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Synthesis Lectures on
Materials and Optics
John X. J. Zhang
Plasmonic MEMS
Synthesis Lectures on Materials and Optics
This series publishes concise books on topics that include advanced and state-of-the-art
methods to understand and develop materials for optics. Leading experts on the subject
present and discuss both classical and new wave theory, techniques, and interdisciplinary
applications in the field. Optical materials play an integral role in the development of
numerous advances in areas from communications to sensors to photonics and more, and
this series discusses a broad range of topics and principles in condensed matter physics,
materials science, chemistry, and electrical engineering.
John X. J. Zhang
Plasmonic MEMS
John X. J. Zhang
Dartmouth College
Hanover, NH, USA
ISSN 2691-1930 ISSN 2691-1949 (electronic)

Synthesis Lectures on Materials and Optics
ISBN 978-3-031-23136-0 ISBN 978-3-031-23137-7 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23137-7
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
2023
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole
or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage
and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or
hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does
not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective
laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are
believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give
a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that
may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and
institutional affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface
The ability to manipulate light beyond traditional diffraction limit at nanoscale physical
dimensions is driving the rapid development of nanophotonics. Major developments in
theoretical modeling, design, simulations, robust, and reliable nanofabrication techniques
are responsible for the variety of emerging applications of nanophotonics from comput-
ing, communication to biomedical sensing and imaging. The rapidly growing field of
plasmonics, as a subsection of nanophotonics, deals with confining optical energy into
dimensions far below the diffraction limit. Surface plasmons, collective oscillations of the
conduction electrons, as a building block of plasmonics have found large applications in
label-free biosensing, molecular-specific imaging, and photothermal therapy of cancer.
Recent years have seen an exciting and gradually emerging field of “Plasmonic
MEMS”, which attempts to combine plasmonics with Microelectromechanical Sys-
tem (MEMS) technology towards achieving remarkably enhanced system performance.
Progress and improvements in Optical MEMS in the past two decades have led to
a variety of miniaturized movable and tunable mirrors, lenses, filters, and other opti-
cal structures. Plasmonic MEMS provides a new set of perspectives and design tools
through in-depth coupling of physics and chemistry at surfaces and interfaces with multi-
scale engineering, which has great interdisciplinary appeal, attracting researchers from
fields as diverse as electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, optics, biochemistry,
biomedical engineering, and biology towards new system designs.
Our intention in creating this book is to cover the key topics in the emerging field
of plasmonic MEMS, with the emphasis on the practical aspects of this area. Extended
readings can be referred to many comprehensive and well-written textbooks on electro-
magnetic waves, nanophotonics, and plasmonics. However, most of these literatures are
lengthy and lack the focus needed for thoroughly grasp on plasmonic micromachining
and MEMS. This handbook is organized in six chapters that reflect the current status
of the evolving scientific field. Chapter 1 introduces the main framework of plasmonic
MEMS and overviews the introductory concepts in plasmonics and MEMS along with
the status of the field and the existing challenges. Chapter 2 describes the basic foun-
dations of plasmonic MEMS. An abbreviated overview of the basic physics and devices
v
vi Preface
related to electromagnetic waves and surface plasmons is also presented. It is a foun-

dational and self-contained chapter, starting with Maxwell’s equations and concluding
with the derivation of the grating equation. Chapter 3 describes recent advances in the
fabrication of sub-100-nm patterns on microscale devices and structures and reviews the
emerging techniques in the fabrication of plasmonic systems. This chapter also includes
a comprehensive and historical review of the current advances in the area of plasmonic
nanofabrication. Chapter 4 focuses on an appealing and distinctive aspect of plasmonics
as a tool for patterning and the fabrication of ultra-fine resolution structures. Chapter 5
reviews the recent developments in plasmonic MEMS and microsystems for biosensing
applications, including refractive-index-based label-free biosensing, plasmonic integrated
lab-on-chip systems, plasmonic for Near-Field Scanning Optical Microscopy (NSOM),
and plasmonics on-chip system for cellular imaging. Chapter 6 presents our perspective
on the current direction in plasmonic MEMS and micropatterning in conjunction with the
final remarks. The advanced and sophisticated readers can read the book in any preferred
order and can read only sections of personal interest.
We hope this concise book grows to be a valuable reference manual and a useful tool
for both students, researchers, and industrial practitioners in the field of plasmonics and
MEMS. We encourage readers to contribute their valuable comments/suggestions so that
the book can be improved further.
Hanover, USA John X. J. Zhang

January 2023
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 MEMS and Optical MEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Plasmonic MEMS: A Frontier of Photonic Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Status of the Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 Existing Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2 Theoretical Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1 Maxwell’s Equations and Electromagnetic Wave Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Diffraction and Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3 Transmission Line Theory (TLT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.4 Plasmonic Nanograting Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.5 Numerical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3 Fabrication Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.1 Nanofabrication Using Photons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.1.1 Photolithography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.1.2 Electron Beam Lithography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.1.3 Focused-Ion Beam Lithography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.1.4 Scanning Probe Lithography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.2 Emerging Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.2.1 Nanoimprint Lithography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.2.2 Soft Lithography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.2.3 Nanosphere Lithography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.2.4 Nanofabrication by Self-assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
vii
viii Contents
4 Plasmonics as a Fabrication Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

4.1 Prism-Coupled Plasmonic Nanolithography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.2 Grating-Coupled Plasmonic Nanolithography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.3 Focused Plasmonic Nanolithography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5 Plasmonic MEMS in Biosensing and Imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.1 Refractive-Index Based Label-Free Biosensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.2 Plasmonic Near-Field Scanning Optical Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.3 Plasmonic Nanosensors for Point-Of-Care (POC) Biomarker
Screening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.4 Signal Read-Out Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.4.1 Colorimetric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.4.2 Fluorescence, Raman, and Handheld-Format Systems . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.5 Nanoparticle Based Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.5.1 Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.5.2 Cube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.5.3 Spike/Star . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.6 Sandwich-, Chip-, and Paper-Based Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.6.1 Sandwich Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.6.2 Microfluidic Chip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.6.3 Paper Based Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.7 Meta-Surface Patterned Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
5.7.1 Lithographic Patterning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.7.2 Nanoisland Films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.7.3 Chemical Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
5.8 Challenges and Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.8.1 Covid-19 Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
5.8.2 Machine Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
5.8.3 Miniaturization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
5.8.4 Gold Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Summary and Future Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

Appendix 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Introduction
1
1.1 MEMS and Optical MEMS
Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) is the technology of integrated mechani-

cal and electro-mechanical micro-elements on a single chip. The micro-scale moving
components of MEMS devices can be readily and robustly fabricated using the well-
developed micro/nano fabrication techniques (details are covered in Chap. 3). Mechanical
displacement in MEMS devices can be obtained via external electrical actuation. MEMS
technology aims to revolutionize nearly every product group by substituting sensors,
actuators, detectors, and gears with micrometer-scale equivalents [1–3].
Since its early proposal and demonstration in late 1980s, major advancements have
taken place motivated by urgent requirements for large scale production of miniaturized
and compact sensors and actuators.
One of the main reasons for the development of MEMS technology in recent years, is
the drastic reduction of the size of the device components along with the additional and
complemented mechanical modulation functionality which can enable tunable on-chip
sensors and actuators [4, 5]. MEMS can provide microstructures in a variety of desirable
shapes and sizes with critical future size of micro or nano meter along with significant
mechanical tunability as shown in Fig. 1.1.
MEMS devices have been realized using a variety of materials including semiconduc-
tors, polymers, glasses, ceramics, metals, and various other alloys. But Silicon, as a horse
power in IC industry, and due to a very mature and well-developed fabrication processes,
has found a distinctive place in MEMS [3].
The precision mechanics of MEMS technology and micromachining have ignited the
possibility of using this technology for a wide variety of applications in high-speed digital
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 1

J. X. J. Zhang, Plasmonic MEMS, Synthesis Lectures on Materials and Optics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23137-7_1
2 1 Introduction
Feature Size
Opto-Mechanical Tunability
Fig. 1.1 The framework of MEMS, Optical MEMS, Plasmonics, and Plasmonic MEMS. a Compar-
ison by the critical feature size and the optomechanical tunability. b Classified view of each field.
Plasmonic MEMS can be considered as a subset of optical MEMS with plasmonic materials and
components
circuits [6], radio frequency (RF) and Infrared (IR) devices [7, 8], wireless communica-
tions and nanosatellites [9], unmanned air vehicles (UAVs) [10], optical detectors [11],
biomedical devices and imaging [12–14], to name a few.
Integration of MEMS with biomedical devices has opened up a new world of possibil-
ities for medical applications. Healthcare industry such as pharmaceuticals, healthcare
equipment, biotechnology and related life sciences possess a significant demand for
biomedical MEMS (Bio-MEMS). Figure 1.2 shows a few representative BioMEMS
apparatuses.
Fig. 1.2 A few BioMEMS representative applications including MEMS pressure sensors, MEMS
cancer detection and imaging, MEMS microneedles drug delivery, and MEMS in surgery. Images
are taken from top-left [15, 16], top-right [12, 17], bottom left [18, 19], bottom right [20–22]
1.1 MEMS and Optical MEMS 3
One of the first MEMS devices to be utilized in the biomedical and bioengineering
community were pressure sensors in the late 1980s [23]. In one of the pioneering works,
Leonardi, et al. realized the first wireless contact lens for intraocular pressure (IOP) mon-
itoring using a miniaturized MEMS biosensor integrated with biocompatible materials to
detect deformations of the eyeball. The device can be used to treat very complex diseases
such as Glaucoma. The wireless sensor was built using a microprocessor and an antenna
integrated into the soft contact lens shown in Fig. 1.2. The MEMS pressure sensor consists
of passive strain gages to determine corneal curvature alterations in response to IOP.
Cancer is among the leading causes of death worldwide. Among different types of can-
cer, the death rate for oral and oropharyngeal cancer is significantly higher [16]. Wang
et al. realized a MEMS enabled handheld high resolution confocal imaging probe for
portable oral cancer detection [17]. Record high field of view was achieved using a
programmable MEMS micromirror as shown in Fig. 1.2. The MEMS device utilizes a
voltage-controlled biaxial gimbal structure to rotate along the two perpendicular axes.
The realized handheld scanner imaging device illustrates great promise as a prospective
clinical tool for cancer risk assessment, evaluation and treatment.
MEMS can enable microneedles (needles orders of magnitude smaller than the con-
ventional ones) for drug delivery, vaccine delivery and fluid sampling and analysis. These
microneedles can be manufactured using a variety of materials including glass, ceram-
ics, silicon, bio-compatible polymers and also water-soluble materials [19, 24]. Scanning
electron microscope (SEM) photographs of e few microneedles are presented in Fig. 1.2.
Authors in [25] carried out the first human study to show that microneedles are painless.
400 microneedles in an area of 3 × 3 mm used in this study. Each microneedle was approx-
imately 150 µm tall with a base diameter of 80 µm and the tip radius curvature of 1 µm.
Many commercialized microneedles have been developed for a variety of applications
such as monitoring and controlling blood glucose levels, transdermal micro-projection
delivery, and treating alopecia and skin restoration.
Minimally invasive surgery (MIS) is a type of procedure done to limit the size of inci-
sion (cut). Advantages of MIS are less scarring, less injury to tissue, shorter hospital stays
and less pain. MEMS based microsurgical tools such as microtweezers, microsensors, and
microgrippers have been ascertained as a central enabling technology for MIS. A pair of
microgrippers and a temperature sensor embedded in robotic microgripper for surgical
applications are shown in Fig. 1.2 [22]. One very important and revolutionary aspect of
MEMS as a pressure sensor in MIS is to distinguish between different types of tissue
during the surgery. This helps the surgeon to identify the proper tissue before making
any incision. Menciassi et al. [26] reported a pioneering and an inventive MEMS device
for the palpation of tissue using strain gauges. The realized microgripper apparatus was
fabricated using an electroplated nickel covered with a thin gold layer, with an overall
width of about 7.5 mm and a thickness of 0.4 mm. An overall displacement of 17 µm at
the fingertips was achieved using flexure joints.
4 1 Introduction
Photonics; the science of generating and harnessing light, are among the research fields
touched by the MEMS technology. The pioneering paper of Petersen’s on silicon scan-
ner [27] galvanized the extensive interest in optical MEMS. Since then, optical MEMS
have led to the development of MEMS tunable digital displays [28], deformable mirrors
[29], tunable photonic crystal [30], adjustable lenses and apertures [31], endoscopic imag-
ing devices [32], and optical telecommunication systems [33]. The application of optical
MEMS scanning has resulted in miniaturized devices for biomedical applications such
3D imaging devices for in vivo diagnostics [34], MEMS based optical biopsy [35], and
optical coherence tomography (OCT) systems [13, 32].
Figure 1.3 shows an optical MEMS enabled endoscopic OCT imaging system. Since
its first demonstration by Pan et al. [37], MEMS based endoscopic devices have made
significant progress and improvements and currently are being used a vast majority of
endoscopic OCT imaging devices. Shown in Fig. 1.3b, is the first 3D endoscopic optical
biopsy system. This device is capable of taking high-resolution, noninvasive in vivo clini-
cal images. The integrated optical MEMS scanning micromirror exploits a 2D gimbal-less
vertical comb and operates at resonant frequencies of 1.8 and 2.4 kHz in x and y directions
respectively. Interested readers can refer to more comprehensive and dedicated textbooks
and review papers for more in-depth discussion on fundamentals and recent advances in
optical MEMS [3, 33, 38].
. Plasmonics (brief principle, physics and recent development)
Nanophotonics, the study of light at the nanoscale, has become a vibrant field of research,
as the flow of light can be manipulated at length scales far below the optical wavelength,
largely surpassing the classical limits imposed by diffraction. Driven by remarkable
advances in micro/nanofabrication, atomic-resolution imaging, and ultrafast laser tech-
nologies, the interface between nanophotonics and MEMS has attested a tremendous
progress in the past few years. Prime examples include compact systems for optical com-
munication and interconnects [11, 39, 40], high resolution display [41], ultrafast cameras
(a)
(b) (c)
Fig. 1.3 a Schematic of a MEMS-tunable endoscopic OCT probe. b realized MEMS-based OCT
probe. c Two-axis MEMS micromirror [36]
1.1 MEMS and Optical MEMS 5
Fig. 1.4 Diffraction pattern appears as the distance between two optical emitters reduces and the
radiation pattern of the two sources are indistinguishable
and photon detectors [42], and novel optical sensors for clinical and security concerns
[43].
Conventional photonic devices are limited by diffraction. The diffraction limit is
an optical effect which encumbers the progress toward the miniaturization of photonic
devices by preventing localization of electromagnetic waves into nanoscale regions; scales
much smaller than the wavelength. One important conclusion is that light will diffract
when it propagates through a hole or a slit which is smaller than approximately half of
its wavelength (Fig. 1.4).
The diffraction pattern follows a simple but intuitive formula. That is
λ λ
d= /\ (1.1)
2nsinθ 2N A
where n is the refractive index, θ is the angle of incidence, and NA is the numerical
aperture of the lens.
Plasmonics, the study of the interaction between electromagnetic field and free elec-
trons in a metal, provides a solution to this dilemma. In plasmonic devices, free electrons
in the metal can be excited by the electric component of light to have collective oscilla-
tions. Using metallic and dielectric nanostructures precisely sculpted into two-dimensional
(2D) and 3D nanoarchitectures, light can be scattered, refracted, confined, filtered, and
processed in fascinating new ways that are impossible to achieve with natural materi-
als and in conventional geometries. Strictly speaking, plasmonics; investigates plasmons;
quanta of collective oscillations of the conduction electrons in a plasma. Plasmonics can
squeeze light into dimensions far beyond the diffraction limit by coupling light with the
surface collective oscillation of free electrons at the interface of a metal and a dielectric
[44]. This control over light at the nanoscale has not only unveiled a plethora of new
phenomena but has also led to a variety of relevant applications, including new venues
for integrated circuitry, optical computing, solar, and medical technologies, setting high
expectations for many novel discoveries in the years to come.
Four classical types of plasmons include, surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs), surface
plasmon resonances (SPRs), localized surface plasmons (LSPs), and spoof plasmons.
SPPs result from the interaction of excited electrons with polarized light at the interface
between a negative and positive permittivity materials. SPPs are propagating modes with
well-defined frequency and wavevector and are evanescently confined in the direction
6 1 Introduction
perpendicular to the propagation. This interaction gives rise to a new type of quasi-
particle called polaritons. Polaritons originate from strong light-matter interaction (strong
confinement) [45].
SPRs refers to resonances instigating from the collective oscillations of electrons in
metals at the interface due to Coulombic interaction with positive background. To excite
SPPs, polarized incident photons (light must be polarized to excite the longitudinal mode)
and SPRs must have the same frequency and wave vector.
LSPs are generated when electromagnetic field interacts with conduction electrons
on the surface of a conductive nanoparticle of size comparable to or smaller than the
excitation wavelength. LSPs are non-propagating excitations.
Metals have negative permittivity in the Visible and Ultraviolet regimes of the elec-
tromagnetic spectrum, thus support surface plasmons. However, when the wavelength is
increased to the Infrared (IR) and Terahertz (THz) regions metals act as perfect elec-
tric conductors (PEC). Spoof plasmons are guided leaky waves in the IR and THz regions
which can be recognized in metal surfaces patterned with periodic subwavelength grooves,
holes and nanowires [46]. A wide selection of materials can support surface plasmons.
Please see [47–49] for comprehensive review on plasmonic materials.
Tunable functionality of plasmonic devices is of outmost importance for realizing
active and reconfigurable optoelectronic devices. Several modulation techniques can be
used to achieve tunable response from plasmonic devices including electrical, optical,
and mechanical modulation [50]. Active manipulation of surface plasmons provides a
course to tweak the optical functionalities of the plasmonic structure and could be used
in light modulators, plasmonic switches and spectrometers to name a few.
1.2 Plasmonic MEMS: A Frontier of Photonic Devices
Plasmonic MEMS is a rising field, inspired by the concepts of optical metamaterials and
the peculiar features of plasmonic nanopatterns. Low-profile patterned plasmonic surfaces
are synergized with a broad class of silicon microstructures, to greatly enhance near-
field nanoscale imaging, sensing and energy harvesting coupled with far-field free-space
detection. The concept has demonstrated impact on several key areas from ultra-compact
Microsystems for sensitive detection of small number of target molecules, and “surface”
as devices for optical data storage to microimaging and displaying.
Plasmonic MEMS is evolving into a novel paradigm for the conception of optical
plasmonic surfaces. Depending on the intrinsic material properties, different materials
response distinctively to the applied voltage. This will allow a wide variety of plasmonic
structure to be placed on electromechanically modulated substrate to control their optical
spectrum. The idea is schematically shown in Fig. 1.5a. Another option, is to directly
pattern a plasmonic grating or structure on the surface of a MEMS device as shown in
Fig. 1.5b.
1.2 Plasmonic MEMS: A Frontier of Photonic Devices 7
Fig. 1.5 Plasmonic MEMS. a Mechanical modulation of a plasmonics grating via stretchable sub-
strate. b Integration of a plasmonic array with a MEMS device
The first experimental demonstration of electromechanically reconfigurable plasmonic

structures was reported in 2013 by Ou and colleagues [51], in which they designed a
reconfigurable plasmonic metamaterial operating in the near-infrared (NIR). Arrays of 50-
nm-thick gold meander wires and near parallel gold wires was etched on a 50-nm-thick
silicon nitride substrate by focused ion beam (FIB), (details of the fabrication method
are explained in Chap. 3). To provide a flexible and robust platform to contain the gold
pattern, the silicon nitride substrate is cut into 500 and 250 nm strings for the meander
wires and parallel gold wires, respectively. The SEM of the structure with total dimensions
of 12 mm × 35 mm is shown in Fig. 1.6a.
The major idea is to exploit the instigating electrostatic forces upon applying electric
voltage to mechanically modulate the optical response of the patterned metamaterial. As
it can be seen in Fig. 1.6c, applying a small voltage can decrease the gap between the
meander wires and parallel wires. This dramatically affects the optical response of the
transmitted wave.
Fig. 1.6 First demonstration of an electrostatically actuated tunable plasmonic metamaterial.

(a) SEM image (b) electrostatic forces acting on individual strings (c) static electric field simulations
8 1 Introduction
The first thermomechanicaly tunable plasmonic MEMS device was reported in 2011
by the pioneering work of Ou et al. [52]. The device consists of gold plasmonic split-
ring resonators (SRRs) supported by interchanging thermally tunable silicon nitride/gold
bridges (silicon nitride and gold both have large thermal expansion coefficient). Their
realized photonic metamaterial device operates three orders of magnitude faster than for-
merly reached modulation rate for the NIR spectrum. Potential applications of the device
include tunable sensors, modulators, and spectral filters.
The first light-controlled plasmonic MEMS device was attained in the NIR regime
via patterning asymmetrically spaced gold elements on silicon nitride strips [53]. The
authors demonstrated that through pump-probe experiment with ultrafast laser diodes
operating at 1550 and 1310 nm, large modulation of transmission can be achieved with
milliwatt power levels. The photo-addressable capacitance can be cooled down in high-
speed timescales on the order of 20 µs. Light modulated plasmonic devices can be used
to realize reconfigurable nonlinear metadevices.
In summary, the paradigm of plasmonic MEMS enables low-profile conformal sur-
faces on microdevices, rather than a bulk material or coatings, which may provide clear
advantages for the physical, chemical and biological-related sensing, imaging, light har-
vesting applications in addition to significantly easier realization, enhanced flexibility and
tunability.
1.3 Status of the Field
In last few years, Plasmonic MEMS has developed tremendously. A summary of some
landmark papers in the field are presented in Table 1.1. A more comprehensive table can
be found in Appendix 1.
Despite recent advances in the field and the growing number of published works,
many more ideas need to be explored. We believe that the tremendous obtainable oppor-
tunities in combining plasmonics with MEMS still remains largely underexploited and
underexplored. Almost all current plasmonic MEMS devices and architectures exploit
conventional metal plasmonics. We predict the field to branch out towards combining
highly doped semiconductors as a plasmonic material for the Infrared and THz region.
This indeed can instigate fields beyond plasmonics MEMS and give birth to fields such
as epsilon-near zero (ENZ) MEMS.
Beside using metallic or highly doped semiconductor resonator, dielectric Mie res-
onators can also be integrated with MEMS technology to realized highly localized fields
and tunable dielectric metamaterials and metasurfaces.
1.3
Status of the Field
Table 1.1 Landmark papers in the field of plasmonic MEMS

Device Control mechanism Importance Material Fabrication Application Year
method
Flexible Mechanical force First demonstration of PDMS substrate, gold Electron beam Flexible, stretchable, 2010
plasmonics a flexible plasmonic nanorod lithography nonplanar electronic [54]
device and photonic systems
Reconfigurable Thermomechanical First demonstration of Silicon nitride Focused ion Reversible and 2011
metamaterials a thermomechanical membrane, gold beam large-range tunable [52]
plasmonic device metamaterials
Reconfigurable Electromechanical First demonstration of Silicon nitride Focused ion Tunable spectral filters, 2013
metamaterials an electrostatic substrate, gold wires beam switches, and [51]
plasmonic device modulators
Tunable Optomechanical First demonstration of Gold on silicon nitride Focused ion Modulating light with 2015
modulator an optomechanical strips beam light [53]
plasmonic device
9
10 1 Introduction
1.4 Existing Challenges
Emerging concepts, designs and applications of plasmonic MEMS have been demon-
strated in the recent years, ranging from plasmonic gas and chemical sensors, microfilters
for circulating tumor cells (CTC) capturing, DNA biosensing among many others. Fasci-
nating new concepts explored in detail in the framework of this review, with the goal to
devise new geometries on MEMS surfaces that may for example require no moving struc-
tures to tilt the radiated beam in the desired direction. We expect that the combination
of design theory, modeling and experimental implementation may provide full degrees
of freedom and enhanced performance for future plasmonic MEMS designs for specific
applications.
Although many promising results have been reported, several challenges remain
untouched. These challenges can be considered in three aspects.
1. Materials innovation are much needed to provide seamlessly integrated mechanical,

optical, materials properties suitable for plasmonic MEMS; Emerging computational
materials design approaches may be used to guide the development of new materials
with unique properties for plasmonic operation under various physical and chemi-
cal conditions. In addition, just as the electronic devices, the performance of optical
devices can be influenced by material stress and strain degradation. New materials
to prevent large degradation of MEMS devices need to be realized. Also, Plasmonic
MEMS for bioelectronic and bioengineering applications appear to be one of the
most persuasive areas. The interface between devices and biology needs to be well
considered, for example, for needed biocompatibility while maintaining core device
functionalities.
2. New design strategies, through theoretical modeling and numerical simulations, enable
fast, high throughput and flexible operations; high energy consumption of MEMS
devices compared to the electronic counterparts hinder their path for large scale inte-
gration. Reducing the energy consumption of plasmonic MEMS devices demands
urgent attention. While, megahertz modulation rates have been demonstrated and
reported in the literature, faster modulation in the order of gigahertz is required. New
design strategies might be able to push the field towards higher modulation rates.
3. Micro-nanofabrication advancement combined with smart geometric mechanics for
compact implementation; patterning flexible plasmonic substrates with new design
paradigms such as Origami and Kirigami needs to be explored. This can also open
up new directions to realize high-contrast switching of plasmonic MEMS devices.
In this book, we discuss the theory, fabrication, and application of plasmonic MEMS and
the recent progresses in the field for biosensing applications. We believe that the optical
plasmonic surface on MEMS concept may constitute the much sought flexible and reliable
bridge between near-field sensing, imaging at the nanoscale and far-field detection. In our
References 11
vision, these concepts may be combined to realize a fascinating paradigm to manipulate

light at will with a clear impact on several key areas of interest for MEMS in the broad
area of sensing, imaging, light harvesting applications in addition to significantly easier
realization, enhanced flexibility and tunability.
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14 1 Introduction
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Theoretical Foundations
2
This chapter provides the fundamentals of electromagnetic theory for the book in relation
to plasmonic MEMS. First, a brief review of Maxwell’s equations is provided. This is
followed by a discussion of general surface waves, dielectric constant of metals, and
plasmon dispersion. The next sections of the chapter focus on the intersection of memes
and plasmonics and reviews the theories relevant to plasmonics MEMS in the literature.
2.1 Maxwell’s Equations and Electromagnetic Wave Theory
Considering the classical and semi-classical wave nature of light, Maxwell’s equations in
a conventional macroscopic framework can be used to fully describe the electromagnetic
wave interaction with metals. In differential form, Maxwell’s equations can be written as
-
- t) = − ∂ B(r, t) ,
∇ × E(r, (2.1)
∂t
- t)
∂ D(r,
- t) =
∇ × H(r, + -J(r, t), (2.2)
∂t
- t) = ρ(r, t),
∇ · D(r, (2.3)
- t) = 0,
∇ · B(r, (2.4)
These equations couple the four macroscopic fields D (the electric flux density), E (the
electric field), H (the magnetic field), and B (the magnetic flux density) with the charge
density (ρ) and current densities (J = Jc (conduction current density) + Ji (induction cur-
rent density) + Jd (displacement current density)). In macroscopic frame, current density

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23137-7_2
16 2 Theoretical Foundations
is expressed as the product of charge density and velocity for any location in space
-J(r, t) = ρ(r, t)v (2.5)
In time domain, fields can be related via the constitutive relations
- t) = ε0 E(r,
D(r, - t) + P(r,
- t), (2.6)
- t) = μ−1 B(r,
H(r, - t) − M(r,
- t), (2.7)
0
where ε0 [Farads/meter] and μ0 [Henries/meter] are the permittivity and the permeability
of the vacuum, respectively. For an isotropic, linear, and nonmagnetic approximation, the
constitutive relations can be written as:
- t) = ε0 εr E(r,
D(r, - t), (2.8)
- t) = μ0 μr H(r,
B(r, - t), (2.9)
where εr and μr are the relative permittivity and relative permeability, respectively. the
electric polarization P and magnetization M consider the properties of the medium. The
conduction current density Jc is related to the electric field using
Jc = σ E (2.10)
where σ [siemens/meter] is the conductivity of the medium.

To derive the wave equation, we take the curl of Eq. (2.1). Using Eq. (2.2), for a
source-free region, the wave equation can be written as
2-
- t) = με ∂ E(r, t) ,
∇ 2 E(r, (2.11)
∂t 2
Here ε and μ are the electric permittivity (also called absolute permittivity, ε = ε0 εr ) and
magnetic permeability (μ = μ0 μr ). Equation (2.11) is actually three equations, which
together comprise the x-, y- and z-vector components for the E field vector. The Laplacian
in Cartesian coordinates is defined as
-
∂ 2E -
∂ 2E -
∂ 2E
-=
∇2E + 2 + 2, (2.12)
∂x 2 ∂y ∂z
The monochromatic solution (a set of complex-traveling wave solutions) to this wave
equation has the following form
- t) = E 0 e j (ωt−k.-r) ,
E(r, (2.13)
2.1 Maxwell’s Equations and Electromagnetic Wave Theory 17
Fig. 2.1 Boundary surface of

two media with tangential and
normal components
Re{e j (ωt−k.-r) } = e−α.-r cos(ωt − β.-r), (2.14)

√
where α quantifies attenuation, β is the propagation constant, ω = kc with c = 1/ ε0 μ0
being the speed of light, and ωk = v phase is the phase velocity. The relation between the
phase velocity and the frequency is known as the dispersion relation.
Boundary conditions state how the electromagnetic fields (E, D, H, B) change at the
interface between two different materials (Fig. 2.1).
n̂ × (E1 − E2 ) = 0 (2.15)
n̂ × (H1 − H2 ) = Jim (2.16)
n̂ · (μ1 H1 − μ2 H2 ) = 0 (2.17)
n̂ · (μ1 E1 − μ2 E2 ) = ρs (2.18)
where Jim and ρs are the impressed electric current and surface charge density, respec-
tively. The first two of these state that the tangential electric fields are continuous across
the interface, though the tangential magnetic fields are discontinuous at the same location
by an amount equal to the impressed electric current. Zenneck [1], more than a century
ago, solved the Maxwell’s equations for the planar interface of two different materials and
initiated the concept of surface waves. A surface wave is an electromagnetic wave with
parallel Poynting vector that propagates along a surface or an interface of two dissimilar
media. The propagation of a surface wave is guided by the planar interface and decays
exponentially in both media. Surface waves play a key role in studying properties of con-
densed matter at the interface. A more inclusive and mathematically rigorous derivation
of surface waves was later done by Sommerfeld [2], and those surface waves have since
become known as the Zenneck waves.
Equations (2.15) through (2.18) can be used to compute the fraction of a light wave
reflected and transmitted by a flat interface between two media with different refractive
indices (Fig. 2.2).
Applying the boundary conditions to a simple plane wave incident on a single pla-
nar interface leads to the Fresnel reflection and transmission coefficients. For TE case,
tangential electric field is continuous at the boundary,
Ei (y = 0, t) + Er (y = 0, t) = Et (y = 0, t) (2.19)
The tangential magnetic field is continuous
Bi (y = 0, t) cos θi + Br (y = 0, t) cos θr = Bt (y = 0, t) cos θt (2.20)
Using the constitutive relations and considering only the amplitude of the waves (E 0 )
at the boundary, the following relations can be derived for the reflection and transmission
coefficient of TE and TM polarized waves
E0r n i cos θi − n t cos θt
r T E = r⊥ = = (2.21)
E0i n i cos θi + n t cos θt
E0t 2n i cos θi
t T E = t⊥ = = (2.22)
E0i n i cos θi + n t cos θt
E0r n t cos θi − n i cos θt
r T M = rII = = (2.23)
E0i n i cos θt + n t cos θi
E0t 2n i cos θi
tT M = tII = = (2.24)
E0i n i cos θt + n t cos θi
Fig. 2.2 Fresnel reflection and transmission coefficients. a TE, perpendicular, s-polarized. b TM,
parallel, p-polarized, (“s” polarization (aka TE or horizontal) has an E field that is perpendicular to
the plane of incidence, “p” polarization (aka TM or vertical) has an E field that is parallel to the plane
of incidence), s and p stand for the German words senkrecht (perpendicular) and parallel (parallel)
where n i and n t are the refractive indices of the incident and reflected medium. A plot of
Fresnel reflection and transmission coefficients for n = 1.5 is shown in Fig. 2.3.
At some angle, known as the critical angle, light traveling from a higher refractive
index medium to a lower refractive index medium will be refracted at 90º. When the
angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle, there is no refracted light. All the incident
light is reflected back into the medium. The critical angle of incidence can be obtained
for two media
n2
sin θc = , n1 > n2 (2.25)
n1
Dielectric constant (relative permittivity) is a measure of the polarizability of a mate-
rial and can be derived using the Lorentz model and the Drude model for dielectric and
metallic materials, respectively. By solving the standard equation of motion for a harmon-
ically bound classical electron, in analogy to the motion of a mass on a spring, we obtain
the displacement r (t) = r0 e−iωt
∂ 2r ∂r
me + m e γd = eE 0 e−i ωt , (2.26)
∂t 2 ∂t
where e and me are the charge and effective mass of the free electrons, and E 0 and ω are
the amplitude and frequency of the applied electric field (actuation force). The damping
term γd is proportional to γd = v F /l, where v F is the Fermi velocity and l is the electron
mean free path between scattering events.
Applying Fourier transform, F(r (t)), we obtain r (ω). Using r (ω) and polarization
vector, Lorentz equation can be derived as
ω2p /
εm (ω) = ε∞ + , ωp = 4π n e e2 , (2.27)
ω02 − ω2 − j γd ω me
0.2
Fig. 2.3 Reflections of TE and
TM modes for n = 1.5. Brewster
0
Brewster’s angle (rTM = 0) is
also plotted
Amplitude coefficients
r
-0.2 TM
-0.4
r
-0.6 TE
-0.8
-1
0 20 40 60 80 100
Angle of incidence
here ω p is the plasma frequency, ω0 is the frequency of the restoring force, and ε∞
describes the ionic background. Assuming the free electron model for metal (ω0 = 0),
Drude model can be obtained using
ω2p
εm (ω) = ε∞ − , (2.28)
ω2 + j γd ω
If ω is larger than ω p , corresponding refractive index is a real quantity, on the other
hand if ω is smaller than ω p , refractive index is imaginary since εm is negative.
The real and imaginary parts of the susceptibility are connected by the Kramers-
Kroenig relations (KKR).
(∞
2 ω' εi (ω' )dω'
εr (ω) = 1 + ℘ , (2.29)
π ω'2 − ω2
0
(∞
2ω εr (ω' )dω'
εi (ω) = − ℘ , (2.30)
π ω'2 − ω2
0
Here ℘ means the principal value of the integral.

Surface plasmons are surface waves that are the solution of Maxwell’s equations. The
simplest geometry supporting SPPs is a single, planar interface between a metal, with a
negative dielectric constant εm , (metals at THz region have negative real permittivity as
shown in Fig. 2.4) and a dielectric, with a positive dielectric constant as illustrated in
Fig. 2.5. This is a critical criterion since in this situation wave can effectively penetrate
inside the metal.
Fig. 2.4 Real and imaginary parts of the dielectric constant for gold in visible range of the wave-
length according to the Drude model
Fig. 2.5 Schematic view of

surface wave propagating
along a single metal–dielectric
interface
Considering TM excitation (Hz , Ex , and Ey ) and propagation along the x-direction, i.e.
∂/∂ x = i β,
1 ∂ Hz
Ex = i (2.31)
ωε0 ε ∂ y
β
Ey = Hz (2.32)
ωε0 ε
∂ 2 Hz
+ (k02 ε − β 2 )Hz = 0 (2.33)
∂ y2
Equation (2.31) through (2.33) can be expanded separately for each region in Fig. 2.5.
For the dielectric region, i.e. y > 0,
Hz (y) = A2 ei βx e−k2 y (2.34)
k2
Ex (y) = −iA2 eiβx e−k2 y (2.35)
ωε0 ε2
β
E y (y) = A2 eiβx e−k2 y (2.36)
ωε0 ε2
and for the metallic region, i.e. y > 0,
Hz (y) = A1 ei β x ek1 y (2.37)
k1
Ex (y) = iA1 ei β x e k1 y (2.38)
ωε0 ε1
β
E y (y) = A1 ei β x e k1 y (2.39)
ωε0 ε1
0.7
Fig. 2.6 Dispersion relation of
SPPs 0.6
0.5
0.4
p
surface plasmon
/
0.3 light line
prism coupled
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15
wavevector (1/m)
Applying the boundary condition equations from Eq. (2.15) to (2.18), we can obtain
the relations in Eq. (2.40).
k2 ε2 k12 = β 2 − k02 ε1
A1 = A2 , =− , (2.40)
k1 ε1 k22 = β 2 − k02 ε2
Finally, the dispersion relation of SPPs propagating at the interface between the two
half-spaces can be obtained as
/
ε1 ε2
β = k0 (2.41)
ε1 + ε2
Figure 2.6 shows plots of Eq. (2.41). As it can be seen from the figure, due to
momentum matching, only the light coupled with a prism can excite SPPs.
2.2 Diffraction and Interference
As mention above, diffraction and interference are at the heart of plasmonics. We shall not
discuss these effects at any length in this section, since they are included in all classical
electromagnetic textbooks, but merely mention a few central results.
Diffraction refers to reshaping of light when it encounters a slit or an obstacle. Con-
sidering a planewave with wavelength λ incident on an aperture of width d, two distinct
diffraction patterns can be attained depending on the slit width and the distance between
the screen and the slit. The diffraction is said to be in the Fresnel or near-field limit if
L ≤ d 2 /λ. On the other hand, when it is in the Fraunhofer region (Fig. 2.7).
The intensity of the diffraction pattern can be approximated using Eq. (2.42).
2.3 Transmission Line Theory (TLT) 23
Fig. 2.7 The diffraction

pattern created via a planewave
incident at a slit
( )2
sin(kd sin(θ ))
I (θ ) ∝ (2.42)
kd sin(θ )
with k = 2π/λ being the wave vector. Therefore, the maximum intensity (zero-order
mode) pattern occurs at θ = 0. Equation (2.42) can also be solved to calculate higher-
order diffraction maxima.
2.3 Transmission Line Theory (TLT)
Transmission line theory (TLT) is a fully analytical, fast, and reliable methodology for
analyzing wave propagation in metallic and dielectric structures. TLT bridges the gap
between electromagnetics and basic circuit theory. The main concept is to use transmis-
sion line elements, i.e. a series resistance, a series inductance, a shunt capacitance, and
a shunt conductance, to model and analyze electromagnetic field (in analogy to voltage
(V) and current (I)) propagation in optical components such as waveguides, modulators,
and gratings. TLT has been extensively exploited to investigate the wave propagation in
plasmonic structures. In this section, we briefly review the literature on TLT concern-
ing plasmonic MEMS. Inexperienced readers are encouraged to refer to electromagnetic
textbooks for more elementary discussions (Fig. 2.8).
We start with a simple example, a metal-dielectric-metal (MDM) waveguide which
consists of a dielectric layer of thickness h surrounded by two metallic layers. For h
Fig. 2.8 Surface plasmon

waveguide
much smaller than the wavelength, only the fundamental TM waveguide mode can prop-
agate along the waveguide. The effective refractive index of an MDM waveguide can be
calculated using
β λ λ
ne f f = = +i (2.43)
k λM D M 4π L S P P
The real part of Eq. (2.44) describes the guided wavelength (λ M D M ) and the imagi-
nary part determines the propagation length (L S P P ). The characteristic impedance of the
plasmonic waveguide can be calculated using Z = V (x)/I (x) = V0 /I0 .
( )
β 1 1
V0 = + (2.44)
ω εd kd εm km
( )
εm − εd
I0 = hε0 (2.45)
εm εd
Using Eqs. (2.44) and (2.45)

( )/
1 εd + εm −εm
Z= (2.46)
ωh ε0 εm εd
Our first example considers a recent work by Li et al. [3] in which they have proposed
a THz MDM waveguide sensor with an embedded microfluidic channel. The proposed
structure is suitable for sensing the refractive index variations in liquid. The proposed
THz waveguide with a two layer-stub structure is conceptually outlined in Fig. 2.9.
The transmission spectrum was analytically calculated using the TLT method. Obtained
results was compared with the numerical results achieved using the finite-difference
time domain (FDTD) method. Initially, the waveguide of width d is substituted by a
Fig. 2.9 The proposed

microfluidic THz MDM
waveguide with two stacked
sensing stubs. a 3D schematic
b 2D schematic and field
components. c–d The
equivalent transmission line
representation, and its
equivalent circuit model
2.3 Transmission Line Theory (TLT) 25
Fig. 2.9 a The proposed plasmonic piezoelectric MEMS device. b SEM images of the fabricated
device. c Corresponding TLT circuit model. ZMTS , is the surface impedance of the plasmonic
metasurface
transmission line of characteristic impedance of

/ √
β(d)dη εd − εm
Z (d) = , where, β(h) = k0 εd − 2εd (2.47)
k0 εd k0 hεm
here εd and η are the relative permittivity of dielectric and wave impedance in the dielec-
tric, respectively. The impedance of medium can be related to the impedance of free
space η0 using η = η0 /n (inversely proportional to refractive index). The TLT equivalent
network of the biosensor presentation is presented in Fig. 2.8c. The effective impedance
corresponding to the dielectric and liquid sample of transmission can be derived by
Z 'L + j Z d tan(βd h1 )
Z stub = Z d (2.48)
Z d + j Z 'L tan(βd h1 )
in which βd is the propagation constant of surface plasmons in the spacing dielectric, and
'
Z L is the effective impedance of the liquid microfluidic sample which can be calculated
via
Z L + j Z s tan(βs h2 )
Z 'L = Z s (2.49)
Z s + j Z L tan(βs h2 )
here Z d and Z s are the characteristic impedances corresponding to dielectric εd and
sample εs permittivity, respectively. βs is the surface plasmon propagation constant in
the microfluidic sample. Finally, the transmission properties of the MDM waveguide
calculated using the following formula
I I ( )
I Z stub II−2 L
T = II1 + exp − (2.50)
2Z air I LSPP
The second example includes a plasmonic piezoelectric nanomechanical resonant

infrared detector analysis using the TLT method. The transmission properties of the
plasmonic nanograting structures are usually coupled with sharp resonances over a nar-
row bandwidth. Theoretical analysis using the TLT method was used by the authors to
analyze the scattering response of the device [4]. The proposed plasmonic piezoelectric
MEMS device consists of a 500 nm aluminum nitride (AlN) film sandwiched between
a 100 nm-thick platinum transducer and a 50 nm plasmonic gold grating. The resonator
is anchored to the silicon base via two platinum contacts and can freely vibrate. The
structure, dimensions, and the material are presented in Fig. 2.9a, b.
The surface impedance of the plasmonic array was modeled using the TLT as shown
in Fig. 2.9c. The characteristic impedance and propagation constant of the different
transmission line sections involved in the model are
/ / /
μ0 μ0 μ0
Z0 = , Z Al N = , Z Pt = ,
ε0 ε0 ε Al N ε0 ε Pt (2.51)
ω ω√ ω√
β0 = , β Al N = ε Al N , β Pt = ε Pt ,
c c c
The dielectric constant of AlN and platinum were obtained using the Drude model,
i.e. Eq. 2.28. Finally, after applying the TLT and calculating the equivalent voltage and
current, the surface impedance of the plasmonic metasurface can be obtained as
a+b π
Z MT S = −j πb
(2.52)
aσ Au ωε0 (1 + ε Al N )(a + b) log(csc( 2a+b ))
where σ Au is the gold conductivity, and a and b are the dimensions and the periodicity of
the grating, respectively as shown in Fig. 2.9b.
2.4 Plasmonic Nanograting Theory
Since the original report of diffraction grating by Hopkinson and Rittenhouse in 1786
[5], the interaction of light with periodic and grating structures have become a fascinating
subject for understanding the nature of light-matter interaction.
2.4 Plasmonic Nanograting Theory 27
Fig. 2.10 Diagram presenting path difference between two incident rays A and B scattered from a
grating’s grooved surface
The grating equation can be used to calculate the diffraction angle of an array of
incident beams. It can be obtained by calculating the path difference between two light
rays as presented in Fig. 2.10.
Ωi = d sin(θi ), Ωr = −d sin(θr ) (2.53)
The total path length difference then can be calculated.
Ω = d sin(θi ) − (−d sin(θr )) = 2d(sin(θi ) + sin(θr )), (2.54)
When this path length difference is an integer (m) multiple of the wavelength, rays
interfere constructively.
Ω = mλ, (2.55)
Substituting in Eq. (2.54).
mλ = 2d(sin(θi ) + sin(θr )), (2.56)
Which is the grating equation. here m is the order of diffraction, λ is the diffracted
wavelength, and d is called the grating constant.
In one of the most recent works, diffracted beams from an array of sub-wavelength
plasmonic nanogratings was exploited to design a metalens, which can focus the diffracted
light beam. The proposed geometry contains arrays of subwavelength size gold cylin-
ders with different radius and periodicity as shown in Fig. 2.11. When electrostatically
actuated, the MEMS platform manipulates the angle of the metalens.
Fig. 2.11 a Optical microscope image of the proposed plasmonic MEMS flat lens. b SEM images of
the fabricated nanograting. c Schematic representation of focusing characteristics using diffraction
grating. d–f Schematic of the mechanical rotation of the MEMS device along with the optical profile
at the focal line
The optical focusing performance of the realized plasmonic MEMS metalens is show
in Fig. 2.11. The phase profile of the lens was obtained using the diffraction equation [6].
That is
( / )
2π
ϕ(x) = f − x 2 + f 2 − x · sin(θ ) , (2.57)
λ
in which f is the focal length, x is the location of the element, and θ is incident angle.
References 29
2.5 Numerical Methods
Partial differential equations (PDEs) manifest in the quantitative modelling of various

physical phenomena in electromagnetics. Usually, derived PDEs are so complex that
finding their solutions by merely analytical means (e.g. by Laplace and Fourier trans-
form methods, or Mie series) is either unfeasible or unpractical, and ones only recourse
is to seek numerical approximations to the unknown analytical solution. Finite-Difference
Time-Domain (FDTD) and Finite Element Method (FEM) are the most popular numerical
methods to solve PDEs [7]. Both FDTD and FEM have been widely used in modeling
plasmonic MEMS structures and devices [8–10].
References
1. J. Zenneck, “Über die Fortpflanzung ebener elektromagnetischer Wellen längs einer ebenen
Leiterfläche und ihre Beziehung zur drahtlosen Telegraphie,” Annalen der Physik, vol. 328,
pp. 846-866, 1907.
2. A. Sommerfeld, “Über die Ausbreitung der Wellen in der drahtlosen Telegraphie,” Annalen der
Physik, vol. 333, pp. 665-736, 1909.
3. X. Li, J. Song, and X. J. Zhang, “Design of terahertz metal-dielectric-metal waveguide with
microfluidic sensing stub,” Optics Communications, vol. 361, pp. 130–137, 2016/02/15/ 2016.
4. Y. Hui, J. S. Gomez-Diaz, Z. Qian, A. Alù, and M. Rinaldi, “Plasmonic piezoelectric nanome-
chanical resonator for spectrally selective infrared sensing,” Nature Communications, vol. 7,
p. 11249, 04/15/online 2016.
5. F. Hopkinson and D. Rittenhouse, “An Optical Problem, Proposed by Mr. Hopkinson, and
Solved by Mr. Rittenhouse,” Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, vol. 2,
pp. 201–206, 1786.
6. "Wideband plasmonic focusing metasurfaces,” Applied Physics Letters, vol. 105, p. 053107,
2014.
7. S. D. Gedney, “Introduction to the finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) method for electro-
magnetics,” Synthesis Lectures on Computational Electromagnetics, vol. 6, pp. 1-250, 2011.
8. Y. Yao, M. A. Kats, R. Shankar, Y. Song, J. Kong, M. Loncar, et al., “Wide Wavelength Tun-
ing of Optical Antennas on Graphene with Nanosecond Response Time,” Nano Letters, vol. 14,
pp. 214–219, 2014/01/08 2014.
9. Y. Gao, G. Ren, B. Zhu, H. Liu, and S. Jian, “Nanomechanical Plasmonic Switch Based on
Multimode Interference,” IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, vol. 28, pp. 2661-2664, 2016.
10. T. Stark, M. Imboden, S. Kaya, A. Mertiri, J. Chang, S. Erramilli, et al., “MEMS Tunable Mid-
Infrared Plasmonic Spectrometer,” ACS Photonics, vol. 3, pp. 14–19, 2016/01/20 2016.
Fabrication Techniques
3
Nanotechnology deals with materials and structures at or around nanometer scale, with
minimum dimensions currently defined (more-or-less arbitrarily) to be 100-nm. All the
grand ambitions of nanotechnology are necessarily dependent upon practical and feasible
fabrication methods. There are various nanofabrication techniques with different perfor-
mances, choice of which depends upon the materials, applications, and geometries of the
desired structure. These techniques can be roughly classified into either a “top-down” or
“bottom-up” approach. Top-down fabrication refers to methods where one commences
with macroscopically dimensioned material and carves the nanostructure out of the larger
structure. On the other hand, in the bottom-up approach, assembly begins with smaller
units: positions of atoms or molecules are manipulated to piece together the nanostructure.
The top-down and bottom-up approaches are schematically shown in Fig. 3.1.
Because many materials below 100-nm can have properties and features considerably
different from their bulk forms, the 100-nm dimensional scale has set the border between
nanotechnology and conventional microscale technologies.
The topic of nanofabrication is far too vast to be covered in one review. The goal of
this section of the paper is simply to introduce the method, review the substantial body
of literature concerning sub-100-nm resolution fabrication, and mention recent advances
in plasmonic, plasmonic MEMS, and plasmonic micromachining fabrication. For a more
detailed discussion, we refer the readers to nanofabrication books [1–4].
Figure 3.2 classifies the fabrication techniques that are discussed in this paper under
the conventional top-down and bottom-up approaches.
Here, however, a different perspective has been taken, and nanofabrication techniques
are classified based on the fabrication tools (photons, charged particles, etc.). Various
techniques of Nanofabrication that are currently under development in the laboratory and
that require further improvements will be presented in the “Emerging Techniques” section.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23137-7_3
32 3 Fabrication Techniques
Fig. 3.1 Top-down and bottom-up nanofabrication approaches
Fig. 3.2 Classification of the fabrication techniques that are discussed in this paper
3.1 Nanofabrication Using Photons
3.1.1 Photolithography
Photolithography is an optical tool used to engrave patterns onto a substrate. Initially

invented for the microelectronics industry, photolithography, or “optical lithography”, is
the most reliable and economical lithography technology for industrial microfabrication.
In optical lithography, a mask or reticle is imaged onto a substrate which is painted
with a thin layer of photoresist, a photosensitive polymer material. Focused photon energy
causes chain-scission or cross-linking in the polymer. The mask pattern is then delin-
eated into the photoresist after a development process. There are three primary exposure
methods: contact, proximity, and projection, shown in Fig. 3.3.
3.1 Nanofabrication Using Photons 33
Fig. 3.3 Three primary exposure methods in photolithography
In contact lithography, the photomask is brought into physical contact with the wafer
and then exposed to light. Contact lithography offers high resolution, but mask damage
and a resultant low yield make this process impractical in most production environments.
In proximity lithography, a gap is placed between mask and wafer in the range of 10–
30 micro meters. Although proximity lithography does not suffer from mask damage as
in contact printing, its low resolution makes it unsuitable for sub-100-nm fabrication. In
projection lithography on the other hand, the image is projected onto the wafer with the
help of a system of lenses. In this case, the mask can be used several times, substantially
reducing the mask per wafer cost.
The early days of projection photolithography in the mid-1970’s used visible light to
fabricate structures at the micrometer scale. Unfortunately, conventional projection pho-
tolithography is incompetent for fabricating nanoscale structures. The resolution limit
(minimum feature that can be printed, R) of a conventional projection photolithography
system can be defined by the Rayleigh criterion [5], that is
λ λ
R = k1 = , (3.1)
NA n sin θ
where λ is the exposure wavelength, NA is the numerical aperture of the imaging optical
system, k1 is a factor related to the imaging process (not to be confused with the wavevec-
tor), n is the refractive index of the medium between the lens and the imaging plane, and
θ is the half-angle of the maximum cone of light that can enter or exit the lens.
From Eq. 3.1, efforts to improve the resolution of conventional projection optical
lithography for sub-100 nm lithography can be classified into three areas: photolithog-
raphy at shorter wavelengths (λ), photolithography at high NA, and photolithography at
reduced k1 .
Photolithography at shorter wavelengths

From Eq. 3.1, it is evident that reducing the illumination wavelength will enhance the
resolution of an optical system. In the early days of optical lithography, mercury-rare
gas discharge lamps with radiation between 365 nm (I-line) and 436 nm (G-line) were
exploited. As the mask features shrank, the semiconductor industry employed the 248 or
193 nm illumination produced by krypton fluoride (KeF) or argon fluoride (ArF) excimer
lasers (pulsed gas discharge lasers), respectively. Further demands in small mask features
shifted the research to the 157 nm radiation produced by fluorine (F2 ) laser. For this short
wavelength, quartz optics was ineffective (such as not being transparent) so that new opti-
cal materials such as calcium fluorine (CaF2 ) had to be utilized [6]. Another major issue
with 157 nm radiation was designing consistent photoresist, since the designed photore-
sists for 248 or 193 nm were too absorptive at 157 nm. Considering the aforementioned
problems and the fact that 157 nm technology would have been rapidly replaced in the
next generation of integrated systems, the production industry decided to go directly to
a much shorter wavelength, explicitly the 13 nm Extreme-Ultraviolet (EUV) technol-
ogy, driving photolithography into the realm of EUV lithography. A schematic of EUV
lithography is presented in Fig. 3.4.
Fig. 3.4 Schematic of EUV system for 13 nm radiation. Four major components of EUV can be
observed
The four main components of EUV lithography can be seen in Fig. 3.4. In order to
generate the EUV source, laser-produced plasma (LPP) and discharge-produced plasma
(DPP) are two frequent approaches. From a number of LPP-generating sources that can
emit at 13.5 nm, three materials have garnered attention, namely, Sn [7], Xe [8], and Li
[9]. Of these three, Sn has proven to be the most likely candidate, as it has the highest con-
version efficiency [10, 11]. Another important component of EUV lithography is “EUV
optics”. The main components for EUV optics are mirrors coated with distributed Bragg
reflectors (DBRs) in order to reach a high reflectivity. Typical DBRs consist of quar-
ter wavelength-thick multiple layers of alternating materials that have different refractive
indices [12]. New types of DBRs with different materials and geometries have been devel-
oped at different frequencies [13, 14]. EUV mask technology is considered to be one of
the most critical issues for the successful implementation of nanofabrication processes.
First a blank mask is designed, then, since EUV light is extremely absorptive by most
materials at this frequency, the patterning of the refractive material is applied. The EUV
mask should be free of defects in both substrate and refractive material. Recently several
defect removal techniques have been devised for EUV masks; for an in-depth discussion,
the reader can refer to the following papers [15–21]. Developing photoresists for EUV is
one of the main challenges for the cost-effectiveness and the introduction of EUV lithog-
raphy into high-volume manufacturing. In order for EUV lithography to be a competent
technique for the next generation lithography (i.e., 100 wafers per hour), high-sensitivity
resist (greater than 20 mJ cm–2 ) is needed to compensate for the low power level of the
EUV source. Higher sensitivity means lower line edge roughness (LER), which is not
appropriate for EUV resists. LER has been a decisive issue for sub-100 nm lithography.
Critical challenges for EUV resist materials are discussed in [22].
Recent innovations have addressed the challenges associated with the resist perfor-
mance of EUV. For example, by introducing metals to the resists, Inpria© has shown
excellent resolution with their hafnium oxide based resist [23]. More work on this has
been mostly done by Cornell university in which they have achieved higher sensitivity
[24, 25]. Molecular organometallic resists have been also exploited [26, 27]. A sensitivity
of 50 mJ cm−2 has been obtained using platinum and palladium mononuclear complexes
in [28].
Photolithography at high NA
The second parameter which affects the resolution of optical lithography, in addition to
the wavelength as seen in Eq. 3.1, is the numerical aperture (NA). When light passes
through a slit (mask), it diffracts, so a lens is needed to gather the diffracted rays. Lenses
with larger diameters (higher NA) are more suitable for optical lithography since they can
accumulate more diffracted light rays to focus onto the image plane, as can be seen from
Fig. 3.5.
The higher the NA, the more complex, big, heavy, and expensive the lens has become.
In the 1980s, a G-line stepper lens at 0.35 NA weighed only 14 kg. By the mid-1990s, an
Fig. 3.5 Conceptual view of

optical projection imaging
I-line stepper lens at 0.63 NA weighed over 500 kg [29]. Resolution has been improved
by creating exposure tools with greater NAs for each wavelength. For 193 nm dry imag-
ing, the lenses have progressively increased from 0.6 to 0.75 NA, 0.85 NA, and 0.93 NA.
Typically, the projection optics and the wafer stage occur in air or in a vacuum, dictat-
ing that the numerical aperture, therefore, cannot be bigger than 1. Recently, immersion
lithography has provided an alternative method of increasing the NA: by increasing n. In
this case, the NA can be greater than 1. The gap between the last lens element and the
resist can be filled with a liquid, as shown in Fig. 3.6, which will have a much higher
refractive index n than air.
Photolithography at reduced k1
In addition to the wavelength reduction and the increase of NA, the resolution of optical
projection lithography can also be improved by the optimization of the process parameters,
including illumination settings, mask, and photoresist process. These contributions can be
included in the k 1 factor in Eq. 3.1, called the process factor. Improvements in imaging
optics and photoresist processes have continuously driven down the k 1 factor. Figure 3.7
shows this reduction of k 1 from 1982 through 2000 [1]. Usually, a k 1 factor above 0.30 is
needed for production, and k 1 cannot typically go below 0.25. A lithographic process in
which 0.25 < k 1 < 0.30 is difficult and requires very aggressive resolution enhancement
techniques. This kind of low-k 1 process is useful during early technique development.
For example, a 193 nm exposure tool with 0.85 NA used for production at the 90 nm
half-pitch node (k 1 = 0.396) could also be used for advanced development of 65 nm
Fig. 3.6 Immersion lithography using water
half-pitch processes (k 1 = 0.286). Once the 0.93 NA tool became available, the 65 nm
process could be transferred to this new tool.
Table 3.1 summarizes the recent advances towards reduction of the process factor. A
brief review of the advancement of photolithography from its earliest days until 2002 can
be found in [30]. More details about EUV lithography can also be found in [31, 32].
Photolithography is a robust approach for the fabrication of sub-100 nm structures.
Fabrication of 100 nm line and space patterns and 70 nm isolated lines has been demon-
strated by using an intermediate hard mask material such as silicon oxide or silicon
oxynitride [34]. Sub-100-nm patterning using a single layer of deep-UV photoresist,
Fig. 3.7 Reduction of k1 factor down to 193 nm optical lithography

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A. That we should rise early in the morning on the Lord’s-

day, and offer him the spices and odours of praise and
thanksgiving.
4. Q. What is meant by the two men?
A. Two angels in the shape of men.
7. Q. Why must the Son of Man be crucified?
A. Because we had deserved to be accursed by God; and

crucifixion being an accursed death, (for it is written, “cursed is
every one that hangeth upon a tree”) he became a curse for us.
11. Q. What may we learn from the disciples not believing the
women’s report?
A. That we ought more firmly to believe the truth of our

blessed Lord’s resurrection, since his own disciples were the
last who gave credit to it.
14. Q. What may we learn from hence?

A. That christians ought to talk of good things as they walk
together.
17. Q. What from hence?
A. That Jesus Christ takes notice of the conversation, and

more especially of the griefs of his people.
26. Q. Why must Christ rise again and enter into glory?
A. To assure us God was satisfied for our sins; that he was

no impostor or cheat; and to assure us of the resurrection of our
bodies after death.
Q. Why must he rise the third day?
A. Because if he had continued longer, the body must have

seen corruption; and then the prophecy would not have been
fulfilled, which says, that “God’s Holy One was not to see
corruption.” Nor would he have fulfilled the type of Jonah.
28. Q. What may we learn from Christ’s first refusing to go in?
A. That in small matters, though we may at first refuse a

thing, yet we may afterwards, without forfeiting our words,
comply therewith; it being supposed, that we promised on the
supposition we had no better reason to the contrary.
A. That we should, when evening comes on, constrain

Christ by our prayers, to tarry with and watch over us all night.
A. That we should never presume to eat, without first asking

a blessing.
31. Q. What may we learn from Christ’s vanishing so soon out
of their sight?
A. That the spiritual visits of Jesus Christ in this life, are but
of a short continuance; which should set us upon preparing for
that place, where we shall see and be with Him to all eternity,
without interruption.
36. Q. What may we learn from Christ’s saying to his disciples,

“Peace be to you,” though they had all so lately forsook him?
A. That we ought never to upbraid those who have offended

us, when they give marks of repentance; and also, this should
encourage sinners to hope for blessings from Jesus Christ,
though they have sinned against him.
A. That it is impossible to understand the scriptures, without

the illumination of the Spirit of Jesus Christ: “For the natural
man discerneth not the things of the Spirit.”
Q. Ought we therefore to pray before we read the scriptures?
A. Yes, by all means.
49. Q. What is meant by the promise of the Father?
A. The Holy Ghost, which was to come upon the Apostles at

the feast of Pentecost.
53. Q. What is meant by their being continually in the temple?
A. That they were there at all hours of public prayer.
Q. What should we learn from thence?
A. That we ought to go and do likewise.

JOHN, Chapter I.
Q. Who was the author of this gospel?
A. John, the disciple whom Jesus loved.
Q. Why did he write it?
A. To confound the heresy of Ebion and Cerinthus, who

denied the divinity of our blessed Lord: and therefore, through
the whole gospel we find he takes all opportunities of proving,
that Jesus Christ was very God of very God; another thing he
had in view when he wrote it, was to supply what was wanting in
the other Evangelists; therefore he chiefly relates to us those
particulars which the other Evangelists had omitted.
Q. What may we learn from God’s permitting some of the

Evangelists to leave out what the others put in, and again some
inserting what others have left out?
A. That God would hereby oblige us to read all; and also to

exercise our understanding, that by comparing spiritual things
with spiritual, we might find out the truth.
1. Q. Who is meant by the Word?
A. Jesus Christ.
Q. Is there any proof in this verse, that Jesus Christ is

God?
A. Yes: “And the Word was God.”
Q. Why was it necessary that Jesus our Saviour should be

God?
A. Because it was impossible for any creature to satisfy for

our sins.
3. Q. Is here any proof of the Divinity of Christ?
A. Yes: because the work of creation is ascribed to him.
4. Q. Is there any proof of it in this verse?
A. Yes: “In him was life.” For whosoever has life in or of

himself, must be God.
5. Q. Who is meant by the word “light.”
A. Jesus Christ, who came to enlighten us, by revealing

God’s will to us.
Q. What mean you by the word “darkness?”
A. The dark minds of men.
11. Q. What is meant by the word “own?”
A. The Jews, who were God’s peculiar people.
13. Q. Can you paraphrase this verse?
A. Which were born not of blood, i. e. not by any natural

generation; nor of the will of the flesh, nor of the will of man, i. e.
not by human adoption, but of God, or by the free grace and
power of God only.
14. Q. What does the Evangelist allude to here?
A. The tabernacle, with the shekinah, or glorious appearance

that used to be in it; which were types of Jesus Christ: the
former representing his humanity, the latter his divinity residing
or abiding in it. It is therefore said in the margin of some bibles,
“Tabernacled amongst us,” plainly alluding to the Jewish
tabernacle in the wilderness.
16. Q. What mean you by these words, “Grace for grace?”

A. That Christ came to give us grace, that we might get
more of it: or rather it should be rendered, “Grace upon grace.”
For Jesus Christ came to purchase for us not only a
sufficiency, but an abundance of grace.
A. That when we are converted ourselves, we should

endeavour to bring others, especially our own relations, to the
knowledge of Jesus Christ.
Q. What may we learn from these words, “We have found

the Messiah?”
A. That young converts are very apt to think they have

apprehended Christ, whereas they are rather apprehended by
him.
49. Q. What may we learn from Nathaniel’s behaviour, and

Christ’s answer?
A. That a child-like simplicity, is the best preparative for the

reception of divine truth.
51. Q. When was this fulfilled?
A. Acts i. when his disciples saw him carried up into heaven;

and it will be more fully accomplished, when Jesus Christ shall
come to judgment in the glory of his Father, with his holy angels,
to be admired by his saints.
CHAPTER II.
2. Q. What may we learn from Christ’s being at the marriage

in Cana?
A. That it is an honourable state, otherwise he would not

have been present at it.
Q. What may we learn from these people’s calling Christ to
the marriage?
A. That those who are about to enter on a marriage state,

ought above all things, by prayer to invite Jesus Christ, it being
for want of that we have so few happy matches.
3. Q. What may we learn from the blessed Virgin’s acquainting

Christ that they wanted wine?
A. That it is good, when we go to poor people’s houses, to

see what they want; and if we cannot relieve them ourselves, to
apply to others, especially to Jesus Christ, to grant them what
they want.
4. Q. What may we learn from Christ’s answer to his mother?
A. That in some measure she was to be blamed, for making

so free with our Saviour; that our relations, even our parents,
ought not to be regarded, when they would hinder us in religion;
and that it can never be presumed, that the Virgin has such
power over our Lord, as the Church of Rome supposes, now
he is in heaven, since he said to her upon this occasion,
“Woman, what have I to do with thee,” when he was on earth.
Q. May it not be supposed that Christ had shewn some

miracle before he entered on his public ministry?
A. There is great reason to think he had, or otherwise it is

hardly to be imagined, she should so readily apply to him to
work a miracle on this occasion, or bid the servants to take such
notice of his orders.
Q. What is meant by Christ’s saying, “Mine hour is not yet

come?”
A. Mine hour for working this miracle is not yet come; the
wine being not quite, though very near out, as the original word
signifies: our extremity is Christ’s opportunity.
5. Q. What may we learn from this verse?
A. That what the Virgin said to these servants, we should

think said to ourselves; and whatsoever Christ saith unto us,
we must do.
6. Q. May there any thing be gathered from this verse, to

confirm the truth of our Saviour’s miracle?
A. Yes: the watering-pots being made use of by the Jews, to

purify or wash themselves, as they came in and out, as the
Papists now make use of their ridiculous holy-water; it was plain
nothing but water used to be put in them, and being made of
stone, supposing wine had formerly been put in them, no
tincture of it could remain to colour the water that Jesus Christ
commanded to be put in; which could not be said, had they
been made of wood.
7. Q. Who were they that Jesus bid to fill the water pots?
A. The servants of the house.
Q. What may we learn from that?
A. It confirms the miracle; since he did not employ his own

disciples, but the servants of the house, who were entire
strangers, therefore could not be supposed to join in a cheat.
Q. What may we learn from the servants filling the vessels

up to the brim?
A. That therefore no wine could possibly be put in to colour

the water, or mix with it.
8. Q. What is meant by the governor of the feast?

A. It alludes to a custom among the Jews, who at their
entertainments used to chuse one particular person in the
company, to preside over the rest for that time, in order to
prevent disorder and excess.
9. Q. Why is it remarked, that the Governor knew not from

whence it was?
A. Because then he could have no hand in it, therefore his

testimony could be the more relied on.
Q. What spiritual meaning is under this miracle?
A. The wine represents the Spirit, which Jesus Christ pours

into the hearts of true believers; but though the comforts of the
Holy Ghost, with which they are filled, are exceeding rich here,
yet those in heaven will so far surpass them, that when we
come there, we shall have reason to say with the Governor of
the feast, “Jesus Christ has kept his good wine until now.”
13. Q. Why is it so often remarked, that Jesus went up to

Jerusalem to the passover?
A. To teach us how careful he was to submit to every

ordinance of God, and to set us an example to follow his steps.
Never, therefore, if possible, be absent from the gospel
passover, the sacrament or memorial of his own blessed body
and blood.
14. Q. How came there tradesmen to be in the temple?
A. There was a command from God, that all the males

should appear before him at Jerusalem three times in a year, (of
which the feast of the passover was one) and that none was to
appear before him empty. Now it being inconvenient to bring
cattle, &c. so many miles as some of them were distant from the
temple, these persons sat here with oxen, &c. to sell to those
who came up to Jerusalem to worship and offer sacrifice.
Q. Was not this a plausible pretence?
A. Yes; but our blessed Lord’s resenting it in this manner,

shews us how jealous he is of the honour of his house, and how
he resents the least misbehaviour in the public service of the
church.
Q. Was it not a bold thing of Jesus Christ to venture

himself among such a company of persons?
A. No doubt of it; and therefore some have thought, that this

was the greatest miracle Christ performed; and by this our
Lord would shew those in power, that if they will be zealous in
reforming abuses, and go out in the name and strength of God,
they know not what great success they may meet with.
16. Q. What may we learn from Christ’s saying to them that

sold doves, “take these things hence?”
A. That our zeal ought to be according to knowledge; that we

should pray for that wisdom which dwells with prudence; and,
more especially, be very cautious how we act in works of
reformation; as Christ here did not loose the doves and let
them fly about the temple (which would have occasioned a
confusion) but ordered those that sold them, to take them
thence.
Q. When do we make the house of God a house of

Merchandise?
A. When we go on purpose to seem religious, in order to get

business; and when we talk with others, or let our own thoughts
run on worldly things at public worship.
25. Q. What may we learn from the Evangelists saying, that

Jesus knew what was in man?
A. That Jesus Christ therefore was God, it being
impossible for any one but God to know what is in man.
CHAPTER III.
1. Q. What may we remark from Nicodemus’s coming to

Christ?
A. That it is a good thing to see rulers come to Jesus

Christ; and though not many mighty, not many noble are
called, yet some are.
2. Q. Why did Nicodemus come by night?
A. For fear of man.
Q. What may we learn hence?
A. That when religion is out of fashion, there will be many

Nicodemites.
Q. Is not the fear of man common to all converts?
A. Yes; but where the heart is upright towards God, it wears

off daily.
3. Q. What do you learn from Christ’s answer?
A. That it is not sufficient to have an historical faith of

Christ, without being born again from above.
Q. What is it to be born again from above?
A. It is to have a principle of new life implanted in our hearts

by the holy Spirit, which life must be evidenced by a man’s
bringing forth the fruits of the Spirit.
Q. Why cannot a man see the kingdom of God unless he be

born again?
A. If by the kingdom of God, be understood to mean the
kingdom of grace, then it is plain an unregenerate man cannot
see it; or cannot understand its doctrines, because they are
spiritually discerned. But if by the kingdom of God, be meant the
kingdom of glory; then, unless a man be born again he cannot
see it, because we being impure by nature, except we are
renewed, we cannot dwell with a pure and holy God.
5. Q. Does not this verse urge the absolute necessity of water

baptism?
A. Yes, where it may be had; but how God will deal with
persons unbaptized we cannot tell. What have we to do to judge
those that are without?
10. Q. What learn you from this verse?
A. That it is a shame for ministers to pretend to teach others,

who are not taught of God themselves.
13. Q. What learn you from these words, “The Son of man which
is in heaven?”
A. That Jesus Christ is God, since he declares he was

then in heaven, though discoursing at that time with Nicodemus,
which could not be, unless he was God.
CHAPTER IV.
4. Q. Why must Christ needs go through Samaria?
A. Because there was a woman to be converted there.
Q. What learn you from thence?
A. That where God has got people to be called, he will find

means to bring them to himself.
6. Q. What may you observe from Christ’s being weary?

A. That he was truly man.
7. Q. What learn you from Christ’s saying “Give me to drink?”
A. That our blessed Lord underwent much fatigue in going

about to preach to sinners. And that we ought not to be
ashamed to beg, when providence reduces us to an indigent
life, or to pressing circumstances.
9. Q. How can it be said that the Jews had no dealing with the
Samaritans, when in the foregoing verse we are told, the
disciples were gone to buy food?
A. They might do some few good offices to, but had no

general commerce with each other.
10. Q. What may we learn from Christ’s introducing religious

talk by asking for a little water?
A. That we ought to spiritualize every thing we meet with,

and take all proper opportunities to introduce religious
conversation wherever we are.
14. Q. What does Christ mean by “the water he should give?”
A. The holy Spirit.
Q. Why is the holy Spirit represented by water?
A. Because, as water washes away the filth of the body, so

the holy Spirit cleanses the pollution of the soul; and as water
refreshes the thirsty, so do the comforts of the Holy Ghost
refresh the spiritual man.
Q. What may we learn from these words, “shall be in him a

well, &c.?”
A. That where God has begun a good work, he will carry it

on to the day of our Lord Jesus Christ.
15. Q. What may you learn from this verse?
A. That we should pray to Christ, as this woman did, and

beg him to give us his holy Spirit, that we may not apply to
outward things for comfort.
20. Q. Why did the woman mention this to Christ?
A. Because, there was a dispute between the Samaritans

and Jews, which was the proper place of worship, Jerusalem or
mount Gerizim. And from hence arose such an enmity between
them, that they would have no dealings with one another.
23. Q. What is the meaning of this verse?
A. That now Jesus Christ was come, God’s worship could

not be confined to any particular place, but persons might every
where lift up holy hands to God.
24. Q. When may we be said to worship God in spirit and in

truth?
A. When we are inward with him in our worship, and not only
honour him with our lips, but with our affections and lives.
26. Q. What may we learn from Christ’s revealing himself so

freely to the woman?
A. That he will as freely and spiritually reveal himself to every

believing heart.
27. Q. What may we learn, from the disciples wondering that he

talked with a woman?
A. That men, especially ministers, ought not too freely to

converse with persons of that sex.
28. Q. What learn you from the woman leaving her water-pot to
go into the city?
A. That we should leave our worldly business, rather than
neglect at proper times to attend on the means of grace.
29. Q. Did not the woman tell an untruth here?
A. No, for Christ might have told her all. However, as

Christ had revealed to her the greatest secret of her life, she
might easily infer that he could tell her every thing else.
32. Q. What may we learn from this answer?
A. That we ought, after the example of our master, to forego

our ordinary meals sometimes for the sake of doing good. And
we may also learn, that a true christian has meat to eat, spiritual
comforts, which the world knows not of: a stranger
intermeddleth not with his joys.
34. Q. What learn we hence?
A. That it ought to be our meat and drink, or as much

pleasure and our constant business to do the will of God, as to
supply our bodies with proper food.
35. Q. What does Christ mean when he bids his disciples “to lift
up their eyes?”
A. In all probability, he pointed to the Samaritans whom he

saw crowding over the fields, coming to hear his doctrine.
38. Q. What does Christ mean by this?
A. That the prophets had prepared the way for his coming,
by their prophecies, which made the disciples work far more
easy.
41. Q. What learn you from hence?
A. That though there are many external proofs of the divinity

of Christ’s doctrine, yet his own words or his doctrine best
explains itself: the divine image and superscription being written
on every precept and line of it.
47. Q. What learn we from the Nobleman’s coming to Christ

about his sick son?
A. That parents should apply to Christ for their sick

children, and that afflictions should drive us to God.
48. Q. Wherein was this Nobleman to be blamed?
A. In that he confined Christ’s power to his bodily presence.

Therefore to convince him of his frailty, and to strengthen his
faith, Christ cured his son at a distance.
52. Q. What is meant by the seventh hour?
A. One in the afternoon.
53. Q. What learn we from this verse?
A. That bodily distempers are all cured by the power of

Christ, and that those who are now recovered from sickness,
are raised up as certainly though not so visibly by him, as was
the Nobleman’s son.
CHAPTER V.
6. Q. What learn you from Christ’s asking this question? “Wilt

thou be made whole?”
A. That he will know our wants from ourselves.
8. Q. What learn you from Christ’s bidding him to take up his

bed and walk?
A. That though Christ is the first mover in recovering us

from our natural and spiritual impotency, yet we must concur in
the use of means.
9. Q. What learn you from Christ’s doing so many works on
the Sabbath?
A. That doing good, is a proper way of sanctifying the

Sabbath.
13. Q. What learn you by Christ’s conveying himself from the

multitude?
A. That we should do good, but endeavour at the same time

to avoid the praise of man.
14. Q. What learn you from Christ’s finding the man that was
healed, in the temple?
A. That it is good to see people, after they are recovered

from their sickness, going to the temple to return thanks unto
God.
Q. What learn you from the latter part of this verse?
A. That sickness is often sent as a punishment for sin. That if

we do not mend when God chastises us with whips, or light
afflictions, we must expect to be chastised with scorpions, or
greater trials.
18. Q. What learn you from the latter part of this verse?
A. That the Jews thought, though the Arians deny it, that
Jesus Christ believed and made himself to be very God.
35. Q. What learn you hence?
A. That people generally like a good minister for a little while,

but afterwards familiarity breeds contempt.
41. Q. What learn you hence, and in the 44th verse?

A. That we should seek that honour only which cometh from
God, as also that it is impossible to be a christian, if we seek to
please the world.
CHAPTER VI.
2. Q. What do you learn from hence?
A. That it is too common, for people to follow a minister

through curiosity, more than to be edified by his doctrine.
5. Q. What learn you from Christ being solicitous for the

feeding of his hearers bodies?
A. That the body is to be taken care of, and that Christ is as

careful for us now he is in heaven, as he was for the multitude
when on earth. That ministers after his example, should do all
the good they can to the bodies of men, to convince them they
have a love for, and to open a way for giving good advice to,
their souls.
6. Q. What learn you from this verse?
A. That the reason why Christ brings us into straits, is to

prove us, whether we will trust in him or not.
9. Q. What gather you from the words of Philip, “What are

these among so many?”
A. That when we look only upon outward means, no wonder

that our faith fail us.
12. Q. What learn you from Christ bidding them “Gather up the
fragments that remained?”
A. That we ought to be frugal, though not coveteous; and

that they will certainly have much to answer for, who waste their
whole estates in gaming.
14. Q. What learn you from the latter part of this verse?
A. That the certainty and greatness of our Saviour’s

miracles, is an undoubted proof that he was the true Messiah,
since God would never so visibly set his seal to an impostor.
15. Q. Why did Christ depart to a mountain?
A. To teach christians, and particularly ministers, to fly

worldly honours; and also to set us an example, that when we
are beset with temptations of that kind, it is best to retire alone,
to pray to God to be delivered from the evil of it.
26. Q. What learn you from what Christ here said to the
people?
A. That he knows from what principles and motives we come

to hear the word of God; therefore we ought to take heed how
we hear.
53. Q. Have the papists any grounds from hence for their
doctrine of transubstantiation?
A. No; for Christ tells us in the 63d verse, that the flesh
profiteth nothing, and that his words are spirit and life; i. e. they
are not to be understood in a carnal but spiritual sense; and
frequently by interpreting them literally, men do greatly err.
CHAPTER VII.
1. Q. What learn you from Christ’s walking no more in Judea

when the Jews sought to kill him?
A. That it is our duty, not to expose ourselves to needless

dangers; and when we are persecuted at one place, to flee to
another, when the glory of God and the good of the church do
not require our staying.
7. Q. What learn you from hence?

A. That ministers must expect to be accounted the enemies
of mankind, if they are faithful to reprove them, and tell them the
truth.
12. Q. What learn you from the different opinions men had of
Christ?
A. That every christian, especially every minister, must

expect to be variously thought of, and sometimes to be
accounted deceivers of the people.
37. Q. Why did Christ cry out thus on the last day of the feast?
A. Because on that day, they used to go and draw water and

bring it up to the temple, saying these words of Isaiah. “And they
shall draw water out of the wells of salvation.” Jesus Christ
seeing them therefore do this, took occasion to discourse of the
holy Spirit under the similitude of water.
39. Q. Why was not the Holy Ghost given, till Jesus Christ was
glorified?
A. Because till then he was himself on earth, and had not

taken on him the kingly office, nor pleaded the merits of his
death before his heavenly Father, by which he purchased that
invaluable blessing for us.
50. Q. What learn you from the boldness of Nicodemus, in

owning Christ before the Jewish Sanhedrim, though at first he
came to him by night?
A. That where there is true grace, the fear of man will wear
off daily.
CHAPTER VIII.
11. Q. Why would not Christ condemn the woman caught in

adultery?

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Plasmonic MEMS John X. J.

Handbook of Mineral Spectroscopy: X-Ray Photoelectron

Plasmonic Sensors and their Applications Adil Denizli

3D and Circuit Integration of MEMS 1st Edition

Division X August Hill

Learning Control Zhang

Modern Permanent Magnets John J. Croat

Biography of X Catherine Lacey

What Every Engineer Should Know About Risk Engineering

ISSN 2691-1930 ISSN 2691-1949 (electronic)

related to electromagnetic waves and surface plasmons is also presented. It is a foun-

Hanover, USA John X. J. Zhang

4 Plasmonics as a Fabrication Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Summary and Future Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

1.1 MEMS and Optical MEMS

Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) is the technology of integrated mechani-

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 1

. Plasmonics (brief principle, physics and recent development)

1.2 Plasmonic MEMS: A Frontier of Photonic Devices

The first experimental demonstration of electromechanically reconfigurable plasmonic

Fig. 1.6 First demonstration of an electrostatically actuated tunable plasmonic metamaterial.

1.3 Status of the Field

Table 1.1 Landmark papers in the field of plasmonic MEMS

1.4 Existing Challenges

1. Materials innovation are much needed to provide seamlessly integrated mechanical,

vision, these concepts may be combined to realize a fascinating paradigm to manipulate

16. Available: https://www.sensimed.ch/

34. W. Piyawattanametha, E. D. Cocker, L. D. Burns, R. P. J. Barretto, J. C. Jung, H. Ra, et al.,

54. I. M. Pryce, K. Aydin, Y. A. Kelaita, R. M. Briggs, and H. A. Atwater, “Highly Strained

2.1 Maxwell’s Equations and Electromagnetic Wave Theory

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 15

-J(r, t) = ρ(r, t)v (2.5)

In time domain, fields can be related via the constitutive relations

where σ [siemens/meter] is the conductivity of the medium.

Fig. 2.1 Boundary surface of

Re{e j (ωt−k.-r) } = e−α.-r cos(ωt − β.-r), (2.14)

n̂ × (H1 − H2 ) = Jim (2.16)

The tangential magnetic field is continuous

Bi (y = 0, t) cos θi + Br (y = 0, t) cos θr = Bt (y = 0, t) cos θt (2.20)

Here ℘ means the principal value of the integral.

Fig. 2.5 Schematic view of

Hz (y) = A2 ei βx e−k2 y (2.34)

Hz (y) = A1 ei β x ek1 y (2.37)

2.2 Diffraction and Interference

Fig. 2.7 The diffraction

2.3 Transmission Line Theory (TLT)

Fig. 2.8 Surface plasmon

Using Eqs. (2.44) and (2.45)

Fig. 2.9 The proposed

transmission line of characteristic impedance of

The second example includes a plasmonic piezoelectric nanomechanical resonant

2.4 Plasmonic Nanograting Theory

Ωi = d sin(θi ), Ωr = −d sin(θr ) (2.53)

The total path length difference then can be calculated.

Ω = d sin(θi ) − (−d sin(θr )) = 2d(sin(θi ) + sin(θr )), (2.54)

Substituting in Eq. (2.54).

mλ = 2d(sin(θi ) + sin(θr )), (2.56)

2.5 Numerical Methods