consists of

1) a voltage source
2) a path
3) a load.
An example of a basic circuit is a flashlight, which has each
of these plus a control element – the switch.
Switch Metal strip
Metal reflector Spring

The electric circuit
Circuits are described pictorially with schematics.

For example, the flashlight can be represented by
Switch
Battery Lamp
(2 cells)

Switches
Switches are commonly used to control circuits

by either mechanical or electronic means.
The pole refers to the movable arm of a switch.
The throw refers to the number of contacts that are
affected by a single switch action.
SPST SPDT DPST DPDT

The DMM
The DMM (Digital

Multimeter) is an important
multipurpose instrument
OFF VH
Hz
which can measure voltage,

VH
mV H
current, and resistance. V
Many include other

A
10 A VW
measurement options. 40 mA COM

Analog meters
An analog multimeter is also

called a VOM (volt-ohm-
milliammeter). Analog meters
measure voltage, current, and
resistance. The user must
choose the range and read the
proper scale.

Series circuits
A series circuit is one that has only one current path.
R1 R1
R2
VS R2 VS R1 R2 R3 VS
R3 R3

Kirchhoff’s voltage law
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) is generally stated as:

The sum of all the voltage drops around a single closed path
in a circuit is equal to the total source voltage in that closed
path.
KVL applies to all circuits, but you must apply it to only one
closed path. In a series circuit, this is (of course) the entire
circuit.
n
A mathematical shorthand way of writing KVL is V
i =1
i =0

Kirchhoff’s voltage law
R1
680W
VS R2
12V 1.5kW
R3
2.2kW
Notice in the series example given earlier that the sum
of the resistor voltages is equal to the source voltage.
I1= 2.74 mA R1= 0.68 kW V1= 1.86 V P1= 5.1 mW
I2= 2.74 mA R2= 1.50 kW V2= 4.11 V P2= 11.3 mW
I3= 2.74 mA R3= 2.20 kW V3= 6.03 V P3= 16.5 mW
IT= 2.74 mA RT= 4.38 kW VS= 12 V PT= 32.9 mW

Voltage divider rule
The voltage drop across any given resistor in a series

circuit is equal to the ratio of that resistor to the total
resistance, multiplied by source voltage.
VS
R1
Assume R1 is twice the size of 12 V
R2. What is the voltage across
R1 ? 8 V R2

Voltage divider
R1
15 kW
VS + R2
20 V 10 kW
What is the voltage across R2?
The total resistance is 25 kW.

Notice that 40% of the
Applying the voltage divider formula:
source voltage is across
 R2   10 kW  R2, which represents
V2 =  =
 S 
V  20 V = 8.0 V
 RT   25 kW  40% of the total
resistance.

Voltage divider
Voltage dividers can be set up for a variable output using

a potentiometer. In the circuit shown, the output voltage is
variable.
R1
20 kW
VS +
15 V
What is the largest output R2
10 kW VOUT
voltage available? 5.0 V

Power in Series Circuits
R1
470 W
Use the voltage divider rule to VS + R2
find V1 and V2. Then find the 20 V 330 W
power in R1 and R2 and PT.
Applying the voltage The power dissipated by each

divider rule: resistor is:
(11.75 V )
2
 470 W 
V1 =   20 V = 11.75 V P= = 0.29 W
 800 W  470 W
}
1
PT =
 330 W  ( 8.25 V )
2
0.5 W
V2 =   20 V = 8.25 V P2 = = 0.21 W
 800 W  330 W
Voltage measurements
A
Voltage is relative and is measured with
R1
respect to another point in the circuit. 5.0 kW
VS +
12 V B
Voltages that are given with respect to ground
R2
are shown with a single subscript. For example, VA 10 kW
means the voltage at point A with respect to ground C
(called reference ground). VB means the voltage at point
B with respect to ground. VAB means the voltage
between points A and B.
What are VA, VB, and VAB for the circuit shown?
VA = 12 V VB = 8 V VAB = 4 V
A
Ground reference is not always at the R1

5.0 kW
lowest point in a circuit. Assume the VS +
12 V B
ground is moved to B as shown.
R2
10 kW
C
What are VA, VB, and VC for the circuit?

VA = 4 V VB = 0 V VC = -8 V
Has VAB changed from the previous circuit?
No, it is still 4 V

A
R1
5.0 kW
VS +
12 V B
Assume that R2 is open. For this case,
R2
what are VA, VB, and VC for the circuit? 10 kW
C
If R2 is open, there is no current. Notice that VB = 0 V

because it is ground and VA = 0 V because it has the same
potential as VB. VC = -12 V because the source voltage is
across the open.
Parallel circuits
A parallel circuit is identified by the fact that it has

more than one current path (branch) connected to a
common voltage source.
+ R1 R2 R3 R4
VS
Because all components are connected across the same

voltage source, the voltage across each is the same.
Parallel circuit rule for resistance
The total resistance of resistors in parallel is

the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the
individual resistors.
For example, the resistors in a parallel circuit are 680 W,
1.5 kW, and 2.2 kW. What is the total resistance? 386 W
+ R1 R2 R3
VS
680 W 1.5 kW 2.2 kW

Parallel circuit
+ R1 R2 R3
VS
680 W 1.5 kW 2.2 kW
Tabulating current, resistance, voltage and power is a

useful way to summarize parameters in a parallel circuit.
Continuing with the previous example, complete the
parameters listed in the Table.
I1= 7.4 mA R1= 0.68 kW V1= 5.0 V P1= 36.8 mW
I2= 3.3 mA R2= 1.50 kW V2= 5.0 V P2= 16.7 mW
I3= 2.3 mA R3= 2.20 kW V3= 5.0 V P3= 11.4 mW
IT= 13.0 mA RT= 386 W VS= 5.0 V PT= 64.8 mW
Kirchhoff’s current law
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) is generally stated as:
The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the

sum of the currents leaving the node.
Notice in the previous example that the current from
the source is equal to the sum of the branch currents.
I1= 7.4 mA R1= 0.68 kW V1= 5.0 V P1= 36.8 mW
I2= 3.3 mA R2= 1.50 kW V2= 5.0 V P2= 16.7 mW
I3= 2.3 mA R3= 2.20 kW V3= 5.0 V P3= 11.4 mW
IT= 13.0 mA RT= 386 W VS= 5.0 V PT= 64.8 mW
Current divider
Assume that R1is a 2.2 kW resistor that is in

parallel with R2, which is 4.7 kW. If the total
current into the resistors is 8.0 mA, what is
the current in each resistor?
 R2   4.7 kW 
I1 =   IT =   8.0 mA = 5.45 mA
 R1 + R2   6.9 kW 
 R1   2.2 kW 
I2 =  =
 T 
I  8.0 mA = 2.55 mA
 R1 + R2   6.9 kW 
Notice that the larger resistor has the smaller current.
Power in parallel circuits
Power in each resistor can be calculated with any of the

standard power formulas. Most of the time, the voltage is
V2
known, so the equation P = is most convenient.
R
As in the series case, the total power is the sum
of the powers dissipated in each resistor.
What is the total power if 10 V is applied to the parallel

combination of R1 = 270 W and R2 = 150 W? 1.04 W

Equivalent circuits
For example:
R1
1.0 kW is equivalent to R1
2.0 kW
R2
1.0 kW
There are no electrical measurements that can

distinguish the boxes.

is equivalent to
R1
1.0 kW R3 R 1,2 R3
R2 4.7 kW 3.7 kW 4.7 kW
2.7 kW
is equivalent to
There are no electrical

R1,2,3
measurements that can
2.07 kW
distinguish between the
three boxes.
Thevenin’s theorem
Thevenin’s theorem states that any two-terminal, resistive

circuit can be replaced with a simple equivalent circuit when
viewed from two output terminals. The equivalent circuit is:
RTH
VTH

VTH is defined as the open circuit voltage between the two

output terminals of a circuit.
RTH is defined as the total resistance appearing between
the two output terminals when all sources have been
replaced by their internal resistances.
RTH
VTH

What is the Thevenin voltage for the circuit? 8.76 V

What is the Thevenin resistance for the circuit? 7.30 kW
Output terminals
R1
Remember, the
VS 10 kW load resistor
12 V R2 RL has no effect on
27 kW 68 kW the Thevenin
parameters.

Thevenin’s theorem R=(PxS)/Q
Thevenin’s theorem is useful for solving the Wheatstone

bridge. One way to Thevenize the bridge is to create two
Thevenin circuits - from A to ground and from B to ground.
The resistance between point R1 R2
V
A and ground is R1||R3 and the S +
RL
resistance from B to ground is A B
-
R2||R4. The voltage on each R3 R4
side of the bridge is found
using the voltage divider rule.

For the bridge shown, R1||R3 = 165 W and

R2||R4 = 179 W . The voltage from A to ground
(with no load) is 7.5 V and from B to ground
(with no load) is 6.87 V .
R1 R2
VS 330 W 390 W
+15 V + RL
A B
- 150 W
R3 R4
330 W 330 W
The Thevenin circuits for each of the bridge are

shown on the following slide.
Thevenin’s theorem VTH
RTH A RL
165 W 150 W
B '
RTH
179 W VTH'
7.5 V 6.87 V
RTH A RL B '
RTH
VTH '
165 W 150 W 179 W IV
TH = 7.5V/494 Ω
TH
7.5 V 6.87 V
= 1.518mA
RTH A RL B RTH'
I'TH = VTH 165 W 150 W 179 W VTH'
7.5 V
6.87V/494Ω 6.87 V
= 1.391mA
Putting the load on the Thevenin circuits and applying the

superposition theorem allows you to calculate the load current.
The load current is:
ITH – I'TH = 1.391mA – 1.518mA = 1.27 mA
Superposition theorem
The superposition theorem is a way to determine currents

and voltages in a linear circuit that has multiple sources by
taking one source at a time and algebraically summing the
results.
R1 R3
What does the 2.7 kW I2 6.8 kW
VS1 +
VS2 +
ammeter read for I2? 12 V +
-
- 18 V -
(See next slide for R2
the method and the 6.8 kW
answer).
RR111 RR33
What does the ammeter W
kW
2.7 kkW
2.7 6.8 kkW
6.8 W
kW
II22
read for I2? VS1 +
-- VS2
+
12 V ++ 1.56 mA
- 18 V -
RR22
Set up a table of 6.8 kkW
6.8 W
kW
pertinent information
and solve for each
quantity listed:
Source 1: RT(S1)= 6.10 kW I1= 1.97 mA I2= 0.98 mA

Source 2: RT(S2)= 8.73 kW I3= 2.06 mA I2= 0.58 mA
Both sources I2= 1.56 mA
The total current is the algebraic sum.

Maximum power transfer
The maximum power is transferred from a source to a load

when the load resistance is equal to the internal source
resistance.
RS
VS +
RL
The maximum power transfer theorem assumes the source

voltage and resistance are fixed.
Maximum power transfer
What is the power delivered to the matching load?
RS
The voltage to the 50 W
VS +
load is 5.0 V. The RL
10 V
power delivered is 50 W
V 2 ( 5.0 V )
2
PL = = = 0.5 W
RL 50 W

The Basic Capacitor
Capacitors are one of the fundamental passive components.
In its most basic form, it is composed of two conductive plates
separated by an insulating dielectric.
The ability to store charge is the definition of capacitance.
Conductors Dielectric

The Basic Capacitor
VVSS Dielectric
The charging ++ -
-+++ --
process… Leads +++- +-+
-+++ --- Plates
++ -
+++ +-
- +
Initially
Fully
Charging
charged
uncharged - - -++ - - -
Source removed -
+-
+
- ++ -
++ - - Electrons
-+- --+
+ -
- + + +--- B -
AA +
A BB
- - - + - - - -
A capacitor with stored charge can act as a temporary battery.

Capacitance
Capacitance is the ratio of charge to voltage

Q
C=
V
Rearranging, the amount of charge on a
capacitor is determined by the size of the
capacitor (C) and the voltage (V).
Q = CV
If a 22 mF capacitor is connected to
a 10 V source, the charge is 220 mC

Capacitance
A capacitor stores energy in the form of an electric field
that is established by the opposite charges on the two
plates. The energy of a charged capacitor is given by the
equation
1
W = CV 2
2
where
W = the energy in joules
C = the capacitance in farads
V = the voltage in volts

Capacitance
The capacitance of a capacitor depends on

three physical characteristics.
 A
C = 8.85 10-12 F/m  r 
 d 
C is directly proportional to
the relative dielectric constant
and the plate area.
C is inversely proportional to
the distance between the plates

Capacitance
Find the capacitance of a 4.0 cm diameter

sensor immersed in oil if the plates are
separated by 0.25 mm.  = 4.0 for oil
( r )
 r A 
-12
C = 8.85 10 F/m  
 d 
The plate area is A = πr =  0.02 m = 1.26 10 m
2 2 -3 2
( )
-3
The distance between the plates is 0.25 10 m
 ( 4.0 ) (1.26 10-3 m 2 ) 
C = 8.85 10-12 F/m   = 178 pF
 0.25 10-3 m 
 
Capacitance
Mica
Mica capacitors are small with high working voltage.
The working voltage is the voltage limit that cannot be
exceeded.
Foil
Mic a
Foil
Mic a
Foil
Mic a
Foil

Capacitance
Ceramic disk
Ceramic disks are small nonpolarized capacitors They
have relatively high capacitance due to high r.
Lead wire soldered

to silver elec trode
Solder
Dipped phenolic c oating

Ceramic
dielec tric Silv er elec trodes deposited on
top and bottom of c eram ic disk

Capacitance
Plastic Film
Plastic film capacitors are small and nonpolarized. They
have relatively high capacitance due to larger plate area.
High-purity
foil elec trodes
Plastic film
dielec tric
Outer wrap of
polyester film
Capac itor sec tion
(alternate strips of
film dielec tric and
Lead wire foil elec trodes)
Solder c oated end

Capacitance
Electrolytic
Electrolytic capacitors have very high capacitance but they
are not as precise as other types and tend to have more
leakage current. Electrolytic types are polarized.
Ta electrolytic
Symbol for any electrolytic capacitor
Polyester
Electrolytic
Trimmer Polycarbonate
Ceramic
Tantalum
Basic Electronics 2023 Power Capacitor
Capacitor types
Variable
Variable capacitors typically have small capacitance
values and are usually adjusted manually.
A solid-state device that is used as a variable
capacitor is the varactor diode; it is adjusted with an
electrical signal.

Capacitor labeling
Capacitors use several labeling methods. Small

capacitors values are frequently stamped on them such as
.001 or .01, which have implied units of microfarads.
Electrolytic capacitors have larger values,
47VTTMFVTT
so are read as mF. The unit is usually stamped as
+ ++ +
mF, but some older ones may be shown as MF or
MMF).
. 022

Capacitor labeling
A label such as 103 or 104 is read as 10x103

(10,000 pF) or 10x104 (100,000 pF) respectively.
(Third digit is the multiplier.)
When values are marked as 330 or 6800, the units
are picofarads.
222 2200
What is the value of

each capacitor? Both are 2200 pF.

Series capacitors
When capacitors are connected in series, the total
capacitance is smaller than the smallest one. The
general equation for capacitors in series is
1
CT =
1 1 1 1
+ + + ... +
C1 C2 C3 CT
The total capacitance of two capacitors is

1
CT =
1 1
+
C1 C2
…or you can use the product-over-sum rule
Series capacitors
If a 0.001 mF capacitor is connected

in series with an 800 pF capacitor,
the total capacitance is
444 pF
C
1 C
2
0
.00
1µF 8
00p
F

Parallel capacitors
When capacitors are connected in parallel, the total

capacitance is the sum of the individual capacitors.
The general equation for capacitors in parallel is
CT = C1 + C2 + C3 + ...Cn
If a 0.001 mF capacitor is
connected in parallel with C
1 C
2
an 800 pF capacitor, the
0
.0
01µ
F 8
00p
F
total capacitance is 1800 pF

The RC time constant
Vfinal
When a capacitor is charged

through a series resistor and
dc source, the charging curve
is exponential. 0 t
(a) Capacitor c harging voltage
R
Iinitial
C
0 t
(b) Charging current
Vinitial
When a capacitor is discharged

through a resistor, the discharge
curve is also an exponential. (Note
that the current is negative.) 0 t
(a) Capacitor disc harging voltage
R
-Iinitial
0 t
(b) Disc harging current

The same shape curves are

seen if a square wave is used VS
for the source.
What is the shape of the
current curve?
VC
R
VS
C
VR
The current has the same shape as VR.

Universal exponential curves
100%
Specific values for 98%
99%
95%
current and voltage 86%
80%
can be read from a Rising exponential
Percent of final value

universal curve. For 63%
60%
an RC circuit, the time
constant is
40%
37%
τ = RC Falling exponential
20%
14%
5%
2% 1%
0
0 1t 2t 3t 4t 5t
Number of time constants

The universal curves can be applied to general formulas for

the voltage (or current) curves for RC circuits. The general
voltage formula is
v =VF + (Vi - VF)e-t/RC
VF = final value of voltage
Vi = initial value of voltage
v = instantaneous value of voltage
The final capacitor voltage is greater than the initial
voltage when the capacitor is charging, or less than the
initial voltage when it is discharging.
Impedance
 Trở kháng được biểu thị tổng quát như sau:
Z = R + jX
▪ Với R là điện trở (Resistance), X là điện kháng
(Reactance).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_reactance
Capacitive reactance
Capacitive reactance is the opposition to ac by a

capacitor. The equation for capacitive reactance is
1
XC =
2πfC
The reactance of a 0.047 mF capacitor when a

frequency of 15 kHz is applied is 226 W

The Basic Inductor
When a length of wire is formed into a coil., it becomes

a basic inductor. When there is current in the inductor, a
three-dimensional magnetic field is created.
A change in current causes

the magnetic field to
S N
change. This in turn
induces a voltage across the
inductor that opposes the
i
original change in current.

The Basic Inductor
One Henry is the inductance of a coil when a current,

changing at a rate of one ampere per second, induces one
volt across the coil. Most coils are much smaller than 1 H.
The effect of inductance is greatly

magnified by adding turns and winding
them on a magnetic material. Large
inductors and transformers are wound
on a core to increase the inductance.
Magnetic core

Practical inductors
In addition to inductance, actual inductors have winding

resistance (RW) due to the resistance of the wire and
winding capacitance (CW) between turns. An equivalent
circuit for a practical inductor including these effects is
shown: C W
Notice that the winding resistance is in

series with the coil and the winding L
capacitance is in parallel with both. RW

Types of inductors
There are a variety of inductors, depending on the amount

of inductance required and the application. Some, with
fine wires, are encapsulated and may appear like a resistor.
Common symbols for inductors (coils) are
Air core Iron core Ferrite core Variable

Factors affecting inductance
Four factors affect the amount of inductance for a
coil. The equation for the inductance of a coil is
N2mA
L=
l
where
L = inductance in Henries
N = number of turns of wire
m = permeability in H/m
l = coil length on meters

Example
What is the inductance of a 2 cm long, 150 turn coil
wrapped on an low carbon steel core that is 0.5 cm
diameter? The permeability of low carbon steel is
2.5 x10-4 H/m (Wb/At-m). Note: At= Ampere turn
A = πr = π ( 0.0025 m ) = 7.85 10 -5

2
2
m 2
N 2m A
L=
l
(150 t ) ( 2.5 10-4 Wb/At-m )( 7.85 10-5 m 2 )
2
= =
0.02 m
22 mH
Practical inductors
Inductors come in a variety of sizes. A few

common ones are shown here.
Encapsulated T
orroid coil Variable

22000 µH or 22mH inductor with ± 10% tolerance.
https://www.electronicshub.org/inductor-color-code/

Series inductors
When inductors are connected in series, the total

inductance is the sum of the individual inductors. The
general equation for inductors in series is
LT = L1 + L2 + L3 + ...Ln
If a 1.5 mH inductor is L1 L2
connected in series with
an 680 mH inductor, the 1.5 mH 680 mH
total inductance is 2.18 mH

Parallel inductors
When inductors are connected in parallel, the total

inductance is smaller than the smallest one. The general
equation for inductors in parallel is
1
LT =
1 1 1 1
+ + + ... +
L1 L2 L3 LT
The total inductance of two inductors is

1
LT =
1 1
+
L1 L2
…or you can use the product-over-sum rule.

Parallel inductors
If a 1.5 mH inductor is connected in

parallel with an 680 mH inductor,
the total inductance is
468 mH
L1 L2
1.5 mH 680 mH

Inductors in DC circuits
Vinitial
When an inductor is connected in

series with a resistor and dc
source, the current change is 0 t
Inductor voltage after switch closure
exponential.
Ifinal
R
0 t
Current after switch closure

100%
Specific values for 98%
99%
95%
current and voltage 86%
80%
can be read from a Rising exponential

universal curve. For 63%
60%
an RL circuit, the
time constant is
40%
37%
L
τ= Falling exponential
R 20%
14%
5%
2% 1%
0
0 1t 2t 3t 4t 5t

The curves can give 100% 99%

98%
specific information 95%
about an RL circuit. 80%

86%

63%
60%
In a series RL circuit,
when is VR > 2VL? 40%
37%
Read the rising

20%
exponential at the 14%
67% level. After 1.1 t 5%

2% 1%
0
0 1t 2t 3t 4t 5t

The universal curves can be applied to general formulas for
the current (or voltage) curves for RL circuits. The general
current formula is
i =IF + (Ii - IF)e-Rt/L
IF = final value of current
Ii = initial value of current
i = instantaneous value of current
The final current is greater than the initial current when the
inductive field is building, or less than the initial current
when the field is collapsing.

Inductive reactance
Inductive reactance is the opposition to ac by an

inductor. The equation for inductive reactance is
XL =2πfL
The reactance of a 33 mH inductor when a

frequency of 550 kHz is applied is 114 W

Inductive reactance
When inductors are in series, the total reactance is the sum of the
individual reactances. That is,
X L(tot ) = X L1 + X L2 + X L3 +  + X Ln
Assume three 220 mH inductors are in series with a 455 kHz

ac source. What is the total reactance?
The reactance of each inductor is

X L = 2 fL = 2 ( 455 kHz )( 220 μH ) = 629 W
X L(tot ) = X L1 + X L2 + X L3
= 629 W + 629 W + 629 W =
1.89 kW
Inductive reactance
When inductors are in parallel, the total reactance is the reciprocal of

the sum of the reciprocals of the individual reactances. That is,
1
X L(tot ) =
1 1 1 1
+ + +  +
X L1 X L2 X L3 X Ln
If the three 220 mH inductors from the last example are placed
in parallel with the 455 kHz ac source, what is the total
reactance?
The reactance of each inductor is 629 W
1 1
X L(tot ) = = = 210 W
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + +
X L1 X L2 X L3 629 W 629 W 629 W
Review: RLC Series Circuit

REVIEW
Alternating Voltages and Currents
▪ Introduction
▪ Voltage and Current
▪ Reactance of Inductors and Capacitors
▪ Phasor Diagrams
▪ Impedance
▪ Complex Notation
Storey: Electrical & Electronic Systems © Pearson Education Limited 2004

REVIEW
Introduction
▪ From our earlier discussions we know that

v = Vp sin ( t +  )
where Vp is the peak voltage
 is the angular frequency
 is the phase angle
▪ Since  = 2f it follows that the period T is given by
1 2
T= =
f 

REVIEW
▪ If  is in radians, then a time delay t is given by  /

as shown below

REVIEW
Voltage and Current
▪ Consider the voltages across a resistor, an inductor

and a capacitor, with a current of
i = IP sin(t )
▪ Resistors
– from Ohm’s law we know
v R = iR
– therefore if i = Ipsin(t)
v R = IP R sin(t )

REVIEW
Voltage and Current

di
▪ Inductors - in an inductor vL = L
dt
d(IP sin(t ))
vL = L = LIP cos(t )
dt
1
▪ Capacitors - in a capacitor vC =  idt
C
1 Ip
vC =  IP sin(t ) = - cos(t )
C C
REVIEW

REVIEW
Reactance of Inductors and Capacitors
▪ Let us ignore, for the moment the phase angle and

consider the magnitudes of the voltages and currents
▪ Let us compare the peak voltage and peak current
▪ Resistance
Peak value of voltage Peak value of (IP Rsin(t )) IP R

= = =R
Peak value of current Peak value of (IP sin(t )) IP

REVIEW
▪ Inductance
Peak value of voltage Peak value of (LIP cos(t )) LIP

= = = L
Peak value of current Peak value of (IP sin(t )) IP
▪ Capacitance
Ip Ip
Peak value of ( - cos(t ))
Peak value of voltage
= C = C =
1
Peak value of current Peak value of (I p sin(t )) Ip C

REVIEW
▪ The ratio of voltage to current is a measure of how

the component opposes the flow of electricity
▪ In a resistor this is termed its resistance
▪ In inductors and capacitors it is termed its reactance
▪ Reactance is given the symbol X
▪ Therefore
ac tan ce of an inductor, X L = L
Reactance
Re
1
ac tan ce of a capacitor, XC =
Reactance
Re
C
REVIEW
▪ Since reactance represents the ratio of voltage to

current it has units of ohms
▪ The reactance of a component can be used in much
the same way as resistance:
– for an inductor
V = I XL
– for a capacitor
V = I XC

REVIEW
▪ Example A sinusoidal voltage of 5 V peak and 100 Hz is

applied across an inductor of 25 mH. What will be the peak
current?
At this frequency, the reactance of the inductor is given by
X L = L = 2fL = 2    100  25  10 - 3 = 15.7 W

Therefore
VL 5
IL = = = 318 mA peak
X L 15.7

REVIEW
Phasor Diagrams
▪ Sinusoidal signals are characterised by their

magnitude, their frequency and their phase
▪ In many circuits the frequency is fixed (perhaps at
the frequency of the AC supply) and we are
interested in only magnitude and phase
▪ In such cases we often use phasor diagrams which
represent magnitude and phase within a single
diagram

REVIEW
▪ Phasor analysis of an RL circuit

REVIEW
▪ Phasor analysis of an RC circuit

REVIEW
▪ Phasor analysis of an RLC circuit

REVIEW
▪ Phasor analysis
of parallel
circuits
in such circuits the
voltage across each
of the components is
the same and it is the
currents that are of
interest

REVIEW
Impedance
▪ In circuits containing only resistive elements the

current is related to the applied voltage by the
resistance of the arrangement
▪ In circuits containing reactive, as well as resistive
elements, the current is related to the applied voltage
by the impedance, Z of the arrangement
– this reflects not only the magnitude of the current but
also its phase
– impedance can be used in reactive circuits in a similar
manner to the way resistance is used in resistive circuits

REVIEW
▪ Consider the following circuit and its phasor diagram

REVIEW
▪ From the phasor diagram it is clear that that the

magnitude of the voltage across the arrangement V is
V = VR 2 + VL 2
= (IR )2 + (IX L )2
= I R 2 + XL2
= IZ
where Z = R 2 + X L 2
▪ Z is the magnitude of the impedance, so Z =|Z|
REVIEW
▪ From the phasor diagram the phase angle of the

impedance is given by
VL IX X
 = tan -1 = tan -1 L = tan -1 L
VR IR R
▪ This circuit contains an inductor but a similar analysis
can be done for circuits containing capacitors
▪ In general
-1 X
Z= R +X 2 2 and  = tan
R

REVIEW
▪ A graphical representation of impedance

REVIEW
Complex Notation
▪ Phasor diagrams are similar to Argand Diagrams

used in complex mathematics
▪ We can also represent impedance using complex
notation where
▪ Resistors: ZR = R
▪ Inductors: ZL = jXL = jL

1 1
▪ Capacitors: ZC = -jXC = -j =
C jC

REVIEW
▪ Graphical representation of complex impedance

REVIEW
▪ Series and parallel

combinations of
impedances
– impedances combine
in the same way as
resistors

REVIEW
Determine the complex

impedance of this circuit
at a frequency of 50 Hz.
At 50Hz, the angular frequency  = 2f = 2 50 = 314 rad/s

Therefore
1
Z = ZC + Z R + Z L = R + j( X L - XC ) = R + j(L - )
C
1
= 200 + j(314  400  10 -3 - -6
)
314  50  10
= 200 + j62 ohms
REVIEW
▪ Using complex impedance

Determine the current in this circuit.
Since v = 100 sin 250t , then  = 250
Therefore
Z = R - j XC
1
=R-j
C
1
= 100 - j
250  10 - 4
= 100 - j40

REVIEW
▪ Example (continued)
The current is given by v/Z and this is easier to compute in
polar form
Z = 100 - j40
Z = 100 2 + 402 = 107.7

- 40
Z = tan - 1 = -21.8
100
Z = 107.7 - 21.8
Therefore
v 1000
i= = = 0.9321.8
Z 107.7 - 21.8

REVIEW
Power in AC Circuits
▪ Introduction
▪ Power in Resistive Components
▪ Power in Capacitors
▪ Power in Inductors
▪ Circuits with Resistance and Reactance
▪ Active and Reactive Power
▪ Power Factor Correction
▪ Power Transfer
▪ Three-Phase Systems
▪ Power Measurement

REVIEW
Introduction
▪ The instantaneous power dissipated in a component

is a product of the instantaneous voltage and the
instantaneous current
p = vi
▪ In a resistive circuit the voltage and current are in
phase – calculation of p is straightforward
▪ In reactive circuits, there will normally be some
phase shift between v and i, and calculating the
power becomes more complicated
REVIEW
Power in Resistive Components
▪ Suppose a voltage v = Vp sin t is applied across a

resistance R. The resultant current i will be
v VP sin t
i= = = IP sin t
R R
▪ The result power p will be
1 - cos 2t
p = vi = VP sin t  IP sin t = VP IP (sin t ) = VP IP ( 2
)
2
▪ The average value of (1 - cos 2t) is 1, so
1 VP IP
Average Power P = VP IP =  = VI
2 2 2
where V and I are the r.m.s. voltage and current
REVIEW
▪ Relationship between v, i and p in a resistor

REVIEW
Power in Capacitors
▪ From our discussion of capacitors we know that the

current leads the voltage by 90. Therefore, if a
voltage v = Vp sin t is applied across a capacitance
C, the current will be given by i = Ip cos t
▪ Then p = vi
= VP sin t  IP cos t
= VP IP (sin t  cos t )
sin 2t
= VP IP ( )
2
▪ The average power is zero
REVIEW
▪ Relationship between v, i and p in a capacitor

REVIEW
Power in Inductors
▪ From our discussion of inductors we know that the

current lags the voltage by 90. Therefore, if a
voltage v = Vp sin t is applied across an inductance
L, the current will be given by i = -Ip cos t
▪ Therefore p = vi
= VP sin t  -IP cos t
= -VP IP (sin t  cos t )
sin 2t
= -VP IP ( )
2
▪ Again the average power is zero
REVIEW
▪ Relationship between v, i and p in an inductor

REVIEW
Circuit with Resistance and Reactance
▪ When a sinusoidal voltage v = Vp sin t is applied

across a circuit with resistance and reactance, the
current will be of the general form i = Ip sin (t - )
▪ Therefore, the instantaneous power, p is given by
p = vi
= VP sin t  IP sin(t -  )
1
= VP IP {cos  - cos( 2t -  )}
2
1 1
p = VP IP cos  - VP IP cos( 2t -  )
2 2
REVIEW
1 1
p= VP IP cos  - VP IP cos( 2t -  )
2 2
▪ The expression for p has two components
▪ The second part oscillates at 2 and has an average
value of zero over a complete cycle
– this is the power that is stored in the reactive elements
and then returned to the circuit within each cycle
▪ The first part represents the power dissipated in
resistive components. Average power dissipation is
1 VP IP
P = VP IP (cos  ) =   (cos  ) = VI cos 
2 2 2
REVIEW
▪ The average power dissipation given by

1
P = VP IP (cos  ) = VI cos 
2
is termed the active power in the circuit and is
measured in watts (W)
▪ The product of the r.m.s. voltage and current VI is
termed the apparent power, S. To avoid confusion
this is given the units of volt amperes (VA)

REVIEW
▪ From the above discussion it is clear that

P = VI cos 
= S cos 
▪ In other words, the active power is the apparent

power times the cosine of the phase angle.
▪ This cosine is referred to as the power factor
Active power (in watts)
= Power factor
Apparent power (in volt amperes)
P
Power factor = = cos 
S
REVIEW
▪ Hệ số công suất (power factor)

(tỷ lệ giữa công suất hữu dụng (active power) và công
suất toàn phần (apparent power)
▪ Công suất toàn phần - apparent power
(công suất có thể truyền tới tải tiêu thụ lớn nhất, tức là
khi dòng và áp đồng pha)
▪ Công suất phản kháng - reactive power
(Phần công suất không truyền được tới tải tiêu thụ)

REVIEW
Active and Reactive Power
▪ When a circuit has resistive and reactive parts, the

resultant power has 2 parts:
– The first is dissipated in the resistive element. This is
the active power, P
– The second is stored and returned by the reactive
element. This is the reactive power, Q , which has
units of volt amperes reactive or var
▪ While reactive power is not dissipated it does have
an effect on the system
– for example, it increases the current that must be
supplied and increases losses with cables
REVIEW
▪ Consider an
RL circuit
– the relationship
between the various
forms of power can
be illustrated using
a power triangle

REVIEW
▪ Therefore
Active Power P = VI cos  watts
Reactive Power Q = VI sin  var
Apparent Power S = VI VA
S2 = P2 + Q2

REVIEW
Power Factor Correction
▪ Power factor is particularly important in high-power

applications
▪ Inductive loads have a lagging power factor
▪ Capacitive loads have a leading power factor
▪ Many high-power devices are inductive
– a typical AC motor has a power factor of 0.9 lagging
– the total load on the national grid is 0.8-0.9 lagging
– this leads to major efficiencies
– power companies therefore penalise industrial users
who introduce a poor power factor
REVIEW
▪ The problem of poor power factor is tackled by

adding additional components to bring the power
factor back closer to unity
– a capacitor of an appropriate size in parallel with a
lagging load can ‘cancel out’ the inducti e element
– this is power factor correction
– a capacitor can also be used in series but this is less
common (since this alters the load voltage)

REVIEW
Power Transfer
▪ When looking at amplifiers, we noted that maximum

power transfer occurs in resistive systems when the
load resistance is equal to the output resistance
– this is an example of matching
▪ When the output of a circuit has a reactive element
maximum power transfer is achieved when the load
impedance is equal to the complex conjugate of the
output impedance
– this is the maximum power transfer theorem

REVIEW
▪ Thus if the output impedance Zo = R + jX, maximum

power transfer will occur with a load ZL = R - jX

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BASIC ELECTRONICS

devices and circuits.

Basic Electronics 2023

Basic Electronics 2023

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Quantity Unit Symbol

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Except for current, all electrical and magnetic units

Quantity Unit Symbol

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P peta 1015 m milli 10-3

T tera 1012 m micro 10-6

G giga 109 n nano 10-9

M mega 106 p pico 10-12

k kilo 103 f femto 10-15

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1. If the digit dropped is greater than 5, increase the last retained

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Current (I) is the amount of charge (Q) that flows past

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Resistance value, first three bands: Brown 1 10 1 1% (five band)

Red 2 10 2 2% (five band)

Second band – 2nd digit Yellow 4 10 4

*Third band – Multiplier (number of Violet 7 10 7

zeros following second digit) Gray 8 10 8

Gold ±5% 10 -1 5% (four band)

Fourth band - tolerance Silver ± 10% 10 -2 10% (four band)

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• Two or three digits, and one of the letters R, K, or M

• The letter is used to indicate the multiplier, and its

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Variable resistors include the potentiometer and

Wiper Variable resistor

To connect a potentiometer as a rheostat, one of Variable resistor

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Metal reflector Spring

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Switches are commonly used to control circuits

SPST SPDT DPST DPDT

The DMM (Digital

which can measure voltage,

current, and resistance. V

Many include other

measurement options. 40 mA COM

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An analog multimeter is also

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A series circuit is one that has only one current path.

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The voltage drop across any given resistor in a series

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The total resistance is 25 kW.