CHAPTER Data Acquisition System 35.1. INTRODUCTION In the simpler measurement applications in which we monitor, control, or perform experimen- tal engineering analysis with only a few channels of data and/or do only minor data processing, often a system “casually” assembled from available sensors, amplifiers, filters, recorders etc.; is adequate. However, when requirements become more comprehensive and stringent, data ac- quisition and processing systems of various types are commercially available and may be neces- sary. Such systems vary with respect to several factors: 1. Is data processing mainly analog or digital ? 2. Isthere one amplifier per channel, or isa single amplifier timeshared by multiplexing ? 3. Ifthe system is digital-computer-L «zed, is it self-contained (includes the computer) or just a “front end” that can be inte=faced with different computers ? 4. Isthe system a general purpose type that can be ordered off the shelf, ready for immediate use, or will it be tailored to the specific application and thus need some system engineering before delivery and some debugging after delivery ? 5. Are the signals changing relatively’slowly, or is fast dynamic response required ? Atypical data acquisition system (DAS) consists of individual sensors with necessary signal conditioning, multiplexing, data conversion, data processing, data handling and associated trans- mission, storage, and display systems. In order to optimize the characteristics of a system in terms of performance, handling capability, and cost, the relevant sub-systems may often be combined together. The analog data is usually acquired and converted into digital form for the purpose of processing, transmission, display, and storage. Processing may consist of a large variety of operations, from simple comparison to compli- cated mathematical manipulations. It may be for such purposes as information (averages, sta- tistics etc.) collection, data conversion into a usefui form (e.g., calculations of efficiency of motor from speed, power input and torque developed), using data for controlling a process, performing repeated calculations for separating out signals buned in noise, information generation for displays, and other various purposes. Data may be transmitted over long distances (from one location to another one) or short distances (from a test centre to a nearby computer). ‘The data may be displayed on a digital panel meter or as a part of CRT presentation. The same may be stored temporarily (in either raw or processed fora) for immediate use or perma- nently for ready reference later. Data acquisition generally relates to the process of collecting the input data in digital form, as rapidly, accurately, completely and economically as required. The basic instrumentation used may be a standard digital panel meter with digital outputs, a shaft digitizer or a sophisticatedData Acquisition System 1408 high-speed high-resolution device. For matching the input requirement of the converter with. the output available from the sensor, some form of scaling and offsetting is required and is performed with an amplifier/attenuator. For conversion of analog information from more than one source, either additional converters or a multiplexer may be used. 'To increase thoyapeod with which information is to be accurately converted, a sample and hold (S/H) cireuit may be desirable or a necessity. In some cases, for analog signals with extra-wide range, logarithmic conversion is used. In contrast to other automatic systems data acquisition system has been in use for many years. The applications are often characterised by the need for monitoring at many points, the condition of a process or equipment for example, a nuclear reactor, aerodynamic structure, rocket or jet or internal combustion engine. [—~ neconvens: ‘annos ORTAFOR a PHYSICAL, at PARAMETER L_. werer SIGNAL a TRANSDUCER J onntioner| m [> PRINTER Le oiarmaLoispuw fxaros-70] ‘SIGNAL ANALOG S DIGITAL —frsepicer [ee fase [oes tl owe iy XER co (aoc) L. ona ; T “TRANSMISSION i computes, PROCESSING -ROGRAM CONT SIGNAL —e{ ransouces| J cossmonen Fig. 85.1 Block Diagram of General Data Acquisition System A digital computer can make a tremendous number of calculations in a second, because the typical time required to execute one instruction may be only a few microseconds. The efficient, use of computers means that a single computer may do many things. Under the program control the computer then selects another of the controlled variables, samples, evaluates and outputs, and so on for all the loops under its control. If the computer is to control many loops, we would need such a system for each variable to be inputted. Instead, for input we can use a data acquisition system (DAS) that allows sampled variables from many sources to be inputted to the computer with appropriate programming. There are many different types of data acquisition systems, but it is possible to generalize the essential elements, as shown in Fig. 35.1. Most data acquisition systems are available as small modules containing the circuits shown in Fig. 35.1. In general, the module accepts a number of analog inputs, called channels, as either differential voltage signals. ‘The characteristics of the data acquisition system depend on both the properties of the analog data itself and on the processing carried out. Based on the environment, a broad classification divides data acquisition systems into two categories. 1. Those suitable for favourable environments (minimum radio frequency interference and electromagnetic induction). 2. ‘Those intended for hostile environments. The former category may include, among others, laboratory instrument applications, test systems for collecting long-term drift information on zeners, high-sensitivity calibration tests,1406 Blectronics and Electrical Measurements and Instrumentation and research or routine investigations, such as one using mass spectrometers and lock-in am. plifiers. In these, the systems are designed to perform task oriented more towards making sensitive measurements rather than to the problems of protecting the integrity of the analog data under the hostile conditions present. ‘The second category specifically includes measurements protecting the integrity of the ana- log data under the hostile conditions present. Such measurement conditions arise in industrial process control systems, aircraft control systems, turbovisory instrumentation in electrical power systems, and a large number of other measurements to be carried out in industrial environ. ments. Most of such hostile measurement conditions require devices capable of wide temperature range operation, excellent shielding, redundant paths for critical measurements, and consider- able processing of the digital data. Also, digital conversion of the signal at early stages, thus taking full advantage of high noise immunity of digital signals, as well as considerable design effort in order to reduce common mode errors and avoidable interferences can also enhance performance and increase reliability. On the other hand, laboratory measurements are carried out over narrower temperature ranges, with much less ambient electrical noise, employing high sensitivity and precision de- vices for higher accuracies and resolution. 35.2. INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEMS Data acquisition systems are employed for measuring and recording signals obtained in basically two ways: 1. Signals originating from direct measurement of electrical quantities such as de and ac voltages, frequency c: ~ “uance. 2. Signals originating from transducers, such as strain gauges and thermo-couples. Instrumentation systems can be grouped into two classes viz analog systems and digital systems. Analog systems deal with measurement information in analog form while digital systems handle information in digital form. An analog data acquisition system typically consists of some or all of the following elements: 1, Transducers. Transducers have been described in detail in chapter 33. It is desirable that an emf, obtained from the transducer proportional to the quantity under measurement, is used as an input to the data-acquisition system. Therefore, transducers such a strain gauges, thermocouples, piezoelectric devices, and photo-sensitive devices are used. As an exception to this usual function of transducers, some sensors produce a frequency which can be counted with an electronic counter to obtain the integral of the measured quantity or it can modulate a telemetering transmitter, and can be reduced to a voltage with the help of a discriminator. 2. Signal conditioners for amplifying, modifying or selecting certain portions of such signals. Signal conditioning equipment includes any equipment that assists in transforming the transducer output to the desired magnitude or form required by the next stage of the data acquisition system. It also produces the required conditions in the transducers so that they work properly. Examples of signal conditioning equipment include known constant voltage sources for certain strain gauge bridges, zero-balance devices for strain gauge circuits, tem- perature control devices for thermocouple junctions, voltage amplifiers and servo-systems. 8. Calibrating Equipment. Before each test there is a precalibration, and often after each test there is a postcalibration. This usually consists of a millivolt calibration of all input circuits and shunt calibrations of all bridge type transducer circuits.Data Acquisition System 1407 4. Integrating Equipment. It is often desirable to know the integral or summation of quantity. There are several ways of determining the time integral of a quantity. An analog integrating cirouit can be used for a qualitative test. It has the possible danger of becoming overloaded and also its accuracy is low. Therefore, digital techniques are normally used for integration purposes. Another method of effective summation, utilizes the emf from the conditioning equipment to be applied to a eaturable core reactor in the resonant circuit of an oscillator. The change in reactance is proportional to the applied emf and produces a change in the frequency. This fre- quency is beat with a frequency equal to frequency of the oscillator when the input is zero. The beat frequency, which is directly proportional to the input voltage of the oscillator, is amplified and counted with a counter. 5. Visual devices, such as single or multi-channel oscilloscopes, storage oscillosopes, panel meters, numerical displays etc., for continuous monitoring of input signals. 6. Graphic recording instruments (such as stylus-and-ink recorders to provide continu- ous records on paper charts, optical recording eystems such as mirror galvanometer recorders, and ultra-violet recorders) for having permanent records of the input data. 7. Magnetic tape instrumentation for acquisition of input data, preservation of their original electrical form and reproducing them at a later date for more detailed analysis. 8. Analog Computers. The function of a data acquisition system is not only to record data acquired by the transducers and the sensors but also to reduce this data to the desired form. An analog computer may be used as a data reduction device. The output voltage of an analog computer can either be recorded in analog form or be converted to a digital form for recording and further computations. It should be noted that analog computations are usually less accurate than digital computa- tions, yet it is generally more economical to compute data that are acceptable by analog meth- js using analog computers. 9. High Speed Cameras and TV Equipment. In many industrial processes such as en- gine testing, and aerodynamic testing it is not possible for the test operator to have a view of the equipment being tested. Therefore, closed circuit TV is used to enable the operator to make visual observations of the test. Also high speed cameras are employed to obtain a complete visual record of the process for further analysis. | SCANNER SIGNAL SIGNAL DIGITAL TRANSDUCER | orf [>| aoc Ly footer |" warterer [~"] somverin RECORDER, AURIARY EQUIPMENT "AND, SYSTEM PROGRAMMER Fig. 35.2 A digital data acquisition system may include some or all of the elements shown in Fig. 35.2. ‘The essential functional operations within a digital system include handling of analog signals, carrying out of measurements, conversion and hafidling of digital data and internal programming and control. The function of each of the system elements shown in fig. 35.2 is given above. 1. Transducer translates physical parameters (such as temperature, pressure, acceleration, velocity, weight displacement etc.) into electrical quantities (such as voltage, resistance or frequency etc.). Electrical quantities also may be measured directly.408 : Teepe 0 Electronics and Electrical Meaaurements and Instrumentation 2. Signal conditioner usually includes the supporting circuitry for the transducer, This circuitry may provide excitation powor, balancing circuits and calibration elements. Strain-gauge bridge balanco and powor supply unit is an example of a signal conditioner. 3. Scanner or multiplexer accopts multiple analog inputs and sequentially connects them to ‘one measuring instrument. f 1, Signal converter translates the analog signal to a form acceptable by the analog-to-digital converter (ADC), An example of a signal converter is an amplifier for amplifying low level voltages produced by strain gauges or thermo-couples, 5. ADC converts the analog voltage to its equivalent digital form, The output of ADC may be displayed visually and is also available as voltage outputs in discrete steps for further processing or recording on a digital recorder. Auxiliary equipment consists of instruments for system programming functions and digital data processing. Typical auxiliary functions include linearizing and limit comparison. functions may be performed by individual instruments or by a digital computer. Digital recorder records digital information on punched cards, perforated paper tape, magnetic tape, typewritten pages or a combination of such systems. The digital recorder may be preceded by a coupling unit that translates the digital information to the proper form for entry into the particular digital recorder selected. 8. Digital Printers. After all the tests have been completed and the data generated, it be- comes necessary to record the numbers and in some cases reduce the data to a more mean- ingful form. A digital printer can be specified to interface with an electronic instrumenta- tion system in order to perform this work, and thus provide a high quality hard copy for records and minimizing the labour of the operating staff. 85.8. CAMPLE-AND-HOLD CIRCUIT Anumber of signals are received by data acquisition system from several different sources. The signals are transmitted in a suitable form to a com- weice munication channel. Each : 34 SAMPLE signal is selected by a mul- 57 aa tiplexer and the informa. —! LILI E tion is converted into a con- om [ KR stant voltage by means of 1 = — we a sample and hold (S/H) cir- ie Ci seen eee stat ceaet (@) Basic Circuit ae (®) Output Waveform the sample and hold cireuit = may be converted into a digital signal by means of hoster” analog to digital converter (ADO). In ite simplest form, S/ 2 s H circuit can be repre- 6, Lit sented by a switch and a capacitor, as illustrated in Fig. 35.3 (@). In the sample mode, the witch is closed and the Cone, | ee capacitor C charges to the instantaneous value of the Fig. 35.4. (a) Practical CircuitData Acquisition System input voltage while in the hold mode, the switch is opened and the capacitor holds the voltage that it had at the in- stant the switch was opened. If the switch drive is synchronised with the ring counter pulse, the actual mea- surement and conversion takes place when the S/H cireuit, is in the hold mode, The output waveform of a S/H circuit is shown in Fig.'35!3 (b). A practical sample and hold (S/H) circuit using an op- amp with an E-MOSFET is shown in Fig. 35.4 (a). In this, circuit the E-MOSFET acts as a switch that is controlled by the sample-and-hold control voltage V,, and the capacitor vs Cacts as a storage clement. The operation of the circuit is explained below. The analog signal v,, to be sampled is applied to the drain terminal while sample-and-hold control voltage V, is applied to the gate terminal of the N-channel E-MOSFET, as illustrated in Fig. 35.4 (a). When a positive pulse of V, appears at the gate of E-MOSFET it starts conducting between drain and source and thus acts as a closed switch. ‘This allows input voltage v;, to charge capacitor Ci.e. input voltage appears across capacitor C and in turn at the output as illustrated in Fig. 35.3 (b). When V, becomes zero, the E-MOSFET is off (non-conductive) and acts as an open 1409 a ov| THE, t ——e fay, nose ovr +¥p | ov esenat TE LVN] | 1 | Vi ae i Ci TME,t{ ——> () Input and Output Waveforms Fig. 86.4 Practical S/H Circuit switch. The only discharge path for C is through the op-amp follower, which is of high input resistance, so capacitor C holds the charge and voltage across it remains constant. The time periods during which capacitor C charges or positive pulse is applied, are called the sample periods t, and during this period the voltage across the capacitor is equal to the input voltage. ‘The time periods during which voltage across capacitor C is held constant or gate pulse is absent are called the hold periods. The output of the op-amp is usually processed/observed during hold periods. 29 OFFSET (a) Typical Connection Diagram . voce [_ REFERENCE L———- 30k. ‘ouTeut | HOLD CAPACITOR (2) Functional Diagram Fig. 95.51410 Electronics and Electrical Measurements and Instrumentation For obtaining close approximation of the input waveform the frequency of sample-and-hold control voltage V, must be significantly larger than that of input voltage v,,, so that input signal can be sampled more than once in a cycle, Also a precision and high speed op-amp use is desir. able. To prevent leakage current causing discharge of capacitor C, capacitor should be of low leakage type such as that made of material like Teflon or polyethylene. A specially designed sample-and-hold IC named as LF 398 is available giving improved performance. The typical connection diagram and functional diagram are shown in Fig. 35.5. S/H circuits using analog multiplexers find wide application in analog signal processing and data conversion systems to store analog voltages accurately over time periods ranging from nanoseconds to several minutes, This finds many applications including data distribution sys- tem, simultaneous sample-and-hold designs, sanipling oscilloscopes, digital voltmeters (DVMs), signal construction filters, and analog computational circuits. Example 35.1. A sample-hold (S/H) circuit has a hold capacitor of 0.1 nF. It is required to work for a ‘maximum input of § Vand the hold value should not drop by more than 0.5% in a hold time of 1 us. Calculate the maximum permissible leakage current through the hold capacitor. [U.P.S.C. LES. Electrical Engineering-I, 2002) Solution : Instantaneous voltage across the capacitor is given as, v=V(1-e CR) Since hold value does not drop by more than 0.5% or by 0.005 V, hold value is 0.995 V ‘Thus 0.995 V = V(1~e-#R) or MCR = 1 0.995 = 0.005 or t = CRlog, = = CR log, 200 oR=—t 1x10°6 a Tlog.200 ~ 0.1x10 tog, 200 ite UM ae a and C=0.1nF =0.1x 10°F = Tog, 200 = 1.887.390 Maximum permissible leakage current through the hold-capacitor = Maximum current through R= Efeve"] ___ 1x10 1—e 188739x0.10107 5 1,887.39 5 = 75.2983) _ BAs in [i-e '] =2.636% 10° A=2.636 mA Ans. 35.4. CONFIGURATION OF DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM ‘The important factors that decide the configuration and the sub-systems of the data acquisition system are as follows: (@) Resolution and accuracy. (ii) The number of channels to be monitored. ii) Sampling rate per channel. (iv) Signal conditioning requirement of each channel. (v) Cost ‘The various general configurations include:Data Acquisition System iL 1. Signal channel possibilities: (@ Direct conversion. (ii) Preamplification and direct conversion. (ii) Sample and hold, an conversion. (iv) Preamplification, sample and hold, and conversion. (v) Pre-aniplification, signal conditioning, and any of the above. 2, Multi-channel possibilities: (® Multiplexing the outputs of single channel converters. (i) Multiplexing the outputs of sample hold (S/H) circuits. (iii) Multiplexing the inputs of sample hold (S/H) circuits. (iv) Multiplexing low level data. ‘The signal conditioning options may include: (@ Ratiometric conversion. () Wide-dynamic range options (i) high resolution conversion (ii) range biasing (iii) auto- matic gain switching and (jv) logarithmic conversion. . Noise-reduction options: (i) Filtering (ii) integrating converters and digital process- ing. Before finalization of system configuration, some estimates can also prove helpful in taking decision about final configuration, viz.; system measurement time, error and cost. 35.5. OBJECTIVE OF DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM (@) It must acquire the necessary data, at correct speed and at the correct time. (b) Use of all data efficiently to inform the operator about the state of the plant. (©) To maintain on-line optimum and safe operations, it must monitor the complete plant operation. (@ For diagnosis of operation and record purpose, it must be able to collect, summarize and store the data. (©) It must be reliable, flexible and capable of being expanded for future requirements. () Itmust provide an effective human communication system and be able to identify problem areas, thereby minimising unit availability and maximising unit through point at minimum cost. @) It must be able to compute unit performance indices using on-line, real-time data. (i) Down time should not be more than 0.1%. 35.6. SINGLE CHANNEL DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM Asingle channel data acquisition system consists of a signal conditioner followed by an analog- to-digital converter (ADC), performing repetitive conversions at a free-running, internally de- termined rate. The outputs are in digital code words, including over-range indication, polarity information, and a status output to indicate when the output digits are valid. A single channel data acquisition sys- tem is shown in Fig. 35.6. It shows that the digital outputs are further supplied to a storage or printout device, or to a digital computer for analysis. ‘The popular digital panel meter (DPM) ‘To. COMPUTER / PRINT OUT OR STORAGE |" DEVICE : convert is a well known example of such a system. COvMAND However, two major drawbacks exist in using them for data acquisition. Fig. 85.6 Single Channel Data Acquisition System12 Blectronics and Electrical Measurements and Instrumentation 1. Itis slow and the binary coded decimal (BCD) digital coding has to be changed to binary coding, if the output is to be processed by digital equipment. 2, While free-running, the data from ADC is transferred to the interface register at a rate determined by DPM itself, rather than by a command originating from the external interface. ADCs employed for DAS applications are usually designed for receiving étérnal commands to convert and hold. For de and low-frequency signals, a dual-slope type converter (Art 30.6.2) is often used. The advantage is that it has a linear averaging capability and has a null response for frequencies harmonically related to the integrating period. Generally, the integrating time is chosen to be equal to the period of the line frequency, since the major portion of the system interference occurs at this frequency and its harmonics. ADCs based on dual-slope techniques are useful for conversion of low-frequency data, such as from thermocouples, especially in the presence of noise. The most popular type of converter for data system applications is the successive approximation type, already explained in chapter 30, as itis capable of high resolution and high speed at moderate cost. For a conversion time of 101s, the maximum a for 10V full-scale and 0.1% resolution is about 1 V/ims, which is a considerable improvement. Higher speeds are obtained by preceding the ADC by a sample hold (S/H). S/H is particularly required with successive-approximation type ADCs, since at higher rates of input change the latter generates substantial non-linearity errors because it cannot tolerate changes during the conversion process. Many low resolution (8-10 bit) ADCs are built with a single-ended input, and have normalised analog input ranges of the order of 5-10 V, bipolar or unipolar. For signal levels which are low compared to the input requirements, amplification may be employed to bring up the level of the input to match the converter input requirements, so that optimum use can be made of the capability of the ADC in terms of accuracy and resolution. The amplifier employed has either a single-ended input or differential input, as illustrated in Fig. 35.7. gee CONVERSION ‘COMMAND: aoc Ey BUFFER ¥ sTaTUS TOCOMPUTER OR ‘TRANSMISSION ‘SYSTEM ANALOG PRE-AMPLIFIER GAIN = 1.000, Fig. 35.7 Data Acquisition System (DAS) With Pre-amplificationData Acquisition System 1413 In case the signal levels are below a tenth of an mY, or when resolution of 14 bits/16 bits are sought, the differential amplifiers are necessarily employed. When differential output has to be handled from a bridge network, instrumentation amplifiers, already explained in chapter 25, are used. The accuracy, linearity and gain stability specifications are to be carefully considered so that the system is not affected by any limitations. When the,input,signals are to be physically isolated from the system, the conductive paths are broken by making use of transformer coupled, or an opto-coupled isolation amplifier. Such techniques are advantageous in handling signals from high-voltage sources and transmission towers. In biomedical applications such isolation becomes mandatory. Pre-amplifiers can be coupled with active filters before data processing, in order to minimise the effect of noise, carriers, and interfering high-frequency components. They effectively, com- pensate for transducer-sensitivity loss at high frequencies and hence enable measurements over an enhanced dynamic frequency range. Special purpose filters, such as tracking filters, are employed for preservation of phase- dependent data. Inshort, it can be said that in system design, all data processing need not be digital. Analog circuits can perform data reduction effectively, reliably and economically and may be consid- ered as an alternative way for reducing the number of transmission channels, software com- plexity, noise, and perhaps the most important factor, cost. 35.7. MULTI-CHANNEL DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM ‘The various sub-systems of the DAS can be time-shared by two or more input sources. Depend- ing on desired properties of the multiplexed system, a number of techniques are used for such time-shared measurements. 35.7.1. Multi-Channel Analog Multiplexed System. The conventional multi-channel DAS has a single ADC preceded by a multiplexer, as illustrated in Fig. 35.8. The individual analog SCALING, = —t uv] sain LI oe ANALOG AMPLIFICATION: [LOGIC] on Fig. 35.8 Multi-Channel DAS Using Single ADC1414 Blectronics and Electrical Measurements and Instrumentation signals are applied directly or after amplification and/or signal-conditioning, whenever neces- sary, to the multiplexer. These are further converted to digital signals by using ADCs, sequen- tially. For most efficient utilisation of time, the multiplexer is made to seek the next channel to be converted while the previous data stored in the S/H is converted into digital form. When the conversion is complete, the status line from the converter causes the S/H to return to the sample mode and acquires the signal of the next channel. On completion of acquisition, either immediately or upon command, the S/HTis switched to the hold mode, a conversion begins again and the multiplexer selects the next channel. This method is relatively slower than systems where the S/H outputs or even ADC outputs are multiplexed, but it has the obvious advantage of low.cost due to sharing of a majority of sub- systems. Sufficient acouracy in measurements can be achieved even without the S/H in cases where the signal variations are extremely slow. 36.7.2. Multiplexing the Outputs of Sample-Holds (S/H). For simultaneous monitoring of a large number of channels at moderate speeds, the technique of multiplexing the outputs of the S/H is particularly beneficial. An individual S/H is assigned to each channel, as depicted in Fig. 35.9, and they are updated synchronously by a timing circuit. The S/H outputs are con- nected to ADC through a multiplexer, resulting ina sequential read-out of the outputs. Applications that might need this ap- proach include wind- tunnel measurements, seismographic experi- mentation, radar and fire control systems. The event to be mea- sured is often a one-shot phenomenon and the information is required at a critical point dur- ing a one-shot event. 85.7.8. Multiplexing After Analog-To-Digital (A/D) Conversion. The cost of ADCs has come down considerably and it is now economically feasible to use ADC for each analog input and multiplex the digital outputs. Since each ADC is assigned to an individual channel, the conversion rate of the ADC need be only as fast as required for that channel, in comparison to the higher rates that would be required if it were used as ina multichannel analog multiplexed system. The parallel conversion scheme (Fig. 35.10) provides additional advantage in industrial data-acquisition systems where many strain gauges, thermocouples and LVDTs are distributed over a large plant area. Since the analog signals are digitized at the source, the digital trans- mission of the data to the data centre (from where it can go on to a communication channel) can provide enhanced immunity against line frequency and other ground-loop interferences. The data converted into digital form are used to perform logic operations and decisions. Based on the relative speed at which changes occur in the data, scanning rate can also be increased or decreased. sm 10. ‘TRANSMISSION OR PROCESSING ‘SYSTEM MULTIPLEXER ANALOG INPUTS AFTER ‘SIGNAL CONDITIONING TING Fig, 35.9 Simultaneous Sampled System MultiplexerIme sutton System 1416 The ADC outputs Co are sometimes passed | si |-+{nroc]—+f processor! | +f ourrer | of through a processor ayaoo which acts on the data Ps jna prespecified man- Sicha, ner to generate a digi © of sm L-rfaoc]—s] processor | of aurrer Loy tT cn tal word corresponding toa function of the data input, e.g., the running { average or rate of 4 FL} fare} processor | +] surrer |» change. 5 g 35.7.4. Multiplexing $—*| = Low Level Data. A 3 2 J—frnans je low-level multiplexing oe system, as illustrated Fig. 35.10 Multi-Channel DAS Using Digital Multiplexing in Fig. 35.11, enables the use of a single high-quality data amplifier for handling multi-channel low-level inputs. Individual amplifiers are employed for each low-level signal. This is possible because of availability of high-quality amplifiers at moderate cost. Low-level multiplexing can be attractive when a large number of channels (25 or more), all having low-level outputs need to be monitored at moderate speeds. TOOTHER wt GuARo- Geen INPUTS NG ae INSTRUMENTATION ‘AMPLIFIER, ee A SWITCHES Fig. 35.11 Low-Level Multiplexing Several important factors have to be considered to accomplish low-level multiplexing suc- cessfully. Guarding may have to be used for every channel, and each individual guard may have to be switched so that the appropriate guard is driven by the common-mode signal pertaining to that channel. Problem of pickup, a problem that has to be necessarily taken care of, gets more complicated due to the possibility of signal-to-signal, and even common-mode signal to differen- tial-mode signal cross-talk. Capacitive balancing may have to be done, considering contribu- tions from two multiplex switches. When the number of channels to be multiplexed increases, the problems of stray capacitances and capacitive unbalance are worsened. A practical solution is to employ two tiers of multiplexers. In a specific case of a 48 channel system, the input channels are subdivided into groups of 8 channels in the first tier. Each of these 6 sub-groups1416 Electronics and Electrical Measurements and Instrumentation are in turn multiplexed by a 6-channel multiplexer in the second tier. The main advantage of using this is the reduction of capacitance effects, 35.8. APPLICATIONS OF DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS Data acquisition systems are being used in ever increasing, large and wide fields in a variety of industrial and scientific areas, including the aerospace, biomedical and telemetry industries. The type of data acquisition system to be used depends upon the application and the intended use of recorded input data. In general, analog data aquisition systems are used when wide bandwidth is required or when lower accuracy can be tolerated. Digital data acquisition systems are used when the physical quantity being monitored has a narrow. bandwidth (i.e. when the quantity varies slowly). Digital systems are also used when. high accuracy and low per channel cost is required. Digital data acquisition systems are in general, more complex than analog systems, both in terms of instrumentation involved and the volume and complexity of input data they can handle. Data acquisition systems often make use of magnetic tap recorders. Digital systems need converters to convert analog voltages into discrete digital quantities or numbers. Conversely, digital information may have to be converted back into analog form, such as voltage or current, which can be used as a feedback quantity controlling an industrial process.