“PHYSICS for ARCHITECTS Yehuda SaluPHYSICS for ARCHITECTS Yehuda Salu Howard UniversityCopyright © 2003 by Yehuda Salu All rights reserved. No part of this book shall be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, magnetic, photographic including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without prior written permission of the publisher. No patent liability is assumed with respect to the use of the information contained herein. Although ‘every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this book, the publisher and author assume no responsibility for errors or omissions. Neither is any liability assumed for damages resulting from the use of the information contained herein. Disclaimer: This publication is designed to provide accurate information about the subject matter that it covers. It is presented in good faith, and although the author and publisher have made every reasonable effort to represent every information accurately, they do not warrant or assume any liability for its accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose. This book is published with the understanding that neither the publisher nor the author are attempting to render any engineering or other professional services, If such services are required, the reader/user should apply his/her own professional knowledge, or seek appropriate professional advice. Copyright holders who permitted the use of their material in this publication are gratefully acknowledeged in the main text and on page 309. Cover photograph: View of Hoover Dam with jet flow gates open for testing, June 1998. Courtesy Bureau of Reclamation, U.S. Department of the Interior. ISBN 0-7414-1929-7 Published by: INFIOQJITY tm liana tca sess 1094 New Dehaven Street Suite 100 West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2713 Info@buybooksontheweb.com www. buybooksontheweb.com 0” Toll-free (877) BUY BOOK Local Phone (610) 941-9999 Fax (610) 941-9959 Printed in the United States of America Printed on Recycled Paper Published May 2007TABLE OF CONTENTS 1, MATHEMATICAL REVIEW snes 1.1 ALGEBRA, LLL Equations and formulas. 1.1.2 Understanding formulas.. PROBLEMS. 1.2 Geomerey 1.2.1 Length, area, volume: 1.2.2 Angles PROBLEMS. 1.3 TRIGONOMETRY eases : 1.3.1 The trigonometric functions of acute angles... ses 13 1.3.2 Trigonometric functions of any angle.. 15 1.3.3 The inverse trigonometric functions sevens a7 PROBLEMS. ae 8 14 UNITS. ‘ : 20 14.1 Conversion of units. : 20 1.4.2 Units and formulas Sear PROBLEMS .cososoneno 2 2. MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION. (COORDINATE SYSTEMS AND THE REAL WORLD. 23 [KINEMATICS IN ONE DIMENSION... sua) 22.1 Position, distance, and displacement in ID... 4 2.22 Vectors in I-D. peices 26 2.2.3 Deseribing motion in I-D. 2 2.2.4 Speed and velocity in I-D. : ae 28 Solving numerical Physies Problems. . 30 2.2.5 Acceleration in I-D. : 31 2.2.6 Acceleration of free fal (g). 33 2.3. NEWTON'S LAWS IN T-D nsronsn 35 2.3.1 The Law of Inertia (Newton's First Law) eee 2.3.2 Newton's Second LOW .vs.nsnes Zi eee sa 2.3.3 Adding forces in I-D. ———— Sees) 2.3.4 Newton's Third Law one 0 2.4 FORCES, 4 24.1 The force of gravity on Earth 4 ‘The pound and the kilogram. 43 242 The Universal Pore of Gry sn AB 2.4.3 Elastic forces : : 2.4.4 Normal forces 2.4.5 Friction forces. 2.5 STATICS IN ONE DIMENSION... 2.6 DYNAMICS IN ONE DIMENSION. 261 Net force=V.rune. 2.62 Net force=constant (non-zer9). 2.63 Oscillations.PROBLEMS.. 3. FROM 1 TO 2 AND 3 DIMENSIONS... 3.1 REPRESENTING VECTORS... 3.1.1 Representing displacement vectors. 3.1.2 Representing any vector. 3.1.3 Adding vectors graphically. 3.1.4 Adding vectors by formulas... 3.2. FORCE AND MOTION IN2-D AND3-D. 3.2.1 Two dimensions. 3.2.2 Three dimensions 3.2.3 Translation and rotation. 3.24 Torgues PROBLEMS. 4. STATICS ne 4.1 CONDITIONS FOR STATIC EQUILIBRIUM. 4.2. THE CENTER OF GRAVITY (C.0.0). 4.3. STATICS OF BASIC STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS. 431 Thre coplanar eres ating on apis 43.2 A beam and posis. : 43.3 A ladder against a wall 434 Triangular arch DiseUss0M neon 43.5 From arches to domes 43.6 Buttressing. 43.) Multi-member structures. 4.38 Considering elasticity 4.4 STRESS AND STRAIN, : 44.1 Types of deformations. 44.2 The elastic moduli 3 4.4.3 Controlling deformations in structures... 4.5 HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE... PROBLEMS... 5. LATERAL FORCES. 5.1 WIND EFFECTS. S11 Wind flow. 5.1.2 Wind forces... Drag frees Lif frees. 5.2 EARTHQUAKES. 5.2.1 Plate tectonics. 5.2.2 Imeeraction of earthquakes with structures 5.2.3 Rigid coupling and rigid main structure. 5.24 Effects of sructure’sflesbility 5.2.5 Toppling of structures... 5.3. LATERAL EFFECTS OF HYDROSTATIC FORCES 5.4 COMMENTS ON LATERAL. FORCES PROBLEMS. 6. WORK, ENERGY, POWER, MOMENTUM... 6.1 WORK AND KINETIC ENERGY...6.2 WORK AND GRAVITY, 6.3 DISSIPATED ENERGY... 6:4 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 6.4.1 Applications of Conservation of Err 6.5 Power. 6.6 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM PROBLEMS 7. HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS. ae 7.1 TEMPERATURE... 7.2 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION. 7.2.1 Solids and liquids. ‘The Water Anomaly 7.2.2 Gasses. 7.3 HEAT ss 7.3.1 What is heat? 7.3.2 The First and Second Laws ef Phermodpnanis 7.3.3 Units of Heat z 7.34 Heat, Temperature, and Matter. 7.3.5 Exchange of heat in closed systems 7.3.6 Heating and cooling of air. 7.3.7 Sensible heat, latent heat, and enthalpy.. 7.3.8 Heat Confort (Paychrometry) 7.4 HEAT TRANSFER... 7.4.1. Heat conduction, Renumber, U-value, and thermal resistance ‘Thermal resistors in series. Thermal cesistors in pale Basement walls and floor slabs 7.4.2 Heat convection 7.4.3 Heat radiation 7.4.4 The greenhouse effect. 25 Heating and cooling of bung. PROBLEM z 8. ELECTRICITY... aes 8.1 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND ELECTROSTATIC FORCE 8.2 ELECTRIC CURRENTS 8.2.1 Electric currents and their utilization. 82.2 Generating electric cwrents 8.23 Electric energy and power. 8.24 Resistance and resistivity 825 Elecirie power source. DC Curent. : AC Sourees 82.6 Generation and manipaaton of AC. 82.7 Wiring inside the house 828 Electrical safe rn PROBLEMS 154 AST 9.11 Particles or waves?... ‘Young's double slit experiment. The photoelectric effect.A dilemma and its solution... ‘The energy ofa light-beam. 9.1.2 Generation and annihilation of light 9.2. THE PERCEPTION OF COLOR. 9.2.1 Photon-eye-brain interactions. 9.2.2 Perceiving reflected light.. 9.2.3 Eye accommodation and glare .. 9.24 The Temperature’ of color. 9.3 PHOTOMETRY. 9.3.1 Radiant power and luminous fl 9.3.2 luminance and luminance intensi Mluminating by a parallel beam. Muminaion by a pint source Luminance. Long line and other sources Luminous efficacy and quantity o ish 9A DAYLIGHT wo 94.1 Sunlight 94.2 Light and the atmosphere 9.5. LIGHT IN VARIOUS MEDIUMS... 9.5.1. Types of mediums. 9.5.2 Atteuation.. 9.5.3 Reflection. 9.5.4 Refraction of light ‘The index of refraction ‘The Law of Refraction Total reflection 9.5.5. Lighting control PROBLEM! 10. ACOUSTICS 10.1 PROPAGATION OF SOUND. 10.2 SOUND waves. 10.2.1 Distortion and manipulation of sound waves 10.3 SOUND INTENSITY 10.3.1 Sound loudness. 10.3.2 The log(x) function (review) 10.3.3 The decibel scale. ‘The decibel scale and common intuition... 10.4 REFLECTION, ABSORPTION, REFRACTION, AND TRANSMISSION... 10.4.1 Echoes and reflection of sound.. 10.4.2 Tracing reflected sound. 10.4.3 Reverberations. 10.44. Transmission and attenuation of sound.. Paths of transmitted sound 10, 5 INTERFERENCE. 10.5.1 Interference of waves. 10.5.2 Uneringing a bell... ae 10.5.3 Standing waves and resonance... 10.6 DIFFRACTION OF SOUND... 10.6.1 Huygens’ Principle 10.6.2 The diffraction process. Diffraction in a double si 10.6.3 Diffraction in architectural contextDiffusion by diffraction i . 302 Sound barriers for highways = 302 PROBLEMS. CONVERSION FACTORS... CREDITS. INDEX ssnPREFACE Students of most undergraduate architecture programs in the United States are required to take an introductory physies course. There are three good reasons for that requirement. First, architects have to understand the fundamentals of physics as they apply to processes taking place in buildings and in structures. Second, as part of general education, physics broadens our understanding of the physical world around us. Third, since physics is an exact science that relies on mathematics, solving physies problems enhances the analytical and scientific thinking skills of the student. “Physics-for-Architects” was written specifically for architecture students, aiming to satisfy those three basic requirements, The specific details of an introductory physics course may vary from one architecture program to another. Different programs may have different overall concentrations, which may affect the relative weight of their physics component. Within any given architecture program, physics topics may be distributed between introductory physics and other professional courses. Also, different programs may put different emphasis on the mathematical aspects of physics, sometimes referred to as the difficulty level of the physics course. What is common to all architecture programs is that the total time allotted to introductory physies is between one and two semesters. “Physics-for-Architects” has been designed so that it could be used in a wide variety of undergraduate architecture programs, according to their specific needs ‘Time is an important factor when compiling any curriculum and a textbook to support it. Class time as well as the time available for students’ homework is limited. Therefore, the topics that should be included in the physics curriculum, and the depth of each topic have to be selected very judiciously. Topics have to be prioritized, and eventually some topics will have to be dropped out altogether, In “Physics-for-Architects”, the fundamental principles of physics and topics that have direct bearing on architecture receive the highest priority. Other topics are secondary. For example, Newton's Laws are fundamental, and they are discussed in detail both theoretically and in numerous applications. On the other hand, some topics of modern physics had to be considered secondary, and they are interwoven at a qualitative level within other chapters. Some general concepts, such as series and parallel connections, apply to several topics. Since architects encounter them mainly in situations of heat flow, they are introduced here in that context. Most physics textbooks introduce those concepts in relation to electrical circuits of resistors and capacitors. The latter has no relevance to architects, and is not presented here. The math pre-requisites to all the topies in the book are high-school-level algebra and trigonometry. An intensive review, only of the mathematical concepts and techniques that are needed for the course, is provided as an introductory chapter. Detailed solved examples are embedded in the text, and problems of various levels of mathematical difficulty are provided at the end of each chapter. That should allow teachers to tailor the math level of each topic to the specific needs of their program and their students. Teachers may opt to teachsome topics at the highest level of mathematics, while other topies could be addressed with lesser mathematical rigor, or even only qualitatively. It is common to distinguish between physics-type problems and engineering- type problems. Physies-type problems are those that can be solved by using physics formulas. Engineering-type problems rely not only on closed physics formulas, but also on practical approximations, simplifications, ad hock tables, and the likes. Most physics textbooks limit their scope to physies-type problems However, many physics related problems that architects encounter are of the engincering-type. Most architecture programs teach that kind of problems in specialized courses, distinct from introductory physics. That creates an unnecessary dichotomy between physics and its applications. One of the tenets of “Physics-for-Architects” is to bridge that gap and to demonstrate to architecture students the relevance of physics. Many engineering-type problems are included in the text. The transition from axiomatic, physics-type approach to practical, engineering-type approach in analyzing situations and solving problems is illustrated throughout the text. It should be noted, though, that “Physics-for-Architects” is a_physics textbook, and it is not intended to be a replacement for the professional architecture books. Engineering-type discussions and problems are brought here as an introductory material, for illustrative purposes. Whenever a real situation has to be addressed, it is recommended that the reader seek professional advice and consult the professional literature and building codes. Although “physics-for-Architects” has been designed for architecture students, “physics is physics”. The physies principles, concepts, formulas and ideas brought here are the same as those presented in other general purpose, introductory physics textbooks. The main difference is in the examples used to introduce and to explain the physics. Those examples are related to buildings and structures and to théir use by humans. Readers from other disciplines too may find the book interesting and effective in their study of physics. Acknowledgements This book evolved from my notes for the course Physics for Architecture that I have taught at Howard University for more than a decade. I am indebted to all my students for their comments, suggestions, and insights that they have shared with me during those years. Especially I am grateful for their patience and understanding during the entire process of trial and error, that we had to go through in order to test and finally select the material for the book. The partial support of the National Science Foundation, through grant number DUE- 0087360, is gratefully appreciated. Special thanks for permitting the use of their materials are given to: the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air- conditioning Engineers; Arthur Hsu; Boston Properties; English Heritage; John Wiley and Sons; Bureau of Reclamation, U.S. Department of the Interior; U.S. Geological Survey; and Washington University,1. MATHEMATICAL REVIEW LI Algebra 1.1.1 Equations and formulas A formula is a relationship between variables that are represented by letters. A formula has a left-hand side (LHS) expression, an equal sign, and a right hand side (RHS) expression. Quite often, the LHS consists of only one variable. For example, A =a-b is a formula that relates the area of a rectangle, represented by A, to its length, represented by a, and its width, represented by b. When numbers are substituted for the variables of the RHS, the value of the corresponding LHS variable can be found. The use of formulas is very common in physics. The variables in physics formulas represent a variety of physics entities, and the formulas express in concise ways the relationships between those variables. ‘Sometimes, we know the values of some variables that appear on both sides of a formula, and we want to know the values of the unknown variable or variables. For example, we may know that the area of a certain rectangle is 15 square meters, its length is 5 m, and we want to know its width. If we substitute these values in the formula for the area of a rectangle, we get 15 = 5b. This is ‘an equation for the unknown b. We can solve it and find b=3, meaning that the width of that rectangle is 3 meters long. Solving equations is a main staple of physics. In this course, we will encounter a variety of equations, so a quick review of methods of solving equations is in place. There are many kinds of equations, and there are specific techniques for solving each kind. The equations that we will encounter the most belong to the class of what is called “linear algebraic equations” (LAE). In LAE”s, the LHS and the RHS contain combinations of numbers, operators, and letters. The operators are + (add), - (subtract), OT - (multiply), and / (divide). The letters stand for variables. An unknown is a variable that we want to find its value. In a LAE, unknowns are multiplied by numbers but not by themselves or by other unknowns. For example 2x+3y=x/5 is a LAE with two unknown (x and y). The ‘equation 2xy+3x=w/5 is not a LAE because of the term xy (the unknown xPHYSICS for ARCHITECTS multiplies the unknown y). The equation 2x+3y=x’/S is also not a LAE because of the term x’, The basic idea used in solving equations is that if we start with an equation A=B, and if we modify A and B in the same way, the modified A will remain equal to the modified B. For example, if A=2+2 and B=1+3 we start with 2+2=1+3. If we add | to both sides, we'll have 2+2+1=1+3+1, which is true. If both sides by 2, the equality will hold (2+2)/2=(143)/2. If we take the square root of both sides, the equality will hold ¥2+2 = V1+3 , and so on, In order to solve a LAE with one unknown, we operate the same way on the LHS and on the RHS. We choose the operations such that finally only the unknown remains in one side and only numbers remain on the other side of the equation. For example, if the equation that we want to solve is: 2x+3=4, our goal is to get x=some number. The 2 and the 3 are in our way. We can get rid of the 3 in the LHS by subtracting 3 from both sides: 2x+3-3=4-3. This gives us 2x=1 ‘Now only the 2 is in our way. We get rid of it by dividing both sides by 2: 2x/2=1/2, whieh gives us x=1/2 When the LHS of an equation consists only of one variable, and the RHS contains other variables and numbers, we say that this is a formula for the variable of the LHS. For example, ‘R is a formula for V. By applying the same operation on both side, this formula may become a formula for I: I=V/R, and a formula for R: R=V/I. We say that in the first case the original formula was solved for I, and in the second case it was solved for R. All three formulas ‘express the same idea. When it comes to memorizing formulas, if you memorize ‘one formula you should be able to derive thie wiles ‘We will encounter situations where it is needed to solve sets of two equations with two unknowns. There are two main methods of doing that: the method of substitution and the method of Gauss’ elimination. Let’s first see in an example how the method of substitution works: ‘The two equations are: () xty=! (2) 2x4 Step 1. We choose equation (1). We want to modify it to x=something. The unknown y is in our way, so we get rid of it by subtracting y from both sides. We get x+y-y=5-y, which simplifies to x=5-y. Step 2. We substitute the expression for x in equation (2). We get 2(S-yy=I. This is an equation with one unknown y. Step 3. We solve 2(5-y)-y=1. We want to bring it to the form y=something, The 2, the parenthesis, and the 5 are in our way. We first get rid of the parenthesis: 10-2y-y=I, or 10-3y=1. Now we get rid of the 10 10-3y-10=1-10, or ~3y=-9. We divide both sides by (-3) to get: ~3y/(-3)=-9/(-3), or y=3. This isthe first half of the solution. Step 4. We substitute y=3 in equation (1): x+3=5 Step 5. We solve x+3=5 to get x2. This is the second half of the solution In general terms, the method of substit (corresponding to the last example): ion has the following steps1. Math Review Choose one equation (say the first), and express one of the unknowns in it with the other unknown and the numbers. Substitute that expressed unknown in the other equation (the second), which ‘now becomes an equation with one unknown. Solve that equation (the modified second equation). This is the first part of the solution, Substitute the value of the unknown that you have found in the previous step in the other equation (the first), which now becomes an equation with one unknown, Solve the equation of the previous step. the second part of the solution, ‘The second method of solving sets of LAE’s is by Gauss” elimination. The following is an example that illustrates the method of Gauss’ Elimination. ‘The original equations are: () 2X3=3Y (2) 4Y=5-3X First we bring these equations to the standard format: (1) 2X43Y=3 (2) 3x+4¥=5 ‘We want to eliminate X from equations (1*) and (2°). The coefficient of X in (1’) is 2, and the coefficient of X in (2°) is 3. If we multiply both sides of (1°) by 3, and hoth sides of (2°) by 2 we get: (1) 6X+9Y=9 (2”) 6X+8Y=10 We now subtract the LHS of (2””) from the LHS of (1’) and the RHS of (2"?) from the RHS of (1°*) to get (2°"): 6X-6X+9Y-8Y=9-10 or Y=-1 is half of the solution. We substitute it in (1) (we may also substitute it in (2) to get: 2X-3=-3(-1) or 2X-3=3. > 2X=6. ->X=3, which is the second half of the soluti In general terms, the following steps are taken when Gauss” elimination is, used: First, the two equations are manipulated to the pre-elimination form: ‘The coefficient of one of the unknowns (say the x) is the same in both equations, all the unknowns are in the LHS’s, and only numbers appear in the RHS’s: a mX+nY=p Q mX+k m, n, p, q, and k are numbers, and X and Y are the unknowns. (These correspond to (1) and (2”") in the last example),PHYSICS for ARCHITECTS In the elimination step we subtract from the LHS of (1) the LHS of (2), and from the RHS of (1) we subtract the RHS of (2). This is justified because we subtract the same amount from the LHS and the RHS of 1. We get: nY-KY=p-q, or (1-Y=p-q ‘This corresponds to (1"")-(2") from the last example. (The word elimination in the name of the method indicates that one of the unknowns (X in this case) was eliminated in the process (mX-mX=0). (1-k) is a number and so is p-q. We get Y=(p-q)(n-k), which is the first half of the solution. We substitute this value of Y in either (1) or (2), and get one equation with one unknown, whose solution is the second half of the solution of the set (1) and (2). 1.1.2 Understanding formulas Although formulas enable us to calculate the precise relationships between variables, quite often it is possible to get a general idea about such relationships without actually doing any calculation. Consider for example the formula C=P-N ‘Where C = total cost of apples bought, P = price of 1 pounds of apples, and N = number of pounds bought. By using this formula we can calculate the total cost of any amounts of apples that we buy, for any price. But the formula tells us also that the more apples we buy, the more we pay, or in other words, the total cost is proportional to the number of pounds bought. We can see it from the formula, because the total cost is equal to the product of a constant number P (the price of one pound) and a variable N (number of pounds bought). The property of a product of two numbers is that if one is held constant and the second is increased, the outcome increases. If the second number is decreased, the outcome decreases. So, in general, if a variable appears as a part of a product in the right hand side of a formula, we know that the variable on the left-hand-side is proportional to that right-hand-side variable. Consider as a second example the formula Where S is the share of each winning ticket in a lottery, G is the grand prize, and N is the number of winning tickets. (According to the rules of this lottery, there may be a number of winning tickets, and the grand prize is divided equally between them). We can use this formula to calculate exactly the share of each winning ticket (if there is at least one) for any number of winning tickets and for1. Math Review any grand prize. But this formula tells us also that the more winning tickets there are, the less is the share of each ticket. We can see it in the formula, because the variable on the Jeft-hand-side (S) is equal to a fraction, When the numerator of a fraction (G) is held constant and the denominator (N) is increased, the value of the fraction (S) decreases. When the denominator decreases, the value of the fraction as a whole increases. We say that S is inversely proportional to N. Ina formula, if the right-hand-side is expressed as a fraction, the value of the variable in the left-hand-side is inversely proportional to the variable in the denominator of the right-hand-side. (Inversely proportional is the same as proportional to the inverse. An inverse of the number N is I/N.) From this formula we can see also that S is proportional to G, meaning that if G increases $ increases, and if G decreases S decrease. This is because S is equal to a fraction whose numerator is G. By increasing the numerator we increase the value of the fraction, and by decreasing the numerator the value of the fraction decreases. To summarize: in a formula, if the right-hand-side is expressed as a fraction, the value of the variable in the left-hand-side is proportional to the variable in the numerator of the right-hand-side, and inversely proportional to the variable in the denominator. ‘There are formulas in which the left-hand-side is proportional to the square of a variable on the right-hand-side. For example, the formula for the area A of a circle of radius r is A =x-r?. In this case, the area is proportional to the square of the radius. Let’s compare this formmula with the formula L = 2n-r , which gives the length L of the circumference of a circle whose radius is r. The circumference is proportional to r. If r is doubled, the circumference is doubled, if ris increased by a factor of 10, the circumference is increased by a factor of 10. However, ifr is doubled, the area A is increased by a factor for 2"=4, and if r is increased by a factor of 10, the area A is increased by a factor of 10°=100, Certain formulas enable us to evaluate relative changes in their left-hand-side variable, without actually going through the whole calculati When we have a formula, we may be able to tell which variables are proportional to which. However, if we just know that two variables are proportional to each other, we cannot express this relationship by a formula that has an equal sign. For example, if we want to express the fact that the cost C of apples is proportional the number of pounds N that we buy, we can write CN, where « is the proportionality symbol. In order to “upgrade” a proportionality relationship to an equality, we have to multiply one of the variables by a constant. (In this example, we can multiply N by P, the price of one pound of apples). Such a constant is called a proportionality factor, or a proportionality constant. (In this example, P serves as a proportionality constant).PHYSICS for ARCHITECTS PROBLEMS Expressing relations by formulas . How many days (4) are there in w weeks? (answer: d=7w) How many hours (h) are there in d days? . How many cents (c) are d dollars? How many dollars (d) are c cents? How many ounces (©) are p pounds? How many cents (c) are d dimes and q quarters? How many days (d) are w weeks and m months? How many yards (y) are f feet and i inches? ). What is the average score (S) of a student who got x points in the first test, 75 in the second, y in the third, and 98 in the fourth? 10. How many feet (F) have e cows, p pigs, and d ducks? PORN AWRY E Solve the following equations of one unknown: i x+321=543, 1 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20., 21, 22. 23. 22x =11 mA. a 7+5=442x 26. 21. 4x#9=12x 2 29. 43 215 30. 2 31. cose eb ae 32, 6 3 33. 6(2x+5-9+7)=(3-4x+5\(142) 34. =e 15 x43 35. 36. 37. xs, X+7 02 x47 ‘Manipulating formulas1. Math Review 39, 40. al. 42. 43, 44, 45, 46. Solve the following sets of equa 41. 49. sl. 33, 37, Given § = v-t, solve for t; solve for v. 1 Given § zat solve for a: solve for t a 1 Given S= vo +58 1?, solve for a; solve for Vo Given E = me”, solve for m. KA(ty ~ ty) L Given 21 4 P2V2 Given H = . solve for k: solve for ty solve for Vj ; solve for T3. T Given f af solve for S; solve for Ht. ones babes ae rk s with two unknowns: xty-9 48. 2xt3y=17 x3 ya 30. Txt2y=15 2x. 2xt3y=9 52. Axt6y=18 xy xeyt3=3 54, 56. 2x3y=1 58 Sxt5y=10 10y=20-10x. Understanding formulas In the following formulas, you can figure out relationships between variables, even though you may not know (yet) the meaning of these variables. 59. The voltage across a resistor V is given by the formula V = I-R , where I is the current through the resistor, and R is the resistance of the resistor. ‘True or False? The voltage is proportional to the current,PHYSICS for ARCHITECTS ‘The voltage is inversely proportional to the resistance. 60. The heat flow Q through a wall is given by the formul where k is the heat conductivity constant of the wall, A is the area of the wall, T is the temperature difference across the wall, t is the duration of the heat flow, and dis the thickness of the wall. ‘True or False? ‘The heat flow is proportional to the area of the wall. The heat flow is inversely proportional to the duration of the heat flow. ‘The heat flow is inversely proportional to the thickness of the wall. The heat flow is inversely proportional to d/k. 61. The distance $ covered by a car accelerating from rest in time t is given by S=0.5-a-t?, where a is the acceleration of the car. If the time is tripled, what would be the relative change in the distance covered by that car’? 62. The electric potential V created ata distance of r from a point source is given by — where C is a constant that depends on the source. What would be the relative change in V and in E if the distance r is quadrupled? & and the electric field E is given by 63. Using the proportionality symbol, write down the fact that the area A of a triangle is proportional to its height h. What is the proportionality factor needed to upgrade this relationship to an equality? 1.2 Geometry The term “congruent”, which is used frequently in geometry, means identical. For example, two congruent triangles mean two triangles that are identical to each other, but which are found in different locations. It is possible to move around one of those congruent triangles without distorting it, and bring it to an exact match with the other. 1.2.1 Length, area, volume Lines have length. In order to measure the length of a line, a unit of length has to be used. There are many units of length e.g. meter, foot, yard, mile, etc. When we say that the length of a straight-line-segment is three meters, we mean that three units of length, one meter each, can exactly cover that segment. This coverage not leave any part of that segment uncovered and will not cover any part of it ‘more than once.1. Math Review Surfaces have surface-area, or in short area. Similar to lines, areas are measured by units of area. Each unit of length has a corresponding unit of area. For example, the unit of length ‘foot’ has a corresponding unit of area “square- foot’. If the unit ‘foot’ can be realized by a ruler one foot long, the unit ‘square- foot” can be realized by a square tile, whose side is one foot long. When we say that the area of a certain rectangle is three square-feet, we mean that that rectangle can be exactly covered by three units of area, each of which is one square foot. No part of the surface is left uncovered or covered more than once. Three-dimensional objects have volume. Like in the cases of lines and surfaces, units of volume are used to measure the volume of three-dimensional objects. Each unit-length has a corresponding unit of volume e.g. cubic foot is the unit of volume that corresponds to foot. A cubic foot can be realized by a cube whose size is one foot long. When we say that the volume of a certain box is ten cubic-feet, we mean that ten volume-units, one cubic foot each, can exactly feel that entire space of the box. No part of that box will be left out or be filled more than once Any of those units of length, area, and volume can be cut into smaller pieces. These smaller pieces can be used to cover, and thus measure, objects that are curved or that cannot be covered by an integer number of the appropriate whole units. Some geometric objects have formulas for their sizes: The circumference (length) ofa polygon is the sum of the lengths of its sides. The circumference L of a circle of radius ris L=2ar. ‘The area A of a rectangle of length a and width b is A=a’b. The area A of a triangle of base a and height h is A=1/2 ath The area A of a circle of radius r is A=nr’ ‘The area A of the surface of a sphere of radius r is A=4zr’. ‘The volume V of a prism or a cylinder of base area B and height h is V= Bh ‘The volume V of a sphere of radius r is V=4/3nr° Since there are several units for length, area, and volume, it is important to know how to convert from one unit to another. This is done with the aid of conversion relations. Here are some conversion-relations for length: Imi=1.61km=5280ft It should be remembered that these conversion-relations are only for length. Figure 1.1: The relationship rae a between a yard and a foot and y between a square-yard and a ' square-foot foot 3 square yard square foot10 PHYSICS for ARCHITECTS Conversion-relations for area and volume are derived from these ones, based on the definition of unit-length, unit-area, and unit-volume. To illustrate how this is done, consider the yard and the foot. Figure 1.1 shows the relationship between a yard and a foot and between a square-yard and a square-foot. There are 3x3=9 ‘square-foot ina square yard. Similarly, there are 3x3x3=27 cubic-foot in a cubic-yard (Figure 1.2) LZZA Figure 1.2: The relationship between a cubic yard and cubie tot 3 3 A 3 cubic yard cubic foot 1.2.2 Angles Angles are formed by two rays that start from the same point. The size of an angle can be determined by placing its head at the center of a circle, and then by considering the intersections of its rays with the circle. The size of the angle is proportional to the ratio between the length of the are that connects thase two intersection points and the circumference of the entire circle. Figure 1.3: The size of the angle o. depends on the ratio between the length of the arch that connects points A and B and the circumference of the circle, When degrees are used to express the size of angles, 360 degrees correspond to the entire circle, 180 degrees to a straight angle (half a circle), 90 degrees to a right angle (a quarter of a circle) and so on. When angles are measured in radians, 2x radians correspond to the entire circle (360 degrees), x radians correspond to a straight line (180 degrees), x /2 radians correspond to a right angle, and so on. In these expressions, r=3.14159 approximately. The conversion formulas between degrees and radians are: degrees=180 x radians/n and radians=n x degrees/180. Based on these formulas, | radian=57.2958 degrees (approximately).1. Math Review UW The intersection of two lines creates two pairs of vertical angles. In figure 1.4, angles o and are vertical and angles y and 6 are vertical. Vertical angles are congruent: a=B andy Eight angles are formed when two parallel lines are intersected by a third line, as shown in figure 1.5. The following angles are congruent: Figure 1.5: Angles in intersected parallel lines The sum of the sizes of the angles in a triangle is 180 degrees. In an isosceles triangle, the angles adjacent to the congruent sides are congruent. In an equilateral triangle, each angle is 60 degrees. PROBLEMS Use drawings when solving problems 1 and 2. 1. A concrete sidewalk 2.5 feet wide has to be poured around a rectangular 14ftx35ft swimming pool. The sidewalk has to be 4 inches thick. How many cubic feet of concrete are needed?