Overexploit at ion can lead t o resource dest ruct ion, including ext inct ions.

However, it is also
possible for overexploit at ion t o be sust ainable, as discussed below in t he sect ion on fisheries.
In t he cont ext of fishing, t he t erm overfishing can be used inst ead of overexploit at ion, as can
overgrazing in st ock management , overlogging in forest management , overdraft ing in aquifer
management , and endangered species in species monit oring. Overexploit at ion is not an
act ivit y limit ed t o humans. Int roduced predat ors and herbivores, for example, can overexploit
nat ive flora and fauna.

History

When the giant flightless birds called

moa were overexploited to the point
of extinction, [5] the giant Haast's
eagle that preyed on them also
became extinct.[6]

Concern about overexploit at ion is relat ively recent , t hough overexploit at ion it self is not a new
phenomenon. It has been observed for millennia. For example, ceremonial cloaks worn by t he
Hawaiian kings were made from t he mamo bird; a single cloak used t he feat hers of 70,000
birds of t his now-ext inct species. The dodo, a flight less bird from Maurit ius, is anot her well-
known example of overexploit at ion. As wit h many island species, it was naive about cert ain
predat ors, allowing humans t o approach and kill it wit h ease.[7]

From t he earliest of t imes, hunt ing has been an import ant human act ivit y as a means of
survival. There is a whole hist ory of overexploit at ion in t he form of overhunt ing. The overkill
hypot hesis (Quat ernary ext inct ion event s) explains why t he megafaunal ext inct ions occurred
wit hin a relat ively short period. This can be t raced t o human migrat ion. The most convincing
evidence of t his t heory is t hat 80% of t he Nort h American large mammal species disappeared
wit hin 1000 years of t he arrival of humans on t he west ern hemisphere cont inent s.[8] The
fast est ever recorded ext inct ion of megafauna occurred in New Zealand, where by 1500 AD,
just 200 years aft er set t ling t he islands, t en species of t he giant moa birds were hunt ed t o
ext inct ion by t he Māori.[5] A second wave of ext inct ions occurred lat er wit h European
set t lement .

In more recent t imes, overexploit at ion has result ed in t he gradual emergence of t he concept s
of sust ainabilit y and sust ainable development , which has built on ot her concept s, such as
sust ainable yield,[9] eco-development ,[10][11] and deep ecology.[12][13]

Overview
Overexploit at ion does not necessarily lead t o t he dest ruct ion of t he resource, nor is it
necessarily unsust ainable. However, deplet ing t he numbers or amount of t he resource can
change it s qualit y. For example, foot st ool palm is a wild palm t ree found in Sout heast Asia. It s
leaves are used for t hat ching and food wrapping, and overharvest ing has result ed in it s leaf
size becoming smaller.

Tragedy of the commons

Cows on Selsley Common. The

tragedy of the commons is a useful
parable for understanding how
overexploitation can occur.

In 1968, t he journal Science published an art icle by Garret t Hardin ent it led "The Tragedy of
t he Commons".[14] It was based on a parable t hat William Forst er Lloyd published in 1833 t o
explain how individuals innocent ly act ing in t heir own self int erest can overexploit , and
dest roy, a resource t hat t hey all share.[15] Lloyd described a simplified hypot het ical sit uat ion
based on medieval land t enure in Europe. Herders share common land on which t hey are each
ent it led t o graze t heir cows. In Hardin's art icle, it is in each herder's individual int erest t o graze
each new cow t hat t he herder acquires on t he common land, even if t he carrying capacit y of
t he common is exceeded, which damages t he common for all t he herders. The self-
int erest ed herder receives all of t he benefit s of having t he addit ional cow, while all t he
herders share t he damage t o t he common. However, all herders reach t he same rat ional
decision t o buy addit ional cows and graze t hem on t he common, which event ually dest roys
t he common. Hardin concludes:

Therein is the tragedy. Each man is locked into a system that

compels him to increase his herd without limit—in a world that is
limited. Ruin is the destination toward which all men rush, each
pursuing his own interest in a society that believes in the freedom
of the commons. Freedom in a commons brings ruin to all.[14]: 1244

In t he course of his essay, Hardin develops t he t heme, drawing in many examples of lat t er day
commons, such as nat ional parks, t he at mosphere, oceans, rivers and fish st ocks. The
example of fish st ocks had led some t o call t his t he "t ragedy of t he fishers".[16] A major
t heme running t hrough t he essay is t he growt h of human populat ions, wit h t he Eart h's finit e
resources being t he general common.

The t ragedy of t he commons has int ellect ual root s t racing back t o Arist ot le, who not ed t hat
"what is common t o t he great est number has t he least care best owed upon it ",[17] as well as
t o Hobbes and his Leviathan.[18] The opposit e sit uat ion t o a t ragedy of t he commons is
somet imes referred t o as a t ragedy of t he ant icommons: a sit uat ion in which rat ional
individuals, act ing separat ely, collect ively wast e a given resource by underut ilizing it .

The t ragedy of t he commons can be avoided if it is appropriat ely regulat ed. Hardin's use of
"commons" has frequent ly been misunderst ood, leading Hardin t o lat er remark t hat he should
have t it led his work "The t ragedy of t he unregulat ed commons".[19]
Sectors

Fisheries

The Atlantic bluefin tuna is currently

overexploited. Scientists say 7,500
tons annually is the sustainable limit,
yet the fishing industry continue to
harvest 60,000 tons.

In wild fisheries, overexploit at ion or overfishing occurs when a fish st ock has been fished
down "below t he size t hat , on average, would support t he long-t erm maximum sust ainable
yield of t he fishery".[20] However, overexploit at ion can be sust ainable.[21]

When a fishery st art s harvest ing fish from a previously unexploit ed st ock, t he biomass of t he
fish st ock will decrease, since harvest ing means fish are being removed. For sust ainabilit y, t he
rat e at which t he fish replenish biomass t hrough reproduct ion must balance t he rat e at which
t he fish are being harvest ed. If t he harvest rat e is increased, t hen t he st ock biomass will
furt her decrease. At a cert ain point , t he maximum harvest yield t hat can be sust ained will be
reached, and furt her at t empt s t o increase t he harvest rat e will result in t he collapse of t he
fishery. This point is called t he maximum sust ainable yield, and in pract ice, usually occurs when
t he fishery has been fished down t o about 30% of t he biomass it had before harvest ing
st art ed.[22]

It is possible t o fish t he st ock down furt her t o, say, 15% of t he pre-harvest biomass, and t hen
adjust t he harvest rat e so t he biomass remains at t hat level. In t his case, t he fishery is
sust ainable, but is now overexploit ed, because t he st ock has been run down t o t he point
where t he sust ainable yield is less t han it could be.
Fish st ocks are said t o "collapse" if t heir biomass declines by more t han 95 percent of t heir
maximum hist orical biomass. At lant ic cod st ocks were severely overexploit ed in t he 1970s
and 1980s, leading t o t heir abrupt collapse in 1992.[1] Even t hough fishing has ceased, t he cod
st ocks have failed t o recover.[1] The absence of cod as t he apex predat or in many areas has
led t o t rophic cascades.[1]

About 25% of world fisheries are now overexploit ed t o t he point where t heir current biomass
is less t han t he level t hat maximizes t heir sust ainable yield.[23] These deplet ed fisheries can
oft en recover if fishing pressure is reduced unt il t he st ock biomass ret urns t o t he opt imal
biomass. At t his point , harvest ing can be resumed near t he maximum sust ainable yield.[24]

The t ragedy of t he commons can be avoided wit hin t he cont ext of fisheries if fishing effort
and pract ices are regulat ed appropriat ely by fisheries management . One effect ive approach
may be assigning some measure of ownership in t he form of individual t ransferable quot as
(ITQs) t o fishermen. In 2008, a large scale st udy of fisheries t hat used ITQs, and ones t hat did
not , provided st rong evidence t hat ITQs help prevent collapses and rest ore fisheries t hat
appear t o be in decline.[25][26]

Water resources
Wat er resources, such as lakes and aquifers, are usually renewable resources which nat urally
recharge (t he t erm fossil wat er is somet imes used t o describe aquifers which do not
recharge). Overexploit at ion occurs if a wat er resource, such as t he Ogallala Aquifer, is mined
or ext ract ed at a rat e t hat exceeds t he recharge rat e, t hat is, at a rat e t hat exceeds t he
pract ical sust ained yield. Recharge usually comes from area st reams, rivers and lakes. An
aquifer which has been overexploit ed is said t o be overdraft ed or deplet ed. Forest s enhance
t he recharge of aquifers in some locales, alt hough generally forest s are a major source of
aquifer deplet ion.[27][28] Deplet ed aquifers can become pollut ed wit h cont aminant s such as
nit rat es, or permanent ly damaged t hrough subsidence or t hrough saline int rusion from t he
ocean.

This t urns much of t he world's underground wat er and lakes int o finit e resources wit h peak
usage debat es similar t o oil.[29][30] These debat es usually cent re around agricult ure and
suburban wat er usage but generat ion of elect ricit y from nuclear energy or coal and t ar sands
mining is also wat er resource int ensive.[31] A modified Hubbert curve applies t o any resource
t hat can be harvest ed fast er t han it can be replaced.[32] Though Hubbert 's original analysis did
not apply t o renewable resources, t heir overexploit at ion can result in a Hubbert -like peak. This
has led t o t he concept of peak wat er.

Forestry

Clear cutting of old growth forests in

Canada.

Forest s are overexploit ed when t hey are logged at a rat e fast er t han reforest at ion t akes
place. Reforest at ion compet es wit h ot her land uses such as food product ion, livest ock
grazing, and living space for furt her economic growt h. Hist orically ut ilizat ion of forest
product s, including t imber and fuel wood, have played a key role in human societ ies,
comparable t o t he roles of wat er and cult ivable land. Today, developed count ries cont inue t o
ut ilize t imber for building houses, and wood pulp for paper. In developing count ries almost
t hree billion people rely on wood for heat ing and cooking.[33] Short -t erm economic gains made
by conversion of forest t o agricult ure, or overexploit at ion of wood product s, t ypically leads
t o loss of long-t erm income and long t erm biological product ivit y. West Africa, Madagascar,
Sout heast Asia and many ot her regions have experienced lower revenue because of
overexploit at ion and t he consequent declining t imber harvest s.[34]
Biodiversity

The rich diversity of marine life

inhabiting coral reefs attracts
bioprospectors. Many coral reefs are
overexploited; threats include coral
mining, cyanide and blast fishing, and
overfishing in general.

Overexploit at ion is one of t he main t hreat s t o global biodiversit y.[3] Ot her t hreat s include
pollut ion, int roduced and invasive species, habit at fragment at ion, habit at dest ruct ion,[3]
uncont rolled hybridizat ion,[35] climat e change,[36] ocean acidificat ion[37] and t he driver behind
many of t hese, human overpopulat ion.[38]

One of t he key healt h issues associat ed wit h biodiversit y is drug discovery and t he availabilit y
of medicinal resources.[39] A significant proport ion of drugs are nat ural product s derived,
direct ly or indirect ly, from biological sources. Marine ecosyst ems are of part icular int erest in
t his regard.[40] However, unregulat ed and inappropriat e bioprospect ing could pot ent ially lead
t o overexploit at ion, ecosyst em degradat ion and loss of biodiversit y.[41][42][43]
Endangered and extinct
species

It is not just humans that overexploit

resources. Overgrazing can be
caused by native fauna, as shown in
the upper right. However, past human
overexploitation (leading to
elimination of some predators) may
be behind the situation.

Species from all groups of fauna and flora are affect ed by overexploit at ion.

All living organisms require resources t o survive. Overexploit at ion of t hese resources for
prot ract ed periods can deplet e nat ural st ocks t o t he point where t hey are unable t o recover
wit hin a short t ime frame. Humans have always harvest ed food and ot her resources t hey have
needed t o survive. Human populat ions, hist orically, were small, and met hods of collect ion
limit ed t o small quant it ies. Wit h an exponent ial increase in human populat ion, expanding
market s and increasing demand, combined wit h improved access and t echniques for capt ure,
are causing t he exploit at ion of many species beyond sust ainable levels.[44] In pract ical t erms,
if cont inued, it reduces valuable resources t o such low levels t hat t heir exploit at ion is no
longer sust ainable and can lead t o t he ext inct ion of a species, in addit ion t o having dramat ic,
unforeseen effect s, on t he ecosyst em.[45] Overexploit at ion oft en occurs rapidly as market s
open, ut ilising previously unt apped resources, or locally used species.
 The Carolina parakeet was hunted to
extinction.

This is more prevalent

when looking at island
ecology and the species
that inhabit them, as
islands can be viewed as
the world in miniature.
Island endemic populations
are more prone to
extinction from
overexploitation, as they
often exist at low
densities with reduced
reproductive rates.[46] A
good example of this are
island snails, such as the
Hawaiian Achatinella and
the French Polynesian
Partula. Achatinelline
snails have 15 species
listed as extinct and 24
critically endangered[47]
while 60 species of
partulidae are considered
extinct with 14 listed as
critically endangered.[48]
The WCMC have attributed
over-collecting and very
 low lifetime fecundity for
the extreme vulnerability
exhibited among these
species.[49]

As anot her example, when t he humble hedgehog was int roduced t o t he Scot t ish island of
Uist , t he populat ion great ly expanded and t ook t o consuming and overexploit ing shorebird
eggs, wit h drast ic consequences for t heir breeding success. Twelve species of avifauna are
affect ed, wit h some species numbers being reduced by 39%.[50]

Where t here is subst ant ial human migrat ion, civil unrest , or war, cont rols may no longer exist .
Wit h civil unrest , for example in t he Congo and Rwanda, firearms have become common and
t he breakdown of food dist ribut ion net works in such count ries leaves t he resources of t he
nat ural environment vulnerable.[51] Animals are even killed as t arget pract ice, or simply t o spit e
t he government . Populat ions of large primat es, such as gorillas and chimpanzees, ungulat es
and ot her mammals, may be reduced by 80% or more by hunt ing, and cert ain species may be
eliminat ed alt oget her.[52] This decline has been called t he bushmeat crisis.

Vertebrates
Overexploit at ion t hreat ens one-t hird of endangered vert ebrat es, as well as ot her groups.
Excluding edible fish, t he illegal t rade in wildlife is valued at $10 billion per year. Indust ries
responsible for t his include t he t rade in bushmeat , t he t rade in Chinese medicine, and t he fur
t rade.[53] The Convent ion for Int ernat ional Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora, or CITES was set up in order t o cont rol and regulat e t he t rade in endangered animals. It
current ly prot ect s, t o a varying degree, some 33,000 species of animals and plant s. It is
est imat ed t hat a quart er of t he endangered vert ebrat es in t he Unit ed St at es of America and
half of t he endangered mammals is at t ribut ed t o overexploit at ion.[3][54]
Birds
Overall, 50 bird species t hat have become ext inct since 1500 (approximat ely 40% of t he
t ot al) have been subject t o overexploit at ion,[55] including:

Great Auk – the penguin-like bird of the

north, was hunted for its feathers,
meat, fat and oil.
Carolina parakeet – The only parrot
species native to the eastern United
States, was hunted for crop protection
and its feathers.
Mammals

The international trade in fur: chinchilla,

vicuña, giant otter and numerous cat
species

Fish

Aquarium hobbyists: tropical fish

Various

Novelty pets: snakes, parrots, primates

and big cats[56]
Chinese medicine: bears, tigers, rhinos,
seahorses, Asian black bear and saiga
antelope[57]

Invertebrates

Insect collectors: butterflies

Shell collectors: Marine molluscs

Plants

Horticulturists: New Zealand mistletoe

(Trilepidea adamsii), orchids, cacti and
many other plant species
Cascade effects

Overexploiting sea otters resulted in

cascade effects which destroyed
kelp forest ecosystems.

Overexploit at ion of species can result in knock-on or cascade effect s. This can part icularly
apply if, t hrough overexploit at ion, a habit at loses it s apex predat or. Because of t he loss of
t he t op predat or, a dramat ic increase in t heir prey species can occur. In t urn, t he unchecked
prey can t hen overexploit t heir own food resources unt il populat ion numbers dwindle, possibly
t o t he point of ext inct ion.

A classic example of cascade effect s occurred wit h sea ot t ers. St art ing before t he 17t h
cent ury and not phased out unt il 1911, sea ot t ers were hunt ed aggressively for t heir
except ionally warm and valuable pelt s, which could fet ch up t o $2500 US. This caused
cascade effect s t hrough t he kelp forest ecosyst ems along t he Pacific Coast of Nort h
America.[58]

One of t he sea ot t ers’ primary food sources is t he sea urchin. When hunt ers caused sea ot t er
populat ions t o decline, an ecological release of sea urchin populat ions occurred. The sea
urchins t hen overexploit ed t heir main food source, kelp, creat ing urchin barrens, areas of
seabed denuded of kelp, but carpet ed wit h urchins. No longer having food t o eat , t he sea
urchin became locally ext inct as well. Also, since kelp forest ecosyst ems are homes t o many
ot her species, t he loss of t he kelp caused ot her cascade effect s of secondary
ext inct ions.[59]
In 1911, when only one small group of 32 sea ot t ers survived in a remot e cove, an
int ernat ional t reat y was signed t o prevent furt her exploit at ion of t he sea ot t ers. Under heavy
prot ect ion, t he ot t ers mult iplied and repopulat ed t he deplet ed areas, which slowly recovered.
More recent ly, wit h declining numbers of fish st ocks, again due t o overexploit at ion, killer
whales have experienced a food short age and have been observed feeding on sea ot t ers,
again reducing t heir numbers.[60]

See also

Carrying capacity
Common-pool resource
Conservation biology
Defaunation
Deforestation
Ecosystem management
Exploitation of natural resources
Extinction
Human overpopulation
Inverse commons
 Over-consumption
Overpopulation in wild animals
Paradox of enrichment
Planetary boundaries
Social dilemma
Sustainability
Tyranny of small decisions

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Further reading

FAO (2005) Overcoming factors of

unsustainability and overexploitation in
fisheries (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=sZiFyqG9Wx8C&q=overexploi
tation+fisheries) Fisheries report 782,
Rome. ISBN 978-92-5-105449-9
We’ve overexploited the planet, now we
need to change if we’re to survive (http
s://www.theguardian.com/commentisf
ree/2022/jul/08/climate-crisis-biodiver
sity-decline-overexploited-planet-chang
 e-to-survive-aoe) . Patrick Vallance for
The Guardian. July 8, 2022.

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