Ears:

 The ear, the receptor organ for both hearing and equilibrium, has three main regions: the
external ear, the middle ear, and the internal ear.
 The external and middle ears participate in hearing only, whereas the internal ear functions in
both hearing and equilibrium.

External Ear:

 The external ear function is to gather sound energy and focuses it on the eardrum (tympanic
membrane) and it consists of the auricle and the external acoustic meatus.
 Auricle:
o it’s the shell-shaped projection that surrounds the opening of the external acoustic
meatus.
o Most of the auricle, including the helix (rim), consists of elastic cartilage covered with
skin
o Its function is to funnel sound waves into the external acoustic meatus
 External Acoustic meatus:
o It’s a slightly curved tunnel through the temporal bone that terminates at the
tympanic membrane.
o Its lined with modified sweat glands called ceruminous glands that secrete cerumen
which is ear wax.
o The function of the ear wax is to lubricate and waterproofs the canal and the
tympanic membrane and it also remove debris before it reaches the tympanic
membrane.
 Tympanic membrane:
o It’s also called eardrum and It’s the boundary between the external and middle ear.
o Its composed of a thin sheet of epithelium and connective tissue.
o Its transmitting the sound waves from the external ear into the middle and then into
the internal ear.

Middle Ear:

 It’s the middle part of the ear and its located in the temporal bone
 It’s a hollow air-filled mucous membrane lined chamber
 It contains small bones called the ossicles and their function is to amplify and convert incoming
sound waves in air into the fluid movement.
o Auditory ossicles: they are three tiny bones and they are named by their shapes.
 Malleus: its shaped like a hammer and its connected to the apex of the tympanic
membrane.
 Incus: its shaped like an anvil and it forms the midpoint of the bony bridge.
 Stapes: its shaped like a stirrup and its connected to the oval membrane in the medial
chamber wall that covers the oval window (which is a boundary between the air-filled
middle ear and the fluid-filled inner ear.
  Two tiny skeletal muscles attach to the ossicles and they are both components of reflex and they
prevent damage from loud sound by reducing movement of the tympanic membrane and the
ossicles.
o Tensor Tympani Muscle: it tightens the tympanic membrane by pulling it medially and it
originates from the wall of the pharyngotympanic tube and it inserts on the malleus.
o Stapedius Muscle: it reduces the movement of the ossicles and it originates from the
posterior wall of the middle ear and it inserts on stapes.
 Pharyngotympanic tube: its also called auditory tube and it connects the nasopharynx with the
middle ear and its function is to equalize the air pressure on both sides of the tympanic
membrane.
 Boundaries in the middle ear: (tympanic tube, superior oval window, inferior round window)
 The posterior wall is the mastoid antrum: a canal leading to the mastoid air cells in the mastoid
process.

Inner Ear:

 It’s the most complex part of the ear and its also called the labyrinth and it’s the region which is
responsible for hearing and equilibrium and its divided into:
 Bony labyrinth: it’s a fluid filled cavity that’s located in the petrous part of the temporal
bone and it and it consists of:
o Semicircular Canals:
o Vestibule:
o Cochlea:
o Perilymph
 Membranous labyrinth: they are membranes that are lining the bony labyrinth and it
contains:
o Semicircular Ducts:
o Utricle and Saccule:
o Cochlear duct:
o Endolymph

 Cochlea:
o It’s a portion of the inner ear that has a spiraling chamber and its located inferiorly in
the bony labyrinth
o It twists around a coiled bone called modiolus and running through the modiolus is the
cochlear nerve which is a part of the vestibulocochlear nerve.
o There is also the endolymph-filled cochlear duct that lies between the Scala vestibuli
and Scala tympani which are two perilymph-filled chambers of the bony labyrinth.
 Scala tympani: it’s a chamber within the cochlea and its inferior to the cochlear
duct and it terminates in the vestibule near the oval window
 Scala vestibuli: its superior to the cochlear duct and its continuous with the
vestibule
 Cochlear duct:
o Its also called the Scala media which is filled with endolymph and its connected to the
saccule.
o It’s a part of the membranous labyrinth that contains the sensory receptors for hearing.
o Vestibular membrane:
 it’s a sheet of epithelium and it acts like a boundary between the cochlear duct
and Scala vestibuli
 its function is to sperate the endolymph from the perilymph and to act as
barrier to maintain homeostasis of each fluid
o Basilar membrane:
 its composed of collagenous connective tissue that is connected to a small shelf
of bone projecting from the bony labyrinth
 it acts like a boundary between the cochlear duct and Scala tympani.
 The basilar membrane becomes more flexible as it widens which will allow it to
detect variations in the sound pitch.
 It also contains the organ of corti which contains the receptor cells for hearing
and it converts sound wave energy into electrical impulses
 Processing of the Sound:
o First the sound waves will be striking the tympanic membrane which will cause it to
vibrate.
o Then the tympanic membrane vibration will start to move the auditory ossicles in the
middle ear which will cause the oval window to vibrate at the same frequency
o Then then the vibration will produce pressure waves in the perilymph of the Scala
vestibuli and the endolymph of the cochlear duct which will then vibrate the basilar
membrane.
o High frequency pressure waves will travel a short distance into the cochlea and it will
cause the basilar membrane to vibrate where its narrow and stiff
o Low frequency pressure waves will travel a long distance into the cochlea and it will
cause the basilar membrane to vibrate where its wide and flexible
 Vestibule:
o Its located medially to the middle ear
o It contains the utricle and the saccule which are parts of the membranous labyrinth,
they contain the receptor cells and they are both endolymph-filled chambers.
o Their function is to respond to changes in the position of the head with respect to
gravity.
 Semicircular canals:
o They contain the three tubes of the membranous labyrinth called the anterior, posterior
and lateral semicircular ducts and they are position at right angles to each other.
o There function is to detect rotational movement of the head in any body position.
o It contains the ampulla which is the enlarged bulb at the base of each duct which
contains the vestibular division of the vestibulocochlear nerve.
 Utricle and Saccule:
o They are segments of the membranous labyrinth in the vestibule and they contain
macula which contains receptor cells for head position and movement.
 o Each macula contains hair cells which are the supporting cells which are the following
the movement of the fluid into the inner ear
o The hair cells are embedded in the otolithic membrane which is a jelly like disc which
contains the calcium carbonate crystals
 Auditory pathway:
o It’s the pathway from the ear to the brain
o First the sensory information travel to the cochlea
o Then from the cochlea the auditory signal travels to the cochlear nuclei
o Then the signals will be synapsing on the superior olivary nucleus then into the pons.
o From the pons the information is sent to the inferior colliculus of the midbrain then to
the medial geniculate nucleus in the thalamus.
o Finally, it reaches the primary auditory cortex which is located in the temporal lobe
 Equilibrium:
o The sense of equilibrium depends on the input from different sources such as:
 Visual system
 Proprioceptors in muscles
 Vestibular system:
 It contains the vestibule and semicircular canals in the inner ear
 Its function is to provide information about head position and movement
o There are two types of equilibrium:
 Static Equilibrium: is to maintain balance when your head is tilted but you are
not moving
 Dynamic Equilibrium: is to maintain balance when your head is going through
rotational movements or linear acceleration
o It can be detected by the hair cells because the hair cells can detect the change of the
flow of the fluid in the endolymph
 Vestibular Sensation:
o It starts from different parts such as the visual impulse or the proprioceptors
o Signals will be traveling to the vestibular nuclei then from there it will be going into the
thalamus then into the inferior parietal lobe
o We also have the cranial nerve nuclei which is associated to the extrinsic eye muscles
that are coordinating the eye movements
o Also we have the cerebellum and the spinal cord that are coordinating the muscles to
maintain the balance