GENERAL BIOLOGY 1

COURSE MATERIAL NO. 1

Source: https://tme.uconn.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/1326/2016/11/mcb.jpg

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 WHAT WILL YOU
LEARN?
This module has been
designed to help you: THE CELL
 Define cell;
 Explain the
postulates of the
Cell Theory.
 Describe the
structure and
function of major
and subcellular
organelles.
 Distinguish
prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells
according to their
distinguishing
features. Source: https://serpmedia.org/scigen/images/inside_cell_sized.jpg?crc=300964243

 Classify different
cell types
(plant/animal
tissues) and specify
the function(s) of
each.

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 THE CELL
Cells are the Units of Life
A human, a plant, a mushroom, and a bacterium appear to have little
in common other that being alive. All organisms consist of one or
more microscopic structures called cells, the smallest unit of life that
can function independently. Within cells, highly coordinated
biochemical activities carry out the basic functions of life.

The Cell Theory

In the late 1500s, spectacle maker from the Netherlands, named
Zacharias Janssen, invented the microscope.

In 1600s, Anton van Leeuwenhoek a Dutch shopkeeper who had

great skills in crafting lenses observed the movements of protists (a
type of single-celled organism) and sperm, which he collectively
termed “animalcules”.

In a 1665, publication called Micrographia, experimental scientist

Robert Hooke coined the term “cellulae” which was shortened to
“cell” for the box-like structures he observed when viewing cork
tissue through a lens. FOCUS
By the late 1830s, botanist Matthias Schleiden and zoologist
QUESTIONS
Theodor Schwann were studying tissues and proposed the first
postulates of the cell theory.  Why are cells, not
atoms, the basic
units of life?
Rudolf Virchow later made important contributions to this theory.
 Why there is a very
With further advanced studies, the unified cell theory has been little cell
presented. Their efforts resulted in cell theory, which illuminated the advancement
cell’s significance to life for all of us who came later. between Hooke-
Leeuwenhoek
The generally accepted portions of the modern Cell Theory are as discoveries up to
follows: mid-nineteenth
century?
 The cell is the basic unit of life.
 What are the three
 All organisms are made up of one or more cells. main components of
 All cells come from pre-existing cells. the cell theory?

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 The expanded version of the cell theory can also include:
DID YOU
 Cells carry genetic material passed to daughter cells during cellular
KNOW….
division
One human cell  All cells are essentially the same in chemical composition
contains 46  Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells
chromosomes,
however, some
humans have 47 Prokaryotes VS. Eukaryotes
chromosomes. This
is diagnosed as Biologists have never found a cell they can’t assign to just one of two basic
Down's Syndrome. types: prokaryotic or eukaryotic. A cell’s most obvious distinguishing
feature is the presence or absence of a cell nucleus.

Eukaryotic cells (eu = true, karyo= nucleus) contain a prominent, roughly

spherical, membrane-enclosed body called nucleus, which houses DNA,
the cell’s hereditary material.
 nucleus bound by membrane
 fungi, protists, plant, and animals
 possess many organelles

In Prokaryotic cells (pro= before, karyo= nucleus) the DNA is loose in the
cell’s interior and not separated from the rest of the cell’s contents by a
membrane.
 first cell type on Earth (bacteria and archaea)
 no membrane-bound nucleus (nucleoid)
 organelles not bound by membranes
Source: https://a-z-  thrive in the boiling waters of hot springs (for some prokaryotes)
animals.com/media/2023/04/shutters
tock_1622698801-768x1152.jpg

Cell’s Structure and Functions

In eukaryotic cells, organelles have specialized functions that carry out the
work of the cell. If you think of a eukaryotic cell as a home, each organelle
would be analogous to a room. For example, your kitchen, bathroom, and
bedroom each hold unique items that suit the uses of those rooms. Like-
wise, each organelle has distinct sets of proteins and other molecules that
fit the organelle's function.

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 Cell Organelles Functions
A structure of thin fibers
forming a lattice throughout
Cytoskeleton the cytoplasm, suspending the
organelles and allowing cell
parts to move.
The pair of short, rod-shaped
organelles that organize the
cytoskeletal fibers called
microtubules into scaffolds;
Centriole
these intracellular frameworks
help maintain cell shape and
move chromosome during cell
division.
It is a semi-permeable
Plasma Membrane membrane of the cells, which is
(Cell Membrane or composed of a lipid bilayer and
Cytoplasmic Membrane) proteins, it is present in both
animal and plant cell.
A semifluid, highly organized FOCUS
pool of raw materials and fluid QUESTION
Cytoplasm
in which the cell’s internal
organelles are suspended.  How do organelles
The organelle that contains contribute to
genetic information or DNA in efficiency in
eukaryotic cells that controls eukaryotic cells?
most of the cell’s activities. In
the nucleus of all eukaryotic
cells the information in DNA is
copied into RNA, the RNA then
Nucleus
moves out of the nucleus into
the cytoplasm, and its
information is used to make
proteins, which carry out the
work of the cell.

DNA > RNA > Protein

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 Cell Organelles
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Functions
Most of a cell’s ribosomes float
freely in the cytoplasm, but some
are attached to flattened
membranous sacs within the cell –
the endoplasmic reticulum or ER
(endo= inside; plasmic= cell;
reticulum= network) a system of
membranous tubes, channels, and
sacs that forms compartments
within the cytoplasm.

Its main function is in lipid

synthesis and in the manufacture
of proteins destined for secretion
Cell under microscope.
from the cell.
Source: It is the membrane surface that is
https://histology.medicine.umich.edu/
sites/default/files/images/slides/2cell studded with ribosomes making
biology.jpg Rough ER
proteins that enter the inner
compartment of the ER.
A section where it synthesizes
Smooth ER lipids and houses enzymes that
detoxify drugs and poisons.
DID YOU Harvesters of Energy /
KNOW…. Powerhouse of the Cell

Animal cells are self-

(singular Mitochondrion) are
destructive, which
cellular organelles that harvest
means they destroy
energy from food by breaking
themselves during
Mitochondria down carbon-containing
infections, injury, or
certain rare molecules and that release energy
conditions so they packets, or ATP. It provides
don't impact other chemical fuel for cellular activities
cells. such as building proteins, copying
DNA, and moving cell and cell
parts.

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 Cell Organelles Functions
A structure in the cell that
provides a site for protein
synthesis; ribosomes may lie
freely in the cell or attach to
the membranes of the
endoplasmic reticulum.
Ribosomes Thousands of ribosomes are
embedded throughout the
cell’s cytoplasm. There are no
functional ribosomes inside
the nucleus, so protein
building occurs only in the
cytoplasm.
The golgi apparatus is a
collection of flat sacs that
process proteins for export
from the cell or for shunting to
different parts of the cell, also
Golgi Apparatus (or Golgi
known as the processing
Body)
center.

This organelle modifies, sorts,

tags, packages and distributes
lipids and proteins.
The Cell’s Recyclers

are organelles containing

enzymes that dismantle and Rough ER and Ribosomes under
transmission electron micrograph (TEM)
recycle food particles, Source:
captured bacteria, worn-out https://media.sciencephoto.com/image/c03
67389/800wm/C0367389-
organelles and debris. They are Rough_endoplasmic_reticulum_and_riboso
mes,_TEM.jpg
Lysosomes so named because their
enzymes lyse, or cut apart,
their substrates. Digestive
enzymes in the lysosomes
generally break down the
refuse into smaller molecules,
which then reenter the
cytoplasm for reuse by the cell.
A large fluid-filled sac inside
Vacuoles
cells surrounded by a single

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 membrane; in plant cells, it is
important for maintaing cell
shape.
An organelles that originates in
Endoplasmic Reticulum and
Peroxisomes contain several types of FOCUS
enzymes that dispose of toxic
substances. QUESTION

 How does a cell

membrane differ
from a cell wall?
 Why cilia and
flagella important?

Source: https://cdn1.byjus.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/Cell-Organelles-1.png

Specialized Organelles
Cell Organelles Functions
A fairly rigid structure that
encloses some protists, and all
prokaryotic, fungal, and plant
Cell Wall cells. It’s porous wall allows
water, gases, and some solid
materials to pass through cell
membrane.
An organelle found in plants
and some protozoa that
Plastids harvests solar energy,
manufacture nutrient
molecules, and store materials.
Are one type of plastid that Chlorophyll in plant cell under microscope

traps the erngy of sunlight in a Source:

https://cdn.britannica.com/49/138749-050-
Chloroplasts chemical form – generally, 5CB40241/view-chlorophyll-plant-cells.jpg

sugar molecules – in the

process of photosynthesis.

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 (pl. flagella), is a long whiplike
organelle protruding from the
surface of the cell that either
Flagellum propels the cell, acting as
locomotory device, or moves
fluids past the cell, becoming a
feeding apparatus.
(pl. cillia), are small hair-like
protuberances on the outside
of the eukaryotic cells. They are
Cillium primarily responsible for
locomotion, either of the cell
itself or of fluids on the cell
surface.

Source: https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/nkwi48quM-iOEXLYbLXYJ78opYQ=/750x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc():format(webp)/animal_cell_vs_plant_cell-
58b45d8f5f9b5860460ceb88.jpg

All cells have features in common, reflecting their shared evolutionary

history. These shared features include DNA, RNA, ribosomes, proteins,
cytoplasm, and a cell membrane. At the same time, life’s three
domains differ in many ways, including DNA and RNA sequences,
ribosome type, protein diversity, cytoplasm composition, and
membrane structure. In addition to these differences, eukaryotic cells
have variable numbers and types of organelles. Microscopes and cell
chemistry techniques are vital tools that scientists use to discover the
differences between cells.

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 UNDERSTANDING CHECK
LEARNING ACTIVITY

ACTIVITY NO. 1
PROKARYOTES VS. EUKARYOTES

Directions: Make a two-column chart comparing prokaryotes and eukaryotes. List down at least five
comparisons, then answer the guide questions below.

PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES

Guide Questions:
1. If a eukaryotic cell is like a house, how is a prokaryotic cell like a one-room apartment?
2. Bacteria and blue-green algae are both primitive prokaryotic that lived on earth. Explain
why these prokaryotic organisms are more adaptive than eukaryotes.

ACTIVITY NO. 2
ANIMAL CELL VS. PLANT CELL

Directions: Using a Venn diagram, elaborate the difference and similarities of Animal cell and Plant
cell.

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 PERFORMANCE TASK #1
“THROUGH THE CELLS”
Objectives: NAME
GRADE & SECTION
 Prepare cell slides GROUP NO.
for viewing under DATE
a microscope;
 Understand the Introduction:
More than 300 years ago, English scientist Robert Hooke focused one of
basics of using a
the very earliest microscopes on some everyday objects from his home:
microscope;
the point of a pin, the surface of a nettle leaf, and the body of a flea.
 Identify
Hooke was astonished by the fine detail he could make out in this new,
differences
previously unseen world. When Hooke looked at a thin slice of cork
between a plant
through his microscope, he saw what he called "cells," which reminded
and animal cell.
him of the small rooms inhabited. by monks.

Hooke was apparently the first person to publicize seeing cells, but he
Safety Precautions:
could not fully define what he was observing. Modern biologists know
 Care must be that a cell is the smallest entity completely surrounded by a membrane
taken when doing and capable of reproducing itself independent of other cells. It is also the
this part of the lab smallest unit displaying all the properties of life listed in Course Material
to handle and No. 1, including the orderly chemical activities of metabolism, the
dispose of the capacity of self-propelled motion, the ability to reproduce and develop,
cells with and the potential to evolve over many generations.
appropriate
concern. Materials and Reagents needed:
 Observe and Materials Reagents
practice Glass slides (2-3 pcs) Methylene blue
important Cover slips (2-3 pcs) Iodine
laboratory rules. Plastic tray
Plastic/Medicine dropper
Toothpick (2-3 pcs)
Small plastic cup (1-2 pcs)
Piece of onion
Pair of tweezers
Microscope
Note: The numbers of materials per piece are per head, not as a group.

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Procedures:
PART A
Plant Cells: Onion Skin Wet Mount
1. Peel the delicate transparent tissue from the inner surface of an onion using forceps or
tweezers.
2. Make a wet mount by placing the tissue, unwrinkled, in a small drop of water on a glass
slide.
3. Add one small drop of Lugol's iodine stain to the tissue and cover with a cover slip as
directed. Important: Be careful for the Lugol's can stain and burn the skin!
4. Examine the onion cells at low power and focus as necessary.
5. Next examine the cells at medium and high power.
6. Prepare a diagram of onion skin tissue showing three to four cells. Label the structures that
you can identify from the microscope. (examples - cell membrane, nucleus, etc.)

Guide Questions:
1. Describe the shape of the cells.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

2. What cell structures and organelles can you see?

__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

3. How come there are no chloroplasts evident?

__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

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Procedures:
PART B
Animal Cells: Human Cheek Cell Wet Mount
1. Place a drop of water on a clean slide. Gently scrape the inside of your cheek with the
blunt end of a clean toothpick and stir the material on the toothpick in the drop of water
on the slide. Reminder: Do not forget to properly dispose the toothpick.
2. Add one small drop of methylene blue stain to the slide and then add a coverslip as
directed.
3. Focus and examine the slide under low power before moving to the higher magnifications.
4. Prepare a diagram showing 3 - 4 cells of the cheek and label structures you can identify.
Reminder: Do not forget to identify magnification of the drawing.

Guide Questions:
1. What are the shapes of the cells?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

2. What cell structures can you identify?

__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

3. Would the cells normally be attached to one another? Explain.

__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

4. Some of the cells may be folded or wrinkled. What does this indicate to you about the
thickness of the cells?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

5. Explain how these cells differ from the plant cells viewed previously.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

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 SUMMARY

 Cells are the microscopic components of all organisms.

 More than 8.7 million species are living on the planet. Every single species is
composed of a cell and it includes both single-celled and multicellular organisms.
 The first person to see cells was Robert Hooke, who viewed cork with a crude lens
in the late seventeenth century.
 The cell theory states that all life is composed of cells, that cells are the functional
units of life, and that all cells come from pre-existing cells.
 The cells provide shape, structure and carry out different types of functions to
keep the entire system active.
 The cell contains different functional structures which are collectively called
organelles, and they are involved in various cellular functions.
 Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and other organelles; prokaryotic cells lack these
structures.
 Prokaryotic cells include bacteria and archaea.
 Eukaryotic cells include those of protists, plants, fungi, and animals. Most
eukaryotic cells are larger than prokaryotic cells.
 The endomembrane system includes the nuclear envelope, endoplasmic
reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles, and the cell membrane that
transport materials within cells.
 The smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus work
together to synthesize, store, transport, and release molecules.
 A eukaryotic cell degrades wastes and digest nutrients in lysosomes.
 In plants, a watery vacuole degrades wastes, exert turgor pressure, and stores
acids and pigments.
 Peroxisomes help digest fatty acids and detoxify many substances.
 Cilia are short, numerous extensions; flagella are less numerous but much longer.
Both cilia and flagella aid in the movement of the cells or materials.
 Most organisms other than animal have cells walls, which provide protection and
shape. Plant cell walls consists of cellulose filaments connected by other
molecules.

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 KEY TERMS
 CELL THEORY
 PROKARYOTIC CELL
 EUKARYOTIC CELL
 ANIMAL CELL
 PLANT CELL
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
 CELL ORGANELLES

REFERENCES
Printed Materials:
Hoefnagels, M. (2016) Biology: The Essentials, Second Edition [General Biology: Books I and
II]. Abiva Publishing House, Inc. (Copyright 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education)
J. Postlethwait & J. Hopson (2012) The World of Biology. Cengage Learning Asia Pte. Ltd.
(3rd Philippine reprint 2014)

E-readings:
 https://byjus.com/biology/cell-organelles/
 http://www.depedrovcatanduanes.com/files/21-Gen.Bio-AS-v1.0.pdf

CONTRIBUTOR(S)
SETH BRYAN CABRIJAS
VERNIESE L. CHEN
JAMIE S. DELOS SANTOS
PAUL D. GONZALES
MELANIE I. PASCUAL

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