Chapter 2 Understanding Drone Mechanism

This diagram demonstrates how

lift is generated by an aerofoil or
wing section. As air flows over
the aerofoil, the shape causes air
to move faster over the top
surface, creating a region of low
pressure. Conversely, the
slower-moving air under the
aerofoil generates higher
pressure. This pressure
Figure 1: Principle of Aerodynamic Lift
difference results in an upward
lift force, which is essential for flight. The longer path of airflow over the top
surface compared to the bottom surface contributes to this velocity and pressure
variation.

Lift and Thrust:

 Lift: The upward force needed to counteract gravity and lift the vehicle. It
is generated when the air pressure beneath the wing or propeller is higher
than above it.
 Thrust: The forward force propelling the vehicle, studied using kinematic
laws of fluid flows.

Drones or Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), operate on principles of

aerodynamics, propulsion, control systems, and onboard electronics.

Figure 2: Relationship Between Force and Fluid Momentum

Figure 3: Lift Generation by a Propeller Cross-Section

Figure 4: Air pressure under drone
Working Principle of Quadcopter
 Propeller Configuration: A quadcopter is equipped with four propellers
positioned at the four corners of its frame.

 Independent Control: Each propeller’s speed and direction of rotation are

independently controlled to ensure the drone’s stability and
manoeuvrability.

 Symmetrical Placement: In a standard quadrotor, the propellers are

equidistant from each other, creating a balanced structure.

 Directional Balance: To maintain equilibrium, two propellers rotate

clockwise while the other two rotate counterclockwise.

 Vertical and Horizontal Movement: For vertical movement (hovering), all

propellers must spin at high speeds. Adjusting the speed of individual
propellers allows the drone to move forward, backward, or sideways.

These principles enable the precise control and agility of quadcopters, making
them versatile for various applications.
Quadcopter Dynamics
Types of Motion:
1. Throttle: Controls the vertical movement (up and down).
- Increased propeller speed lifts the drone (hovering).
- Decreased speed lowers the drone.

2. Pitch: Controls forward and backward tilt.

- Faster rear propellers move the drone forward.
- Faster front propellers move it backward.

3. Roll: Controls side-to-side tilt.

- Faster right propellers tilt the drone left.
- Faster left propellers tilt it right.

4. Yaw: Controls rotation around the vertical axis.

- Faster right diagonal propellers rotate the drone counterclockwise.
- Faster left diagonal propellers rotate it clockwise.

Forces and Moments Acting on a Drone

1.Weight: The gravitational force pulling the drone downward.
- Higher drone weight requires more power to lift.

2. Lift: The upward force counteracting gravity.

- Generated by pressure differences created by the propellers' speed, size, and
shape.

3. Thrust: The force propelling the drone in the direction of motion.

- Vertical during hovering, tilting when moving forward or backward.

4. Drag: The air resistance opposing the drone’s motion.

- Reduced by aerodynamic design to minimize air resistance.

These principles are essential for understanding how quadcopters achieve

stability and controlled movement.
Kinematic for Quad-copter

Kinematic for Drone – Quad-copter

 The thrust produced by each
propeller is perpendicular to the
plane of rotation of propellors. It
is directly proportional to the
square of the angular velocity of
the propeller
2
Fi = kf ×ωi
If L is defined as the distance between two motors or propellors for
any diagonal of the drone, then the reaction moments about the X-axis and Y-
axis
Mx = (F3 – F4) × L
My = (F1 – F2) × L
Newton’s second law of motion
 For linear motion: Force = mass × linear acceleration
 For rotational motion: Torque = inertia × angular acceleration
Hovering Motion
 Equilibrium Conditions for hovering
mg = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4
All moments = 0

 Equation of motion
m = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 – mg
m=0
Rise or Fall Motion (Throttle up)
 Conditions for hovering (rise)
mg < F1 + F2 + F3 + F4
All moments = 0

 Conditions for Fall

mg > F1 + F2 + F3 + F4
All moments = 0

 Equation of motion
m = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 – mg
m>0
Yaw Motion
 Conditions for hovering
mg = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4
All moments ≠ 0

 Equation of motion
mass* linear acceleration = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 – mg
Izz *angular acceleration@ Z-axis = M1+ M2+M3+ M4
Pitch and Roll Motion
 Conditions for hovering
mg < F1 + F2 + F3 + F4
All moments ≠ 0
 Equation of motion
mass* linear acceleration = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 – mg
Ixx * angular acceleration @ x-axis = (F3 – F4)×L