Chapter 2

Understanding Drone Mechanism

This diagram demonstrates how lift is generated by

an aerofoil or wing section. As air flows over the
aerofoil, the shape causes air to move faster over the
top surface, creating a region of low pressure.
Conversely, the slower-moving air under the aerofoil
generates higher pressure. This pressure difference
results in an upward lift force, which is essential for
flight. The longer path of airflow over the top
surface compared to the bottom surface contributes
Figure 2.1 Principle of Aerodynamic Lift
to this velocity and pressure variation.

2.1 Lift and Thrust:

➢ Lift: The upward force needed to counteract gravity and lift the vehicle. It is generated when the
air pressure beneath the wing or propeller is higher than above it.
➢ Thrust: The forward force propelling the vehicle, studied using kinematic laws of fluid flows.

Drones or Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), operate on principles of aerodynamics, propulsion, control
systems, and onboard electronics.

Figure 2.3 Lift Generation by Propeller Cross-

Figure 2.2 Relationship Between Force and Section
Fluid Momentum
2.2 Working Principle of Quadcopter
➢ Cross-Section
Propeller Configuration: A quadcopter is equipped with four
propellers positioned at the four corners of its frame.Each
propeller’s speed and direction of rotation are independently
controlled to ensure the drone’s stability and manoeuvrability.
➢ Directional Balance: To maintain equilibrium, two propellers
rotate clockwise while the other two rotate counterclockwise.
➢ Vertical and Horizontal Movement: For vertical movement
(hovering), all propellers must spin at high speeds. Adjusting
the speed of individual propellers allows the drone to move
Figure 2.4: Air pressure
forward, backward, or sideways. under drone

These principles enable the precise control and agility of quadcopters, making them versatile for various
applications.
2.3 Quadcopter Dynamics
Types of Motion:
1. Throttle: Controls the vertical movement (up and down).
- Increased propeller speed lifts the drone (hovering).
- Decreased speed lowers the drone.
2. Pitch: Controls forward and backward tilt.
- Faster rear propellers move the drone forward.
- Faster front propellers move it backward.
3. Roll: Controls side-to-side tilt.
Figure 2.5 Quadcopter Dynamics
- Faster right propellers tilt the drone left.
- Faster left propellers tilt it right.
4. Yaw: Controls rotation around the vertical axis.
- Faster right diagonal propellers rotate the drone counterclockwise.
- Faster left diagonal propellers rotate it clockwise.

2.4 Forces and Moments Acting on a Drone

1.Weight: The gravitational force pulling the drone downward.
- Higher drone weight requires more power to lift.
2. Lift: The upward force counteracting gravity.
- Generated by pressure differences created by the propellers'
speed, size, and shape.
3. Thrust: The force propelling the drone in the direction of motion. Figure 2.6 Forces acting on Drone
- Vertical during hovering, tilting when moving forward or
backward.
4. Drag: The air resistance opposing the drone’s motion.
- Reduced by aerodynamic design to minimize air resistance.

These principles are essential for understanding how quadcopters achieve stability and controlled
movement.

2.5 Kinematics for Quad-copter

The thrust produced by each propeller is perpendicular to the plane of

Figure 2.7 Kinematics of Drone
rotation of propellors. It is directly proportional to the square of the
angular velocity of the propeller
Fi = kf ×ωi2
If L is defined as the distance between two motors or propellors for
any diagonal of the drone, then the reaction moments about the X-
axis and Y-axis
Mx = (F3 – F4) × L
My = (F1 – F2) × L

Newton’s second law of motion Hovering Motion

• For linear motion: • Equilibrium Conditions for hovering
Force = mass × linear acceleration mg = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4
• For rotational motion: • Equation of motion
Torque = inertia × angular acceleration m = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 – mg where m = 0
 Rise or Fall Motion (Throttle up) • Equation of motion
• Conditions for hovering (rise) mass* linear acceleration = F1 + F2 + F3 +
mg < F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 F4 – mg
All moments = 0 Izz *angular acceleration@ Z-axis = M1+
Conditions for Fall M2+M3+ M4
mg > F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 Pitch and Roll Motion
All moments = 0 • Conditions for hovering
• Equation of motion mg < F1 + F2 + F3 + F4
m = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 – mg All moments ≠ 0
m>0 • Equation of motion
Yaw Motion mass* linear acceleration = F1 + F2 + F3 +
• Conditions for hovering F4 – mg
mg = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 Ixx * angular acceleration @ x-axis = (F3 –
All moments ≠ 0 F4)×L
This chapter delves into the intricate workings of quadcopters, exploring their lift and thrust mechanisms,
dynamic behaviours, forces, moments, and kinematics. By understanding the principles behind
quadcopter operation, we gain insight into their remarkable agility and versatility in various applications,
from aerial photography to delivery services.
Quadcopters generate lift through their rotors' spinning blades, which create a pressure differential to
support the craft's weight. Meanwhile, thrust is produced by the varying speeds of these rotors, allowing
for controlled movement in different directions.
Examining quadcopter dynamics reveals a complex interplay of forces and moments. Stability and control
are achieved through precise adjustments in rotor speeds, enabling stable flight and manoeuvrability in
diverse conditions.
Forces such as lift, weight, thrust, and drag, along with moments like torque, pitch, roll, and yaw, dictate
the drone's behaviour. Understanding these forces and moments is crucial for designing efficient control
systems and ensuring safe operations.
Furthermore, the kinematics of quadcopters elucidate their motion in terms of position, velocity, and
acceleration. By analysing these aspects, we can optimize flight paths, enhance stability, and develop
advanced navigation algorithms.
In conclusion, the comprehensive exploration of lift and thrust principles, quadcopter dynamics, forces,
moments, and kinematics provides valuable insights into the capabilities and operation of these aerial
vehicles. Mastery of these concepts is essential for unlocking the full potential of quadcopters across
various industries and applications.
Chapter 3
Setting Up the Drone
In this chapter, we delve into the
intricate process of preparing the
drone for flight. From assembling the
components to configuring the flight
controller, each step is meticulously
detailed to ensure a seamless and safe
operation. Let's embark on this
journey as we navigate through the
essential tasks required to transform a
collection of parts into a fully
functional aerial platform. Major

Figure 3.1 Components of drone

3.1 Components used in the drone

The Components used in making the drone are:
1. Frame: A Crafted from durable aluminium, this bespoke X-shaped drone frame boasts a lightweight
design, tipping the scales at a mere 470 grams. Meticulously engineered, the frame features
strategically placed perforations, meticulously drilled to not only shave off excess weight but also
minimize resistance against upward thrust. The result? A robust yet agile structure that effortlessly
navigates the skies with unparalleled ease.
2. ESC (Electronic Speed Controller): Equipped with the cutting-edge Hobbywing Xrotor 40A, this
component efficiently regulates the power flow from the battery to the motor, ensuring seamless
performance and precise control.
3. Motor: Sporting the high-performance 5010 360kv motor, this drone achieves optimal thrust with
minimal power consumption, allowing for extended flight times and enhanced manoeuvrability.
4. Propeller: Fitted with the Sunnysky 1555 straight propeller, this drone slices through the air with
unparalleled efficiency, delivering exceptional lift and stability even in challenging conditions.
5. Power Distribution Board: The backbone of the drone's electrical system, the power distribution
board efficiently distributes power from the battery to various components, ensuring consistent
performance and reliability.
6. Battery: Powering this aerial marvel is a state-of-the-art 13000mAh 4S LiPo battery, providing
ample energy for extended flight durations and robust performance.
7. Flight Controller: At the heart of the drone lies the Pixhawk flight controller, a sophisticated system
that autonomously manages flight operations, from navigation and stabilization to mission planning
and data telemetry.
8. GPS Module: Enhancing the drone's navigational capabilities is the NEO M8N GPS module, which
provides accurate positioning data, enabling precise waypoint navigation and intelligent flight modes.
9. Battery Checker: Keeping a pulse on the power status is the battery checker, a handy device that
monitors the voltage and health of the battery, ensuring safe and reliable operation throughout each
flight mission.
3.2 Specifications of the Components
Table 3.1 Hardware specifications

Component Specification Component Image

Hobbywing Model Number:XRotor-40A
Xrotor 40A Cont.Current:40A
ESC Burst Current(10sec):60A
BEC:None
Lipo:2-6S
Programming:Timing (high/middle)
Weight:26g
5010 360KV KV(rpm/v): 360KV
High Torque LiPO Battery: 2-6s Li-Po
Brushless ESC: 20-40A
Motor Shaft size: 4mm
Propeller: 14″ – 16″ inch
Cable length: 40cm
ESC Power Material: glass fiber
Distribution Can connect 1-8 ESC.
Board This has an XT90 plug to connect a battery.
This Distribution board has 8 number of the
channel to connect different ESCs
FlySky FS- No. of Channels: 10
IA10B Radio Model Type: Fixed-Wing/Glider/Helicopter
Receiver RF Range: 2.4055-2.475GHz
RF Channel: 140
RF Receiver Sensitivity: -105dBm
Bandwidth: 500KHz
2.4GHz System: AFHDS 2A
Modulation Type: GFSK
Oprating Voltage: 4.0-6.5V DC
Radiolink 32bit STM32F427 Cortex M4 core with FPU
Pixhawk 168MHz
Flight 256KB RAM
controller 2 MB Flash
Board

Holybro Ublox Neo-M8N module

Pixhawk 4 Industry-leading 167 dBm navigation
Neo M8N sensitivity
GPS Module Cold starts: 26s
LNA MAX2659ELT+
25 x 25 x 4 mm ceramic patch antenna
Low noise 3.3V regulator
 26cm Pixhawk4 compatible 10-pin cable
included
FlySky FS- Bandwidth (KHz): 500.
i6X 2.4G RF Range (GHz): 2.40 ~ 2.48.
6CH PPM No. of channels: 6.
RC Remote controller weight (gm): 400.
Transmitter Power: 6V (1.5V AA*4).
Antenna Length: 26mm * 2 (dual antenna).
Transmitting Power: ≤ 20dBm.
RF Receiver Sensitivity: -105dbm.
Orange Model No: ORANGE 13000 4S
14.8V Voltage: 14.8V
13000mAh Max Continuous Discharge: 35C
35C 4S LiPO Balance Plug: JST-XH
Battery Discharge Plug: XT90s

1-8S Battery Input: 1S-8S Battery

Voltage Battery type: Lipo/LiFe/Li-ion/LiMn
Checker & It has a Buzzer Alarm for low voltage
Low Voltage indication.
Buzzer Useful for measuring each cell voltage.
Alarm Cell Voltage Display Range: 0.5v-4.5v
Total Voltage Display Range: 3.7-36v
Alarm set values: Off or 2.7-3.8v
3.3 Assembling the components on the frame
The sequential process for connecting the drone's
components and interfacing them with the
Mission Planner Software:
1. Assemble the Components: Following
the wiring diagram provided, carefully
connect each component to the designated
ports on the flight controller (Pixhawk).
Ensure all connections are secure and
properly seated.
2. Power Up the System: Connect the LiPo
battery to the power distribution board Figure 3.2 Wiring Diagram
and power up the drone. Verify that all components receive power and initialize correctly. Take
necessary precautions to prevent any accidental propeller activation during this process.
3. Connect Flight Controller to Computer: Using a USB cable, establish a connection between
the Pixhawk flight controller and your computer. Ensure the cable is properly connected to both
the flight controller's USB port and an available USB port on your computer.
4. Launch Mission Planner Software: Open the Mission Planner software on your computer. If
you haven't already installed Mission Planner, download and install it from the official website.
5. Establish Connection: In Mission Planner, navigate to the "Initial Setup" tab and select "Install
Firmware" if this is the first time connecting the flight controller. Follow the on-screen
instructions to install the necessary firmware.
 6. Configure COM Port: Once the firmware installation is complete, navigate to the
"Configuration" tab and select "Com Ports". Choose the appropriate COM port corresponding to
the connected flight controller.
7. Connect to Vehicle: Return to the "Initial Setup" tab and select "Connect". Mission Planner
should establish a connection with the flight controller. You should see a green indicator
confirming the connection status.
8. Test Connection: Once the configuration is complete, perform a test to ensure that Mission
Planner is successfully communicating with the drone. Verify that you can read telemetry data
and perform basic operations such as arming and disarming the motors.
In this chapter, we have explored the critical steps involved in setting up the drone for flight. Beginning
with an overview of the major components comprising the drone, we delved into the specifications of
each component, understanding their individual roles and capabilities in shaping the drone's performance.
Detailed specifications ranging from the ESC and motors to the flight controller and GPS module
provided insight into the technical prowess of the drone's architecture. With a keen focus on performance,
efficiency, and reliability, these specifications serve as a blueprint for building a drone tailored to specific
needs and requirements.
Furthermore, we discussed the meticulous process of assembling the components, ensuring proper
integration and functionality. From connecting ESCs and motors to configuring the flight controller and
calibrating sensors, each step was executed with precision to guarantee optimal performance and safety.
As we conclude this chapter, we have laid the groundwork for transforming a collection of components
into a fully operational drone. In the next chapter, we will explore the intricacies of programming and
testing the drone's functionalities, taking the first steps towards flight and exploration.
Chapter 4
Calibrating Parameters of Pixhawk Using Mission Planner
In this segment, we dive into the crucial process of calibrating the parameters of the Pixhawk flight
controller using the Mission Planner software. Calibration is essential to ensure accurate sensor readings,
stable flight characteristics, and optimal performance of the drone.
We will explore the intricacies of parameter calibration, from fine-tuning flight modes to adjusting PID
settings. With Mission Planner as our tool and Pixhawk as our canvas, we embark on a journey of
precision and optimization, laying the foundation for smooth and reliable flight operations.
4.1 Installing Mission Planner on Windows

Fig 4.1 Installing Mission Planner

Figure 4.2 Downloading Mission Planner

4.2 Connecting Pixhawk to Mission Planner via MAVlink Protocol

The front screen of Mission Planner
software presents a comprehensive
array of components designed to
facilitate efficient mission planning,
configuration, and monitoring of
unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and
other autonomous systems. Here's an
overview of the main components
found on the front screen:

Figure 4.3 Mission Planner Dashboard

 1. Main Toolbar:
o Located at the top of the screen, the main toolbar provides quick access to essential
functions such as connecting to a vehicle, accessing mission planning tools, configuring
settings, and accessing help resources.
2. Map Display:
o Positioned prominently in the center of the screen, the map display presents a detailed map
interface powered by various map providers such as Google Maps, Bing Maps, and more.
Users can interact with the map to visualize flight paths, set waypoints, and plan missions.
3. Flight Data Display:
o Adjacent to the map display, the flight data display presents real-time telemetry data from
the connected vehicle, including altitude, airspeed, GPS position, battery voltage, and
other vital parameters. This data provides operators with crucial information about the
vehicle's status during flight.
4. Quick Actions Panel:
o Situated on the left or right side of the screen, the quick actions panel offers shortcuts to
frequently used functions such as setting home position, arming/disarming motors,
switching flight modes, and accessing preconfigured mission templates.
5. Status Bar:
o Located at the bottom of the screen, the status bar provides feedback on the connection
status with the vehicle, GPS signal strength, communication link quality, and other system
statuses. This information helps operators assess the readiness of the vehicle for flight.
6. Configuration Tabs:
o Positioned along the top or side of the screen, configuration tabs allow users to access
various configuration settings and tools related to vehicle setup, calibration, firmware
updates, and more. Tabs are organized logically to streamline navigation and workflow.
7. Message Log:
o Often displayed at the bottom or side of the screen, the message log provides a
chronological record of system messages, warnings, and error messages generated during
operation. This log helps users troubleshoot issues and track system events.
8. Menu Bar:
o Accessible from the top of the screen, the menu bar offers additional options for
customizing the software, accessing advanced features, and configuring preferences. Users
can navigate through different menus to access specific functionalities and tools.

4.3 Installing Firmware on Flight Controller

1. Plugging our Pixhawk into our computer via USB.

Figure 4.4 Uploading firmware
Figure 4.4 Firmware Installation
2. Opening Mission Planner on our computer.
3. Heading to "Initial Setup" tab and click "Connect".
4. Ensure the current firmware version.
5. Choosing desired firmware version.
6. Click "Load Firmware" to download firmware files.
7. Hit "Install Firmware" and follow prompts.
8. Check for successful installation.
9. Safely disconnect Pixhawk from computer.
By following these steps, we update the firmware on
our Pixhawk using Mission Planner.
4.4 Why ACCEL calibration is important?

1. Accurate Orientation and Movement Detection

ACCEL calibration ensures that the drone's
accelerometer provides precise measurements of
acceleration along the X, Y, and Z axes, allowing the
flight controller to accurately determine the drone's
orientation and movements.
2. Improved Flight Stability
Calibrated accelerometers contribute to stable flight Figure 4.5 Accelerometer Calibration
by providing accurate data on pitch, roll, and yaw,
Figure 4.5 Accelerometer Calibration
preventing issues like drifting or crashing.
3. Enhanced Navigation and Control
Accurate accelerometer data is crucial for autonomous flight modes and precise control inputs, improving
the drone's navigation and overall flight performance.
4. Reliable Sensor Integration
Calibration ensures that the accelerometer's readings are correctly aligned with other sensors (gyroscopes,
magnetometers, GPS), facilitating cohesive and accurate sensor integration.
5. Safety and Risk Mitigation
Regular ACCEL calibration prevents erroneous data that can lead to unsafe flight conditions, reducing the
risk of accidents and enhancing operational safety.
6. Compensation for Sensor Drift
Over time, accelerometers can experience drift. Regular calibration compensates for this, maintaining
accuracy throughout the drone's life.
4.5 Steps for the accelerometers calibration
• Preparation: We started by placing the UAV on a stable and level surface to ensure accurate
measurements. We then connected the UAV to our computer using a USB cable, ensuring a
reliable connection. We opened the Mission Planner software and established a connection with
the UAV.
• Accessing the Calibration Menu: In Mission Planner, we navigated to the “Initial Setup” tab.
Within this tab, we selected the “Mandatory Hardware” section. We then clicked on “Accel
Calibration” to begin the calibration process.
• Starting Calibration: We initiated the calibration by clicking the “Calibrate Accel” button. Mission
Planner provided on-screen instructions, prompting us to place the UAV in six specific orientations:

1. Level (right side up).

2. Left side.
3. Right side.
4. Nose down.
5. Nose up.
6. Upside down.

• Positioning the UAV: Following the prompts, we carefully positioned the UAV in each of the six
orientations. We made sure to hold the UAV steady until Mission Planner confirmed that each
measurement was complete, ensuring no movement to avoid inaccurate readings.
 • Completion: After completing all six positions, Mission Planner processed the data. The software
notified us that the calibration was successful. We saved the calibration settings to ensure they
were applied.

4.6 ESC Calibration

Electronic Speed Controller (ESC) calibration is an

essential process to ensure that all motors of a UAV
respond consistently and accurately to throttle inputs.

Steps for ESC Calibration:

1. Preparation:
o Ensure that all propellers are removed from the
motors to prevent any accidents during the calibration
process.
Figure 4.6 ESC Calibration
o Place the UAV on a stable surface.
2. Connect and Power Up:
o Connect the UAV to the computer using a USB cable or telemetry link.
o Open Mission Planner and establish a connection with the UAV.
3. Access the Calibration Menu:
o Navigate to the “Initial Setup” tab in Mission Planner.
o Select the “Mandatory Hardware” section.
o Click on the “ESC Calibration” option.
4. Initiate Calibration:
o Disconnect the USB cable to power down the flight controller while keeping the battery
connected.
o Turn on the transmitter and set the throttle to the maximum position.
o Reconnect the flight battery to power up the flight controller. You should hear the ESCs
emit a series of beeps indicating they are in calibration mode.
5. Throttle Adjustment:
o After the initial series of beeps, which indicate that the ESCs have entered calibration
mode, lower the throttle to the minimum position. The ESCs will emit another series of
beeps indicating that they have accepted the throttle range.
6. Completion:
o Disconnect the flight battery to power down the UAV.
o Turn off the transmitter.
o Reconnect the flight battery and allow the UAV to power up normally. The ESCs should
now be calibrated and ready for use.
4.7 Compass Calibration
Steps for compass Calibration:
1. Preparation: Positioned the UAV on a flat and
stable surface away from any magnetic
interference.
Ensured all electronic devices and metal
objects were kept at a distance during
calibration.
2. Connect and Power Up: Connected the UAV
to the computer using a USB cable. Launch
Mission Planner and established a connection
with the UAV.
3. Accessing Calibration Menu:
Figure 4.7 Compass Calibration
Navigated to the “Initial Setup” tab.
Selected the “Optional Hardware” section.
Clicked on the “Compass” option.
4. Starting Calibration:
Clicked the “Start” button to initiate the compass calibration process.
Followed the on-screen instructions provided by Mission Planner.
Rotating the UAV:
Held the UAV firmly and rotated it 360 degrees along its yaw axis (horizontal plane).
Ensured smooth and consistent rotations without any abrupt movements.
5. Completing Calibration:
Mission Planner prompted us to rotate the UAV along its roll axis (sideways) and pitch axis (front-
to-back) if necessary.
We followed the prompts and completed additional rotations as required until Mission Planner indicated
successful calibration.
4.8 Radio Calibration
Radio calibration is a crucial procedure to ensure that
the flight controller accurately interprets the inputs
from your transmitter. Proper calibration aligns the
transmitter’s control signals with the flight controller,
enhancing the UAV's responsiveness and control.
Steps for the Radio Calibration:
• Preparation:
We placed the UAV on a stable and flat surface.
Ensured the transmitter was turned on and bound to
the receiver.
Figure 4.8 Radio Calibration

• Connect and Power Up:

Connected the UAV to the computer using a USB cable.
Opened Mission Planner and established a connection with the UAV.
• Access the Calibration Menu:
Navigated to the “Initial Setup” tab.
Selected the “Mandatory Hardware” section.
Clicked on the “Radio Calibration” option.
• Start Calibration:
Clicked the “Calibrate Radio” button to start the calibration process. Follow the prompts to move
each control stick and switch on the transmitter through its full range of motion.
 • Calibrate Each Control:
Throttle: Moved the throttle stick from lowest to highest position and back.
Yaw (Rudder): Moved the yaw stick fully left and right.
Pitch (Elevator): Moved the pitch stick fully forward and backward.
Roll (Aileron): Moved the roll stick fully left and right.
Auxiliary Switches: Toggled any auxiliary switches through their full range.
• Completion:
After moving all controls through their full range, clicked “Click when Done” in Mission Planner.
Verify the recorded values for each channel.
4.9 Failsafe Settings
Failsafe settings are critical for ensuring the safety
of the drone and its surroundings in case of any
unexpected issues or loss of communication.

1. Radio Failsafe: This setting helps the drone to

react appropriately if the control signal from the
transmitter is lost. It might return to home, land, or
hover depending on the configuration.
2. Battery Failsafe: Monitors the battery level and
triggers a predefined action (e.g., return to home or
land) when the battery is critically low. Figure 4.9 Failsafe Settings
3. GPS Failsafe: Ensures the drone has a valid GPS fix before take-off and defines actions if the GPS
signal is lost during flight.

4.10 Flight Modes

Flight modes define how the drone behaves during

flight. Different modes offer varying levels of manual
control and automation.

1. Stabilize Mode: Keeps the drone level but allows

for manual throttle control. It’s useful for manual
flying while maintaining stability.
2. Alt Hold Mode: Maintains the current altitude Figure 4.10 Flight Modes
when the throttle is at the mid-point, allowing for easier control over vertical movement.
3. Loiter Mode: Uses GPS to hold the drone’s position and altitude, ideal for stationary hovering and
taking photos or videos.
4. Auto Mode: Executes predefined missions that have been programmed with waypoints and other
commands.
5. Return to Launch (RTL) Mode: Commands the drone to return to its home position, usually the take-off
location.

In this chapter, we successfully installed Mission Planner and calibrated the Pixhawk flight controller. We
covered essential calibrations such as the accelerometer, compass, and radio, ensuring accurate flight data
and control. Additionally, we set up critical failsafe settings and configured flight modes to enhance safety
and tailor the drone's behaviour. These foundational steps ensure our drone operates safely and efficiently,
preparing us for advanced operations and mission planning.