Topic 1 System Fundamentals 1

Topic 1 - System fundamentals
(1)
Software life cycle
System life cycle
Topic 1 - System fundamentals (1) 1

1.1 Systems Organization
1.1.1 Planning a new system
When planning for a new system, the context in which it will be used is
important to be understood.
Context = background, environment, framework, setting, or situation

surrounding an system.
Two considerations when considering a new system:
Extent
Limitations
Example
What would be the context of introducing a new payment system for school
trips?

Questions to consider:
• Will there be any organisational issues related to the new
system?
• How will user roles be affected/change?
• Will any underlying technologies be affected/changed?
1.1.2 Need for change management
Changing a system can be difficult for a variety of reasons
Users do not like: e.g. too complex
New systems do not have old features
Old systems can be faster
Might lead to incompatibility
Might be data loss
Might be expensive
Change must be managed using the following steps:
Plan: Have clear valid reason and mission
Communicate: Communicate the change, and its factors, to the key

stakeholders
Integrate: If change allowed → Show plans for consultation with stakeholder

group
Evaluate: Wider organisation’s reactions to the change are evaluated at

every feasible oppurtunity
1.1.3 Outline compatibility issues resulting from situations including legacy systems
or business mergers.
Legacy system:
Old method technology
May/may not be supported for purchase

Examples:
Hardware: Floppy disks, parallel printer cables, connections like PS2
Software: Windows XP, Movie Maker, Industry-specific software
Computer systems: Amiga, Commodore 64
Merger:
Definition: Combination of two entities or more, especially companies, into

one
Examples:
ABC and Disney
Pfizer and Warner Lambert
Issues
Software compatibility
Language differences
Time zone differences
Workforce cultural differences
1.1.4 Compare the implementation of systems using a client’s hardware with hosting
systems remotely.
Local software
Program that is bought and installed on a particular computer or set of

computers
Remote software
Program that is bought/rented/used and is installed on a computer

somewhere on the internet and then use through a browser or dedicated
local application
SaaS
Stands for: Software-as-Service

Also known as: on-demand software, hosted software or web-
based software
Software distribution model in which a third-party provider hosts

applications and make them available to customers over the
Internet
With SaaS, service provider needs to ensure security, availability

and performance
Coommon SaaS examples:
Microsoft Office 365
Google Apps
Amazon Web Services
Dropbox
1.1.5 Evaluate alternative installation processes
4 ways of implementing a system
Direct changeover
Old system is stopped and new system is started
Advantages:
minimal time and effort
new system is available immediately
Disadvantage: if the new system fails, there is no fall back
Parallel running
The new system is started, but the old system is kept running alongside
it.
Data has to entered into both systems
Advantages:
If new system fails, old systems runs a backup

output can be compared to see if new one is running correctly
Disadvantage:
Running two systems - cost time and money
Pilot running
The new system is piloted (tested) with a small subset of the

organisation.
Once it is ran correct + no bugs → implemented accross the whole

organisation
Phased conversion
New system is introduced in phases as parts of the old system are

gradually replaced with the new system
Advantages:
Allow people to get used to the new system
Training of staff can be done in stages
Disadvantage:
If new system fails there is no fall back for that part of the system
1.1.6 Discuss problems that may arise as a part of data migration
Incompatible file formats
Data structure differences
Validation rules
Incomplete data transfers
International conventions on dates, currencies & character sets
1.1.7 Suggest various types of testing
Testing ensures that the system works as expected —> Very important
Static testing
- Reviews, walkthroughs, or inspections. Often implicit, like proofreading

- Example: when the IDEs check source code or syntax.
- Involves verification
Dynamic testing
- actually executing programmed code with a given set of test cases
- takes place when the program is run.

- may begin before the program is 100% complete in order to test
particular sections/modules of code.
- Involves validation
Alpha testing
- performed by testers who are usually internal employees of
the organization
- performed at developer’s site
Beta testing
- performed by clients or users who are not employees of the organization
- performed at client location or end user of the product
Black-box testing (functional testing)
- treats software under test as a black-box without knowing its internals.

- Tests are using software interfaces and trying to ensure that they work
as expected.
White-box testing (structural testing)
- looks inside the software that is being tested and uses that knowledge
as part of the testing process.
User-acceptance testing
- Testing any new/updated system with its ultimate end users to see if it
meets their expectation is very important
Automated testing

- use of special software tools to control the execution of tests and then
compares actual test results with predicted or expected results.
- done automatically with little or no intervention from the test engineer.

- used to add additional testing that may be too difficult to perform
manually of when the body of code that needs to tested is vast.
1.1.8 Describe the importance of user documentation
What is User documentation

Document that explains how to use the features and functions of a system to its
end-users
Benefits
Make users aware of particular features or unable to use features that are
not immediately obvious.
Implementation faster because users require less training to learn how to

use the new system.
Does User Documentation provide detailed explanations of how the system

works.
No
1.1.9 Evaluate different methods of providing user documentation
Different methods of providing user documentation
Printed manual
Manuals printed on paper and supplied together with the system.
Advantages:
They can be read through by users before starting to work with the
new system
Always available
Give help installing the system
Disadvantages:
Can be lost / misplaced / limited in number

Often limited to a little booklet supplying little information apart from
how to install the system
Not be updated every time the system is updated
Help files
Files supplied together with the system. They can usually be called up with
a button in the system
Advantages:
Accessible at any time when using the program
Give general instructions on how to use the system
Give general instructions on how to solve some major errors
Disadvantages:
They can only be used after system has been installed.
They don't give any help when installing the solution
They often only deal with very general errors
They often lack a search capability, you have to look to find help for
your problem
Online support
Special web service hosted by the system's developer to provide user
documentation.
Advantages:
They are often extensive compared to help files
They get continuously revised by the systems developer to deal

with the problems occurring most often (FAQs)
They often provide an option for live support, talking to a real

human operator if a problem arises which the user documentation
has no answer to
They often have search capabilities built-in so that users can easily
search through them

Disadvantages:
1.1.10 Evaluate different methods of delivering user training.
Training end-users in using a new system is very important as productivity

greatly depend on how familiar they are with a system.
Online/remote training
An instructor training one user or a small group of users by some kind of

remote connection (Skype, Google Hangouts, Face time, etc.)
Most effective way of training as training can be suited to user's needs and
abilities, while being instructed by a professional that caters to specific
needs.
Advantages:
Structured learning environment
Expert on hand to answer questions
Curriculum designed to teach all aspects, including ones that might be

misunderstood or difficult to grasp
Flexible locations
Disadvantages:
Expensive – teachers & internet connection needed
Can feel ‘remote’ with no quick ‘hands on’
Has to be computer-based
Self instruction
- Users can learn how to use a new system on their own, provided they
have the right material to learn from.
- E.g. reading a manual or watching
Advantages:
- Lowest cost – only materials needed, no teachers/buildings
- Flexible timeline

- Training tailored to exactly what users wants to learn
Disadvantages:
- With no guidance, user might feel lost/overwhelmed
- Unstructured learning means certain features might be

misunderstood/ignored
Formal classes
Users sitting in a classroom listening to an instructor who shows and

explains how to use the system.
Useful to train large amounts of staff as it is effective and relatively cheap,

but if the size of the classes is too big, there is little time to deal with
individual problems and questions.
Advantages:
Structured learning environment
Expert on hand to answer questions
Curriculum designed to teach all aspects, including ones that might be

misunderstood or difficult to grasp
Disadvantages:
Expensive – teachers, buildings and facilities needed
Rigid schedule and curriculum
Not much personalization possible
1.1.11 Identify a range of causes of data loss
Hardware/system malfunctions
Human error
Software corruption
Malicious software (viruses)
Natural disasters

Threat from within: Malicious activity may be a result of activities by
employees within organisations or intruders.
1.1.12 Outline the consequences of data loss in a specified situation
Example:
Loss of a hotel reservation
Loss of a patient’s medical record
Loss of a financial transaction
Loss of a search engine request
Loss of a student’s test score
Loss of a password
1.1.13 Describe a range of methods that can be used to prevent data loss.
Failover system
Failover is the constant capability to automatically and seamlessly switch

to a highly reliable backup system.
This can be operated in a redundant manner or in a standby operational

mode upon the failure of a primary server, application, system or other
primary system component
Redundancy
Data redundancy is a condition created within a database or data storage

technology in which the same piece of data is held in two separate places.
This can mean two different fields within a single database, or two different
spots in multiple software environments or platforms.
Whenever data is repeated, this basically constitutes data redundancy.
Removable media
Removable media is any type of storage device that can be removed from
a computer while the system is running.
Examples: CDs, DVDs and Blu-Ray disks, as well as tapes and USB drives.
Easy to move data from one computer to another.

Online storage (Cloud)
Type of service through which cloud computing resources and infrastructure

are used to create, edit, manage and restore data, services or application
backup.
This is done remotely over the internet.
Cloud backup may also be called online backup or remote backup.
1.1.14 Describe strategies for managing releases and updates
Release
Process of launching a new product for a specific market or user base.
Done with a beta version so that core developers/users can assist with
debugging and feedback prior to the release of the actual software.
Update
Software file contains fixes for problems found by other users or the
software developer.
Installing an update fixes the code and prevents the problems from
happening on your computer.
Updates fix problems with a program → free and available through the
program or the companies website.
Ways to get updates
Manually
Pro: Full control
Con: Time consuming
Automatically
Pro: Don’t have to think/worry about updates, always up to date
Con: No control – bad update might crash the system
Patches
Software update comprised code inserted (or patched) into the code of an
executable program.

Typically, a patch is installed into an existing software program.
Patches are often temporary fixes between full releases of a software

package.
Patches may do any of the following:
Fix a software bug
Install new drivers
Address new security vulnerabilities
Address software stability issues
Upgrade the software
Release management
Continuous delivery
Software engineering approach in which teams produce software in

short cycles, ensuring that the software can be reliably released at
any time.
Aims at building, testing, and releasing software with greater speed

and frequency.
Helps reduce the cost, time, and risk of delivering changes by

allowing for more incremental updates to applications in production.
Agile development
Software development which requirements and solutions evolve

through collaborative effort of self- organizing and cross-functional
teams and their customers/end users.
Advocates adaptive planning, evolutionary development, early

delivery, and continual improvement.
Encourages rapid and flexible response to change.
DevOps (Development Operations)
Software engineering culture and practice that aims at unifying

software development (Dev) and software operation (Ops).

Advocate automation and monitoring at all steps of software
construction, from integration, testing, releasing to deployment and
infrastructure management.
Shorter development cycles, increased deployment frequency, and

more dependable releases, in close alignment with business
objectives
1.2 System Design Basics

Important notes: Discuss a particular issue → Describe from many sides: Good vs bad,
positive vs negative, old vs new,…
Component of a computer system
1.2.1 Define the terms: hardware, software, peripheral, network, human resources
Hardware
Physical parts of a computer and related devices
Types:
Components — Internal hardware devices: Motherboards, hard drives,

and RAM
Peripherals — External hardware devices: Monitors, keyboards, mice,

printers, and scanners
Network
Consists of multiple devices that communicate with one another using a

transmission medium
Different size
Two types of network:
LANs and WANs
Software
Set of instructions

Virtual
Consists of lines of code, written by programmers, compiled into computer

program
Stored as binary
Human resources
People who work for a company or organization
and department responsible for managing resources related to employees
Referred as end-users
1.2.2 Roles of a computer in a networked world
1 computer = many roles; depending on what software is installed on a

networked computer, it can do different taks
Two types
Client/Server
Client
If an office has a server that stores the company’s database on it,

the other computers in the office that can access the database are
“clients of the server
Server
Computer that provides data to other computers
May serve data to systems on LAN or WAN over the internet
Types of server: Web, mail, file with each type running software
specific to the purpose of the server
Examples:
Web server run Apache HTTP server to provide access to

websites
Mail server run Exim to provide SMTP service for sending email
File server: Use Samba/built in file sharing service to share files

over a network

Hardware not important because server is software specific (regular
desktop can be made a server through addtion of software)
Client-Server Model
Shows how server provides resources + service to clients
Servers: Web servers, mail servers, file servers
Clients: Desktop, computers, laptops
Mechanics
One-to-many relationship: Single server can provide resources

to multiple clients at one time
Client requests connection → Server accept or reject
If connection accepeted, server establishes and maintains a

connection with the client over a specific protocol
Router
Hardware that routes data
From a LAN
To another network connection
Can be:
Separate hardware device
Software loaded onto server
DNS Server
Stands for: Domain Name System server
Memoizable names for websites and other services on the Internet
DNS translates domain names into IP addresses, computers

access Internet by its IP addresses → Allow access internet
location through domain name
Firewall

Barrier between a trusted system/network AND outside connections
(eg. internet)
Filter → allow trusted data to get through
Created using hardware OR software
P2P (peer to peer) [no info]
1.2.3 Social and Ethical issues in networked world
What is social issue
Problem influences considerable number of individuals in a society
Examples
Crime
Health
Education
Media and Propagadan
Poverty
Terrorism
What is ethical issue
Situation requires person/organizations to evaluate something as right or

wrong
Examples
Computer crime
Responsibility for computer failure
Protection of computer property, records and software
Privacy
System design and analysis

Steps in designing a new system
1.2.4 Determine stakeholders

Stakeholder
Person, group or org that has interest and concern in an organizations
Not all stakeholders are equal: Considered and ranked in importance

differently
Types of stakeholder:
Utilitarianism
design new system for greatest good for greatest number of people
1.2.5 Obtaining requirements from stakeholder
Observation
Walking around the organisation, watching how things are done with their
eyes
Advantages: Possiblity of gathering first-hand, unbiased info
Disadvantage: People work differently when being watched
Interviews
Interviewing key people within system to find out how it works

Advantage:
Detailed info to be gathered
Can gather Opinions
Disadvantage: Time-consuming
Questionnaires/Surveys
Handing out questionaires to be filled out
Advantage:
Large amount of data from Large group can be gathered
Takes little time to analyse
Simple
Disadvantage:
Hard to ask the right question
Can be biased as info is limited
Quality of response not ensured
Collection documents
Looking in the documents currently used in the system to try to find how the
present system works
Advantages:
Detailed info about present system can be gathered
Can see problems in the old system
Disadvantages
Time consuming
Looking at just outputs can be confusin
1.2.6 Gathering information
Knowing exactly what’s going on + other info needed
Techniques

Examining current systems
Who does what
How do they do that
Think about 5 components of a computer system: Hardware software

network peripherals human resources …
Looking at competing products
Look at what competitiors are doing
Get idea what is possible/being done at the mmoment
BONUS:
Intellectual property: Something uniqe that you physically create, an

idea isn’t an intellectual property
You own intellectual property if you:

– created it (and it meets the requirements for copyright, a patent
or a design)
– bought intellectual property rights from the creator or a previous
owner
– have a brand that could be a trade mark, e.g. a well-known
product name
Organizational capabilities
determining what the organization would be capable of.

• Can they afford a new system/new equipment?
• Can the staff use the new system? Training needed?
• Can they have any ‘downtime’ to upgrade?
Literature searches (web/hooks)
Book, magazines, websites
See what’s out there
Building/Designing the new system
1.2.7 Construct suitable representations to illustrate system requirements

Types of illustrations
System flowchart
Diagram represents a process using symbols containing info about

steps or a sequence of events
Each symbol is linked with arrows to illustrate flow direction
IB only uses two shapes for all comands:
Data flow diagram
Maps out the flow of information for any process or system
Uses symbols like rectangles, circles, and arrows, plus short text labels,
to show data inputs, outputs, storage points, and the routes between
each destination
Structure chart
Represents organization of a system, showing different parts in

hierarchical order (usually)

Others
UML class diagrams (links to Topic D)
Wireframes (links to IA
1.2.8 Purpose of prototypes to demonstrate the proposed system to the client
Prototypes

Abstract representations of the system, often focusing on only one/two
key aspects
Important in testing as each of component can be tested before

implementing, and to illustrate the working of the future system to the client
Purposes
Fail early and inexpensively
quickly weed out the approaches that don’t work to focus on the ones
that do.
Gather more accurate requirements
interviews and focus groups can fall short because many people
find it difficult to conceptualize a product before they see it.
prototype demonstrate the functionality to help solidify requirements

for the final design
Technically understand the problem

forced to address both the foreseen and the unforeseen technical
challenges of a device’s design.
Stages in developing a prototype

1.2.9 Importance of iteration during design process
Iteration: 2 meanings
Action or a process of iterating/repeating
Meaning 1: a procedure in which repetition of a sequence of operations

yields results successively closer to a desired result (linked to prototyping)
Meaning 2: the repetition of a sequence of computer instructions a specified

number of times or until a condition is met (links to loops, an alternative to
recursion)
Design cycle

1.2.10 Consequences of failing to involve the end-user in the design process
Users unsatisfied
Unsuited for user’s problem, affecting productivity
1.2.11 Social and ethical issues associated with the introduction of new IT systems
(Look at 1.2.3 to see what Social and Ethical issues is)
Possible topics for discussion:
• Robots replacing humans

• AI algorithms replacing human workers
• New systems being addictive/frustrating/less efficient
• New systems prompting new markets (mPesa/Amazon)
• Accessibility changing work-patterns
• Software changes driving hardware changes and vice versa
Human interaction with the system
1.2.12 Define the term usability
Ergonomics
How well the form fits the function
Understanding interactions among humans and elements of a system →

Optimize human well-being and system performance
Accessibility
Design of products, devices, services, or environments for people with

disabilities or specific needs
Includes specialist peripherals/software like:
Braille keyboards
Eye-typers
Accessible controllers
Screen readers
Voice synthesizers
Usability

Ease of use + learnability of human-made object
Object can be software, website, machine, process, or anything human

interacts with
Summary
Accessbility + ergonomics = Usability
Usability + Utility = Useful
1.2.13 Range of usability problems with commonly used digital devices
Problems
Difficult to handle hardware
Difficult to understand software
Complex UI
Need lots of prior knowledge
Needs specialist
Each device is different from similar ones
1.2.14 Methods improve accessiblity
Accessibility
Design of products, devices, services, or environments for people with

disabilities or specific needs
Includes specialist peripherals/software like:
Braille keyboards
Eye-typers
Accessible controllers
Screen readers
Voice synthesizers
Types of disabilities
Visual

Auditory
Mobility and Dexterity
Cognitive
Ways to improve accessiblity
Touch screens
Voice recogntion
Text-to-speech
Braille keyboard
1.2.15 Usability problems in a system
Systems to consider
Ticketing
Online payroll
Scheduling
Voice recognition
Systems that can provide feedback
Possible issues
Can’t access system
Can only access certain parts
Misunderstand what system requires as input
Can’t access the output
1.2.16 Moral, ethical, social economic and evironmental implications of interaction

between humans and machines
What is social issue
Problem influences considerable number of individuals in a society
Examples
Crime

Health
Education
Media and Propagadan
Poverty
Terrorism
What is moral issue
Problem presented as any issue with potential to help or harm anyone ,

including oneself
Examples
Death
Hurt
Disadvantaging someone
Freedom/restriction
Gambling
Social constructs
What is ethical issue
Situation requires person/organizations to evaluate something as right or

wrong
Examples
Computer crime
Responsibility for computer failure
Protection of computer property, records and software
Privacy
What is economic issue
Problem/situation concerned with organization of money, industrym and

trade of a country, region, or society

Examples
Generating income
Costs
Wealth
Working
What is environmental issue
Problems concerned with protection of natural world of land, sea, air plants,
and animals
Examples
– Global warming
– Electronic waste
– Plastic waste
– Power generation
– Fuel / Batteries
– Loss of habitat
– Dangerous chemicals

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Topic 1 - System fundamentals

System life cycle

Topic 1 - System fundamentals (1) 1

Context = background, environment, framework, setting, or situation

Two considerations when considering a new system:

Topic 1 - System fundamentals (1) 2

1.1.2 Need for change management

Changing a system can be difficult for a variety of reasons

Users do not like: e.g. too complex

New systems do not have old features

Old systems can be faster

Might lead to incompatibility

Might be data loss

Change must be managed using the following steps:

Plan: Have clear valid reason and mission

Communicate: Communicate the change, and its factors, to the key

Integrate: If change allowed → Show plans for consultation with stakeholder

Evaluate: Wider organisation’s reactions to the change are evaluated at

Old method technology

May/may not be supported for purchase

Topic 1 - System fundamentals (1) 3

Hardware: Floppy disks, parallel printer cables, connections like PS2

Software: Windows XP, Movie Maker, Industry-specific software

Computer systems: Amiga, Commodore 64

Definition: Combination of two entities or more, especially companies, into

ABC and Disney

Pfizer and Warner Lambert

Time zone differences

Workforce cultural differences

Program that is bought and installed on a particular computer or set of

Program that is bought/rented/used and is installed on a computer

Stands for: Software-as-Service

Topic 1 - System fundamentals (1) 4

Software distribution model in which a third-party provider hosts

With SaaS, service provider needs to ensure security, availability

Coommon SaaS examples:

Microsoft Office 365

Amazon Web Services

1.1.5 Evaluate alternative installation processes

4 ways of implementing a system

Old system is stopped and new system is started

minimal time and effort

new system is available immediately

Disadvantage: if the new system fails, there is no fall back

Data has to entered into both systems

If new system fails, old systems runs a backup

Topic 1 - System fundamentals (1) 5

Running two systems - cost time and money

The new system is piloted (tested) with a small subset of the

Once it is ran correct + no bugs → implemented accross the whole

New system is introduced in phases as parts of the old system are

Allow people to get used to the new system

Training of staff can be done in stages

1.1.6 Discuss problems that may arise as a part of data migration

Incompatible file formats

Data structure differences

Incomplete data transfers

International conventions on dates, currencies & character sets

1.1.7 Suggest various types of testing

- Reviews, walkthroughs, or inspections. Often implicit, like proofreading

Topic 1 - System fundamentals (1) 6

- actually executing programmed code with a given set of test cases

- takes place when the program is run.