1.

Introduction to thermodynamics

1.1 The Meaning of thermodynamics and its practical applications

q Thermodynamics is a branch of physics that deals with laws of energy conversion and
transformation. It describes how a given systems respond to the changes in the surrounding.

q Thermodynamics is the branch of science that deals with the relationship between heat, energy, and
work. It studies how energy is transferred and transformed in physical and chemical systems.
Thermodynamics has various practical applications, including:

 Designing efficient engines and power plants

 Understanding and optimizing chemical reactions

 Developing refrigeration and air conditioning systems

 Analyzing the behavior of materials at different temperatures

1.2 The Microscopic and Macroscopic Thermodynamic Study approaches

q The two thermodynamics study approaches that are used to study the change in the behavior of
matter (a given thermodynamic system):

I. Microscopic approaches: If the thermodynamic study of behavioral change in a given TDs Systems is
described by summing up the values of the varying thermodynamic variables (T, P) of each and every
molecules is known as microscopic approaches or statistical thermodynamics.

q Statistical Thermodynamics focuses on the microscopic behavior of particles within a system and uses
statistical methods to understand the macroscopic properties.

II. Macroscopic approaches: If the thermodynamic study of behavioral change in a given TDs Systems is
described by the effect of the combination of many molecules of the varying thermodynamic
variables (T, P) of a given TDs Systems is known as macroscopic approaches or classical
thermodynamics.

q Classical Thermodynamics, on the other hand, deals with the macroscopic behavior of systems and
uses laws and principles to describe their properties.

Comparison:

q Statistical Thermodynamics: Focuses on the behavior of individual particles, involves statistical

methods, and provides a detailed understanding of energy distribution.

q Classical Thermodynamics: Focuses on the overall properties of systems, uses laws like the laws of
thermodynamics, and provides a simplified description of energy transfer and transformation.
1.3 Thermodynamics Systems

q A thermodynamic system refers to a specific region or area of interest that we study within the field
of thermodynamics. It can be any object, substance, or collection of matter that we analyze to
understand its behavior and interactions with its surroundings.

q Thermodynamic system is a specific region or sample of matter under study, which is separated from
its surroundings by a boundary.A

q system is characterized by its boundaries, which can be real or imaginary, and can be open, closed, or
isolated.

q Surrounding : Everything outside the thermodynamic system that can interact with it.

q Universe : The combination of the thermodynamic system and its surroundings.

q By studying thermodynamic systems, we can understand how they respond to changes in

temperature, pressure, and volume, and how energy is transferred and transformed within the
system and its surroundings.

q This helps us analyze and predict the behavior of various physical and chemical processes, such as
engines, refrigerators, and chemical reactions.

1.3.1 Types of Thermodynamics Systems (i.e., isolated, Closed and Open

Thermodynamic system)- BP-CLO 3

q Based on the interaction of a given TDs system to its surrounding, we can classify the TDs system into
three categories. Thus are closed, opened and isolated TDs systems.

I. Closed system: is a TDs system which allows a transfer of energy but don't allow a transfer of mass
from the system to the surrounding or vice versa. Closed system is also known as “control mass
system”. Closed System is a system that exchanges energy but not matter with its surroundings.

q A closed system allows energy to be exchanged with its surroundings, but not matter. A closed system
is like a sealed container, where heat can flow in or out, but nothing can enter or leave.
q Closed Systems examples: Pressure cooker (I.e. Sealed, faster cooking), Water cycle: (I.e.Evaporation,
precipitation, closed loop), Refrigerator (I.e.Keeps contents cold, removes heat) and Water-filled
bottle(I.e.Sealed, no matter exchange),…etc.

II. Open system: is a TDs system which allows a transfer of both energy and mass from the system to the
surrounding or vice versa. Open system is also known as “control volume system”. Open System is a
system that exchanges both energy and matter with its surroundings.

q This helps us analyze and predict the behavior of various physical and chemical processes, such as
engines, refrigerators, and chemical reactions.

q An open system allows both matter and energy to be exchanged with its surroundings. For example, a
pot of boiling water with steam escaping is an open system since both heat and water vapor can enter
or leave.

q Open Systems examples: A boiling kettle, where heat is supplied to the system, and water vapor
escapes as steam, Boiling water (I.e. Water on stove, steam released), Living organism (I.e.Human
body, exchanges energy and matter), Running faucet (I.e.Water flowing, enters and exits) and Wind
turbine (I.e.Converts wind to electricity), water heater, car radiator, compressor,..etc.

III. Isolated system: is a TDs system which don't affected by its surrounding and it don't allows any
kind of transfer of mass, work or energy from the system to the surrounding or vice versa.

q An isolated system does not allow any exchange of matter or energy with its surroundings. It is a
completely self-contained system that is isolated from its surroundings, like a perfectly insulated
thermos. Isolated System is a system that does not exchange energy or matter with its surroundings.

q Isolated Systems examples: Hot tea or coffee in thermo flask, Universe (I.e. Self-contained,
isolated.insulated), Insulated thermos (I.e. No heat transfer Vacuum), chamber (I.e. Sealed, no
exchange. Closed) and Closed room (I.e. No matter or energy exchange),..etc.

1.3.2 The Physical Properties of Thermodynamic Systems

q The physical properties of a thermodynamic systems can be classified in to two main categories. Thus
are:

I. Intensive properties: are a physical properties of a TDs system which do not depend on the size or
amount of the system. They remain constant regardless of the system's size.

q Here are some examples of intensive thermodynamic variables and functions:

e.g. Temperature (T), Pressure (P), Density (ρ), Specific heat capacity (C), Specific volume (v), Molar
concentration (c), Gibb's free energy (G), Chemical potential (μ), Surface tension (σ), Viscosity (η),... etc.

q Generally, all the specific and molar physical properties of a TDs system are intensive properties.
II. Extensive properties: are a physical properties of a TDs system which depend on the size or amount
of the system. They vary with the system's size.

q Here are some examples of thermodynamic variables and functions that have an extensive physical
property only:

e.g. Mass (m), Volume (V), Energy (E), Entropy (S), Internal energy (U), Enthalpy (H), Helmholtz free
energy (A), Gibbs free energy (G), Heat capacity (C), Chemical potential (μ),... etc.

1.3.3 The Equilibrium Conditions of Thermodynamic Systems

q This helps us analyze and predict the behavior of various physical and chemical processes, such as
engines, refrigerators, and chemical reactions.

q The TDs system is said to be in the state of “thermodynamic Equilibrium”, when the system satisfies
the following three different equilibrium conditions. Thus are mechanical, thermal and chemical
equilibrium at the same time.

I. Mechanical Equilibrium: the TDs system is said to be in state of mechanical

equilibrium with the other TDs system or with surrounding, when there is no
pressure gradient or unbalanced force within the system itself, between other
system(s) and with the surrounding.

II. Thermal Equilibrium: the TDs system is said to be in state of thermal

equilibrium with the other TDs system(s) or with surrounding, when there is
no any temperature gradient within the system itself, between other
system(s) and with the surrounding.

III. Chemical Equilibrium: the TDs system is said to be in state of mechanical

equilibrium with the other TDs system or with surrounding, when there is no
Chemical potential gradient within the system itself, between other system(s)
and with the surrounding.

1.4 The Properties of Thermodynamic State Variables

q The properties of a thermodynamics system’s state describing variables can be classified in to two
main categories. Thus are:

I. State Functions: are the properties of a thermodynamics system’s state describing variables
which are independent of the path followed (taken) by a given TDs system.State functions most
frequently depends only on the initial and final state of a given TDs system. e.g. Change in Enthalpy
(ΔH), Change in Gibbs Free Energy(ΔG), Change in Entropy(ΔS),...etc.
II. Path Functions: are the properties of a thermodynamics system’s state describing variables
which are dependent on the path followed(taken) by a given TDs system.e.g. Work, Heat, ,...etc.

1.5 Review Multiple Choice Questions on introduction to thermodynamics

Choose only the correct answer from the given multiple choice questions:-
1. __________________ is a state of an equilibrium when there is no any temperature gradient
within the system itself, between other system(s) and with the surrounding.
(A)Mechanical Equilibrium
(B)Chemical Equilibrium
(C) Thermal Equilibrium
(D)“b” and “c”
2. Which one of the following is not is not a thermodynamic state variable?
(A)Enthalpy
(B)Heat
(C) Internal energy
(D)work
(E)both B and D
3. Which of one the following is an extensive properties?
(A)Specific Heat Capacity

(B)Gibb’s Free Energy

(C) Electromotive Force(EMF) (work/charge)
(D)Dielectric Constant
4. Which of the following is not a state function?
(A)Internal energy
(B)Enthalpy
(C) Work
(D)Entropy
5. Which of the following items is not a path function?
(A)Heat
(B) Work
(C) Kinetic energy
(D)Thermal conductivity
Answer: D
Heat and work are path functions because they depend on how a system changes from
initial to final state, hence they are state functions. Thermal conductivity is mainly a
function of the motion of the free electrons therefore property of a material, not a path
function.
6. Which of the following statements is false?
(A)Work appears at the boundary of the system.
(B)Work is a state function.
(C) Temperature is a state function.
(D)Change in the state is completely defined when the initial and final states are
specified.
Answer: Work appears only as change in the state at the boundary of the system. It is a
path function. It can be defined as any quantity of energy that flows across the
boundary between the system and surroundings which can be used to change the
height of a mass in the surroundings. Note: Think that how nonsense it is to say that a
system at one point has this amount of work. * Temperature is one of the variable that
defines the state of a system.
7. Which one of the following is not true about thermodynamics?
(A)It can only be applied in materials engineering disciplines
(B)Its historical Greek word definitions are “thermos” means heat and “dynamos” means
power.
(C) It is a natural science field of study that can be applied for several multi disciplines
(D)None of the above
8. An isolated system is best described by which one of the following statements?
(A)Neither matter nor heat can pass into or out of the system.

(B)The system has a boundary which allows heat to be transferred but does not allow
material to pass into or out of the system.

(C) The system has a diathermic boundary.

(D)A system which has reached thermal equilibrium with its surroundings.

9. Which one of the following statements describes a path function?

(A)A property of a system that depends only on the current state of the system, not on
the path the system took to reach that state.

(B)A property of a system that depends on the path taken between the initial and final
states.

(C) The sum of kinetic and potential energy contained in a substance.

(D)The heat energy absorbed by a system at constant pressure.

10. Which one of the following thermodynamic quantities is not a state function?

(A) Gibbs free energy

(B) enthalpy

(c) entropy
 (d) internal energy
(e) work
11. When there is no temperature difference between the part of system or between the
system and it's surrounding then it is said to be in a state of…………

(A)electrical equilibrium

(B)thermal equilibrium
(C) chemical equilibrium
(D)mechanical equilibrium
12. When there is no unbalanced force acting on any part of the system for the system as a
whole it is said to be in state of…………

(A)electrical equilibrium

(B)thermal equilibrium
(C) chemical equilibrium
(D)mechanical equilibrium
13. A system which exchange both mass and energy with and its surrounding is
called………..

(A)closed system

(B)open system
(C) isolated system
(D)equilibrium system
14. Which of the following is NOT a state variable?

(A) Work (B) Internal energy (C) Entropy ( D) Temperature (E) Pressure