Q1) What are biodegradable polymers?

Explain three factors responsible For biodegradation Give two

properties and two uses of biodegradable polymer?
Ans) Biodegradable polymers are a special class of polymer that breaks down after its intended purpose
by bacterial decomposition process to result in natural byproducts such as gases (CO2, N2), water,
biomass, and inorganic salts. These polymers are found both naturally and synthetically made, and
largely consist of ester, amide, and ether functional groups. Their properties and breakdown mechanism
are determined by their exact structure. These polymers are often synthesized by condensation
reactions, ring opening polymerization, and metal catalystsProperties - Even though biodegradable
polymers have numerous applications, there are properties that tend to be common among them. All
biodegradable polymers should be stable and durable enough for use in their particular application, but
upon disposal they should easily break down. Polymers, specifically biodegradable polymers, have
extremely strong carbon backbones that are difficult to break, such that degradation often starts from
the end-groups. Applications - 1. Packaging 2. Agriculture 3. Medical devices 4. Biomedical 5. Textiles.
Uses - Packaging: Biodegradable polymers are increasingly being used in packaging materials, such as
bags, films, and containers. They offer an eco-friendly alternative to traditional petroleum-based
plastics, reducing the environmental impact of plastic waste. Agriculture: Biodegradable polymers find
applications in agriculture as mulch films, plant pots, and crop protection materials. These materials can
break down in the soil, eliminating the need for manual removal and reducing environmental
contamination. Medical Devices: Biodegradable polymers are used in the medical field to create
products like sutures, stents, drug delivery systems, and tissue scaffolds.
Q2) What are nanomaterial ? Discuss in brief two properties and applications of nanomaterial ?
Ans) Nanomaterials are materials that have at least one dimension in the nanoscale range, typically
between 1 and 100 nanometers (nm). These materials exhibit unique properties and behaviors due to
their small size, high surface area-to-volume ratio, and quantum effects. Nanomaterials have garnered
significant interest in various fields of science and technology due to their diverse properties and
potential applications. Properties – 1) Size-Dependent Properties: Nanomaterials often exhibit size-
dependent properties, meaning that their characteristics change as their size decreases to the nano
scale. This behaviour is due to quantum effects and an increased surface area-to-volume ratio.
2) High Surface Area: Nanomaterials have a significantly higher surface area per unit mass compared to
their bulk counterparts. This increased surface area provides more active sites for chemical reactions
and interactions with other substances.3) Enhanced Thermal Conductivity: Nanomaterials can exhibit
higher thermal conductivity than their bulk counterparts. This property is advantageous in applications
where efficient heat dissipation is required, such as in electronics and thermal interface materials.
Applications – 1) Electronics: Nanomaterials are used in the electronics industry to create smaller and
more efficient electronic components. They are used in transistors, memory devices, and conductive
inks for printed electronics. 2) Catalysis: Nanomaterials are valuable catalysts due to their high surface
area and unique reactivity. They find applications in industrial processes, and fuel cell technology.
Q3) Give the structure and three properties and applications each of polycarbonate ?
Ans) Properties -1) High Impact Resistance: Polycarbonate is exceptionally
impact-resistant, making it nearly unbreakable. It can withstand substantial
force without fracturing or shattering, making it an ideal choice for application
ns where safety and durability are paramount. 2) Transparency and Optical
Clarity: Polycarbonate exhibits excellent transparency, with optical clarity
similar to glass. It allows approximately 90% of light transmission, making it suitable for applications that
require see-through components, such as windows, lenses, and display screens.3) High Heat Resistance:
They can withstand relatively high temperatures without deforming or melting. It has a high glass
transition temperature (approximately 150°C to 155°C) and can handle short-term exposure to elevated
temperatures, making it suitable for applications where heat resistance is necessary.
Applications - 1) Safety Equipment: Due to its exceptional impact resistance, polycarbonate is
extensively used in safety equipment and protective gear.
2)Automotive Industry: Polycarbonate is used in various automotive components, particularly in glazing
applications. It is utilized for car windows, sunroofs, headlamp lenses, and rearview mirrors.
 3) Electronic Devices: Polycarbonate is commonly used in the manufacturing of electronic devices,
including smartphones, tablets, laptops, and LED screens.
Q4) What are carbon nano-tubes? Discuss the types of carbon nanotubes with their structure ?
Ans) Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are cylindrical structures made up of carbon atoms arranged in a unique
hexagonal lattice. They are a type of nanomaterial with exceptional mechanical, electrical, and thermal
properties due to their nanoscale dimensions and special atomic arrangement. Carbon nanotubes can
be single-walled (SWCNTs), consisting of a single layer of carbon atoms, or multi-walled (MWCNTs),
consisting of multiple concentric layers of carbon atoms.
Types >> 1) Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes : SWCNTs
are composed of a single layer of carbon atoms rolled into a
seamless cylindrical structure. They are akin to a single layer
of graphene rolled into a tube. SWCNTs can have different
diameters, ranging from around 0.4 to 3 nanometers, and can
be several micrometers in length. Their are three types of CNT are armchair carbon nanotubes, zigzag
carbon nanotubes, and chiral carbon nanotubes.
Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes (MWCNTs): MWCNTs consist of multiple layers of carbon atoms
arranged concentrically, like a series of nested tubes. The layers are held together by weak van der
Waals forces. MWCNTs can have a diameter ranging from a few nanometers to around 100 nanometers,
and they can vary in length from a few hundred nanometers to several millimeters. MWCNTs can exhibit
unique properties compared to SWCNTs due to their layered structure. The interaction between the
different layers can lead to interesting mechanical, electrical, and thermal behavior.
Q5) Explain the structure of graphene with diagram and mention its two properties and applications ?
Ans) Graphene is a single layer of carbon atoms arranged in a two-dimens
ional honeycomb lattice, forming the basic building block of other carbon
-based materials like graphite, carbon nanotubes, and fullerenes. It
possesses a remarkable combination of properties that make it an
intriguing and versatile material with numerous potential applications.
Properties – 1) Exceptional Electrical Conductivity: Graphene exhibits exceptional
electrical conductivity, allowing electrons to move freely across its surface. Its high electron mobility and
low resistivity make it one of the best conductors known, evenout performing copper. This property
makes graphene a promising material for various electronic applications, such as transistors, sensors,
and ultrafast electronics. 2) High Mechanical Strength and Flexibility: Despite being just one atom thick,
graphene is incredibly strong and possesses remarkable mechanical properties. It has an impressive
tensile strength, surpassing that of most materials, and is highly flexible. This combination of strength
and flexibility makes graphene suitable for reinforcing composites and creating strong. Applications -
1) Electronics: Graphene's exceptional electrical conductivity and unique electronic properties make it a
promising material for advanced electronics. It can be used in transistors, integrated circuits, and
flexible electronics, enabling faster, more energy-efficient devices.2) Energy Storage: Graphene is being
extensively researched for energy storage applications, particularly in batteries and super capacitors.
leading to faster charging, higher energy density, and longer cycle life.
Q6) What are conducting polymers? State the structural requirements for a polymer to be conducting
and give any three conducting polymers ?
Ans) Conducting polymers, also known as intrinsically conducting polymers (ICPs), are a unique class of
organic polymers that possess electrical conductivity. Unlike conventional polymers, which are typically
insulators, conducting polymers have the ability to conduct electricity, making them valuable materials
in various applications, including electronics, sensors, actuators, and energy storage devices.
Applications - 1. Organic Electronics: OLEDs, solar cells, and flexible displays. 2. Sensors and Actuators:
Gas sensors, biosensors, and smart materials. 3. Energy Storage: Batteries and super capacitors.
4. Antistatic Coatings: Preventing damage to electronics. 3 Polymers - polyacetylene, polypyrrole,
polyindole and polyaniline
Q7) Define Polymer composites? Discuss classificatio on basis of reinforcement with two application ?
Ans) A polymer composite is a multi-phase material in which reinforcing fillers are integrated with a
polymer matrix, resulting in synergistic mechanical properties that cannot be achieved from either
component alone. Polymer composites are materials composed of a polymer matrix reinforced with one
or more types of fillers or reinforcements. The choice of reinforcement significantly influences the
mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties of the composite.
1) Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites: Fiber-reinforced polymer composites incorporate high-
strength fibers into a polymer matrix. The fibers can be made from various materials, such as glass,
carbon, aramid (e.g., Kevlar), or natural fibers like jute or hemp. Applications :
A) Aerospace Industry: Carbon fiber-reinforced polymer composites (CFRP) are extensively used in the
aerospace industry for constructing aircraft components like wings, fuselage, and tail structures.
B)Automotive Sector: Fiber-reinforced polymer composites find applications in the automotive industry,
particularly in high-performance vehicles. Components such as body panels, bumpers, and chassis parts
2) Particle-Filled Polymer Composites: Particle-filled polymer composites involve the dispersion of solid
particles (often inorganic) within a polymer matrix. These particles can be materials like silica, clay, or
metal oxides. The presence of particles enhances certain properties of the polymer, such as mechanical
strength, thermal stability, and flame retardancy.
Applications: A) Tire Industry: Silica-filled rubber composites are widely used in tire manufacturing.
Silica acts as a reinforcing filler that improves the tire's rolling resistance, fuel efficiency, and wet
traction performance.
B) Electronics and Electrical Industry: Polymer composites filled with ceramic particles, such as alumina
or barium titanate, are utilized in electronic encapsulation and packaging applications.
Q8) What is proximate analysis of coal ? Give procedure and formula of each constituent ?
Ans) Proximate analysis of coal is a standard laboratory technique used to determine the approximate
content of various components in coal. It provides important information about the composition and
characteristics of coal, which is essential for assessing its quality and suitability for different applications.
1) Moisture (M): This represents the water content present in the coal. Moisture affects the heating
value of coal and also influences transportation and storage costs. F - Moisture content (%) = [(Initial
mass - Final mass) / Initial mass] x 100 . 2) Volatile Matter (VM): Volatile matter includes the
combustible gases and vapors released when coal is heated in a controlled environment. It is an
indicator of coal's ability to burn and its reactivity during combustion. F- Volatile matter (%) = [(Initial
mass - Residue mass) / Initial mass] x 100. 3) Fixed Carbon (FC): Fixed carbon is the solid, non-volatile
part of coal left after the expulsion of volatile matter. It provides a measure of the carbon content in
coal and its potential energy-producing capability. F- Fixed carbon (%) = 100 - (Moisture + Volatile
Matter + Ash). 4) Ash: Ash is the inorganic residue left after complete combustion of coal. It consists of
minerals and other impurities present in the coal. F- Ash content (%) = (Ash mass / Initial mass) x 100.
5) Calorific Value (CV): The calorific value, also known as the heating value or energy content,
represents the amount of heat energy released during the combustion of coal.
Q9) Explain production of hydrogen by steam reforming of coke & methane with reaction conditions?
Ans) 1. Steam Reforming of Coke - Coke is a solid carbonaceous material derived from the destructive
distillation of coal or other carbon-rich materials. The steam reforming process for coke involves
gasification of the carbon in the coke with steam to produce hydrogen gas and carbon dioxide.
The reaction can be represented as follows: C + H2O (steam) → CO + H2
The carbon (C) in coke reacts with water vapor (H2O) to form carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen gas
(H2). The produced carbon monoxide can be further converted to carbon dioxide through the water-gas
shift reaction: >> CO + H2O → CO2 + H2
Reaction Conditions: 1) Temperature: The steam reforming of coke typically occurs at high temp
around 700°C to 1000°C, to facilitate the gasification of carbon. 2) Pressure: The process is usually
carried out at moderately low pressures, typically in the range of 1 to 3 atmospheres (atm).
2. Steam Methane Reforming (SMR): Steam methane reforming is the most common and commercially
significant method for hydrogen production. It involves the reaction of methane (the main component
of natural gas)with steam to produce hydrogn gas and carbon monoxide. CH4 + H2O (steam)→CO + 3H2
The methane (CH4) reacts with water vapor (H2O) to produce carbon monoxide (CO) and three
molecules of hydrogen gas (3H2). >> Reaction Conditions: 1) Temperature: The steam methane
reforming process typically occurs at elevated temperatures, around 800°C to 1000°C, to facilitate the
endothermic reaction and promote hydrogen production.2) Pressure: The reaction is usually carried out
at moderate to high pressures, ranging from 20 to 40 atmospheres (atm). Higher pressures favor higher
conversions of methane and improved hydrogen yield.
Q10) Give the principle and explain the process of fractional distillation of crude oil with labelled
Diagram ? Give the composition and boiling range of any one fraction obtained duding refining ?
Ans) Principle of Fractional Distillation of Crude Oil: Fractional
distillation is a separation process based on the principle that
different components in a mixture have different boiling points
. In the case of crude oil, it is a complex mixture of
hydrocarbons with varying molecular sizes and weights.
During fractional distillate ion, crude oil is heated to a specific
temperature range, and the resulting vapor is condensed and
collected at different temperature intervals.
Process- The process of fractional distillation of crude oil
involves heating the crude oil in a tall column called a
fractionating tower. As the crude oil is heated, it vaporizes,
and the vapor rises up the column. The column is equipped
with trays or packing materials that allow the vapor to condense and collect at different heights based
on their boiling points. This process separates the crude oil into various fractions, each containing
hydrocarbons with similar boiling points.
Composition of Diesel Fuel: Diesel fuel is a fraction obtained during refining and is primarily composed
of aliphatic hydrocarbons (alkanes) with 10 to 20 carbon atoms.
Boiling range of diesel fuel - The boiling range of diesel fuel typically falls within the range of
approximately 150°C to 390°C (302°F to 734°F).
Q11) Give preparation reaction Of biodiesel ? State four advantages and two limitations of biodiesel?
Ans) Biodiesel is an alternative fuel for diesel engines that is produced by chemically reacting a
vegetable oil or animal fat with an alcohol such as methanol or ethanol. Reaction- Triglyceride
(Vegetable Oil or Animal Fat) + Alcohol (Methanol or Ethanol) → Biodiesel (Fatty Acid Methyl or Ethyl
Ester) + Glycerol.
Advantages of Biodiesel: 1. Renewable Resource: Biodiesel is made from renewable resources such as
vegetable oils, animal fats, or waste cooking oils. These resources can be replenished, making biodiesel a
sustainable alternative to fossil fuels.
2. Reduced Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Biodiesel has lower carbon dioxide emissions compared to
conventional diesel fuel. It can significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
3. Biodegradable and Non-Toxic: It is biodegradable and non-toxic, making it safer for the environment
in case of spills or accidental releases.
4. Compatibility with Existing Diesel Engines: Biodiesel can be used in existing diesel engines without
any major modifications. It can be blended with conventional diesel fuel or used as a pure biodiesel
(B100) depending on the engine's specifications.
Limitations of Biodiesel: 1. Higher Cost: Biodiesel production can be more expensive than conventional
diesel fuel, primarily due to the cost of feedstock and production processes. As a result, biodiesel may
be relatively more expensive for consumers.
2. Cold Weather Performance: Biodiesel can have reduced performance in extremely cold
temperatures. It tends to gel or solidify at lower temperatures, potentially causing fuel flow issues in
winter conditions.
Q12) Draw block diagram of IR spectrophotometer. Explain components and give their function?

1) Infrared Light Source: The IR spectrophotometer is equipped with a light source that emits infrared
radiation over a range of specific frequencies. The most common light sources used in IR spectrophoto
meters are globar (a silicon carbide rod) or a Nernst glower.
2) Sample Compartment: The sample compartment is the area where the sample is placed for analysis.
It is designed to hold the sample securely and allow the infrared light to pass through it. The sample can
be in the form of a liquid, solid, or gas.
3) Detector: The detector is responsible for measuring the intensity of the infrared light after it has
passed through the sample. The most common detectors used in IR spectrophotometers are
thermocouples, pyroelectric detectors, and photovoltaic detectors.
4) Monochromators Various types of monochromators are prism, gratings and filters. Prisms are made
of Potassium bromide, Sodium chloride or Caesium iodide.
5) Recorders - Recorders are used to record the IR spectrum.
Q13) Explain the possible transitions which occur Vis radiations by an organic molecule ?
Ans) 1) π-π Transition: This is the most common type of electronic transition in organic molecules. It
occurs when an electron in a π (pi) bonding molecular orbital is excited to a higher-energy π* (pi star)
anti-bonding molecular orbital. 2) n-π Transition: In this type of transition, an electron in a non-bonding
(n) or lone pair orbital is excited to a higher-energy π* anti-bonding orbital. The n-π* transition is
common in compounds with heteroatoms like nitrogen or oxygen. 3) Metal-to-Ligand Charge Transfer
(MLCT) Transition: MLCT transitions occur in coordination complexes, where a metal center donates or
accepts an electron from a ligand. 4) Ligand-to-Metal Charge Transfer (LMCT) Transition: Similar to
MLCT transitions, LMCT transitions involve the transfer of an electron from a ligand to a metal center.
The absorption of visible light in LMCT transitions can lead to unique colors in metal-ligand complexes.
6) Charge-Transfer (CT) Transition: In some cases, organic molecules can undergo charge-transfer
transitions, where electrons are transferred between different parts of the molecule.
Q14) What is Power alcohol? Give its preparation with reactions and any two advantages ?
Ans) Power alcohol, also known as industrial or denatured alcohol, is a type of ethanol that has been
rendered unfit for human consumption by adding denaturants. Denaturants are substances that make
the alcohol unpalatable or toxic to prevent its misuse for drinking purposes. Power alcohol is primarily
used for industrial and technical applications, such as in the production of chemicals, solvents, and fuels.
Power alcohol is a mixture of 80% Petrol + 20% Ethanol + Small quantity of Benzene.
Preparation of Power Alcohol: The preparation of power alcohol involves the production of ethanol
from various sources, followed by denaturation to make it unsuitable for human consumption.
1) Ethanol Production: Ethanol is produced through the fermentation of sugars by yeast or other
microorganisms. This process converts the sugars into ethanol and carbon dioxide. The chemical
equation for fermentation is: C6H12O6 (sugar) → 2 C2H5OH (ethanol) + 2 CO2 (carbon dioxide).
2) Denaturation: After ethanol production, the alcohol is denatured by adding specific denaturants to
make it unsuitable for consumption. Common denaturants include methanol, isopropanol.
Advantages of Power Alcohol: Industrial Applications: Power alcohol is an important industrial solvent
and intermediate in the production of various chemicals, resins, paints, and pharmaceuticals. Reduced
Excise Duties: As power alcohol is not intended for human consumption, it is subject to lower excise
duties and taxes compared to potable (drinking) alcohol, making it cost-effective for industrial purposes.
Q15) Explain any four application of IR spectroscopy ?
Ans) 1. Chemical Identification: IR spectroscopy is used to identify and characterize chemical
compounds based on their unique absorption patterns. It helps in identifying functional groups and
determining the composition of unknown samples.
2. Pharmaceutical Analysis: IR spectroscopy is essen tial in pharmaceuticals for quality control,
identifying drug compounds, detecting impurities, and study ing drug interactions.
3. Polymer Analysis: IR spectroscopy is valuable in the plastics industry for study ing polymers, assessing
their composition, determining degree of polymerization, and identifying addit ives or fillers.
4. Forensic Analysis: IR spectroscopy aids in forensic science for analysing trace evidence, identifying
unknown substances at crime scenes, and providing evidence in criminal investigation.
Q16) Draw diagram of single beam UV spectrophotometer? Explain four components and give their
function ?

1) Light Source: The light source in a UV spectrophotometer emits UV radiation over a specific range of
wavelengths. The most common light sources used in UV spectrophotometers are deuterium lamps for
the UV range (200-400 nm) and tungsten-halogen lamps for the visible range (400-800 nm).
2) Sample Compartment: The sample compartment is the area where the sample is placed for analysis.
It is designed to hold the sample securely and allow UV light to pass through it.
3) Monochromator/Grating: The monochromator or grating is a crucial component of the UV
spectrophotometer. It is responsible for selecting specific wavelengths of UV light from the broad
spectrum emitted by the light source.
4) Detector: The detector measures the intensity of the UV light that passes through the sample. The
most common detector used in UV spectrophotometers is a photodiode array (PDA) detector.
Q17) Give the principle of IR spectroscopy? Explain fundamental modes of bending vibrations ?
Ans) Principle of IR Spectroscopy: The principle of infrared (IR) spectroscopy is based on the interaction
of molecules with infrared radiation. Molecules have specific vibrational modes, and when they absorb
infrared radiation at certain frequencies, these vibrational modes are excited. Each type of chemical
bond or functional group in a molecule exhibits characteristic absorption frequencies in the infrared
region. By measuring the absorbed infrared radiation, IR spectroscopy provides valuable information
about the molecular structure and functional groups present in a sample.
Fundamental Modes of Bending Vibrations: In IR spectroscopy, molecules can vibrate in different ways,
and two fundamental types of vibrational modes are bending and stretching vibrations. Bending
vibrations involve the deformation of the bond angles within a molecule, leading to changes in its
geometry. 1) In-Plane Bending: In this type of bending vibration, the atoms within a molecule move
within the plane defined by the chemical bonds. For example, consider a molecule with a central carbon
atom and two hydrogen atoms attached to it.
2) Out-of-Plane Bending: Out-of-plane bending vibrations involve the movement of atoms
perpendicular to the plane defined by the chemical bonds. In the same example, during out-of-plane
bending, the two hydrogen atoms would move above or below the plane defined by the carbon-carbon
bond.
Q18) Define the following term:- 1) Chromophore - A chromophore is a chemical group or part of a
molecule that absorbs light and gives the molecule its characteristic color. It contains pi (π) electrons
that undergo electronic transitions when exposed to light, resulting in the perception of color.
ii) Bathochromic shift - Bathochromic shift, also known as a red shift, is a phenomenon in which a
molecule or pigment absorbs light at longer wavelengths compared to its original absorption. This shift
causes the molecule's perceived color to shift towards the red end of the spectrum. It occurs due to
changes in the molecular environment or electronic structure, leading to a decrease in the energy
required for electronic transitions, resulting in absorption at longer wavelengths.
iii) Auxochrome- An auxochrome is a chemical group that, when attached to a chromophore modifies its
absorption properties, leading to shifts in its absorption wavelength and intensity. It enhances the color
of the molecule without absorbing light itself. Common auxochromes include -OH, -NH2, and -C=O grou.
iv) Hypochromic shift - Hypochromic shift is a phenomenon in which a molecule or chromophore
absorbs light at shorter wavelengths compared to its original absorption. This shift causes a decrease in
the molecule's perceived color intensity, leading to reduced absorption at the longer-wavelength end of
the spectrum. Hypochromic shift occurs due to changes in the molecular environment or electronic
structure, resulting in an increase in the energy required for electronic transitions and a decrease in
absorption at longer wavelengths.
Q19) What are the conditions of absorption of IR radiations by the molecule? Explain any two
applications of IR spectroscopy ?
Ans) The conditions of absorption of IR radiation by a molecule are as follows:
1. Changing Dipole Moment: The molecule must have a changing dipole moment during vibration. This
occurs when the distribution of electron density within the molecule changes during the vibrational moti
2. Permanent Dipole: The molecule must have a permanent dipole moment even in its equilibrium
(unperturbed) state. This means the molecule should not be symmetrical with identical atoms or have a
balanced charge distribution. 3. Vibrational Modes: The molecule must have vibrational modes
involving changes in bond lengths or bond angles. These vibrational modes are associated with specific
stretching or bending motions of the chemical bonds within the molecule.
4. Resonance: The frequency of the IR radiation must match the natural vibrational frequency of the
molecule for efficient absorption to occur. Different vibrational modes have specific characteristic
frequencies. 5. Absorption Energy: The energy of the incident IR radiation must match the energy
required for the vibrational transition to occur. The energy of the IR radiation corresponds to the
frequency or wavenumber of the light.
Applications - 1. Chemical Identification: IR spectroscopy is used to identify and characterize chemical
compounds based on their unique absorption patterns. It helps in identifying functional groups and
determining the composition of unknown samples. 2. Pharmaceutical Analysis: IR spectroscopy is
essential in pharmaceuticals for quality control, identifying drug compounds, detecting impurities, and
studying drug interactions.
Q20) Explain hydrogen evolution and oxygen absorption mechanism of wet corrosions ?
Ans) Hydrogen Evolution: Hydrogen evolution is a process that occurs when metals, such as iron and
steel, react with water or moisture and release hydrogen gas.
The mechanism involves the following steps:
1. Formation of Metal Ions: When the metal surface comes into contact with water, metal atoms react
with water molecules, leading to the formation of metal ions (cations) and free electrons (e^-).
2. Reduction of Water: The free electrons generated in step 1 reduce water molecules (H2O), resulting
in the formation of hydroxide ions (OH^-) and hydrogen gas (H2). 2H2O + 2e^- → H2 + 2OH^-
3. Hydrogen Gas Release: The generated hydrogen gas accumulates on the metal surface, forming
bubbles or blistering. In some cases, hydrogen gas can diffuse into the metal, causing internal pressure
and weakening the metal's structure.
Oxygen Absorption: Oxygen absorption is another mechanism in wet corrosion, and it involves the
reaction of metal surfaces with dissolved oxygen in water or moisture. The mechanism is as follows:
1. Dissolution of Oxygen: Oxygen gas from the atmosphere dissolves in water, leading to the formation
of dissolved oxygen (O2) in the aqueous environment.
2. Formation of Metal Oxides: The dissolved oxygen reacts with the metal surface, resulting in the
formation of metal oxides, commonly known as rust in the case of iron. 4Fe + 3O2 + 6H2O → 4Fe(OH)3
(rust). 3. Continued Oxidation: The metal oxides formed in step 2 can undergo further oxidation and
hydration reactions, leading to the continuous growth of the corrosion products.
Both hydrogen evolution and oxygen absorption are detrimental processes in wet corrosion as they
cause the gradual degradation and weakening of metal structures, eventually leading to material failure
if not properly controlled and prevented.
Q21) What is electroplating? Explain the process with diagram and reactions. Also Give applications ?
Ans) Electroplating is a surface finishing process in which a metal coating is deposited
onto a conductive object through an electrochemical reaction. The object
to be coated (the substrate) is immersed in an electrolyte solution and
serves as the cathode, while a metal electrode serves as the anode.
When an electric current is passed through the system, metal ions from
the anode are reduced and form a thin, uniform metal layer on the
substrate's surface. Electroplating is used to enhance the substrate's
appearance, improve corrosion resistance, and provide other functional
properties.
Process - Electroplating is a surface finishing process used to deposit a thin
layer of metal onto a conductive object, known as the substrate. The
process involves immersing the substrate in an electrolyte solution
containing metal ions of the plating material. The substrate is connected
to the negative terminal (cathode) of a power supply, and a metal electrode is connected to the positive
terminal (anode). When an electric current is passed through the system, metal ions from the
electrolyte are reduced at the cathode (substrate) and deposited as a thin, uniform metal layer on its
surface. After achieving the desired thickness of the plating, the object is removed from the bath, rinsed,
and dried.
Reaction- Cathode (substrate): Reduction of metal ions: M^z+ + ze^- → M (s).
Anode (metal electrode): No specific reaction (it remains constant).
Applications - Preventing corrosion, Facilitating conduction in circuit boards and Purification of metals.
Q22) What are anodic and cathodic coatings? Which are better and why ?
Ans) Anodic Coatings: Anodic coatings, or anodized coatings, are formed by anodizing metals like
aluminum. Anodizing creates a protective oxide layer on the metal's surface, providing corrosion
resistance and enhancing durability. In anodic coatings, the metal to be coated serves as the anode in an
electrolyte solution. When an electric current is passed through the system, oxygen from the electrolyte
reacts with the metal surface, forming the oxide layer.
Cathodic Coatings: Cathodic coatings, or cathodic protection coatings, use sacrificial metals like zinc or
magnesium to protect metal surfaces. These sacrificial metals corrode instead of the protected metal,
preventing corrosion damage. The sacrificial anode releases electrons through corrosion, creating a
cathodic protection current that flows to the metal to be protected.
Which is Better and why - Which coating is considered the best depends on the specific application and
the level of protection required. Anodic coatings are preferred for aluminum and applications where
wear resistance and decorative finishes are essential. On the other hand, cathodic coatings, particularly
sacrificial anodes, are commonly used in structures like pipelines, offshore platforms, and ships to
provide reliable and long-lasting corrosion protection.
Q23) State Pilling Bedworth ratio and give its significance. Give the different types of oxide films with
suitable example formed during the oxidation corrosion of metals. ?
Ans) Pilling-Bedworth Ratio: The Pilling-Bedworth ratio is a dimensionless parameter used to assess the
susceptibility of a metal to oxide scale formation during oxidation corrosion. It is expressed as the ratio
of the volume change upon the formation of the oxide layer to the volume of the metal consumed in the
process. Pilling-Bedworth Ratio = (Volume of Oxide Formed) / (Volume of Metal Consumed)
Significance: The Pilling-Bedworth ratio is essential in predicting the formation of protective oxide layers
during the oxidation of metals. A Pilling-Bedworth ratio greater than 1 indicates that the oxide layer
formed is denser and thicker than the metal consumed. This implies that the oxide layer acts as a
protective barrier, providing corrosion resistance to the underlying metal.
1) Passive Oxide Films: Example: Stainless steel (e.g., AISI 304) forms a protective passive oxide film
mainly composed of chromium oxide (Cr2O3). 2) Protective Spinel Oxides: Example: Aluminum (Al)
forms a dense and adherent oxide film composed of aluminum oxide (Al2O3) known as alumina.
3) Non-Protective Oxide Films: Example: Iron (Fe) forms a non-protective oxide film, commonly known
as rust, primarily composed of iron oxide (Fe2O3). 4) Mixed Oxide Layers: Example: High-temperature
alloys, such as stainless steels, may form mixed oxide layers due to the presence of various alloying
elements. 5) Transient Oxide Films: Example: Zinc (Zn) rapidly forms a transient oxide film upon
exposure to air, which is not very durable.
Q24) Explain any five factors affecting the rate of corrosion ?
Ans) 1) Environment: Corrosion rates are influenced by the surrounding environment, such as humidity,
presence of corrosive chemicals, temperature, and exposure to saltwater or industrial pollutants.
2) Metal Type and Composition: The type of metal and its alloying elements determine its corrosion
resistance. Some metals naturally form protective oxide layers, while others are more prone to
corrosion. 3) Presence of Dissolved Oxygen: The presence of dissolved oxygen in water or moist
environments can accelerate corrosion, especially for metals susceptible to oxygen-induced reactions.
4) pH Level: The acidity or alkalinity of the environment affects the rate of corrosion. Highly acidic or
highly alkaline solutions can be corrosive to certain metals. 5) Electrolyte Conductivity: The presence of
electrolytes, such as salts or acids, in the environment can increase the corrosion rate by promoting
more efficient electron transfer during electrochemical reactions.
Q25) What is the principle of cathodic protection? Explain any one method of cathodic protection?
Ans) Principle of Cathodic Protection: Cathodic protection is an electrochemical technique used to
prevent or minimize corrosion of metal structures by making the structure the cathode of an
electrochemical cell. By making the metal surface more negatively charged (cathodic), the rate of
corrosion is significantly reduced. This process involves the supply of electrical current or the use of
sacrificial anodes to counteract the corrosion process and protect the metal from further deterioration.
One method of cathodic protection is impressed current cathodic protection (ICCP) - In ICCP, an
external power source, like a rectifier, supplies a direct current to inert and durable anodes (e.g.,
graphite, MMO) installed in the surrounding soil or water near the metal structure to be protected. The
anodes discharge current into the electrolyte, making the metal structure the cathode. The flow of
electrons creates a protective cathodic potential on the metal surface, significantly reducing corrosion
rates and preventing further corrosion. ICCP is used for large underground pipelines, storage tanks,
offshore structures, and critical metal components, providing more control over the protection level but
requiring continuous power and regular maintenance.
Q26) Explain the mechanism of dry corrosion. Give the nature of oxide film and reaction in oxidation
corrosion of Mg and Ci ?
Ans) Mechanism of Dry Corrosion: Dry corrosion, also known as atmospheric corrosion, occurs when
metals react with moisture in the air or humidity to form corrosion products without the presence of a
liquid electrolyte. In dry environments, metals undergo oxidation reactions with oxygen and other
atmospheric components, leading to the formation of metal oxides or other corrosion products on the
metal surface. Oxidation Corrosion of Magnesium (Mg):Nature of Oxide Film: The primary corrosion
product in the oxidation corrosion of magnesium is magnesium oxide (MgO). It forms a thin, white, and
powdery oxide film on the surface of magnesium. The oxide film acts as a protective barrier,
offering some resistance against further corrosion. Reaction: 2 Mg + O2 → 2 MgO
Oxidation Corrosion of Iron (Fe): Nature of Oxide Film: In the oxidation corrosion of iron, the main
corrosion product is iron oxide, commonly known as rust. The oxide film is red-brown in color and tends
to be flaky or powdery. However, rust is less protective compared to other metal oxides and can be
porous, allowing further corrosion to continue.
Reaction: 4 Fe + 3 O2 + 6 H2O → 2 Fe2O3·3H2O (Rust, Hydrated iron oxide)
Q27) What is Galvanising? Explain the process with neat labelled diagram to protect iron from
corrosion?
Ans) Galvanizing is a corrosion protection method used to safeguard steel and iron structures from rust
and deterioration. The process involves coating the metal surface with a layer of zinc, which acts as a
sacrificial anode. Zinc, being more reactive than steel or iron, readily corrodes in place of the base metal,
protecting it from the corrosive elements in the environment. There are two primary methods of
galvanizing: hot-dip galvanizing and electro-galvanizing. In hot-dip galvanizing, the metal object is
immersed in a bath of molten zinc at high temperatures, allowing the zinc to bond metallurgically with
the metal surface. Types of Galvanizing - 1) Hot-Dip Galvanizing: In this method, the metal object is
immersed in a bath of molten zinc at high temperatures. The zinc reacts with the surface of the metal,
forming a thick and durable zinc coating, providing excellent corrosion protection.
2) Electro-Galvanizing: In this process, a thin layer of zinc is electrodeposited onto the metal surface.
The metal object serves as the cathode, and zinc is deposited from an electrolyte solution containing
zinc ions. This method is commonly used for smaller and more intricate metal components.
Q28) What are quantum dots? Give its properties and applications ?
Ans) Quantum dots are nanoscale semiconductor particles with unique electronic properties. They are
typically composed of materials such as cadmium selenide (CdSe), cadmium sulfide (CdS), or other
semiconductors. Quantum dots exhibit quantum confinement effects, which result in their size-
dependent optical and electronic properties. They are named "quantum dots" because they are often
referred to as artificial atoms.
Properties of Quantum Dots: Size-Dependent Optical Properties: Emit different colors of light based on
their size. High Quantum Yield: Efficiently emit light upon excitation. Narrow Emission Spectrum:
Produce vibrant and sharp colors. Tunable Emission: Wavelength can be adjusted by changing size and
composition. High Photostability: Withstand repeated excitation without significant degradation.
Applications of Quantum Dots: Display Technology: Enhance color and brightness in TVs, monitors, and
mobile devices. Biomedical Imaging: Fluorescent probes for improved medical diagnostics and
bioimaging. LEDs: Energy-efficient and high-quality lighting with a wide color range.
Solar Cells: Improve light absorption and efficiency in solar energy conversion.
Q29) Define corrosion ? State the condition under which wet corrosion occur ?
Ans) Corrosion: Corrosion is the process of deterioration and degradation of metals and materials due
to chemical or electrochemical reactions with their surrounding environment. It typically involves the
loss of metal atoms or the breakdown of the metal structure, leading to material damage and reduced
functionality.
Conditions for Wet Corrosion: Wet corrosion occurs when metals are exposed to an environment
containing moisture or a liquid electrolyte. The presence of water or other liquids provides the
necessary conditions for the electrochemical reactions that lead to corrosion. The following conditions
are necessary for wet corrosion to occur:
Presence of Moisture: Wet corrosion requires the presence of moisture, such as water or humidity,
which acts as an electrolyte to facilitate electrochemical reactions.
Presence of an Electrolyte: The presence of a liquid electrolyte, which can be water or other liquids
containing ions, enhances the ionic conductivity and accelerates the corrosion process.
Presence of Oxygen: For most metals, the presence of oxygen in the environment is essential for
corrosion to occur. Oxygen participates in electrochemical reactions, promoting oxidation and corrosion
of the metal.