KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CE 368 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING I

GROUP 1

ASSIGNMENT 1

MAY 2024
 GROUP 1 MEMBERS

NAME INDEX NO SIGN

SARA TENKORANG 4488522 ……………………………

JOHN KOFI DAZIE 4486422 ……………………………

SHADRACK NYARKO 4678222 ...…………………………

SAMPSON AGORSOR 4494622 ...…………………………

EMMANUEL DELA ATTIPOE 4490922 ………………….………..

 QUESTION 1

Discuss whether it is necessary for Ghana to invest in road experiments?

Investing in road experiments can be beneficial for Ghana in several ways. By doing so, Ghana can

develop modern, efficient, and sustainable road infrastructure, supporting economic growth and

environmental responsibility. Moreover, road experiments can help identify and address safety

issues, reducing accidents and saving lives. The following are some of the reasons why investing in

road research can be beneficial for Ghana.

 Increased efficiency: Optimized Road designs and materials can reduce congestion, travel

times, and transportation costs.

 Enhanced durability: Experiments can help develop more durable roads, reducing

maintenance costs and extending the lifespan of infrastructure.

 Environmental benefits: Experiments can explore sustainable materials, drainage systems,

and designs that minimize environmental impact.

 Economic growth: Better roads can boost trade, commerce, and tourism, stimulating

economic development.

 Innovation: Experiments can drive innovation in road construction, materials, and design,

positioning Ghana as a leader in infrastructure development.

 Job creation: Investing in road experiments can create jobs for researchers, engineers, and

technicians.

 Improved quality of life: Better roads can enhance access to healthcare, education, and other

essential services, improving overall quality of life. www.researchgate.net

 QUESTION 2

What is Ghana’s current axle load limit? What are the locations of GHA’s permanent axle weigh
stations? Which road agency oversees Ghana’s axle load control program? What fee amounts are
charged for axle load limit violation in Ghana? Apart from charging fines, what other measures could
help minimize vehicle axle overloading?

1. Ghana's current axle load limit is 60 tons, although authorities aim to reduce it to 51 tons soon.

Additionally, the allowable height is 4.5 meters, and the allowable width is 2.55 meters.

www.highways.gov.gh

2. The Ghana Highway Authority (GHA) through the Ministry of Roads and Highways oversees

Ghana's axle load control program. The GHA enforces the Road Traffic Regulations, 2012 on axle

load, gross weight, and dimension control and revises strategies to control overloading of motor

vehicles on the road network. www.highways.gov.gh

2. Ghana Highway Authority (GHA) has established permanent axle weigh stations at various

locations along the road network. Some of these locations include:

 Afienya station on the Akosombo-Afienya-Tema road.

 Tema station on the Accra-Tema motorway.

 Akatsi station on the Tema Aflao road.

 Akom station near offinso on the Accra-Kumasi-Techiman road.

 Boankra station on the Accra-Kumasi corridor.

 Asuoyeboa station on the Kumasi-Sunyani road.

 Asokwa station on the Anwiankwata-Yamoransa junction.

 Elmina station on the Accra-Takoradi road.

 Akona-Nkwata station on the Takoradi-Elubo stretch.

 Bogoso station on the Tarkwa-Ayanfuri road.

  Sefwi-Bekwai station on the Diaso-Sefwi-Bekwai road.

 Mim station on the Goaso-Akyeremasu road.

 Yapei station on the Kintampo-Tamale road.

 Bolgatanga station on the Tamale-Bolgatanga road.

Damango station on the fufulso- Sawla road. www.highways.gov.gh

4. According to the Ghana Highway Authority, the Fee Amounts Charged for Axle Load Limit

Violations in Ghana Are as Follows:

Excess of Total Weights

Axle Load
of vehicle on the Road Fine (GH ¢)
(Tonnes)
(Tonnes)

11.5 0.0 Legal

12 0.5 Tolerance Margin

12.5 1.0 100.00

13 1.5 200.00

14 2.5 500.00

15 3.5 1000.00

16 3.5 1000.00

17 5.5 2000.00

18 6.5 3000.00

19 7.5 4000.00

20 8.5 5000.00

Unauthorised out gauge load 65.12

Unauthorised transformation of gauge 293.04

Refusal to pass through weighbridge station 293.04

 Table 1.0 Showing the amounts charged for Axle Load Limit Violations in Ghana.

www.highways.gov.gh

5. Apart from charging fines, the following measures can help minimize vehicle axle overloading:

 Public education and awareness campaigns to inform drivers and operators about the risks

and consequences of overloading.

 Regular vehicle inspections and enforcement of weight limits at ports, borders, and terminals.

 Installing weigh-in-motion systems and portable scales for efficient weight checking.

 Encouraging the use of lighter vehicles or those designed for heavy loads.

 Improving road infrastructure to reduce damage from overloaded vehicles.

 Collaborating with transport associations and industries to promote compliance.

 Enhancing enforcement personnel capacity and equipment for effective monitoring.

 Regular review and update of weight limits and regulations to reflect changing transportation

needs.

These measures can complement fines and promote a culture of compliance, safety, and responsible

transportation practices. www.gna.org.gh

QUESTION 3

Mention five waste products in Ghana that can be used for road pavement construction. In which
cities or towns can each of the products be found in abundance? Provide the annual generation rate
of these waste products. What are the potential benefits of their use?
By utilizing waste products abundantly available in Ghana, the country can address waste

management issues, create sustainable road infrastructure, and contribute to a circular economy. In

Ghana, there are several waste products that can be used for road construction due to their

abundance. Some of these waste products include:

1. Plastic Waste

Ghana generates a significant amount of plastic waste. This waste can be shredded and mixed

with bitumen to create a durable and flexible material for road construction.

Place of generation – Accra and Kumasi

Annual generation rate – 840,000 tonnes

Potential benefits – Its help in reducing plastic waste, it improves road quality and also

reduce dependence on non-renewable resources such as oil. (Chavan M, 2013).

2. Used tyres.

The disposal of used tires is a major challenge in Ghana. However, they can be recycled and

processed into rubberized asphalt, which provides enhanced durability and skid resistance for

roads.

Place of generation – Accra and Kumasi

Annual generation rate – 840,000 tonnes

Potential benefits – It generates an ideal balance in terms of improving rut and fatigue

resistance to traffic loads. www.brainly.com

3. Construction and demolition waste

 The construction industry generates a considerable amount of waste materials like concrete,

bricks, and tiles. These materials can be crushed and used as aggregates for road base and

sub-base layers, reducing the need for natural resources.

Place of generation – Accra

Annual generation rate – 12,710 tonnes

Potential benefits – Construction and demolition waste recycling could be an effective

mitigation option to reduce the risk of landslides; reduce the energy consumption; offset the

greenhouse emissions where about 39% is attributed to the construction industry; recover

added-value materials; create jobs; and protect the earth’s natural resources.

www.brainly.com

4. Agricultura waste

Ghana has abundant agricultural waste, such as rice husks, coconut fibers, and sawdust.

These waste materials can be processed and used as additives in road construction to enhance

stability and reduce costs.

Place of generation – Accra and Kumasi

Annual generation rate – 66% out of the solid waste generation of 22000 tonnes

Potential benefits – Utilizing agricultural waste in road construction provides an efficient

disposal technique for these materials, also we can minimize the dependency on natural

resources and promote a circular economy. (Munshi S,2019)

5. Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP)

It is an eco-friendly solution for road construction that involves reusing existing asphalt

pavement instead of using virgin materials. This method transforms completely worn-out

pavements into reusable materials.

Place of generation – Accra and Kumasi

Annual generation rate – it is about 2% of the total road infrastructure.

Potential benefits – It contains usable aggregates and asphalt binder making it a valuable

resource. By recycling asphalt, we reduce material waste, lower costs, and minimize

environmental impact, making it a sustainable choice for road renewal.

wwwpavingfinder.com
 QUESTION 4

Road experiments have shown that the outer wheel path (OWP) on the roadways turns to
experience more deterioration compared to the inner wheel path. What may be the reason
for this observation? Which roadway geometry element can minimize OWP
deterioration?

The outer wheel path of a roadway deteriorates faster compared to the inner wheel for the

following reasons.

1. Improper drainage system: by principles and design water flows from the upper

part of the road to edge of the road to be drained off. Lack of proper and adequate

drainage system will cause water to infiltrate into the subgrade layer and weaken

it. The bearing capacity of the subgrade will reduce, and the road will start to

deteriorate. The outer wheel path where the seepage started is the most affected.

Figure 1.0 Outer wheel paths deteriorating due to lack of drains.

 Figure 2.0 Outer wheel paths completely washed off due to lack of drains.

2. Lack of pavement support such as drains curbs shoulders; exposed edges of

pavement contribute to:

 Infiltration of water into the base of the pavement

 Eroding of pavement layers

 Breaking of road edges.

The chances of failure of the pavement under these condition at the outer wheel path is

higher compared to the inner wheel path.

Figure 3.0 Lack of drainage and pavement support causing damages in the

wheel path of newly overlayed portions of the Eastern Corridor Road.

Figure 4.0 Showing damaged outer wheel path due to lack of drainage
 Figure 5.0

3. Narrow lanes and static loading; when lanes are narrowed, parked vehicles turn

to use portions of the outer wheel path. This put static load on the outer wheel

path making it susceptible to damages compared to the inner wheel path.

Figure 6.0
 Figure 7.0 Static loading close to outer wheel path

4. Human activities such as excavating and laying of utility lines. Excavating

along pavement exposes the pavement layers to the elements especially rain. In

event of any rain meeting the open excavations, water will comfortably infiltrate

into the pavement layers causing pavement to deteriorate.

 Figure 8.0 Exposure of pavement layers to rain

Mitigation measures

1. Provision of pavement shoulders.

 Experiment has shown that shoulders help to reduce the concentration of

deflection, stresses and strains on the top of the subgrade and will likely reduce

the outer wheel path and edge damages.

 Pavement shoulders move water away from the edges of the pavement before it

can infiltrate into the pavement layers.

 Shoulders also provide lateral support to the pavement.

 It also prevents pavement edge damages by vehicle.

 It provides parking area for vehicle to prevent packing on pavement and eventual

damaging of the outer wheel path by static loads.

Figure 9.0 Shoulder to carry water away from pavement edges.

1. Drains and curbs. These elements act as containment for pavement layers.

 They prevent water from entering the pavement layers.

 Drain collect and dispose of water from the pavement and adjoining areas thus

preventing water from entering the pavement layers.

 Drain and curbs prevent edge failure.

Research have shown that drainage and its quality is an important parameter that

affects the performance of pavement. Proper drainage prolongs pavement lifespan.

2. Widen lanes: Studies have shown that structural damage to concrete highways is

caused by primarily by truck loading at the outer edge slab. The major structural

distresses are transverse cracking and corner breaks on jointed pavements and
punch-out failures on continuously reinforced all of which are fatigue failure

produced by edge loading.

Lane widening is a measure to curbing pavement whose probable mode of failure

will be accumulated fatigue damage manifested by fatigue cracking.

In flexible pavement, a widen lane can serve as shoulder. This shoulder will have

all the properties of the pavement and will function effective compared to

shoulders constructed separate from the pavement.

 QUESTION 5

Which weather season in Ghana may pavement be most vulnerable to deterioration? Explain the

basis of your answer.

The two main seasons I Ghana are:

 Dry season (November – March)

 Wet season (April to September)

Impacts of the hot season on pavements in Ghana include:

 Bleeding: asphalt by its nature absorbs a lot of heat which causes it to bleed

 Spalling: is the most serious effect of hot weather on asphalt pavement. It occurs when

surface layer splits and peels away from the underlying layer. This happens because the

heat causes the asphalt to expand and crack leading to flaking and chipping.

These effects have significant deteriorating effect on pavements in Ghana, but these effects

are nothing to compare with the damaging effect of just one heavy rain in Ghana on

pavements.

Pavements in Ghana deteriorate faster and more damaging in the wet season than the dry

season.

Problems such as flooding on our roads for several hours after a downpour is a frequent

occurrence in Ghana. Water ponding and running over pavement surface cause:

 Erosion of asphalt layer

  Seepage of water into the pavement layers causing potholes and deformation of the

pavement layers.

 Rains in Ghana is known to wash a lot of silt onto the pavement surface eg; the Accra-

Kasoa road causing discomfort to road users and traffic jam.

 Rainfall in Ghana create a lot of traffic jam situations. Static loads from vehicles

combine with water ponding and running over pavement surface leads to quick

deterioration of the pavement.

 Runoff water is known to wash roads away.

Below are images of rain damages to pavements in Ghana.

Figure 10.0 Ponding of pavement surface in Accra (Ministry of Roads and Highway)
Figure 11.0 & 12.0 Silt washed onto pavement by storm water making vehicular movement

difficult (Accra, Kasoa road)

Figure 13.0 & 14.0
Figure 15.0 Surface layer washed off and potholes after rains (Myjoyonline)
 Figure 16.0,17.0 & 18.0 Rain destroyed portions of road in the Upper West Region (Ghana

Today)

Figure 19.0 Agona- Nkwanta to Takoradi road in bad condition after downpour

(Ghanaian Times)
Figure 20.0 Showing Other roads in bad condition after downpour.

QUESTION 6

At intersections, toll booths and speed hump locations, as well as steep slopes pavement deterioration
is more because vehicles must decrease their speed and suddenly stop, in so doing the weight of the
vehicle creates heavy load transfers at particular point regularly and cause distress to the pavement.

Effect

Rutting is a term for when permanent deformation or consolidation accumulates in an asphalt

pavement surface over time; this is typically shown by the wheel path being engraved in the road.

Asphalt roads are considered flexible, this happens mostly in hot seasons when the binder on the

surface of older asphalt roads become sticky. Rutting occurs because the aggregate, and binder in

asphalt roads can move.

Rutting usually does not occur immediately, but as more cars drive over the asphalt, the asphalt

continues to get depressed under the tires, and pushed out along the sides of the tire. In order to

combat this more aggregate, particularly fine aggregate can be added which will increase the friction

within the mix (Preventing). Additionally, angular aggregates can be used which are known to have

more resistance to rutting. If excess asphalt is contained in the mixture the mix will be more prone to

rutting. (Chance. L, 2018)

Figure 21.0 Showing distress in the Pavement Structure

Here are the key reasons:

1. Increased Load and Traffic Stopping/Starting:

 Intersections and Toll Booths: Vehicles frequently stop and start at these points,

causing significant stresses on the pavement. The braking and acceleration

generate horizontal forces that contribute to surface wear and deformation.

 Speed Humps: Vehicles slow down and speed up, similarly causing increased

friction and stress on the pavement surface.

2. Concentrated Traffic Loads:

  Intersections and Toll Booths: These locations often experience high traffic

volumes, leading to repetitive loading on specific areas. This concentrated load

can accelerate pavement wear.

 Steep Slopes: Heavy vehicles, in particular, exert more force on the pavement as

they ascend or descend slopes, contributing to faster wear and potential structural

damage.

3. Dynamic Loads:

 Speed Humps: The impact of vehicles traversing speed humps creates dynamic

loads, which can cause cracking and deformation over time. The repeated impact

can lead to material fatigue and eventual failure.

 Steep Slopes: Dynamic forces from braking or accelerating on slopes can lead to

similar issues, especially if the pavement is not designed to accommodate these

stresses.

4. Environmental Factors:

 Water Accumulation: At intersections, toll booths, and speed humps, water can

accumulate more easily due to the slower movement of vehicles and potential

poor drainage design. Water infiltration weakens the pavement structure, leading

to potholes and other forms of deterioration.

 Steep Slopes: Water runoff can be more significant on slopes, causing erosion

and weakening the pavement base and subgrade.

5. Shear Forces:
  Intersections: The turning of vehicles at intersections exerts significant shear

forces on the pavement, leading to rutting and surface wear.

 Steep Slopes: The incline exacerbates the shear forces as vehicles apply more

torque to ascend or descend, further stressing the pavement.

6. Thermal Stresses:

 All Locations: Variations in temperature can cause expansion and contraction of

pavement materials. At intersections, toll booths, and speed humps, the additional

mechanical stresses from vehicle movements can amplify the effects of thermal

stresses, leading to cracking and surface degradation. (Chance. L, 2018)

QUESTION 7

Premature pavement failure is common in Ghana. Discuss four potential causes of the phenomenon
and their solutions.

Premature pavement failure in Ghana can be caused by inadequate design and construction, heavy

axle loads and overloading, lack of routine maintenance, and climate/environmental factors.

Premature pavement failure refers to the deterioration of roads before their expected lifespan. In

Ghana, this is a common issue that can be attributed to various causes. Here are four potential causes

of premature pavement failure in Ghana and their corresponding solutions:

1. Inadequate design and construction

Causes: Poor road design and construction practices, such as insufficient pavement thickness

or inadequate drainage systems.

Solution: Implementing proper design standards and quality control measures during

construction. This includes conducting thorough geotechnical investigations, ensuring

adequate pavement thickness, and incorporating effective drainage systems to prevent water

accumulation.

Figure 22.0 Defects caused by inadequate design and construction. www.brainly.com

2. Heavy axle loads and overloading.

Causes: Excessive axle loads from heavy vehicles and overloading beyond the road's

capacity.

Solution: Enforce weight restrictions and load limits for vehicles, along with regular

inspection and enforcement of regulations. This can be achieved through the use of

weighbridges and weight enforcement units to ensure compliance with load limits.
 Figure 23.0: Maximum capacity of axle loadings

3. Lack of routine maintenance

Causes: Insufficient or delayed maintenance, including the timely repair of cracks, potholes,

and surface defects.

Solution: Establish regular maintenance schedules and implement routine inspections to

identify and address pavement defects promptly. This includes patching cracks, filling

potholes, and resurfacing damaged areas using appropriate materials and techniques.

Figure 24.0: Section of roads undergoing routine maintenance. www.brainly.com

 4. Climate and environmental factors

Causes: Harsh climatic conditions, such as heavy rainfall, extreme temperatures, and high

humidity levels, which accelerate pavement deterioration.

Solution: Incorporate climate-specific design features and materials to

enhance pavement durability. This includes using appropriate asphalt mixes, applying surface

treatments to improve resistance to weathering, and implementing proper drainage system.

Figure 25.0: Effects of climate changes on pavement without climate specific design features

www.brainly.com

QUESTION 8

Discuss three ways to improve the sustainability of roadway pavement design and construction in
Ghana.

According to Chance. L, 2018. Sustainability can only be achieved in a society if it is pursued on

three levels – environmental, economic and social. This is the central message of the approach

commonly known as the three dimensions of sustainability. These three dimensions are the

environment, society and the economy.

Here are three effective ways to achieve sustainability:

1. Utilization of Recycled Materials

Incorporating recycled materials into pavement construction can significantly reduce the

environmental footprint. This can be done through:

 Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP): Reusing materials from old asphalt pavements can

reduce the need for new materials and lower greenhouse gas emissions associated with asphalt

production. RAP can be incorporated into new pavement layers, maintaining performance

while enhancing sustainability.

 Industrial Byproducts: Materials such as fly ash from coal plants, slag from steel

manufacturing, and plastic waste can be used in pavement construction. These materials can

improve pavement properties and reduce environmental impact.

2. Adoption of Green Technologies and Practices

Implementing green technologies and construction practices can enhance the sustainability of

roadway pavements:

 Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA): WMA technologies allow asphalt to be mixed and laid at

lower temperatures compared to traditional hot mix asphalt. This reduces energy

consumption and emissions during production and paving.

 Permeable Pavements: These pavements allow water to infiltrate through the surface,

reducing runoff and improving groundwater recharge. They can mitigate flooding and

improve water quality by filtering pollutants.

  Cold In-Place Recycling (CIR): This process involves recycling existing pavement

materials on-site. It reduces the need for new materials and transportation, lowering overall

emissions and costs.

3. Enhanced Design and Maintenance Practices

Improving design and maintenance practices can lead to longer-lasting pavements, reducing the need

for frequent repairs and associated environmental impacts:

1. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA): Using LCA in the design phase helps in understanding the

long-term environmental impacts of different pavement options. It promotes the selection of

materials and designs that offer the best sustainability performance over the pavement's life.

2. Durable Pavement Designs: Implementing designs that consider local climate conditions,

traffic loads, and material performance can extend the lifespan of pavements. High-quality

construction practices and regular maintenance can prevent premature deterioration.

3. Preventive Maintenance: Timely maintenance interventions such as sealing cracks,

applying surface treatments, and patching can extend pavement life, reduce resource

consumption, and lower the overall environmental impact. (Chance. L, 2018)

QUESTION 9

The Accra-Tema Motorway is Ghana’s first concrete road pavement. Answer the following

questions about this facility:

a. What is the length of this roadway?

b. In which year was its construction completed?

c. Which consultants designed and supervised its construction?

d. Which contractor executed the works?

e. The facility is earmarked for reconstruction. Will you recommend a concrete pavement or an

asphalt pavement?

a. The Accra-Tema Motorway in Ghana has a total length of approximately 12mil (19

kilometres).

b. The construction of the Accra-Tema Motorway was completed in the year 1965.

c. The design and supervision of the construction of the Accra-Tema Motorway were carried out

by an Italian firm called Impresa Ghella S.P.A.

d. The construction of the motorway was carried out by an Italian firm called Impresa Ghella

S.P.A.

e. In recommending whether to use concrete pavement or asphalt pavement for the reconstruction

of the Accra-Tema Motorway, various factors need to be considered, including initial cost of

construction, long-term durability and maintenance costs, how climate affects these two

pavements, impact of traffic type and quantity, sustainability/environmental impact. Also, the

advantages and disadvantages of these two pavements need to be considered.

 1. THE INITIAL COST OF CONSTRUCTION

Comparing road construction materials, asphalt stands out for its cost-effectiveness, up to 50%

cheaper than concrete. Meanwhile, concrete, though pricier initially, offers enduring durability

and lower maintenance costs. (pavingfinder.com)

In terms of cost saving initiatives, amidst even the strongest fuel saving case for asphalt, concrete

remains the most cost-effective pavement material for many roadways. Concrete pavement not

only costs less over the life cycle of a roadway, but since 2008, also outperforms asphalt on

initial cost for many roadways. (Sullivan et al.,2014)

2. LONG-TERM DURABILITY AND MAINTENANCE COSTS

Evaluating the life-cycle costs of paving materials is crucial, as it encompasses both the durability of

the material and the ongoing maintenance expenses.

ASPHALT

In the discussion of asphalt vs concrete roads, asphalt is renowned for its weather-resistant properties

and durability. Roads paved with asphalt offer a smooth surface, enhancing tire contact and

improving skid resistance, crucial for driver safety. Despite its resilience, asphalt typically incurs

higher annual maintenance costs compared to concrete. This is due to the need for periodic

application of top-layer sealants, especially in harsh climatic conditions, which may require

reapplication every three to five years.

However, the maintenance and repair process for asphalt roads is relatively straightforward.

Instead of complete reconstruction, only the top layer is usually removed and replaced,

significantly reducing repair time and costs. Additionally, asphalt is environmentally friendly in
this aspect, as the removed material can often be recycled. On average, an asphalt road has a

lifespan of 20 to 30 years, but this can vary based on traffic loads and maintenance practices.

CONCRETE

Concrete stands out for its extended lifespan, typically lasting two to four times longer than

asphalt when properly installed. It is significantly more resistant to common road surface issues

like rutting, cracking, and potholes that frequently affect asphalt surfaces. This robustness leads

to less frequent maintenance, thereby lowering long-term ownership costs.

However, concrete is not without its challenges. It is particularly susceptible to cracking under

extreme pressure, and repairs can be costly and extensive. Unlike asphalt, damaged concrete

often requires the replacement of entire slabs, not just surface repairs. This can lead to higher

costs and longer repair times when damage does occur. (pavingfinder.com)

RECENT SURVEY

According to a recent survey by the Portland Cement Association (PCA), concrete pavements

typically last about 29.4 years before needing significant rehabilitation, whereas asphalt

pavements often require significant rehabilitation after just 13.8 years. Over the long term, the

average asphalt pavement can end up costing up to three times more to maintain than concrete.

With a lifespan of 30 to 40 years, concrete is a durable choice for long-term road infrastructure,

though the initial investment is higher. (pavingfinder.com)

3. HOW CLIMATE AFFECTS THESE TWO PAVEMENTS

ASPHALT
Climate conditions significantly affect the rate at which flexible pavements deteriorate. High

temperatures, for instance, can accelerate wear and tear. (Chai et al., 2012)

Thus, Prolonged exposure to moisture and UV rays can cause asphalt to soften and crack over

time. The infiltration of water into these cracks exacerbates the damage, leading to distorted and

unsightly road surfaces, often requiring more frequent repairs. (pavingfinder.com)

The direct impacts of changes in rainfall patterns can alter moisture balances and influence

pavement deterioration. In addition, temperature changes can affect aging of flexible pavements

by resulting in cracking of the surface, with a consequent loss of waterproofing. The result is that

surface water can enter the flexible pavement causing potholing and fairly rapid loss of surface

condition. (Chai et al., 2012)

CONCRETE

Rigid or concrete pavements are impacted by temperature changes through alterations in

expansion and contraction movements and subsequently cracks form.

Additionally, concrete surfaces can become particularly slippery when wet, posing a hazard for

vehicles. This reduced traction can be a significant safety concern, particularly in regions prone

to frequent rain like Ghana. (pavingfinder.com)

4. IMPACT OF TRAFFIC TYPE AND QUANTITY

A series of experiments by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation

Officials (AASHO) highlighted the impact of traffic on pavement deterioration. The AASHO

Road Test concluded that heavily loaded trucks can cause more than 10,000 times the damage to

highways compared to an average passenger car. This finding underscores the need for durable

materials like concrete in high-traffic areas, as it is less prone to the stresses caused by heavy

vehicles. Concrete’s durability is attributed to its resistance to common road damages such as
rutting particularly in hotter climates. It also stands up well against the constant impact of heavy

loads. (pavingfinder.com)

The Tema Motorway tends to experience high traffic counts and heavy truck volumes therefore

concrete is often the preferred choice as compared to asphalt.

5. SUSTAINABILITY/ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

ASPHALT

Asphalt pavements require 20 percent less energy to produce and construct than other

pavements. It is a sustainable construction process. When appropriately designed and built, the

road itself doesn’t wear out.

Asphalt pavements do not leach. Once they are constructed, asphalt pavements have a low

environmental impact. Studies show asphalt pavements and stockpiles of reclaimed asphalt

pavement don’t leach.

Asphalt is recyclable. The asphalt industry reclaims about 65 million tons of product every year

and reuses or recycles about 99 percent of it.

CONCRETE

According to a Department of Transportation Study, concrete has a low lifetime impact on the

environment due to its lower energy cost initially, better recyclability, and lower lifetime

reflection of sunlight into the atmosphere.

The Construction Materials Recycling Association estimates that about 140 million tons of

concrete are recycled each year in the U.S., reducing the construction projects’ environmental

impact.

Concrete does not rust, rot or burn, saving energy and resources needed to replace or repair

damaged buildings and infrastructure. (pavingfinder.com)

While each paving material has some environmental benefits, neither is a sustainable product.

1. Sourcing Raw Materials and Energy Usage

Both asphalt and concrete consist of materials that require massive amounts of energy to drill

and mine. The process of cultivating these raw materials results in massive environmental

degradation, polluting the atmosphere and nearby streams while depleting energy resources.

Some waterways require several years to recover following the drilling and mining.

Moreover, we are continually reminded of the disastrous leaks that have occurred during the

drilling and transportation of petroleum—asphalt’s principal workhorse ingredient.

www.aexcelcorp.com

2. Water Supply Issues

Both concrete and asphalt roadways and parking lots restrict rainwater from flowing naturally

through rocks and soils and into streams and rivers. The problem with paved surfaces is that

water is redirected into elaborate drainage systems where it mixes with municipal sewage.

This process diminishes water purity and can potentially overwhelm public water treatment

systems. www.aexcelcorp.com

3. Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) Emissions

High-VOC materials release dangerous amounts of harmful gases during processing and

curing. These gases are harmful to the atmosphere and dangerous to humans. Asphalt

manufacturing and paving processes emit high concentrations of VOCs. Similarly, cement

production requires significant amounts of energy and emits large volumes of VOCs into the

atmosphere. Another notable, but solvable, problem is the striping paint used to make the

lines and markings on roads and parking lots. Many traditional, high performance marking

paints release significant VOC emissions into the air. www.aexcelcorp.com

ADVANTAGES OF ASPHALT AND CONCRETE PAVEMENT

Asphalt Pavement

Figure 26.0 Showing Asphalt Pavement with its advantages and disadvantages

Strong adaptability: Asphalt Road is a flexible pavement, and the flexible pavement has a

strong adaptability to the uneven settlement and deformation of the foundation and subgrade.

Concrete roads have higher requirements for foundations and subgrades.

High comfort: The asphalt road is relatively soft. Due to the double shock absorption of the

wheels and the road surface, the road surface vibration is small, and the noise is low when

driving, which makes the passengers feel very comfortable during driving.
Low construction difficulty: When laying asphalt roads, a lot of professional equipment is

required. Although the investment in equipment is high, the process is relatively simple and

efficient.

Figure 27.0 Showing how asphalt is being laid.

Simple maintenance: If a few kilometers of asphalt road is damaged and needs to be

repaired, it only takes one night to complete it, and it can be opened to traffic as usual the

next day.

Poor road reflection: Asphalt Road is a black pavement, which has poor reflection ability to

light. On the highway, the asphalt pavement can effectively relieve the driver's visual fatigue.

Concrete Pavement
Strong bearing capacity and good stability: Concrete pavement is a rigid pavement with

high bearing capacity, and its edges are also very strong, not easy to be crushed, so it is not

necessary to lay curbstones. Moreover, it will not change greatly due to sudden changes in

temperature and has good stability.

Good durability: Due to the strong bearing capacity and good stability of the concrete road,

it can be used as usual even if it is soaked in floods or exposed to the sun for a short period of

time. It will not affect the pavement and will not soften the ruts like asphalt pavement.

Long service life: Experiments have shown that the service life of concrete road is twice that

of asphalt road.

Table 2.0 Showing the service life of Concrete and Asphalt Pavement

Abundant raw materials and high economic benefits: One of the main raw materials for

concrete pavements is cement. Cement has the characteristics of large production, wide
distribution, cheap and easy availability. So, this makes the pavement construction cost low.

(www.daswell.com)

DISADVANTAGES OF ASPHALT AND CONCRETE PAVEMENT

Asphalt Pavement

Poor water resistance: A large amount of coarse aggregate and fine aggregate are used in

the paving process of asphalt road, so that there are a lot of voids inside. If it is soaked in rain

for a long time, it will cause the asphalt to lose its viscosity, causing the interior to loosen and

damage the road surface.

High maintenance cost: Although asphalt road is fast to repair, it is more expensive. Even if

the repair section is short, a full set of equipment is required.

Figure 28.0 Damaged Asphalt Pavement

Poor environmental protection: Asphalt pavement is a non-degradable material, which will

pollute the surrounding land and groundwater during use. Moreover, some harmful gases will

be produced during the heating and paving of asphalt, which will have a certain impact on the

construction personnel and the surrounding air.

High fuel consumption: The research shows that when the vehicle speed reaches 60km/h,

the concrete road saves 8% of the fuel consumption compared with the asphalt road. When

the vehicle speed reaches 120km/h, the fuel consumption can be saved by 15%.

Concrete Pavement

Figure 29.0 Concrete Pavement with its Advantages and disadvantages.

Low comfort: Concrete Road is a rigid pavement with a high modulus of rigidity. The noise

is slightly louder, and the shock absorption ability is poor, which affects the comfort of the

road surface.
Difficult to maintain: When the concrete pavement is damaged, the whole concrete slab

needs to be broken and cleaned, rather than just repairing the damaged pavement like the

asphalt pavement.

Too many seams: Concrete pavements are constructed with a large number of seams. These

seams will not only increase the difficulty of road construction and maintenance, but also

easily affect the comfort of driving.

Figure 30.0 Concrete Pavement with many seams and exposed joints

White pavement is highly reflective: Although white roads are good for driving at night,

they are highly reflective during the day and can easily cause eye fatigue. Therefore, asphalt

roads are often used on highways in many places. (www.daswell.com)

After a comprehensive engineering study and analysis, considering all relevant factors,

advantages and disadvantages of the two pavements, and given that the Accra-Tema

Motorway is a critical transportation link in Ghana with significant traffic volume, a

CONCRETE PAVEMENT will be more suitable for the reconstruction due to its long-term

durability and lower maintenance requirements over its lifespan compared to asphalt

pavement.

Historically, it is the first concrete pavement to be constructed in Ghana and still remains the

only Concrete Pavement in the Republic of Ghana. Being the only motorway in Ghana and

its history associated with Doctor Kwame Nkrumah, it serves a monumental purpose which

must be preserved.
 QUESTION 10

Apart from road tolls, discuss three other means the government can use to raise revenue for road
infrastructure development and maintenance.

Fuel Taxes: The government can raise revenue for road infrastructure development and

maintenance through fuel taxes. Fuel taxes are levied on the sale of gasoline, diesel, and other

fuels used for vehicles. This revenue is then allocated towards road construction, maintenance,

and repair. Fuel taxes are considered a direct way to link road usage with funding for

infrastructure projects. Countries such as the United States, United Kingdom, and Australia use

fuel taxes as a significant source of revenue for road maintenance and development.

(www.iftach.org)

Vehicle Registration Fees and Taxes: Another method for the government to raise revenue is

through vehicle registration fees and taxes. Vehicle owners pay registration fees and taxes

annually or at the time of vehicle purchase. These fees contribute to the funding of road

infrastructure projects and maintenance. The amount collected can vary based on vehicle type,

weight, engine size, or emissions. Examples of countries utilizing vehicle registration fees for

road infrastructure funding include Germany, Japan, and Canada. (www.fiaregion1.com)

Roadworthy Certifications: Funds generated from roadworthy certifications can be used for

road infrastructure development and maintenance. Roadworthy certificates are mandatory for all

vehicles in Ghana to ensure that they meet safety and emissions standards before they can
operate on the roads. The fees collected from these certifications annually can be allocated

towards road maintenance and improvement projects.

For the above mentioned to be effective, it will be important for the government to ensure that

these funds are properly managed and allocated towards road infrastructure development and

maintenance. Transparency and accountability in the use of these funds are crucial to ensure that

they effectively contribute to improving the quality and sustainability of Ghana's road network.

By utilizing revenue from roadworthy certificates, the government can fund essential road

projects and enhance the overall transportation infrastructure in the country.

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https://pavingfinder.com/expert-advice/asphalt-recycling/ 2:48pm, 27.05.24