12

12
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CAPS

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Retha Louw

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Retha Louw
Grade 12 Physical Sciences 3-in-1 CAPS
CLASS TEXT & STUDY GUIDE

This Grade 12 Physical Sciences 3-in-1 study guide is a best seller. It covers all the basic concepts, laws definitions and
calculations in an uncomplicated, accessible style. By working systematically through each topic and its questions you can
improve your understanding of a most challenging subject at your own pace.

Key features:

• Comprehensive, explanatory notes and worked examples per topic

• Exercises and exam questions per topic

• Detailed answers with explanations and handy hints

This study guide has proven to be an invaluable companion to learners sitting either the CAPS or IEB final exams.
 12
GRADE

Physical Sciences
CAPS Retha Louw

3-in-1

THIS CLASS TEXT & STUDY GUIDE INCLUDES

Also available

1 Comprehensive Notes
GRADE 12
PHYSICAL SCIENCES
2-in-1 2 Exercises and Exam Questions per Module
• questions and detailed answers
• exam papers and memos 3 Detailed Memos with Explanations
(available in separate booklet)

E-book
available

2014 publication | 2021 edition | ISBN: 978-1-920568-74-0 140921 | TAS

 CONTENTS THE GRADE 12 NOVEMBER EXAM

Level Level Level Level

10%

10%
The Grade 12 November Exam ......................................................................................................... i

4
Weighting of questions
across cognitive levels
Detailed contents per Term according to CAPS .............................................................................. ii

40%

35%
Skills required for Physical Sciences .............................................................................................. iv

3
Physical Constants and Formulae ................................................................................................. xii

35%

40%
Standard Reduction Potentials ..................................................................................................... xiii

2
The Periodic Table........................................................................................................................ xiv

15%

15%
1
NOTES with QUESTIONS:

marks Duration
(hours)
Module 1: Mechanics ............................................................................................. 1 - 69

3
Questions ....................................................................................................................... 62

paper
Total

150

150
per
Module 2: Matter and Materials ......................................................................... 70 - 143
2.1: Chemistry ............................................................................................................. 70

Marks
Questions ............................................................................................................. 126

65

15

55

15

92

58
0
2.2: Physics ................................................................................................................ 114

Electricity and Magnetism

Waves, Sound and Light
Questions ............................................................................................................. 131

Matter and Materials

Matter and Materials

* Chemical Systems
Chemical Change
Mechanics
(Module 1)

(Module 3)

(Module 5)

(Module 2)

(Module 4)

(Module 6)

(Module 2)
Module 3: Waves, Sound and Light ................................................................ 135 - 142

Content
Questions ..................................................................................................................... 141

Module 4: Chemical Change............................................................................ 143 - 217

Questions ..................................................................................................................... 208

Chemistry
Paper 1:

Paper 2:
Physics
Paper

focus

focus
Module 5: Electricity and Magnetism ............................................................. 218 - 258
Questions ..................................................................................................................... 252

* Module 6: Chemical Systems .......................................................................... 259 - 270

Questions ..................................................................................................................... 269 * NOTE: From 2021, 'Chemical Systems',
until further notice, will not be examined.

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4 Dynamic equilibrium Examples of dynamic equilibrium
NOTES

Consider the following reversible reaction in a closed system: Phase equilibrium: liquid l vapour
A+B l C+D Water in a closed system initially evaporates rapidly, but
as more water vapour forms, it condenses back into
• Initially the concentration of the reactants A and B is high, and the rate of the H2O(g)
water at an increased rate. At equilibrium the two
forward reaction is high.
reactions (evaporation and condensation) take place
• As the reaction proceeds, the concentration of A and B decreases more and equally fast and still continue although the water level H2O(´)
more and results in the forward reaction proceeding progressively slower. remains constant.
(Indicated with a solid line in sketch 1 below.)
• Initially there were no products C and D, but as more products were formed, the Solubility equilibrium: salt l ions in solution
reverse reaction proceeded progressively faster. (Indicated with a broken line.) If a solution of a salt, e.g. sodium chloride, is made saturated to the point where
• After a time t1, both reactions proceed at the same rate. The system has undissolved salt remains in the beaker, the undissolved salt and the dissolved salt
reached equilibrium. ions are in equilibrium. As the solid substance breaks up into ions (dissociates),
the ions again combine into solid form (crystallises).
• Products C and D are now being formed as fast as they decompose into
reactants A and B again.
Chemical equilibrium
• At a macroscopic level, no observable changes take place. The A reversible chemical reaction (synthesis or decomposition reaction) in a closed
concentrations of all the substances in the reaction mixture ([A], [B], [C], [D]) system reaches equilibrium when the rate of the forward reaction = the rate of the
remain constant (not necessarily equal). (Sketch 2) reverse reaction.
• At a microscopic level, both the forward and reverse reactions proceed at the
same rate. The equilibrium is dynamic. e.g.: H2(g) + I2(g) l 2HI(g)

 forward reaction 
A+B t C+D
[A]
THE EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT KC
Concentration
(mol·dm )
-3
Rate

A+B l C+D
[B] Consider the following chemical reaction that reached equilibrium at 90ºC:
[C] 2A(g) + 3B(g) l 3C(g) + D(g)
reverse reaction
C+D t A+B [D] At equilibrium the concentrations of reactants and products in the chemical
t1 t1 system remain constant. Therefore, the mathematical product of the
Time Time
concentrations of the products is also constant.
CHEMICAL CHANGE

At t1 the rate of the forward and At t1 the concentrations 3

â [C][C][C][D] = [C] [D]
reverse reactions are equal and remain constant; equilibrium
equilibrium is reached is reached
= K1 (K1 is a constant)
Also, the mathematical product of the concentrations of the reactants
Dynamic equilibrium: The stage during a reversible reaction when the remains constant.
rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction 2
â [A][A][B][B][B] = [A] [B]
3
(when the concentrations of reactants and products remain the same).
= K2 (K2 is a constant)
Copyright © The Answer Series: Photocopying of this material is illegal 157
Therefore the ratios of these mathematical products will also be constant and this
is known as the equilibrium constant Kc, i.e.
(2) i) CaCO3(s) l CaO(s) + CO2(g) â Kc = [CO2] 4
Solids have a constant concentration, thus

NOTES
[C]3 [D] K1
= = Kc they are excluded from the Kc equation.
[A]2 [B]3 K2
- + [C -][H3O+]
ii) HC´(aq) + H2O(´) l C´ (aq) + H3O (aq) â Kc =
The subscript 'c' indicates concentration. [HC]
[C] 3 [D] Solvents of diluted solutions have a constant concentration,
is the expression of mass action.
[A] 2 [B] 3 e.g. [H2O] remains constant and is excluded from the Kc equation.

If substances of different phases occur in the system, we say it is a

The equilibrium constant Kc indicates the
relationship between the product and reactant concentrations
at equilibrium, and is a constant at a specific temperature.
Important:
• The Kc value indicates to what extent reactants have changed into products by
the time equilibrium is reached.
• This is of particular importance in the evaluation of the efficiency of industrial
processes:
 A high Kc value (Kc > 1) indicates that a lot of product has been formed and
there is a higher concentration of products than reactants (the equilibrium
lies to the right).
 A low Kc value (Kc < 1) indicates that a higher concentration of reactants
than products are present (the equilibrium lies to the left).
 Kc = 1 indicates equal concentrations of reactants and products.
• It is a number only without units.
heterogeneous equilibrium.
Application:
Calculation of the Kc value if a reaction has reached equilibrium:
 When the equilibrium concentrations of all substances at equilibrium are given:
Substitute only the equilibrium concentrations into the mass action
expression and calculate the Kc value (see Example 1).
 If the Kc value is given and missing concentration(s) is/are asked for:
Substitute all the values in the mass action expression and calculate the
unknown value. Use a variable, e.g. x, if there is a relationship between the
concentrations (e.g. equal concentrations - see Example 2).
 If the initial number of moles or concentrations of the substances is given
and one of the values at equilibrium is given:
Draw up a table and use the mole ratio of the reaction equation to get the
number of moles and the concentration of all the substances at equilibrium.
Then calculate the Kc value (see Example 3).

• The Kc value changes if the temperature changes. A 2B Ö 3C 4D

• The Kc value is only calculated using the concentrations of the gases and the Mole ratio 1 2 3 4

dissolved substances in liquids in the equation, and not those of solids and I
initial (mol) a (given) b (given) 0 0
pure liquids, because these concentrations remain constant throughout and (initial)

are incorporated into the Kc value. C

change in (mol) -x - 2x + 3x + 4x
(change)

CHEMICAL CHANGE
e.g.: equilibrium (mol) given
(1) N2(g) + 3H2(g) l 2NH3(g) The concentrations of all the substances E (concenration)
can change. Their concentrations at (equilibrium)
2 ⎛ n⎞ -3
[NH3] equilibrium are substituted into the ⎜ c = ⎟ (mol·dm )
Kc = ⎝ V⎠
[N2] [H2]3 Kc equation to determine the Kc value.
[C]3 [D]4
Kc =
This is an example of a homogeneous equilibrium because all the substances [A] [B]2
in the system are in the same phase.
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4 Usually, the initial number of moles of reactants are given and  The balancing figure is written as an exponent of the concentration of
there are no products when the reaction starts. Take the number that substance:
NOTES

of mol (n) of products as zero unless otherwise indicated. If one Kc = [A] [B2]
2
of the n or c values at equilibrium is given, it will enable you to
2
calculate any of the other values from the mole ratio. = [0,1] [0,05]
= 0,0005
 If the initial number of moles or concentrations of the substances is given,
as well as the Kc value: NB: Only the concentration of the gases are included in the
Draw up a table and use x values to indicate the change in the number of Kc equation here. The concentration of solids remains
moles and the new concentrations. Substitute these values in the Kc constant. Therefore the Kc value for this reaction is:
2
equation and solve for x, e.g.: Kc = [A] [B2 ]
A + 2B Ö 3C + 4D

I Example 2:
initial (mol) a b 0 0
(initial)
C
The Kc value and some equilibrium concentrations are given and the
(change)
change in (mol) -x - 2x + 3x + 4x others must be calculated:
equilibrium (mol) a-x b - 2x 3x 4x At a temperature of 150ºC, substances X(g) and Y(s) are placed in a closed
-3
E
container. The concentration of X(g) is 0,002 mol·dm at equilibrium.
(concentration)
(equilibrium)
⎛ n⎞ -3
a-x b - 2x 3x 4x Equal amounts of Z(g) and R(g) are formed. The Kc value = 0,123.
⎜ c = ⎟ (mol·dm ) V V V V
⎝ V⎠ Determine the equilibrium concentrations of Z and R.

[C]3 [D]4
Substitute into the Kc equation, i.e.: Kc = Solution:
[A] [B]2
 First write down the balanced equation of the reaction:
X(g) + Y(s) Ö Z(g) + R(g)

Example 1:  Set up the Kc equation:

Equilibrium concentrations are given and Kc must be calculated: [Z] [R]
3
Kc =
Compound A2B2(s) decomposes in a 200 cm container at a temperature of [X]
95ºC, as follows:
 Substitute the concentration values at equilibrium:
A2B2(s) Ö A(g) + B2(g) [Z] [R]
Kc = = 0,123
At equilibrium the concentrations of the products are [A] = 0,1 mol·dm and
-3 [0,002]
CHEMICAL CHANGE

-3 â [Z][R] = 0,123 % 0,002

[B] = 0,05 mol·dm . Calculate the value of the equilibrium constant at 95ºC.
([Z] = [R]) â (x)(x) = 0,000246
Solution: 2
â x = 0,000246
 Always ensure that the equation of the chemical reaction is balanced:
âx = 0,000246
A2B2(s) Ö 2A(g) + B2(g) -2 -3
= 1,57 % 10 mol·dm
-2 -3
 Only gases are included in the Kc equation. [Z] = [R] = 1,57 % 10 mol·dm

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 If the Kc equation for a reverse reaction is required, everything Kc =
[H2O]2
=
12
= 8
4
is reversed. Take the above reaction equation as an example: [H2]2 [O2] (0,5)2 (0,5)

NOTES
[Z] [R]
X(g) + Y(s) Ö Z(g) + R(g) : Kc =   Set up an equation:
[X]
[X] number of moles (initially) ! number of moles used/number of moles produced
Z(g) + R(g) Ö X(g) + Y(s) : Kc = = number of moles (at equilibrium)
[Z] [R]
Reactants decrease with number
â Kc (reverse) = reciprocal of Kc (forwards) H2 : 0,3 - 2x = 0,1 of moles used (negative sign);
â number of moles used (2x) = 0,2 products increase with number of
Example 3: moles produced (positive sign).
x = 0,1
The initial number of moles or concentrations are given. The number of
moles and concentrations at equilibrium as well as the Kc value can be O2 : mol (at equilibrium) = 0,2 - x OR H2 : O2 : H2O
calculated (use table). = 0,2 - 0,1 2 : 1 : 2
A mixture of 0,3 mol H2 and 0,2 mol O2 is placed in a closed container with = 0,1 â amount of O2 used is half of
3
a volume of 200 cm . The reaction reaches equilibrium at 50ºC and there the H2 used.
H2O: mol (at equilibrium) = 0 + 2(0,1)
is 0,1 mol H2 left in the container. Determine the equilibrium constant of
= 0,2 mol
the reaction.
OR
Solution: The amount of H2O formed = amount H2 used
 First write down the balanced equation of the reaction:
2H2(g) + O2(g) l 2H2O(g)
 Tabulate all the information: Factors affecting equilibrium
3 3
3 3
[V = 200 cm = 200 ÷ 1 000 = 0,2 dm ] Remember: 1 dm = 1 000 cm
Equilibrium is established at a specific:
2H2(g) + O2(g) l 2H2O(g)
• temperature
Mole ratio 2 1 2
• concentration (liquids)
0
I initial
0,3 0,2 (initially no • pressure (gases)
(initial) (mol)
product)
- 2x -x + 2x If any of the conditions are changed, the forward or reverse reaction will be
C  change in - 2(0,1) (-0,1) (+0,2)
favoured (occur faster) until a new equilibrium is established.
(change) (mol)

CHEMICAL CHANGE
[0,3 - 0,2 = 0,1]

equilibrium ? 0,1 ? 0,2

0,1 (given)
(mol)
E (concentration) n n n
c = c = c =
(equilibrium) ⎛ n⎞ V V V
⎜c = ⎟
⎝ V⎠ 0,1 0,1 0,2
= = 0,5 = = 0,5 = = 1
(mol·dm-3) 0,2 0,2 0,2

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4 Equilibrium mixtures of solutions Results and conclusion:
The following practical investigation illustrates the effect of the two factors,
NOTES

temperature and concentration, on a solution in equilibrium. Disturbance Effect on equilibrium Colour change
 Temperature
Practical Investigation 9:  increase  favours endothermic (reverse)  turns blue
reaction
Recommended experiment for informal assessment.
 decrease  favours exothermic (forward)  turns pink
Aim: To investigate the reversible equilibrium reaction of CoC´2 and H2O and reaction
the effect of changes in two factors, temperature and concentration, on
the equilibrium. (Pressure only plays a role in gaseous reactants.)  Concentration
2- 2+ -  [H2O] is increased by  favours forward reaction  turns pink
CoC´ 4 (aq) + 6H2O l Co(H2O)6 + 4C´
H < 0 (which uses up water)
adding H2O
in ethanol pink -  favours reverse reaction  turns blue
 [C´ ] is increased by -
blue (which decreases [C´ ])
adding HC´/NaC´ (with
-
common C´ ion)
Requirements: -
 [C´ ] is decreased by  favours forward reaction  turns pink
 cobalt chloride crystals  NaC´ crystals +
adding Ag (e.g. in AgNO3)
-
(which increases [C´ ])
-
 silver nitrate solution  ethanol that can combine with C´
+ -
 water  concentrated hydrochloric acid (Ag + C´ d AgC´(s))
 [H2O] is decreased by  favours reverse reaction  turns blue
 3 - 5 test tubes  concentrated sulphuric acid
adding a dehydrating (which produces more H2O )
 spatula  ice agent such as H2SO4
 Bunsen burner  glass beakers
NB: A dehydrating agent draws water from a substance.
Method:
3
 Add approximately 4 g cobalt chloride crystals to 200 cm ethanol in a
glass beaker. A blue solution is obtained as a result of the presence of Gaseous equilibrium mixtures (NO2 / N2O4 equilibrium)
2-
CoC´4 ions. In mixtures consisting only of gases, the two factors pressure and temperature
 Pour a little of the blue solution into one of the test tubes and set aside. play a role, e.g.:
2NO2(g) l N2O4 (g)
H < 0
 Add just enough water to the rest of the solution to change the colour to
pink. Fill two other test tubes halfway with this solution. red-brown colourless
 Heat one of the test tubes (with pink solution) by placing it in a beaker with
Disturbance Effect on equilibrium Colour change
warm water. Note the colour change. Then place it in a beaker with ice for
cooling. Again, note the colour change.  increase  favours endothermic  colourless d brown
 Add a few NaC´ crystals or concentrated hydrochloric acid (HC´) drop by (reverse) reaction
 Temperature
CHEMICAL CHANGE

-  favours exothermic  brown d colourless

drop using a pipette to the second pink solution. In this way the C´ ion  decrease
concentration is increased. Use a pipette to add AgNO3 drop by drop to the (forward) reaction
same test tube. Note the colour change each time.  increase  favours forward reaction  brown d colourless
 Add concentrated sulphuric acid to the first test tube with the blue solution. (fewer moles of gas
Note the colour change. molecules)
 Pressure
 Complete a table indicating which disturbances were applied, the direction  decrease  favours reverse reaction  colourless d brown
in which the equilibrium shifted and the colour change that occurred. (more moles of gas
molecules)

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Factors affecting the Kc value
Look at the imposed disturbance/change and determine: 4
 in which direction the equilibrium shifts (which of the forward or reverse

NOTES
reactions are favoured) by applying Le Chatelier’s principle
• As long as the reaction remains in equilibrium, the concentrations of reactants
and products will remain constant and we can now calculate the value of the  how the concentrations of the reactants and products are affected
equilibrium constant (Kc).
 how the reaction rate is affected
• The equilibrium can shift to the left or right if the temperature, pressure or
concentrations of the system change:  Direction in which equilibrium shifts

 Changes in pressure and concentration have no effect on the Kc value of Imposed disturbance Effect on system
a particular equilibrium reaction. However the Kc value is temperature
Temperature
dependent.
 favours the endothermic reaction, which
• Consider the following reaction at equilibrium:  increase absorbs the applied energy and so
counteracts the change (increased
A + B l C + D (
H < 0) temperature)
 If the reaction mixture is cooled down, the exothermic reaction is favoured.  favours the exothermic reaction, which
In this case it is the forward reaction.  decrease releases energy and so counteracts the
change (drop in temperature)
 Therefore the forward reaction will be faster than the reverse reaction until Concentration (of substances in solution (aq))
the equilibrium is established again.
 increase in concentration of substances  favours the reaction that uses up the
 At this lower temperature the concentrations of the products will be higher, in solution (aq) substance
with the result that the Kc value increases. The opposite process will in turn  decrease in concentration of  favours the reaction that forms more of the
reduce the Kc value. substances in solution (aq) substance
Thus: Thus:
[C] [D]
Kc = thus Kc ∝ [C][D]  increase in reactant concentration  favours forward reaction that uses up
[A] [B]
or decrease in product concentration reactants and forms more products
∝ product concentration
 decrease in reactant concentration  favours reverse reaction that decomposes
or increase in product concentration the products to form more reactants

Le Chatelier's Principle Pressure (of gases)

 increase  favours the reaction that forms the least
According to Le Chatelier’s principle, the reaction that attempts to counteract (by reducing the volume, the pressure gas molecules (number of moles of gas),
the effect of the change on the equilibrium system will be favoured. and concentration are increased because in that way the pressure increase

CHEMICAL CHANGE
n is counteracted
c= )
V
Le Chatelier’s Principle:  decrease  favours the reaction that forms the most
When the equilibrium in a closed system is disturbed, (by increasing the volume the pressure gas molecules (number of moles of gas),
the system will reinstate a new equilibrium by favouring and concentration decrease because in that way the pressure
the reaction that will oppose the disturbance. n decrease is counteracted
c= )
V

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4  Concentration of reactants and products and  Reaction rate
NOTES

Consider the reaction: 2SO2(g) + O2(g) l 2SO3(g)
H < 0

 Imposed disturbance  Concentration of  The reaction rate

causing the equilibrium to shift to the reactants and products
right / favours forward reaction:

forward
[O2 ]

or concentration
reverse

Number of mol

Reaction rate
Temperature decrease; [SO2 ] 

H < 0
(forward reaction is exothermic
[SO3 ]
and is favoured)
t1 t2 t3 t1 t2 t3
Time (minutes) Time (minutes)

#
[O2 ]

or concentration
Number of mol
Increase in pressure by

Reaction rate
reducing volume [SO2 ]

(forward reaction produces fewer 

moles of gas molecules and
[SO3 ]
is favoured)

t1 t2 t3 t1 t2 t3
# If the label on the y-axis is concentration
-3 Time (minutes) Time (minutes)
(mol·dm ) then the graph has a slightly
different shape, because all concentrations
increase initially. This is not the case if the
[O2 ]
label is number of moles.
or concentration
Number of mol

Reaction rate
Increase in concentration [SO2 ]
of a reactant
(forward reaction uses reactants [SO3 ]
CHEMICAL CHANGE

and is favoured)

t1 t2 t3 t1 t2 t3
Time (minutes) Time (minutes)

The initial equilibrium is reached at t1 and a disturbance is imposed at t2. A new equilibrium is reinstated at t3.
If the equilibrium shifts to the right, [product] increases and [reactant] decreases on the concentration graph
and the is at the top and is at the bottom on the rate-time graph.

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 4
Consider the reaction: 2SO2(g) + O2(g) l 2SO3(g)
H < 0

NOTES
 Imposed disturbance  Concentration of  The reaction rate
causing the equilibrium to shift to the reactants and products
left / reverse reaction is favoured:

[O2 ]

or concentration
Number of mol

Reaction rate
# If the label on the y-axis is
Temperature increase; [SO2 ] concentration (mol·dm-3) then

H < 0  the graph has a slightly
(reverse reaction is endothermic forward
different shape, because all
[SO3 ]
concentrations decrease
and is favoured) reverse
initially. This is not the case if
t1 t2 t3 t1 t2 t3 the label is number of moles.
Time (minutes) Time (minutes)

# [O2 ]

or concentration
Number of mol

Reaction rate
Decrease in pressure
by increasing volume [SO2 ] 

(reverse reaction produces more

moles of gas molecules and is [SO3 ]
favoured)
t1 t2 t3 t1 t2 t3  With an increase in
Time (minutes) Time (minutes) temperature or pressure, the
rate of the equilibrium reaction
immediately increases to both
[O2 ] sides (forward and reverse).
or concentration
Number of mol

Reaction rate
Decrease in concentration
[SO2 ]
of a reactant
(reverse reaction produces more With a decrease in
[SO3 ]
reactants and is favoured) temperature or pressure, the

CHEMICAL CHANGE
rate of the equilibrium reaction
t1 t2 t3
t1 t2 t3 immediately decreases to both
[O2] decrease Time (minutes) sides (forward and reverse).

If the equilibrium shifts to the left, [product] decreases and [reactant] increases on the concentration
graph and the is at the top and is at the bottom on the rate-time graph.

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 4  Imposed disturbance  Concentration of reactants and products  The reaction rate
NOTES

No effect The rates of both the forward and reverse reactions

increase by the same amount (no shift in the equilibrium).

or concentration
[O2 ]

Number of mol
[SO2 ]
Addition of a catalyst

Rate
[SO3 ]

t1 t2
Time t1 t2
Time
Catalyst added at t2

NB: To be able to draw the above concentration-time graphs, the initial

concentrations of the substances and the concentrations at equilibrium
must be known. The previous section showed the calculation of the
equilibrium concentrations as well as the equilibrium constant Kc .

Summary:

 Concentration of products and reactants

Imposed disturbance Effect on the concentration of the substances

[R]

[ ]
Disturbance that favours [product] increases,
forward reaction [reactant] decreases [P]
Time
t1 t2
CHEMICAL CHANGE

[R]
[ ]

Disturbance that favours [reactant] increases,

the reverse reaction [product] decreases
[P]
Time
t1 t2

Copyright © The Answer Series: Photocopying of this material is illegal 165

  Reaction rate 4
Imposed disturbance Effect on the reaction rate

NOTES
 reaction rate of either the forward or the reverse reaction increases if a
 i. increase in temperature OR concentration is increased
ii. increase in concentration of reactants or products OR  reaction rate of both the forward and reverse reactions increase if the
iii. increase in pressure (in gases) [by reducing volume, the pressure temperature or pressure is increased 
n  determine the direction of the equilibrium shift and which reaction is favoured
and concentration are increased] c =
V  the favoured reaction takes place faster for a period of time until a new
equilibrium is established at an increased rate

If forward reaction is favoured ( ) If reverse reaction is favoured ( )

 With an increase in
dotted line temperature or pressure, the
solid line above above
rate of the equilibrium reaction
immediately increases to both
sides (forward and reverse);
Rate

Rate
  the rate of the favoured
reaction increases more than
that of the other reaction.
t1 t2 t3 t1 t2 t3
Time Time
The initial equilibrium was established at t1. The disturbance was imposed at t2. A new equilibrium at an increased rate was established at t3.

 reaction rate of either the forward or the reverse reaction decreases if a

 i. decrease in temperature OR concentration decreases
ii. decrease in concentration of reactants or products OR  reaction rate of both the forward and reverse reactions decrease if the
iii. decrease in pressure (in gases) [by increasing volume, the temperature or pressure are decreased #
n  establish the direction of the equilibrium shift and which reaction is favoured
pressure and concentration decrease] c =
V  the other reaction takes place more slowly for a period of time until a new
equilibrium is established at a decreased rate
If forward reaction is favoured ( ) If reverse reaction is favoured ( )
# With a decrease in
temperature or pressure, the
rate of the equilibrium reaction
immediately decreases to

CHEMICAL CHANGE
# Rate # both sides (forward and
Rate

reverse); the rate of the

favoured reaction decreases
less than that of
the other reaction.
t1 t2 t3 t1 t2 t3
Time Time
The initial equilibrium was established at t1, the disturbance was imposed at t2. A new equilibrium at a decreased rate was established at t3.

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4 Application of Le Chatelier's Principle
NOTES
Steps to determine 1) in which direction the equilibrium shifts, 2) how the
concentrations of the reactants and products change, and 3) how the rate of the
reaction is affected, if the temperature, pressure or concentration of an
equilibrium system is changed.
2NO(g) + O2(g) t 2NO2
H < 0
Use the following guidelines to decide which of the forward or reverse reactions
is favoured and takes place faster than the other until the new equilibrium
is established.
For a temperature change
• Determine if the forward reaction is exothermic (
H < 0 ) or endothermic
(
H > 0). In the above case, the forward reaction is exothermic; therefore the
reverse reaction is endothermic.
• If the temperature is increased, equilibrium shifts in the direction of the
endothermic reaction.
• If the temperature is decreased, equilibrium shifts in the direction of the
exothermic reaction.
• Therefore, a decrease in temperature shifts the above-mentioned equilibrium
to the right and an increase in temperature shifts it to the left.
The opposite is also true. If it is found that the equilibrium shifts to the right during a
decrease in temperature, it means that the forward reaction is exothermic, or if it is
found that the equilibrium shifts to the left during an increase in temperature, it
means that the reverse reaction is endothermic and the forward reaction exothermic.
• The concentrations of the products and reactants increase and decrease
according to the direction in which the equilibrium shifts:
The concentration of the products (NO2) increases and that of the reactants
CHEMICAL CHANGE
(NO and O2) decreases if the equilibrium shifts to the right, and vice versa.
• The Kc value changes at a new equilibrium. If the equilibrium shifts to the right,
the Kc value increases and if it shifts to the left, the Kc value decreases.
• The rate of the reaction (in both ways) always increases with an increase in
temperature and decreases with a decrease in temperature.
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For a pressure change
• Determine whether the forward reaction produces more or less moles of gas
molecules. In the above reaction between NO and O2, the number of moles
decreases from 3 moles (left) to 2 moles (right).
• An increase in pressure shifts the equilibrium in the direction of less moles of
gas (to the right in the reaction above), and a decrease in pressure in the
direction of more moles of gas (to the left in the above reaction).
• The Kc value remains constant.
• The rate of the reaction (in both ways) always increases with an increase in
pressure, and decreases with a decrease in pressure.
For a concentration change
• An addition of reactants or removal of products shifts the equilibrium to
the right, which in turn makes the reactants decrease and more products form,
e.g. if NO or O2 is added, or if NO2 is removed, the equilibrium moves
to the right.
• An addition of products or removal of reactants shifts the equilibrium to the left.
This means that more reactants form and the products decrease.
• With the large-scale preparation of chemicals, high reactant concentrations are
maintained and the products are constantly removed to promote the formation
of new products.
• The Kc value remains constant.
• The rate of the reaction (in one way) increases with the addition of any of the
reactants or products and the rate (in one way) decreases with the removal of
any reactants or products.
167
Example 1: Example 2: 4
Consider the following equilibrium system: Consider the decomposition of sulphur trioxide to produce sulphur dioxide and

X2(g) + 2Y(g) Ö X2Y2(g) (
H > 0)
Draw a graph of reaction rate versus time to show each of the following
changes to the equilibrium system. (After each change the equilibrium
is restored.)
1.1 Reaction reaches equilibrium for the first time after 6 seconds.
1.2 After 12 seconds the concentration of X2Y2 is increased.
1.3 After 18 seconds a catalyst is added.
NOTES
oxygen gas:
2SO3(g) l 2SO2(g) + O2(g)
H > 0
The graph below shows how the concentration of the substances versus time
changes until equilibrium is reached for the first time at 500ºC after 90 s.
Determine in which direction the equilibrium shifts and indicate if the
concentration of each of the substances increases or decreases with the
following disturbances.

Concentration (mol·dm )
-3
1.4 After 24 seconds the pressure on the system is increased.

Solution: [SO3]
[SO2]
1.4
[O2]

1.3
1.2
Reaction rate

0 30 60 90
1.1 Time (s)
X2 + 2Y t X2Y2(g)
X2Y2(g) t X2(g) + 2Y(g)

2.1 The temperature decreases to 350ºC after 2 minutes.

0 6 12 18 24 30 2.2 The pressure on the system is decreased after the system has reached
Time (s) equilibrium once again.

2.3 More oxygen is added to the system after it has reached equilibrium for the
third time.
Explanation
1.2 When the concentration of X2Y2 is increased, the reverse reaction will be Solution:
favoured because it is the reaction that will remove the excess X2Y2.
Because an increase in concentration occurs, the new equilibrium will be
2.1 The equilibrium shifts to the left.
established at an increased rate. [SO3] increases, [SO2] and [O2] decrease.

1.3 The addition of a catalyst does not disturb the equilibrium; it only
increases both reaction rates equally.
1.4 When the pressure is increased, the reaction that reduces the pressure
will be favoured. This is the reaction that will form fewer gas particles - the
forward reaction in this case. Both reaction rates will increase, but the rate
of the forward reaction will increase more (left = 3 moles; right = 1 mole).
CHEMICAL CHANGE
2.2 The equilibrium shifts to the right.
All the concentrations decrease immediately, then [SO3] decreases further
and [SO2] and [O2] increase.
2.3 The equilibrium shifts to the left. The [O2] increases immediately on addition
of the O2. The [SO3] then increases, [SO2] and [O2] then decrease.

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