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Wiley Visualizing is

PROCESS DIAGRAM
designed for engaging / iÊÃVˆi˜ÌˆwVʓiÌ œ`ÊÊ UÊ Figure 1.5
 THE PLANNER
Scientific knowledge is constantly evolving and self-correcting through application of the
scientific method. As soon as one research study is published, the cycle begins again.

and effective learning Cycle continues

1

Question and
literature review Cycle begins
After identifying a question of
interest, the psychological scientist

The scientific method (Figure 1.5)

conducts a

The visuals and text in Visualizing Psychology

literature review, reading
what has been previously published 2
6
in major professional,
scientific journals. Testable hypothesis

A logical progression of visuals and graphic

Theory development

3e are specially integrated to present complex

Scientist develops a testable
After publication of one or more hypothesis, or a specific
studies on a topic, researchers may prediction about how one factor,
propose a new theory or a revision of or variable, is related to another.

features directs learners’ attention to the

an existing theory to explain the To be scientifically testable,

processes in clear steps and with clear rep-

results. This information then leads to the variables must be
new (possibly different) hypotheses operationally defined—that is,
and additional methods of inquiry. stated precisely and in

underlying concept. The arrows visually

measurable terms.

resentations, organize related pieces of infor-

display processes, helping students
mation, and integrate related information with
5
3
Publication
Scientist writes up the study and its Research design
recognize relationships.
one another. This approach, along with the
results and submits it to To test the hypothesis the scientist
a peer-reviewed scientific then chooses the best research design
journal, which asks other scientists to (e.g., experimental descriptive
critically evaluate the research. On the correlational, or biological).
basis of these peer reviews, the study 4

use of interactive multimedia, minimizes un-

may then be accepted for
publication. Data collection and
analysis

productive cognitive load and helps students

Data are collected and statistical
analyses are performed to determine
whether or not the findings are
statistically significant, and if the
original hypothesis should be

engage with the content. When students are

supported or rejected.
Statistics play a vital role in
the scientific method
(see Appendix A).

engaged, they’re reading and learning, which

can lead to greater knowledge and academic
success. Cognitive restructuring U Figure 14.6
Cognitive therapy teaches clients to challenge and change negative self-talk in order to

Research shows that well-designed visu- improve their life experience.

als, integrated with comprehensive text, can I'm not exceptionally good looking, My looks and personality
are at least better than average. I'm
Cognitive restructuring
and I don't have a really great personality.
(Figure 14.6) Images are
No one would be willing to go out with me, intelligent, and, anyway, not every guy out there

improve the efficiency with which a learner so why ask anyone out for a date? is a star. So why not ask out some girls and
see what happens?

paired so that students can

processes information. In this regard, SEG
compare and contrast them,
Research, an independent research firm, con- thereby grasping the underlying
ducted a national, multisite study evaluating concept. Adjacent captions
the effectiveness of Wiley Visualizing. Its find- eliminate split attention.
ings indicate that students using Wiley Visu- a. Negative interpretation and destructive self-talk b. Positive self-talk and beliefs lead to more positive

alizing products (both print and multimedia) leads to destructive and self-defeating outcomes. outcomes.

were more engaged in the course, exhibited

greater retention throughout the course, and
made significantly greater gains in content
PROCESS DIAGRAM

How agonist and antagonist drugs produce their psychoactive effect

 THE PLANNER
U ˆ}ÕÀiÊx°n

area knowledge and skills, as compared to
Most psychoactive drugs produce their mood-, energy-, and
perception-altering effects by changing the body’s supply of
neurotransmitters. They can alter synthesis, storage, and re-
After neurotransmitters carry their messages across the syn-
apse, the sending neuron normally deactivates the excess, or
leftover, neurotransmitter ( 3 ).

students in similar classes that did not use

lease of neurotransmitters ( 1 ). Psychoactive drugs can also However, when agonist drugs block this process, excess
alter the effect of neurotransmittters on the neutrotransmitter remains in the synapse,
receiving site of the receptor neuron ( 2 ). Drugs which prolongs the psychoactive drug’s effect.

Wiley Visualizing.3 Agonist Drugs

(Enhance synaptic transmission)
1
Antagonist Drugs
(Inhibit synaptic transmission)
How agonist and antagonist drugs
produce their psychoactive effect
Neurotransmitter molecule Leakage
Synthesis,
storage,
Sending neuron

The use of WileyPLUS can also increase learn-

and release Sending
neuron

(Figure 5.8) Textual and visual elements

ing. According to a white paper titled “Lever- Receiving neuron
Agonist drugs increase neuron’s ability
Receiving neuron

Antagonist drugs decrease neuron’s

are physically integrated. This eliminates
aging Blended Learning for More Effective
to synthesize more transmitter molecules, ability to synthesize, store, and release

split attention (when we must divide our

store them more securely, or release them. 2 neurotransmitters.

Neurotransmitter Neurotransmitter

Course Management and Enhanced Student

molecule Binding
molecule
Agonist
drug
molecule
Antagonist
drug
molecule
attention between several sources of
Outcomes” by Peggy Wyllie of Evince Market Receiving
neuron
Receptor
binding site

Agonist drugs and some neurotransmitters

Receiving
neuron
Receptor
binding site

Antagonist drugs bind with the receptor

different information).
Research & Communications, studies show
have similar shapes, which allow them to sites. However, the molecular shape
bind with the receptor sites and mimic the of the drug is dissimilar enough to the
neurotransmitter’s message.
3 neurotransmitter that its message is blocked.
Reuptake blocked by
agonist drug molecule

that effective use of online resources can in-

Deactivation
Sending neuron

No known deactivation

crease learning outcomes. Pairing supportive

effect with antagonist drugs

Receiving neuron

online resources with face-to-face instruction Agonist drugs block the deactivation of
excess neurotransmitters by preventing
reuptake or degradation. This blockage allows
excess neurotransmitter molecules to remain

can help students to learn and reflect on mate-

in the synapse and thereby prolong activation
of the receptor site.

rial, and deploying multimodal learning meth-

ods can help students to engage with the ma- 6Þ}œÌÎ޽ÃÊ✘iʜvÊ«ÀœÝˆ“>Ê`iÛiœ«“i˜ÌÊ­<* ®Ê UÊ ˆ}ÕÀiʙ°£È
Much like the modern concept of instructional Upper limit

terial and retain their acquired knowledge. scaffolding, Vygotsky suggests that the most
effective teaching focuses on tasks in between
(tasks beyond
reach at present)

those that a learner can do without help (the

lower limit) and those that he or she cannot do
even with help (the upper limit). In this zone of
Vygotsky’s zone of
proximal development (ZPD), tasks and skills
can be readily developed with the guidance proximal development
and encouragement of a more knowledgeable
person.
Zone of proximal
(ZPD) (Figure 9.16) This
matrix visually organizes
development (ZPD)
(tasks achievable
with guidance)

abstract information to
© omgimages/iStockphoto

reduce cognitive load.

3
SEG Research (2009). Improving Student-Learning
with Graphically-Enhanced Textbooks: A study of the
Lower limit
(tasks achieved
without help)

Effectiveness of the Wiley Visualizing Series.

vi  
Guided Chapter Tour
How Are the Wiley Visualizing Chapters Organized?
Student engagement is more than just exciting videos interactive, engaging, and outcomes-oriented experience for
or interesting animations—engagement means keeping students.
students motivated to keep going. It is easy to get bored or
lose focus when presented with large amounts of information, Each Wiley Visualizing chapter
and it is easy to lose motivation when the relevance of the
information is unclear. The design of WileyPLUS is based
engages students from the start
on cognitive science, instructional design, and extensive Chapter opening text and visuals introduce the subject and
research into user experience. It transforms learning into an connect the student with the material that follows.

Chapter Introductions
illustrate key concepts in
the chapter with intriguing

8
stories and striking Chapter outlines
photographs. anticipate the content.

Thinking, Language, W hat do you imagine or visualize when you

think of intelligence? Many of us think of Nobel
Prize winners, great inventors, or chess champions.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
Thinking 202
s #OGNITIVE "UILDING "LOCKS

and Intelligence But what about professional skateboarder Danny

Way who rocketed down a 120-foot ramp at almost
50 miles an hour and leapt a 61-foot gap across
s 3OLVING 0ROBLEMS
s "ARRIERS TO 0ROBLEM 3OLVING
s #REATIVITY
the Great Wall of China? Success as a skateboarder N !PPLYING 0SYCHOLOGY !RE9OU #REATIVE
obviously requires intelligence—perhaps of a differ- Language 208
ent kind than people generally associate with being N 7HAT A 0SYCHOLOGIST 3EES ,ANGUAGE
“smart.” AND THE "RAIN
Intelligence is a complex topic. We begin with an s ,ANGUAGE AND4HOUGHT
exploration of the mental processes involved in think- s ,ANGUAGE $EVELOPMENT
s #AN (UMANS4ALK WITH .ONHUMAN !NIMALS
ing, problem solving, and creativity. Then we look at the
world of language—its components, development, and Intelligence 213
interrelationship with thought. We close with a review s $O 7E (AVE /NE OR -ANY )NTELLIGENCES
of how we define and measure intelligence. Along the s %MOTIONAL )NTELLIGENCE
s -EASURING )NTELLIGENCE
way, you’ll discover that how we think and use language
are key aspects of what is generally referred to as intel- The Intelligence Controversy 218
ligence, and why the three topics are combined into this s %XTREMES IN )NTELLIGENCE
one chapter. s 4HE "RAINS )NmUENCE ON )NTELLIGENCE
s 'ENETIC AND %NVIRONMENTAL )NmUENCES ON
)NTELLIGENCE
N 7HAT A 0SYCHOLOGIST 3EES &AMILY 3TUDIES
OF )NTELLIGENCE
N 0SYCHOLOGICAL 3CIENCE 3TEREOTYPE4HREAT

CHAPTER PLANNER 
Q Study the picture and read the opening story.
Q Scan the Learning Objectives in each section:
p. 202 Q p. 208 Q p. 213 Q p. 218 Q
Q Read the text and study all figures and visuals.
Answer any questions.

Analyze key features

Q Psychology InSight, p.203
Q Process Diagram, p. 204
Q Applying Psychology, p. 207
Q What a Psychologist Sees p. 209 Q p. 220 Q
Q Study Organizer, p. 211
Mike Ehrmann/Wire Image/Getty Images, Inc.

Q Psychological Science, p. 222

Q Stop: Answer the Concept Checks before you go on:
p. 207 Q p. 213 Q p. 217 Q p. 223 Q

End of chapter
Q Review the Summary and Key Terms.
Q Answer the Critical and Creative Thinking Questions.
Q Answer What is happening in this picture?
Q Complete the Self-Test and check your answers.

201
The Chapter Planner gives students
a path through the learning aids in the
chapter. Throughout the chapter, the
Planner icon prompts students to use
the learning aids and to set priorities
as they study.
Experience the chapter through a WileyPLUS course.

  vii
Wiley Visualizing guides students
through the chapter
The content of Wiley Visualizing gives students a variety
of approaches—visuals, words, interactions, videos, and The Science of Psychology
assessments—that work together to provide a guided LEARNING OBJECTIVES
RETRIEVAL PRACTICE While reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning
path through the content. Objective in your own words. Then compare your responses with those in Appendix B.

1. Compare the fundamental goals of basic and 3. Identify how psychologists protect the rights of
applied research. human and nonhuman research participants and
2. Describe the scientific method. psychotherapy clients.
Learning Objectives at the

I
n science, research strategies are generally Note how the scientific method is cyclical and cu-
start of each section indicate in categorized as either basic or applied. Basic mulative. This is because scientific progress comes from

behavioral terms the concepts research is typically conducted in universi-

ties or research laboratories by researchers
repeatedly challenging and revising existing theories
and building new ones. If numerous scientists, using
that students are expected to who are interested in advancing general scientific under- different procedures or participants in varied settings,
standing. Basic research meets can repeat, or replicate, a study’s findings, there is in-
master while reading the section. basic research
Research conducted the first three goals of psychol- creased scientific confidence in the findings. If the find-
to advance scientific ogy (description, explanation, and ings cannot be replicated, researchers look for other
knowledge rather prediction). For example, discov- explanations and conduct further studies. When differ-
than for practical eries linking aggression to testos- ent studies report contradictory findings, researchers
application. terone, genes, learning, and other may average or combine the results of all such studies
applied research factors came primarily from basic and reach conclusions about the overall weight of the
Research designed research. evidence, a popular statistical technique called meta-

PROCESS DIAGRAM
to solve practical I li d h l i
ˆ} iÀ‡œÀ`iÀÊVœ˜`ˆÌˆœ˜ˆ˜}Ê UÊ ˆ}ÕÀiÊÈ°{
 THE PLANNER
Children are not born salivating upon seeing the McDonald’s golden arches. So why do they
beg their parents to take them to “Mickey D’s” after simply seeing an ad showing the golden
Process Diagrams provide in-depth
arches? It is because of higher-order conditioning, which occurs when a neutral stimulus
(NS) becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) through repeated pairings with a previously
coverage of processes correlated with clear,
conditioned stimulus (CS).
step-by-step narrative, enabling students to
Pavlov’s dogs Children and McDonald’s grasp important topics with less effort.
1
First-order conditioning CS
If you wanted to demonstrate (Tone) CS
high-order conditioning in (Restaurant)
Pavlov’s dogs, you would first
condition the dogs to salivate
CR CR
in response to the sound of
(Salivation) (Salivation)
the tone. Similarly, children US US
UR UR
first learn to pair McDonald’s (Meat powder) (Hamburger)
restaurants with the food.

2
Pairing NS with previously NS
conditioned CS (Flashing light) NS
Then, with Pavlov’s dogs, (Golden arches)
you would pair a flash

Often in the form of a true/false quiz, Myth Busters

of light with the tone.
Similarly, children later
associate the two golden CS CR CS CR
(Restaurant) (Salivation)
challenges students to identify and correct common
arches with the McDonald’s (Tone) (Salivation)
restaurant.

3 misconceptions about the topics in each chapter.

Higher-order conditioning CS
Eventually, the dogs would (Flashing light) CS
salivate in response to the (Golden arches)
flash of light alone. Similarly,
children salivate and beg to CR CR
MYTH BUSTERS  THE PLANNER
Psychology InSight
eat at Mickey D’s when (Salivation)
CS (Salivation) PSYCHOLOGY VERSUS PSEUDOPSYCHOLOGY
they see the golden arches. CS
(Tone)
Research on
CR infant attachment U Figure 10.1
(Restaurant) CR
TRUE OR FALSE? ___ 4. Punishment is the most effec- ___ 7. Behaviors that are unusual or that
tive way to permanently change violate social norms indicate a
___ 1. The best way to learn and remem-
For most children, parents are the earliest and most important factor in a child’s social development, behavior. psychological disorder.
and the attachment between parent and child is of particular interest to developmental psychologists. ber information is to “cram,” or
study it intensively during one ___ 5. Eyewitness testimony is often ___ 8. People with schizophrenia have
a. Strange situation procedure concentrated period. unreliable. two or more distinct personalities.
Mary Ainsworth and her colleagues (1967, 1978, 2010) found significant differences in the typical levels of ___ 2. Most brain activity stops during ___ 6. Polygraph (“lie detector”) tests ___ 9. Similarity is one of the best pre-
attachment between infants and their mothers using a technique called the strange situation procedure, can accurately and reliably reveal dictors of long-term relationships.
sleep.
in which they observed how infants responded to the presence or absence of their mother and a stranger. whether or not a person is lying.
___ 3. Advertisers and politicians often ___ 10. In an emergency, as the number
use subliminal persuasion to influ- of bystanders increases, your
ence our behavior. chance of getting help decreases.

True (Chapter 15). 10. True (Chapter 15).

False (Chapter 13). 8. False (Chapter 13). 9.
5. True (Chapter 7). 6. False (Chapter 11). 7.
5). 3. False (Chapter 4). 4. False (Chapter 6).
Answers: 1. False (Chapter 1). 2. False (Chapter

1. The baby plays 2. A stranger enters 3. The mother leaves 4. The mother returns 5. The baby is reunited
while the mother is the room, speaks to and the stranger and the stranger with the mother.
nearby. the mother, and ap- stays in the room leaves.
proaches the child. with an unhappy baby.

b. Degrees of attachment
Using the strange situation procedure, Ainsworth found that children could be divided into

Psychology InSight features

three groups: Secure, anxious/avoidant, and anxious/ambivalent. A later psychologist, Mary
d (Main & Solomon, 1986, 1990).
Main, added a fourth category, disorganized/disoriented

Secure
are multipart visual sections that
tock
o sto ck

Seeks closeness with mother when stranger enters. Uses

Age Foto

her as a safe base from which to explore, shows moderate dis-

tress on separation from her, and is happy when she returns.
focus on a key concept or topic in
c /Ag

Secure
Sec re at
atta
att
ttac
tac
achm
achment
hm
meent
nt
Anxious/ambivalent
Banana Stock

60%
Infant becomes very upset when mother leaves the room and
shows mixed emotions when she returns. the chapter, exploring it in detail
Disorg
rganiz
ga zed/
Disorganiz
disoriente
ed/
e ted
ented
edd
15%
15% 10% An
An nxxxious/
ou
ous/
s/
Anxious/avoidant
Infant does not seek closeness or contact with the mother and
shows little emotion when the mother departs or returns.
or in broader context using a
att
at
tta
tac
achment
atta
attachment

An
Anxiou
Anxio
A nxxious/
ouuss//
ambi
a
am
amb
m
mb
atta
att
at
biv
b iiv
va
allent
ale
tachment
tac
ac
ach
ach
c hm
le
hmen
men
me
ent
nt
e t
Disorganized/disoriented
Infant exhibits avoidant or ambivalent attachment, often seeming
combination of photos, diagrams,
avvoid
a id
idant
oidant
o dant
ant atta
att
attt
a tta
tac
ta
aachment
chm
c hme
ment
nt either confused or apprehensive in the presence of the mother.
and data.

viii  
 Applying Psychology  THE PLANNER

Color Aftereffects
Applying Psychology helps students
Try staring at the dot in the middle of this color-distorted American
flag for 60 seconds. Then stare at a plain sheet of white paper. You
should get interesting color aftereffects—red in place of green, blue
relate psychological concepts to their own in place of yellow, and white in place of black: a “genuine” American
flag.
lives and understand how these concepts What happened? This is a good example of the opponent-
process theory. As you stared at the green, black, and yellow
are applied in various sectors of society, colors, the neural systems that process those colors became
fatigued. Then when you looked at the plain white paper, which
such as the workplace. reflects all wavelengths, a reverse opponent process occurred.
Each fatigued receptor responded with its opposing red, white,
and blue colors!
Think Critically
In what kinds of situations do you think color aftereffects
are likely to occur?

Psychological Science  THE PLANNER

Think Critically questions let
Dream Variations and Similarities students analyze the material
What do people commonly dream about? Do men and women dream about different things?
Are there differences between cultures in dream content? Scientists have discovered sev- Identify the Research Method and develop insights into
eral interesting answers to these questions.

a. Common dream themes

Best View Stock /Getty Images, Inc.
helps reinforce the principles of essential concepts.
A quick glance at this table shows that most people, at least in the Western
world, dream a lot about being chased, sex, and misfortune. the scientific method, while also
Rank

1
Dream content

Chased or pursued, not physically injured

Total prevalence

81.5
building deeper appreciation
2
3
Sexual experiences
Falling
76.5
73.8
and engagement with the latest
4
5
School, teachers, studying
Arriving too late, e.g., missing a train
67.1
59.5
research in psychology. Answers
to these questions appear in
6 Being on the verge of falling 57.7
7 Trying again and again to do something 53.5
8 A person now alive is dead 54.1
9 Flying or soaring through the air 48.3 Appendix C.
10 Vividly sensing . . . a presence in the room 48.3
11 Failing an examination 45.0
12 Physically attacked (beaten, stabbed, raped) 42.4
b. Gender differences and similarities
The data shown here are from a study of 1,181 Canadian college Men and women tend to share many common dream
students (Nielsen et al., 2003). Total prevalence refers to the themes. But women are more likely to dream of children,
percentage of students reporting each dream.
family and familiar people, household objects, and in-

What a Psychologist Sees highlights a concept or

Source: Nielsen, T. A., Zadra, A. L., Simard, V., Saucier, S., Stenstrom, P., Smith,
C., & Kuiken, D. (2003). The typical dreams of Canadian university students.
Dreaming, 13, 211–235. Copyright © 2003 Association for the Study of Dreams.
[from Table 1, p. 217].
door events, whereas men tend to dream more about
strangers, violence, weapons, sexual activity, achieve-
ment, and outdoor events (Blume-Marcovici, 2010; Dom-

c. Culture and dreams

hoff, 2003, 2007, 2010; Schredl, 2012).
phenomenon that would stand out to psychologists.
Dreams involving basic human needs and fears (like sex, aggression,
and death) seem to be found in all cultures. And children around the
world often dream about large, threatening wild animals. In addition,
Identify the Research Method
Photos and figures are used to improve students’
understanding of the usefulness of a psychological
1. What is the most likely research method used
dreams around the world typically include more misfortune than good
for the group of studies described above?
fortune, and the dreamer is more often the victim of aggression than
2. If you chose

perspective and to develop their observational skills.

the cause of it (Domhoff, 2003, 2007, 2010; Domhoff & Schneider,
2008; Hall & Van de Castle, 1996). UÊÊÌ iÊiÝ«iÀˆ“i˜Ì>Ê“iÌ œ`]ʏ>LiÊÌ iÊ6]Ê 6]Ê
iÝ«iÀˆ“i˜Ì>Ê}ÀœÕ«]Ê>˜`ÊVœ˜ÌÀœÊ}ÀœÕ«°
UÊÊÌ iÊ`iÃVÀˆ«ÌˆÛiʓiÌ œ`]ʈÃÊÌ ˆÃÊ>ʘ>ÌÕÀ>ˆÃ̈VÊ
iStockphoto

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UÊÊÌ iÊVœÀÀi>̈œ˜>Ê“iÌ œ`]ʈÃÊÌ ˆÃÊ>Ê«œÃˆÌˆÛi]Ê
˜i}>̈Ûi]ʜÀÊâiÀœÊVœÀÀi>̈œ˜¶
UÊÊÌ iÊLˆœœ}ˆV>Ê“iÌ œ`]ʈ`i˜ÌˆvÞÊÌ iÊëiVˆwVÊ
ÀiÃi>ÀV Ê̜œÊ­i°}°]ÊLÀ>ˆ˜Ê`ˆÃÃiV̈œ˜]Ê /ÊÃV>˜®°
WHAT A PSYCHOLOGIST SEES  THE PLANNER
­ iVŽÊޜÕÀÊ>˜ÃÜiÀÃʈ˜Ê
««i˜`ˆÝÊ °® Enjoying Pizza—A Complex Experience

Consciousness, Sleep, and Dreaming 127

W hat happens when we eat pizza? Taste receptor cells, as well as sensory cells that
respond to touch and temperature, are activated on our tongues. Information about
taste, smell, texture, temperature, and appearance is sent to the brain, where it is inte-
grated in various association regions of the cerebral cortex. These circuits,
together with those that store memories related to our previous
pizza experiences, work together to produce our perception

Psychological Science emphasizes the of this particular slice.

Masterfile
empirical, scientific nature of psychology by Somatosensory
cortex

presenting expanded descriptions of current Thalamus

Visual
cortex Surface of the tongue
(magnified about 50 times)

research findings, along with explanations of their

Gustatory
cortex Olfactory
Brain

Omikron/Photo Researchers
stem cortex

significance and possible applications.

Olfactory
Olfactory bulb
Inside Visual
bulb the pathway
brain
Small
pathway

Study Organizers present material in a format that

Taste Somatosensory
pathway pathway Cross-section of a papilla

makes it easy to compare different aspects of a topic, Olfactory

axons

thus providing students with a useful tool for enhancing Taste

bud

their understanding of the topic and preparing for exams. Olfactory receptor

Study Organizer 7.1 Types of long-term memory  THE PLANNER

LTM is divided and subdivided into various types of memory.

Varieties of
long-term memory (LTM)

1. How does applied research often build on basic

Explicit/declarative
memory
Implicit/nondeclarative
memory
research?
Memory with Memory without 2. What is the difference between a scientific
conscious recall conscious recall
theory and a hunch?
3. Why is research on nonhuman animals valuable?
Semantic Procedural Classically
Episodic memory Priming
memory memory conditioned memory

Facts and general Personal Motor skills and Conditioned Earlier exposure
knowledge (e.g., experiences and habits (e.g., how responses to facilitates retrieval
bananas are events (e.g., your to drive a car, conditioned stimuli (e.g., heightened
yellow, 12 months in high school brush your teeth, (e.g., phobias, some fears after reading
a year, spiders have graduation, the ride a bike) aspects of prejudice, a scary novel)
eight legs) birth of your
first child)
and other attitudes)
Coordinated with the section-opening Learning
Objectives, at the end of each section Concept
Check questions allow students to test their
comprehension of the learning objectives.

  ix
Student understanding is assessed The Summary revisits each major section, with
informative images taken from the chapter. These visuals
at different levels reinforce important concepts.

Wiley Visualizing with WileyPLUS offers students lots of

practice material for assessing their understanding of each Summary  THE PLANNER
study objective. Students know exactly what they are getting
out of each study session through immediate feedback and 1 Studying Development 230

 Developmental psychology is the study of age-related -Ì>}iÃÊÛiÀÃÕÃÊVœ˜Ìˆ˜ÕˆÌÞʈ˜Ê`iÛiœ«“i˜ÌÊ ÊUÊ Êˆ}ÕÀiʙ°Ó

coaching. changes in behavior and mental processes from concep-
tion to death. Development is an ongoing, lifelong process.
 Ma^mak^^fhlmbfihkmZgm]^[Zm^lhkjn^lmbhglbganfZg
development are about nature versus nurture (including
studies of maturation and critical periods), stages versus
continuity (illustrated in the diagram), and stability versus
change. For each question, most psychologists prefer an
interactionist perspective.
 =^o^ehif^gmZeilr\aheh`blmlnl^mphli^\bZem^\agbjn^lbg
their research: cross-sectional design and longitudinal de-
sign. Although both have valuable attributes, each also has
disadvantages. Cross-sectional studies can confuse genuine
age differences with cohort effects. On the other hand,
longitudinal studies are expensive and time-consuming,
Infancy Adulthood Infancy Adulthood
and their results are restricted in generalizability.

Creative and Critical Thinking Questions

1. If you were forced to lose one type of memory—sensory, 4. Why might advertisers of shoddy services or products ben- Critical and Creative Thinking
short-term, or long-term—which would you select? Why? efit from “channel surfing” if the television viewer is skipping
2. Why might students do better on a test if they take it in the
from news programs to cable talk shows to infomercials? Questions challenge students to
same seat and classroom where they originally studied the 5. As an eyewitness to a crime, how could you use information think more broadly about chapter
material? in this chapter to improve your memory for specific details?
If you were a juror, what would you say to the other jurors concepts. The level of these
3. What might be the evolutionary benefit of heightened (but
not excessive) arousal enhancing memory?
about the reliability of eyewitness testimony?
questions ranges from simple to
advanced; they encourage students
to think critically and develop an
analytical understanding of the ideas
discussed in the chapter.
What is happening in this picture? What is happening in this picture? presents a
Most traits are polygenic, meaning they are controlled by more then one
gene. These three brothers are demonstrating whether or not they can photograph that is relevant to a chapter topic and
curl their tongues, one of the few traits that depend on only one domi-
nant gene. illustrates a situation students are not likely to have
encountered previously.

Think Critically questions ask students

Think Critically to apply what they have learned in order to
1. >Ãi`ʜ˜ÊÌ iÊ« œÌœ]ÊÜ >ÌÊV>˜ÊޜÕÊ«Ài`ˆVÌÊ
interpret and explain what they observe in
Courtesy Karen Huffman

>LœÕÌÊÜ iÌ iÀʜ˜iʜÀÊLœÌ ʜvÊÌ iÊLœÞýÊ

parents were “noncurlers”?
2. Can you imagine why humans and other the image.
>˜ˆ“>ÃÊ >ÛiÊiۜÛi`Ê̜ʫœÃÃiÃÃÊVœ“«iÝÊ
traits such as tongue curling?

Self-Test
RETRIEVAL PRACTICE Completing this self-test and comparing your answers with those in
Appendix C provides immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams. Additional interactive,
self-tests are available at www.wiley.com/college/carpenter.

1. The study of age-related changes in behavior and mental 5. As shown in the diagram, at birth, an infant’s head is ______
processes from conception to death is called ______. its body’s size, whereas in adulthood, the head is ______ its
a. thanatology body’s size.
b. neo-gerontology a. 1/3; 1/4
c. developmental psychology b. 1/3; 1/10
d. longitudinal psychology c. 1/4; 1/10
d. 1/4; 1/8
Visual end-of-chapter Self-Tests
2. Development governed by automatic, genetically predeter-
mined signals is called ______. pose review questions that ask
students to demonstrate their
a. growth
b. natural progression
c. maturation
d. tabula rasa
understanding of key concepts.
3. Label the two basic types of research designs:
2 months 5 months Newborn 2 years 6 years 12 years 25 years
(fetal) (fetal)

a. ________________ Group One

20-year-old participants 6. Which of the following is NOT true regarding infant sensory
Group Two Research and perceptual development?
done in
40-year-old participants a. Vision is almost 20/20 at birth.
2013
Group Three b. A newborn’s sense of pain is highly developed at birth.
60-year-old participants
c. An infant can recognize, and prefers, its own mother’s
breast milk by smell.
d. An infant can recognize, and prefers, its own mother’s
b. ________________ Study One
Research
breast milk by taste.
done in
Participants are 20 years old 2013
7 The clearest and most physical sign of puberty is the

x  
Why Visualizing Psychology?
The brain is wider than the sky.
Emily Dickinson, 1830–1886
Welcome to the wonderful world of psychology! As poet Emily
Dickinson suggests, each one of our human brains is wider
than the sky—and so too is the field of psychology. Many stu-
dents initially believe that psychologists only study and treat
abnormal behavior, but as you’ll discover throughout this
text, the topics, research findings, and interests of psycho-
logical scientists are extraordinarily diverse. Neuroscience,
stress, health, sensation, perception, states of consciousness,
learning, memory, thinking, language, intelligence, lifespan
development, motivation, emotion, personality, social psy-
chology, and of course abnormality and therapy are just a few
of the areas that we’ll be exploring in Visualizing Psychology,
Third Edition. We (your authors) are honored and pleased to
invite you on a fascinating exploration of the complexities and
nuances of behavior and mental processes—both human and
nonhuman—that make the study of psychology so compelling.
As you might expect, the compelling (and rewarding) nature
of psychology has attracted the attention and devotion of
literally millions of readers, along with a multitude of psychol-
ogy books. Why do we need another text? What makes
Visualizing Psychology unique? Your two authors, and the
editors and publisher of this text, all believe that active learn-
ing and critical thinking (two synonymous and inseparable
terms) are key ingredients to true understanding and lifelong
learning. Therefore, we have developed and incorporated a
large set of active learning and critical thinking pedagogical
tools that will help you, the reader, personally unlock the fas-
cinating mysteries and excitement of psychology. These tools
will also teach you how to apply the wealth of insights and
knowledge from psychological science to your everyday life.
Best of all, active learning and critical thinking can make your
study and mastery of psychology easier and more rewarding.
As the name implies, Visualizing Psychology also is unique
in its focus on visuals. Based in part on the old saying that
a “picture is worth a thousand words,” this text covers the
basic content of a standard psychology text enhanced by an
educationally sound and carefully designed visual art program.
Through this premier art program, combined with our strong
emphasis on active learning and critical thinking, Visualizing
Psychology provides readers with a new and innovative
approach to the understanding of psychology’s major issues,
from stem cells to stereotyping. In the context of an engaging
visual presentation, we offer solid discussions of critical
psychological concepts, ranging from the impact of stress
on health to the psychological foundations of prejudice.
This book is intended to serve as a broad overview of
the entire field of psychology. Despite its shortened and
condensed nature, Visualizing Psychology, like most other
large survey and general education texts, contains a large
number of unfamiliar terms and complex concepts. Do not
be dismayed. The language of psychology is new to all but
the most seasoned scholars. With a little hard work and
concentrated study, you can master this material, and your
work will pay off with immediate and unforeseen rewards that
can last a lifetime.
As you can see, we feel passionate about psychology
and believe that the study of psychology offers all of us an
incomparable window into not only ourselves, but also to
the world and the people who sustain us. We’re eager to
share our passion for psychology with you. We also welcome
feedback from our readers. Please feel free to contact us at
khuffman@palomar.edu.
Organization
We noted earlier that psychology is a surprisingly diverse and
complex field. To organize this diversity, our book is divided into
15 chapters that are arranged in a somewhat “microscopic/
telescoping” fashion. We tend to move from the smallest
element of behavior (the neuron and neuroscience) out to the
largest (the group, culture, and social psychology). Here is a
brief summary of the major topics explored in each chapter:
• C hapter 1 describes psychology’s history, its different
theoretical perspectives and fundamental questions, and
how psychologists go about answering those questions.
• Chapter 2 explains the neural and other biological bases of
behavior, and lays the groundwork for further discussions
of biological foundations that appear in later chapters.
• C
 hapter 3 examines critically important interactions
among stress, health, and behavior.
 hapters 4 through 8 present aspects of cognition, in-
• C
cluding sensation, perception, consciousness, learning,
memory, thinking, language, and intelligence. These chap-
ters examine both cognition under healthy circumstances
and cases where cognition goes awry. Throughout these
discussions, we provide examples and exercises that con-
nect basic research on cognition to real-world situations.
 hapters 9 and 10 explore human development across
• C
the lifespan, including physical, cognitive, social, moral,
and personality development. We have organized these
chapters topically, rather than chronologically, to help you
appreciate the trajectory that each facet of development
takes over the course of a lifetime.
 hapters 11 and 12 discuss processes and qualities that
• C
are integral to our most basic experiences and interactions
with one another: motivation, emotion, and personality.
  xi
• C
 hapter 13 addresses five major categories of psycho­
logical disorders. But first, we begin by discussing what
constitutes “abnormal behavior” and how psychological
disorders are identified and classified. We also explore
how psychological disorders vary across cultures.
• C
 hapter 14 describes and evaluates major forms of ther-
apy, organizing the most widely used treatments into three
groups: talk therapies, behavior therapies, and biomedical
therapies.
• C
 hapter 15, covering social psychology, is in some ways
the culmination of all the previous chapters, as there is no
aspect of psychology that is irrelevant to how we think
about, feel about, and act toward others. In this final
chapter, we explore a range of social psychological phe-
nomena, ranging from perceptions of others’ intentions,
to romantic attractions, to prejudice and discrimination.
New to this edition
This Third Edition of Visualizing Psychology is dedicated to
further enhancing your student learning experience through
several new and unique features, including:
• N
 ew Psychological Science features Visualizing Psy-
chology has always emphasized the empirical, scientific
nature of psychology. This edition offers expanded de-
scriptions of current research findings, explanations of
their significance, and applications (e.g., Chapter 1, “Seri-
ous Problems with Multitasking,” Chapter 10, “The Power
of Resilience”).
• N
 ew Identify the Research Method questions Given
that the scientific method (and its various components) is
one of the most common learning objectives in all of psy-
chology, we believe students need repeated practice ap-
plying these concepts—beyond just the basic introduction
traditionally provided in Chapter 1. To provide this practice,
each of the Psychological Science features is followed by
questions that prompt the reader to identify the research
method, IV, DV, and so on. These interactive, self-testing
activities help reinforce the core learning objective for the
scientific method, while also building deeper appreciation
and engagement with the latest research in psychology.
• N
 ew Myth Busters Why focus on myths? No one wants
to be embarrassed by misinformation, and this natural
desire to avoid being wrong not only increases student
xii  
engagement, but it also has a significant educational side
benefit. While studying the myths of psychology, students
automatically and easily learn some of the most important
terms and concepts—along with improving their critical
thinking skills.
• N
 ew increased emphasis on assessment In order to
meet the growing demand in higher education to show
“results,” new Retrieval Practice reminders appear with
the Learning Objectives, Key Terms, and Self-Tests. Sam-
ple answers to the learning objectives now appear in Ap-
pendix B.
• N
 ew Psychology InSight features These features are
specially designed multipart visual spreads that focus on
a key concept or topic in the chapter, exploring it in detail
or in broader context using a combination of photos and
figures.
• E
 nhanced visuals throughout the text Photos, figures,
diagrams, and other illustrations have been carefully ex-
amined and revised to increase their diversity and overall
effectiveness as aids to learning.
• E
 xpanded coverage of important topics This edition
offers new or expanded discussions of topics such as
sources of stress, positive reinforcement, mirror neurons,
the misinformation effect, divergent thinking, the personal
fable, parenting styles, nonverbal communication of emo-
tion, the sharing of delusions on the Internet, and recent
findings in support of psychoanalysis.
• U
 pdated Applying Psychology features This feature
helps students relate psychological concepts to their own
lives and understand how these concepts are applied in
various sectors of society, such as the workplace.
• M
 ore opportunities for critical thinking Each Apply-
ing Psychology box includes Think Critically questions
designed to encourage students to critically evaluate the
topic of the box. Many figure captions also include critical
thinking questions to further enhance student compre-
hension and critical thinking skills.
 nhanced study aids The carefully developed Study Or-
• E
ganizers make it easy to compare different aspects of a
topic, while also providing students with a useful tool for
enhancing their understanding of the topic and preparing
for exams. Among the topics treated in this way are the
major psychological perspectives, properties of vision and
hearing, schedules of reinforcement, stages of language
development, parenting styles, and defense mechanisms.
How Does Wiley Visualizing Support Instructors?
Showcase Site
The Wiley Visualizing site hosts a wealth of information for in-
structors using Wiley Visualizing, including ways to maximize
the visual approach in the classroom and a white paper titled
“How Visuals Can Help Students Learn,” by Matt Leavitt,
instructional design consultant. Visit Wiley Visualizing at
www.wiley.com/college/visualizing.
This online teaching and learning environment integrates the
entire digital textbook with the most effective instructor and
student resources to fit every learning style. With WileyPLUS:
• S
 tudents achieve concept mastery in a rich, structured
environment that’s available 24/7.
• Instructors personalize and manage their course more ef-
fectively with assessment, assignments, grade tracking,
and more.
WileyPLUS can be used with or in place of the textbook.
Wiley Custom Select gives you the freedom to build your
course materials exactly the way you want them. Of-
fer your students a cost-efficient alternative to traditional
texts. In a simple three-step process create a solution con-
taining the content you want, in the sequence you want,
delivered how you want. Visit Wiley Custom Select at
http://customselect.wiley.com.
Videos
More than 30 streaming videos from National Geographic’s
award-winning collection are available to students in the con-
text of WileyPLUS. Below is a brief description of the videos
available for each chapter.
Chapter 1 Introduction and Research Methods
1. Among Wild Chimpanzees (3:48) A young Jane Goodall
speaks about her work in the wilds of Africa with primates.
2. What Is Psychology? (0:54) What makes us act the way
we do? Psychology explores individual differences.
Chapter 2 Neuroscience and Biological Foundations
3. Brain Surgery (4:33) Brain surgery is performed on a
young man’s tumor while he is awake.
4. Cool Quest (3:59) MRIs map the activity of the brain,
exposing “cool” and “uncool” images.
5. Brain Bank (3:08) The Harvard Brain Tissue Resource
Center, known as the “Brain Bank,” is the largest brain
repository in the world.
6. Brain Tumor Surgery (3:14) A patient suffering from sei-
zures discovers he has a massive brain tumor near the
part of the brain that controls motor activity.
7. MRI (0:38) An actual patient undergoing an MRI, show-
ing the various images that the MRI produces.
Chapter 3 Stress and Health Psychology
8. Science of Stress (3:31) How stress affects the body.
Chapter 4 Sensation and Perception
9. Eye Trick Town (2:35) In Italy, trompe l’oeil paintings that
“trick” the eye into a perception of depth.
10. Camels (1:25) Photography of camels walking in the
desert presents an interesting exploration into the rela-
tive nature of sensation and perception.
Chapter 5 States of Consciousness
11. Sleep Walking (1:57) The video suggests that during
slow wave, non-REM sleep some people’s lower part
of the brain wakes up while the upper part of the brain
responsible for awareness stays asleep.
12. Bali: Trance (3:24) Highlights of a festival in Bali where
villagers come close to stabbing themselves while in a
trance state.
13. Peyote and the Huichol People (4:17) The Huichol peo-
ple ingest peyote, a mind-altering drug to enter the spirit
world.
Chapter 6 Learning
14. Animal Minds (1:15) Rats are able to learn their way
through a maze implying they may have a cognitive map.
15. Thai Monkey (2:11) Monkeys are taught how to retrieve
coconuts through an official monkey training school, us-
ing both operative conditioning and modeling.
Chapter 7 Memory
16. Taxi Drivers (4:06) Video on the role that the hippocam-
pus plays in consolidating memories, suggesting that
there is a structural change to the brains of London taxi
drivers.
Chapter 8 Thinking, Language, Intelligence
17. Orangutan Language (3:23) The orangutan language
project at the National Zoo provides a stimulating envi-
ronment where they learn a vocabulary of symbols and
construct simple sentences.
Chapter 9 Lifespan Development I
18. Feral Children (7:13) A Western researcher studies a
young boy found in the jungle of Uganda, Africa, living
with wild monkeys, rescued, and raised by a couple.
  xiii
Chapter 10 Lifespan Development II
19. Taboo Childhood (2:04) India allows imprisoned moth-
ers to keep their children with them in jail—a very differ-
ent value system than our Western view in the rearing of
children.
20. Taboo Sexuality: Eunuchs (3:53) Highlights of a group
of eunuchs in their struggle to make a life in the Indian
culture where they are viewed as social outcasts.
21. Coming of Age Rituals (4:38) The coming-of-age rituals
in the Fulani tribe where two young boys have a whip-
ping match, while a girl is given a full face of tattoos.
Chapter 11 Motivation and Emotion
22. Rodeo Clowns (2:28) A window into the world of a dan-
gerous profession where professional rodeo clown bull-
fighters risk life and limb to entertain.
23. Heidi Howkins (3:22) Howkins’s climb of K2, the world’s
second tallest mountain, risking everything to become
the first woman to do so.
24. Fire Fighter Training (3:45) Dedicated smokejumpers
meeting the challenges season after season, demon­
strating not only bravery but strong motivation.
Chapter 12 Personality
25. Freud (2:31) The life and times of Freud are highlighted,
and some of the underlying tenets of psychoanalysis are
explained.
Chapter 13 Psychological Disorders
26. Philippines: Exorcism (5:03) The exorcism of a teenage
boy and a possible alternative explanation for his behav-
ior are depicted.
27. Mars Desert Research (3:08) The Mars Desert Research
Station program simulates conditions of a space mis-
sion to Mars, highlighting the psychological aspects of
crew selection.
28. Odd Festivals Around the World (3:04) While these festi-
vals in England, Thailand, and Italy may seem odd, they
demonstrate the importance of cultural sensitivity.
29. Hindu Festival (5:20) Two brothers and other pilgrims
proceed from Kuala Lumpur to the Batu Caves where
they pierce their flesh with spikes and hooks, showing
the importance of cultural sensitivity.
Chapter 14 Therapy
30. What Is Psychology: Therapy? (2:28) A clinical psychol-
ogist and a child psychiatrist are interviewed about the
work they perform.
31. Leeches for Curing Illness (2:46) A look at the use of
leeches in curing illness—how might this treatment be
used in more mainstream medicine?
xiv
Chapter 15 Social Psychology
32. Teeth Chiseling (3:48) In Indonesia, a tribal chieftain’s
wife undergoes teeth chiseling to enhance her beauty—a
matter of balance between the soul and body.
33. Leg Stretching (3:31) In China, a doctor performs leg-
stretching operations to increase the height of patients,
considering the cultural and psychological aspects, and
the risks and benefits.
34. The Maroons of Jamaica (1:56) The story of the Ma-
roons of Jamaica, winning independence from the Brit-
ish, and what their lives are like today.
Book Companion Site
www.wiley.com/college/carpenter
All instructor resources (the Test Bank, Instructor’s Manual,
PowerPoint presentations, and all textbook illustrations and
photos in jpeg format) are housed on the book companion
site (www.wiley.com/college/carpenter). Student resources
include self-quizzes and flashcards.
PowerPoint Presentations
(available in WileyPLUS and on the book companion site)
A complete set of highly visual PowerPoint presentations—
one per chapter—by Katie Townsend-Merino of Palomar Col-
lege, is available online and in WileyPLUS to enhance class-
room presentations. Tailored to the text’s topical coverage and
learning objectives, these presentations are designed to con-
vey key text concepts, illustrated by embedded text art.
Test Bank
(available in WileyPLUS and on the book companion site)
The visuals from the textbook are also included in the Test
Bank by Melissa Acevedo of Westchester Community Col-
lege. The Test Bank has a diverse selection of approximately
1200 test items including multiple-choice and essay ques-
tions, with at least 25% of them incorporating visuals from
the book. The test bank is available online in MS Word files
as a Computerized Test Bank, and within WileyPLUS. The
easy-to-use test-generation program fully supports graphics,
print tests, student answer sheets, and answer keys. The
software’s advanced features allow you to produce an exam
to your exact specifications.
Instructor’s Manual
(available in WileyPLUS and on the book companion site)
The Instructor’s Manual begins with the special introduction
Using Visuals in the Classroom, prepared by Matthew Leavitt
of the Arizona State University, in which he provides guidelines
and suggestions on how to use the visuals in teaching the
course. For each chapter, materials by Lynnel Kiely of the
City Colleges of Chicago include suggestions and directions
for using Web-based learning modules in the classroom and
for homework assignments, as well as creative ideas for in-
class activities.
Guidance is also provided on how to maximize the
effectiveness of visuals in the classroom.
1.  se visuals during class discussions or presenta-
U new concept to prior knowledge.
tions. Point out important information as the students
look at the visuals, to help them integrate separate vi-
sual and verbal mental models.
2. Use visuals for assignments and to assess learn-
ing. For example, learners could be asked to identify
samples of concepts portrayed in visuals.
3. Use visuals to encourage group activities. Students
can study together, make sense of, discuss, hypothe-
size, or make decisions about the content. Students can
work together to interpret and describe the diagram, or
use the diagram to solve problems, conduct related re-
search, or work through a case study activity.
4. Use visuals during reviews. Students can review key
vocabulary, concepts, principles, processes, and rela-
tionships displayed visually. This recall helps link prior
knowledge to new information in working memory,
building integrated mental models.
5. Use visuals for assignments and to assess learn-
ing. For example, learners could be asked to identify
samples of concepts portrayed in visuals.
How Has Wiley Visualizing Been shaped by Contributors?
Wiley Visualizing and the WileyPLUS learning environment
would not have come about without lots of people, each of
whom played a part in sharing their research and contribut-
ing to this new approach.
Academic Research Consultants
Richard Mayer, Professor of Psychology, UC Santa Bar-
bara. His Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning provided
the basis on which we designed our program. He continues
to provide guidance to our author and editorial teams on
how to develop and implement strong, pedagogically effec-
tive visuals and use them in the ­classroom.
Jan L. Plass, Professor of Educational Communication
and Technology in the Steinhardt School of Culture, Educa-
tion, and Human Development at New York University. He
co-directs the NYU Games for Learning Institute and is the
founding director of the CREATE Consortium for Research
and Evaluation of Advanced Technology in Education.
Matthew Leavitt, Instructional Design Consultant. He
advises the Visualizing team on the effective design and use
6. Use visuals to apply facts or concepts to realistic
situations or examples. For example, a familiar pho-
tograph, such as the Grand Canyon, can illustrate key
information about the stratification of rock, linking this
Image Gallery
All photographs, figures, and other visuals from the text are
online and in WileyPLUS and can be used as you wish in the
classroom. These online electronic files allow you to easily
incorporate images into your PowerPoint presentations as
you choose, or to create your own handouts.
The Wiley Faculty Network (WFN) is a global community of
faculty, connected by a passion for teaching and a drive to
learn, share, and collaborate. Their mission is to promote the
effective use of technology and enrich the teaching experi-
ence. Connect with the Wiley Faculty Network to collaborate
with your colleagues, find a mentor, attend virtual and live
events, and view a wealth of resources all designed to help
you grow as an educator. Visit the Wiley Faculty Network at
www.wherefacultyconnect.com.
of visuals in instruction and has made virtual and live pre-
sentations to university faculty around the country regarding
effective design and use of instructional visuals.
Independent Research Studies
SEG Research, an independent research and assessment
firm, conducted a national, multisite effectiveness study
of students enrolled in entry-level college Psychology and
Geology courses. The study was designed to evaluate the
effectiveness of Wiley Visualizing. You can view the full re-
search paper at www.wiley.com/college/visualizing/huffman/
efficacy.html.
Instructor and Student Contributions
Throughout the process of developing the concept of guided
visual pedagogy for Wiley Visualizing, we benefited from
the comments and constructive criticism provided by the
instructors and colleagues listed below. We offer our sincere
appreciation to these individuals for their helpful reviews and
general ­feedback.
  xv
Visualizing Reviewers, Focus Group Participants, and Survey Respondents
James Abbott, Temple University
Melissa Acevedo, Westchester Community College
Shiva Achet, Roosevelt University
Denise Addorisio, Westchester Community College
Dave Alan, University of Phoenix
Sue Allen-Long, Indiana University Purdue
Robert Amey, Bridgewater State College
Nancy Bain, Ohio University
Corinne Balducci, Westchester Community College
Steve Barnhart, Middlesex County Community College
Stefan Becker, University of Washington—Oshkosh
Callan Bentley, NVCC Annandale
Valerie Bergeron, Delaware Technical & Community College
Andrew Berns, Milwaukee Area Technical College
Gregory Bishop, Orange Coast College
Rebecca Boger, Brooklyn College
Scott Brame, Clemson University
Joan Brandt, Central Piedmont Community College
Richard Brinn, Florida International University
Jim Bruno, University of Phoenix
William Chamberlin, Fullerton College
Oiyin Pauline Chow, Harrisburg Area Community College
Laurie Corey, Westchester Community College
Ozeas Costas, Ohio State University at Mansfield
Christopher Di Leonardo, Foothill College
Dani Ducharme, Waubonsee Community College
Mark Eastman, Diablo Valley College
Ben Elman, Baruch College
Staussa Ervin, Tarrant County College
Michael Farabee, Estrella Mountain Community College
Laurie Flaherty, Eastern Washington University
Susan Fuhr, Maryville College
Peter Galvin, Indiana University at Southeast
Andrew Getzfeld, New Jersey City University
Janet Gingold, Prince George’s Community College
Donald Glassman, Des Moines Area Community College
Richard Goode, Porterville College
Peggy Green, Broward Community College
Stelian Grigoras, Northwood University
Paul Grogger, University of Colorado
Michael Hackett, Westchester Community College
Duane Hampton, Western Michigan University
Thomas Hancock, Eastern Washington University
Gregory Harris, Polk State College
John Haworth, Chattanooga State Technical Community College
James Hayes-Bohanan, Bridgewater State College
Peter Ingmire, San Francisco State University
Mark Jackson, Central Connecticut State University
Heather Jennings, Mercer County Community College
Eric Jerde, Morehead State University
Jennifer Johnson, Ferris State University
Richard Kandus, Mt. San Jacinto College District
Christopher Kent, Spokane Community College
Gerald Ketterling, North Dakota State University
Lynnel Kiely, Harold Washington College
Eryn Klosko, Westchester Community College
Cary T. Komoto, University of Wisconsin—Barron County
xvi  
John Kupfer, University of South Carolina
Nicole Lafleur, University of Phoenix
Arthur Lee, Roane State Community College
Mary Lynam, Margrove College
Heidi Marcum, Baylor University
Beth Marshall, Washington State University
Dr. Theresa Martin, Eastern Washington University
Charles Mason, Morehead State University
Susan Massey, Art Institute of Philadelphia
Linda McCollum, Eastern Washington University
Mary L. Meiners, San Diego Miramar College
Shawn Mikulay, Elgin Community College
Cassandra Moe, Century Community College
Lynn Hanson Mooney, Art Institute of Charlotte
Kristy Moreno, University of Phoenix
Jacob Napieralski, University of Michigan—Dearborn
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Reviewers of Visualizing Psychology 3e
Throughout the process of writing and developing this text and the visual pedagogy,
we benefited from the comments and constructive criticism provided by the
instructors listed below. We offer our sincere appreciation to these individuals for
their helpful review:
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  xvii
Reviewers of Past Editions of Visualizing Psychology
Class Testing and Student Feedback
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xviii  
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Special Thanks
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Finally, we’d like to express our deepest gratitude to the entire
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From Siri Carpenter: thank you to my husband, Joe Carpen-
ter, for his thoughtful advice and steadfast support through-
out the production of this book. My appreciation also to
colleagues who provided helpful feedback in one way or
another: Tracy Banaszynski, Jennifer Randall Crosby, Brian
Detweiler-Bedell, Jerusha Detweiler-Bedell, Meghan Dunn,
and Kristi Lemm.
From Karen Huffman: continuing appreciation to my family
and students who supported and inspired me. I also want
to offer my heartfelt gratitude to two very special people,
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structive feedback, professional research skills, and shared
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nitely not least, I thank my beloved husband, Bill Barnard.
  xix
Contents in Brief
Preface v

1 Introduction and Research Methods 2

2 Neuroscience and Biological Foundations 32

3 Stress and Health Psychology 64

4 Sensation and Perception 86

5 States of Consciousness 118

6 Learning 146

© Don Bayley/iStockphoto

xx  Visualizing psychology
 7 Memory 174

8 Thinking, Language, and Intelligence 200

9 Lifespan Development I 228

10 Lifespan Development II 256

11 Motivation and Emotion 282

12 Personality 312

13 Psychological Disorders 340

14 Therapy 374

15 Social Psychology 402

© Christopher Futcher/iStockphoto

Appendix A: Statistics and Psychology 432

Appendix B: Answers to Learning Objectives

Note: Appendix B is available online at the Student Companion book site
www.wiley/college/carpenter

Appendix C: A
 nswers to Identify the Research Method Questions
and Self-Tests 440

Glossary 443

References 448

Name Index 496

Subject Index 510

Contents in Brief  xxi
Contents

1 Introduction and Research ­

Methods
Introducing Psychology
2

4
Psychology’s Four Main Goals 4
Careers in Psychology 5

Origins of Psychology 7

Alfred Pasieka/Photo Researchers

Psychology’s Past 7
Modern Psychology 8
■ WHAT A PSYCHOLOGIST SEES:
The Biopsychosocial Model 11

The Science of Psychology 12

The Scientific Method 12

2
Ethical Guidelines 12

Research Methods 15
Neuroscience and Biological
Experimental Research 15
Foundations 32
Descriptive Research 18
Correlational Research 19 Our Genetic Inheritance 34
Biological Research 23
Behavioral Genetics 34
Strategies for Student Success 23 Evolutionary Psychology 37
Study Habits 23
Neural Bases of Behavior 38
Visual Learning 24
How Do Neurons Communicate? 39
Time Management 25
Hormones and the Endocrine System 42
■ APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY: Improving
Your Grade 25 Nervous System Organization 44
■ PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE: Serious Central Nervous System (CNS) 44
Problems with Multitasking  26 ■ APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY:
Testing for Reflexes 47
Jeffrey Greenberg/Photo Researchers
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) 47
■ WHAT A PSYCHOLOGIST SEES: Autonomic
Nervous System and Sexual Arousal 49

A Tour Through the Brain 50

Lower-Level Brain Structures 50
The Cerebral Cortex 53
■ PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE: Phineas
Gage—Myths Versus Facts 55
Two Brains In One? 57
■ WHAT A PSYCHOLOGIST SEES:
Split-Brain Research 58
3 Stress and Health Psychology

Understanding Stress 66
Sources of Stress 66
64

■ APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY: Measuring

Life Changes 67
Effects of Stress 69

Stress and Illness 72

■ psychological science: Does Stress
Cause Gastric Ulcers? 72
Cancer 73
Cardiovascular Disorders 73
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) 75

Health Psychology and Stress Management 76

4
© RubberBall/Alamy Limited
What Does a Health Psychologist Do? 76
■ what a psychologist sees: Nicotine
and the Biopsychosocial Model  77 Sensation and Perception 86
Coping with Stress 78
■ APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY: Understanding Sensation 88
Progressive Relaxation  81 Processing 89
Resources for Healthy Living 81 ■ PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE: Subliminal
Perception 91
Sensory Adaptation 92
How We See and Hear 93
©AP/Wide World Photos Vision 94
Hearing 94

Our Other Important Senses 98

Smell and Taste 98
■ WHAT A PSYCHOLOGIST SEES: Enjoying
Pizza—A Complex Experience 99
The Body Senses 100

Understanding Perception 101
■ Applying psychology:
Optical Illusions 102
Selection 102
Organization 104
■ APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY:
Color Aftereffects 109
Interpretation 110

Contents  xxiii
5 States of Consciousness

Consciousness, Sleep, and Dreaming 120

Circadian Rhythms 121
118

■ APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY:
Sleep Deprivation 122
Stages of Sleep 122
Why Do We Sleep and Dream? 124
Sleep Disorders 126
■ PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE:
Dream Variations and Similarities 127
■ APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY:
PhotoDisc Green/Getty Images
Natural Sleep Aids 128

6
Psychoactive Drugs 130
Four Drug Categories 132
Club Drugs 137
Learning 146

Meditation and Hypnosis 137

Classical Conditioning 148
Meditation 137
Beginnings of Classical Conditioning 148
■ WHAT A PSYCHOLOGIST SEES:
Benefits of Meditation 138 ■ WHAT A PSYCHOLOGIST SEES:
Conditioning Fear 150
Hypnosis 139
Understanding Classical Conditioning 151

Operant Conditioning 155
Beginnings of Operant Conditioning 156
Reinforcement 156
■ WHAT A PSYCHOLOGIST SEES:
Partial Reinforecement Keeps ‘em
Coming Back 158
Punishment 160
■ APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY:
Problems with Punishment 161

Cognitive-Social Learning 163
Stockbyte/Getty Images, Inc.

Insight and Latent Learning 163

Observational Learning 164
■ psychological science: Bandura’s
Bobo Doll 165

Biology of Learning 167

Neuroscience and Learning 167
Mirror Neurons and Imitation 167
Evolution and Learning 168

xxiv  Visualizing psychology
 7


Memory 174

The Nature of Memory 176

Memory Models 176
Sensory Memory 177

iStockphoto
■ APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY: Demonstrating
Iconic and Echoic Memory  178
■ WHAT A PSYCHOLOGIST SEES:

8
Chunking in Chess  179
Short-Term Memory (STM) 179
Long-Term Memory (LTM) 180 Thinking, Language, and
■ APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY: Intelligence 200
Mnemonic Devices 182
Improving Long-Term Memory 182 Thinking  202
Cognitive Building Blocks 202
Forgetting 185
Solving Problems 203
Theories of Forgetting 185
Barriers to Problem Solving 205
■ PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE:
Creativity 206
How Quickly We Forget 186
■ APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY:
Factors Involved in Forgetting 187
Are You Creative? 207
Biological Bases of Memory 189
Language 208
Neuronal and Synaptic Changes 189
■ WHAT A PSYCHOLOGIST SEES:
Hormonal Changes and Emotional Arousal 190 Language and the Brain 209
Where Are Memories Located? 190 Language and Thought 209
Biological Causes of Memory Loss 191 Language Development 210
Memory Distortions 192 Can Humans Talk with Nonhuman
■ APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY: Animals?  212
A Memory Test 193 Intelligence 213
Memory and the Criminal Justice System 193 Do We Have One or Many Intelligences? 213
False Versus Repressed Memories 194 Emotional Intelligence 215
James P. Blair/NG Image Collection
Measuring Intelligence 215

The Intelligence Controversy 218

Extremes in Intelligence 218
The Brain’s Influence on Intelligence 219
Genetic and Environmental Influences
on Intelligence 220
■ WHAT A PSYCHOLOGIST SEES:
Family Studies of Intelligence  220
■ PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE:
Stereotype Threat 222

Contents  xxv
9 Lifespan Development I 

Studying Development 230
Theoretical Issues 230
228

■ PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE:
Deprivation and Development 231
Research Approaches 232

Physical Development 234
Prenatal and Early Childhood 234
■ WHAT A PSYCHOLOGIST SEES: Elizabeth Crews/The Image Works

10
How an Infant Perceives the World 239  
Adolescence and Adulthood 240

Cognitive Development 243 Lifespan Development II  256

Stages of Cognitive Development 244
Social, Moral, and Personality Development 258
■ APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY:
Putting Piaget to the Test 248 Social Development 258
■ WHAT A PSYCHOLOGIST SEES: ■ WHAT A PSYCHOLOGIST SEES:
Brain and Behavior in Adolescence  249 The Power of Touch 258
Vygotsky Versus Piaget 250 ■ applying psychology: What’s
Your Romantic Attachment Style? 260
Parenting Styles 260
Randy Olson/NG Image Collection Moral Development 261
Personality Development 264

How Sex, Gender, and Culture Affect

Development 266
Sex and Gender Influences on Development 266
Cultural Influences on Development 270

Developmental Challenges
Through Adulthood 272
Committed Relationships 272
■ APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY: Are Your
Relationship Expectations Realistic?  273
■ PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE: The
Power of Resilience 274
Work and Retirement 274
Death and Dying 276

xxvi  Visualizing psychology
11

Motivation and Emotion 282

© Masterfile
Theories of Motivation 284

12
Biological Theories 284
■ APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY:
Sensation Seeking 287
Psychosocial Theories 287 Personality 312
Biopsychosocial Theories 288
Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories 314
Motivation and Behavior 289 Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory 314
Hunger and Eating 289 Psychodynamic/Neo-Freudian Theories 318
Achievement 294 Evaluating Psychoanalytic Theories 319
Sexuality 295
Trait Theories 319
Extrinsic Versus Intrinsic Motivation 297
Early Trait Theorists 320
Components and Theories of Emotion 299 Modern Trait Theory 320
Three Components of Emotion 299 Evaluating Trait Theories 320
Three Major Theories of Emotion 301 ■ psychological science: Mate
■ PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE: Preferences and the Five-Factor
Schachter and Singer’s Classic Study 302 Model (FFM) 321
■ WHAT A PSYCHOLOGIST SEES: ■ applying psychology: Personality
Fast and Slow Pathways for Fear 304 and Your Career 322
Culture, Evolution, and Emotion 304
Humanistic Theories 323
The Polygraph as a Lie Detector 306
Rogers’s Theory 323
Marco Simoni/Getty Images Maslow’s Theory 324
Evaluating Humanistic Theories 325

Social-Cognitive Theories 326

Bandura’s and Rotter’s Approaches 326
Evaluating Social-Cognitive Theories 237

Biological Theories 328

Three Major Contributors to Personality 328
Evaluating Biological Theories 328
The Biopsychosocial Model 329

Personality Assessment 330

Interviews and Observation 330
Objective Tests 330
Projective Tests 332
Are Personality Measurements Accurate? 332
■ what a psychologist sees:
Projective Tests 333
Contents  xxvii
13

Psychological Disorders 340

Studying Psychological Disorders 342

Explaining Abnormality 343
■ WHAT A PSYCHOLOGIST SEES:
Seven Psychological Perspectives
on Abnormal Behavior 344
Classifying Abnormal Behavior 345
Understanding and Evaluating the DSM 346

Anxiety Disorders 348
Four Major Anxiety Disorders 348
Explaining Anxiety Disorders 350
Mood Disorders 352
Understanding Mood Disorders
Explaining Mood Disorders
■ applying psychology: How Can
You Tell If Someone Is Suicidal? 354
Schizophrenia 355
Symptoms of Schizophrenia 356
Types of Schizophrenia 357
Explaining Schizophrenia 358
Other Disorders 361
Dissociative Disorders 361
Personality Disorders 362
How Gender and Culture Affect
Abnormal Behavior 364
Gender Differences
■ psychological science: Gender
Differences in Internalizing Versus
Externalizing
Culture and Schizophrenia
Avoiding Ethnocentrism 366
Peter Dazeley/Photographer’s
14
 © MarkBowden/iStockphoto
Therapy 374
Talk Therapies 376
352
Psychoanalysis/Psychodynamic Therapies 377
354
Humanistic Therapies 379
Cognitive Therapies 381
■ what a psychologist sees:
Ellis’s Rational-Emotive Behavior
Therapy (REBT) 383
Behavior Therapies 384
Classical Conditioning 384
Operant Conditioning 386
Observational Learning 386
Evaluating Behavior Therapies 387
Biomedical Therapies 387
Psychopharmacology 388
364 Electroconvulsive Therapy and
Psychosurgery 390
Evaluating Biomedical Therapies 391
365
366 Psychotherapy in Perspective 391
Therapy Goals and Effectiveness 392
■ APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY:
Choosing a Therapist 393
Therapy Formats
■ psychological science: Therapy—Is

There an App for That?  395

Choice/Getty Image, Inc.

Cultural Issues in Therapy 395

Gender and Therapy 396
15

Social Psychology 402

Social Cognition 404

Attributions 404
Attitudes 406
■ psychological science: Cognitive
Dissonance 406 Bob Daemmrich/PhotoEdit

Social Influence 408

Appendix A: Statistics and Psychology  432
Conformity 408
■ applying psychology: Cultural Appendix B: Answers
Norms for Personal Space 409 to Learning Objectives
Obedience 410 Note: Appendix B is available online at the Student
Companion book site www.wiley/college/carpenter
Group Processes 413
■ WHAT A PSYCHOLOGIST SEES: Appendix C: Answers to Identify
How Groupthink Occurs 416 the Research Method Questions
and Self-Tests  440
Social Relations 417
Prejudice and Discrimination 417 Glossary 443
Aggression 420
References  448
Altruism 420
Interpersonal Attraction 423 Name Index  496
■ what a psychologist sees:
Love over the Lifespan 426 Subject Index  510

Contents  xxix
Psychology InSight Features Process Diagrams
Multipart visual presentations that focus on a key A series or combination of figures and photos that
concept or topic in the chapter describe and depict a complex process

Chapter 1 Chapter 1
Three types of correlation The scientific method • Experimental research design •
Using the SQ4R method
Chapter 2
Twin studies • How poisons and drugs affect our brain Chapter 2
Communication within the neuron • Communication between
Chapter 3 neurons
Cognitive appraisal and coping
Chapter 3
Chapter 4 General adaptation syndrome (GAS) • Stress—
Measuring the senses • Selection • Four perceptual constancies An interrelated system
Chapter 5 Chapter 4
Scientific study of sleep and dreaming • Your brain on “club” How the eye sees • How the ear hears
drugs
Chapter 5
Chapter 6 How agonistic and antagonistic drugs produce their
Classical conditioning in everyday life • Operant conditioning psychoactive effect
in everyday life • Four key factors in observational learning
Chapter 6
Chapter 7 Pavlov’s classical conditioning • Higher-order conditioning
Retrieval cues
Psychology InSight How antidepressants affect the brain
Chapter 7
Chapter 8 U Figure 14.11
Encoding, storage, and retrieval
Concepts Antidepressants work at the neural transmission level by increasing the availability of

Chapter 8
serotonin or norepinephrine, neurotransmitters that normally elevate mood and arousal.
Shown here is the action of some of the most popular antidepressants—Prozac, Paxil,

Chapter 9
Am
A
Amy
myygda
my gd
g
gda
ygda
d ala
a
and other selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs).

Three steps to the goal

Hip
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Brain Prefrontal cortex

development Chapter 9
a. Serotonin’s effect on the brain
Prenatal development
MedioImages/Photodisc/Getty Images, Inc.

Chapter 10
People with depression are known to have lower
levels of serotonin. Serotonin works in the prefrontal
cortex, the hippocampus, and othe er parts of the

Research on Chapter 10
brain to regulate mood, sleep, and appetite,
among other things.

infant Kohlberg’s stages of moral development • Erikson’s eight

attachment stages of psychosocial development
Chapter 11 b. Normal neural transmission c. Partial blockage of reuptake by SSRIs Chapter 11
Extrinsic Drive-reduction theory • Masters and Johnson’s sexual
The sending neuron releases an excess of neurotranssmitters,, SSRIs,, like Prozac,, par
p tially
y block the normal reuptake
p of excess
including serotonin. Some of the serotonin locks into receptors serotonin, which leaves more serotonin molecules free to stimu-
on the receiving neuron, but excess serotonin is pumped back late receptors on the receiving neuron. This increased neural

versus into the sending neuron (called reupta

r ke) for storage and reuse.
If serotonin is reabsorbed too quickly, there is less available to
transmission restores the normal balance of serotonin in the
brain. response cycle
intrinsic
the brain, which may result in depression.

motivation Sending
neuron
Some serotonin molecules
are pumped back into the
sending neuron.
SSRI drugs block some
of the normal reuptake of
serotonin out of the synapse.
Chapter 12
Vesicle sac
Freud’s five
Chapter 12 psychosexual
Synapse
with Drug
PROCESS DIAGRAM

serotonin

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 THE PLANNER
Personality Receiving
neuron
Some serotonin molecules move Because the reuptake is stages of When designing an experiment, researchers must follow certain steps to ensure that their

congruence development
across the synapse and lock into partially blocked, more
receptors on the receiving neuron. serotonin is available to results are meaningful scientifically. In this example, researchers want to test whether
the receptor neuron. watching violent television increases aggression in children.

and mental
Chapter 13
Hypothesis
1 The experimenter begins by

health
“Watching violence onTV
identifying the hypothesis. increases aggression.”

Conditioning 2 In order to avoid sample bias, the

Chapter 13 and phobias

Random assignment
experimenter randomly assigns to experimental conditions
subjects to two different groups.

Four criteria for abnormal behavior

Chapter 14 3 Having at least two groups allows
the performance of one group to be Experimental Control

Chapter 14 Aversion
group group
compared to that of another.

How antidepressants affect the brain therapy 4 The experimental group watches
violent programs while the control
Independent
variable (IV)
(Violent or
group watches nonviolent programs. nonviolent

Chapter 15 Chapter 15 The amount of violent TV watched is

the independent variable (IV).
program)

Helping Reducing
cognitive 5 The experimenter then counts how
many times the child hits, kicks, or
Dependent
variable (DV)

dissonance punches a large plastic doll. The (Number of

times child
number of aggressive acts is the
hits Bobo doll)
dependent variable (DV).

6 The experimenter relates differences in

aggressive behavior (DV) to the amount Groups
compared
of violent television watched (IV).

To help you remember the

independent and dependent
variables (IV and DV), carefully study
these drawings and create a visual
picture in your own mind of how:

The experimenter “manipulates” The experimenter “measures

the IV to determine its causal “ the DV,
V which “depends” on
effect on the DV.
V the IV.
V

xxx  Visualizing psychology
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 third Edition

Visualizing
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Another random document with
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Dawn, sometimes as her lover[57], once even as kissing her[58], there
are other deities, equally representative of light, but more specialised
in their functions. Sûrya himself, the Greek Helios, appears among
the Vedic deities, and Ushas (Eos), the dawn, is called Sûrya-prabhâ
or sunshine.
We have so far watched the daily procession of the Vedic gods as
reflected in the hymns, beginning with Agni, as god of light,
especially the light of the morning, and in many respects the alter
ego of the sun. We saw that in one sense the Dawn also is only a
female repetition of the auroral Agni (Agnir aushasya), and we met
with a third personification of the morning sun in the shape of
Savitri, who is perhaps the most dramatic among the solar heroes,
such as Mitra, Âditya, Vishnu and others.
The procession of the matutinal gods, which we have followed so
far under the guidance of our old grammarian, Yâska, can be shown
to rest on even earlier authority. Thus we read in one of the hymns
themselves, Rig-Veda I, 157, 1:—
Agni awoke, from earth arises Sûrya,
Ushas, the great and bright, throws heaven open,
The pair of Asvins yoked their car to travel,
God Savitri has roused the world to labour.

There are other hymns, of course, that refer to the light of day or to
the sun in his later stages also, culminating as Vishnu, or setting with
Trita, till at last Râtrî, night, appears, and Varuna, the coverer, reigns
once more supreme in heaven. When we see Varuna together with
Mitra, the sun-god, they represent a divine couple, dividing between
them the sovereignty of the whole world, heaven and earth, very
much like the Asvins. They are not so much in opposition to each
other, as partners in a common work.
Just as the night, the sister of the Dawn, is sometimes conceived as
a dawn or day (Ahan) herself, Mitra and Varuna also seem often to
be charged with the same duties. They hold heaven and earth
asunder, they support heaven and earth and are the common
guardians of the whole world. Varuna as well as Mitra is represented
as sun-eyed. Still the contrast between the two becomes gradually
more and more pointed, and we can clearly see that, while light and
day become the portion of Mitra, night and darkness fall more and
more to the share of Varuna. The sun is said to rise from the abode of
Mitra and Varuna, but night, moon, and stars are mentioned in the
hymns already, as more closely related to Varuna. Thus we read, Rig-
Veda I, 27, 10:—
The stars fixed high in heaven and shining brightly
By night, Oh say, where have they gone by daytime?
The laws of Varuna are everlasting,
The moon moves on by night in brilliant splendour.

In Rig-Veda VIII, 41, 10, we ought surely to translate, “He made

the white-clothed black-clothed,” and not, as proposed, “He made
the black-clothed white-clothed,” a change which is never ascribed to
Varuna.
This explains why some scholars went so far as to recognise in
Varuna the original representative of the moon or of the evening star,
a far too narrow conception, however, of that supreme deity, though
true, no doubt, so far as Varuna, like the sky, comprehends within his
sphere of influence night and stars as well as sun and dawn. The
almost perfect identity of name between Varuna and Ouranos shows
that Varuna was not only a Vedic or Indian deity, but had been
named already in the Aryan period. There are phonetic difficulties,
but how should we account for the coincidences in the name and
character of these two gods?
These few specimens of Vedic poetry will suffice, I hope, to show
what is meant by the Solar Theory. It means that most of the physical
phenomena which impressed the mind of primitive races, like those
that have left us their religious utterances in the Veda, were
connected with the sun, with the light of the morning, with day and
night succeeding each other, and regulating the whole life of an
agricultural population. What else was there to interest such people
and to draw away their thoughts from a visible to an invisible world?
If I have sometimes called that population uncivilised, what I meant
was that we come across customs, such as the selling of children or
offering them as victims, polygamy, possibly even polyandry, which
are generally considered as signs or survivals of savagery. Such
general terms, however, are often very misleading, and because in
the Râgasûya sacrifice, for instance, there are remnants of disgusting
customs, we must not allow ourselves to indulge with certain so-
called missionaries in a general condemnation of the Vedic
ceremonial. We should rather learn the lesson that ceremonial is
generally the accumulation of centuries, and contains, besides much
that may be useful, a large quantity of old rubbish, mostly
misunderstood, muddled, and complicated, till the meaning of it, if it
ever had any, is lost beyond the hope of recovery.
If anybody, after reading these few hymns, selected quite at
random, can still doubt whether the Solar Theory is the only possible
theory to account for these Vedic deities, and in consequence, for the
Aryan deities connected with them by name or character, I have
nothing more to say. I doubt the existence of such a person. He must
in very truth be a solar myth. Let me say once more that I have never
looked upon all Vedic deities as solar or matutinal, but that other
physical phenomena also, such as rivers, clouds, earth, night, storms,
and rain had been personified or deified before these hymns could
have been composed. It is true there is one hymn only addressed
exclusively to the Night (X, 127), two only addressed to the Earth, but
I pointed out before why such statistics, though very tempting, are
altogether untrustworthy and have nothing whatever to do with the
real importance or popularity of these deities. Does the ninth
Mandala of the Rig-Veda, with its 114 hymns almost entirely
addressed to Soma, prove the supreme popularity of Soma as a
member of the Vedic Pantheon? However, to guard against all
possibility of misapprehending my purpose, here follows the hymn to
Râtrî or Night; which can hardly be called solar in the usual sense of
that word.
 Hymn to Râtrî, Night.
1.
The Night comes near and looks about,
The goddess with her many eyes,
She has put on her glories all.

2.
Immortal, she has filled the space,
Both far and wide, both low and high,
She conquers darkness with her light[59].

3.
She has undone her sister, Dawn[60],
The goddess Night, as she approached,
And utter darkness[61] flies away.

4.
For thou art she in whose approach
We seek to-day for rest, like birds
Who in the branches seek their nest.

5.
The villages have sought for rest,
And all that walks and all that flies,
The falcons come, intent on prey.

6.
Keep off the she-wolf, keep the wolf,
Keep off the thief, O kindly Night,
And be thou light for us to pass.

7.
Black darkness came, yet bright with stars,
It came to us, with brilliant hues;
Dawn, free us as from heavy debt!

8.
Like cows, I brought this hymn to thee,
As to a conqueror, child of Dyaus,
Accept it graciously, O Night!

We must remember that the night to the Vedic poet was not the
same as darkness, but that on the contrary, when the night had
driven away the day, she was supposed to lighten the darkness, and
even to rival her sister, the bright day, with her starlight beauty. The
night, no doubt, gives peace and rest, yet the Dawn is looked upon as
the kindlier light, and is implored to free mortals from the dangers of
the night, as debtors are freed from a debt. Many conjectural
alterations have been proposed in this hymn, but it seems to me to be
intelligible even as it stands.

One more hymn to show how the belief in and the worship of these
physical gods, the actors behind the phenomena of nature, could
grow naturally into a belief in and a worship of moral powers,
endowed with all the qualities essential to divine beings. Moral ideas
are not so entirely absent from the Veda, as has sometimes been
asserted, and nothing can be more instructive than to watch the
process by which they spring naturally from a belief in the gods of
nature. I give the hymn to Varuna from Rig-Veda VII, 86, which I
translated for the first time in my “History of Ancient Sanskrit
Literature” in the year 1859, and which, with the help of other
translations published in the meantime, I have now tried to improve
and to clothe in the metrical form of the original.
 Hymn to Varuna.
1.
Wise, surely, through his might is his creation,
Who stemmed asunder spacious earth and heaven;
He pushed the sky, the bright and glorious, upward,
And stretched the starry sky and earth asunder.

2.
With my own heart I commune, how I ever
Can now approach Varuna’s sacred presence;
Will he accept my gift without displeasure?
When may I fearless look and find him gracious?

3.
Fain to discover this my sin, I question,
I go to those who know, and ask for counsel.
The same reply I get from all the sages,
’Tis Varuna indeed whom thou hast angered.

4.
What was my chief offence that thou wilt slay me,
Thy oldest friend who always sang thy praises?
Tell me, unconquered Lord, and I shall quickly
Fall down before thee, sinless with my homage.

5.
Loose us from sins committed by our fathers,
From others too which we ourselves committed,
As from a calf, take from us all our fetters,
Loose us as thieves are loosed that lifted cattle.

6.
’Twas not our own free will, ’twas strong temptation,
Or thoughtlessness, strong drink, or dice, or passion,
The old was near to lead astray the younger,
Nay, sleep itself suggests unrighteous actions.

7.
Let me do service to the bounteous giver,
The angry god, like to a slave, but sinless;
The gracious god gave wisdom to the foolish,
 And he, the wiser, leads the wise to riches.

8.
O let this song, god Varuna, approach thee,
And let it reach thy heart, O Lord and Master!
Prosper thou us in winning and in keeping,
Protect us, gods, for evermore with blessings!

I wish I could have introduced a larger number of my so-called

Indian friends, the poets of sacred songs who may have lived
thousands of years ago. But I am afraid I have already tired out the
patience of my readers with these very ancient friends of mine. The
only excuse I can plead is that my own friends in England and in
Germany have so often wondered how I could have fallen in love
with the Veda, and actually left my own country in order to rescue
this forgotten Bible from utter oblivion. It is fortunate that people
have different tastes and that we are not all devoted to the same
beauty.
One more hymn I must add, however, for I am afraid if I do not, I
shall be accused of having misrepresented the character of the Veda,
as reflecting only the simplest thoughts of shepherds and cultivators
of the land. I have remarked several times before that the Rig-Veda
contains some very striking philosophical passages, and how far
some of the Vedic poets must have been carried by purely
metaphysical speculations may be seen by a hymn which I translated
for the first time in my “History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature,”
1859. In putting it into a metrical form I was helped at the time by
my departed friend, the late Archbishop of York, then Mr. Thomson,
and I am glad to say I find little to alter in his translation even now.
 Hymn X, 129.
Nor aught nor naught existed; yon bright sky
Was not, nor heaven’s broad woof outstretched above;
What covered all? what sheltered? what concealed?
Was it the waters’ fathomless abyss?
There was not death, hence was there naught immortal,
There was no light of night, no light of day,
The only One breathed breathless in itself,
Other than it there nothing since has been.
Darkness there was, and all at first was veiled
In gloom profound, an ocean without light;
The germ that still lay covered in the husk,
Burst forth, one nature, from the fervent heat.
Then first came Love upon it, the new germ,
Of mind; yea, poets in their hearts discerned
Pondering this bond between created things
And uncreated. Came this ray from earth
Piercing and all-pervading, or from heaven?
Then seeds were sown, and mighty powers arose,
Nature below, and Power and Will above;
Who knows the secret? who proclaimed it here,
Whence, whence this manifold creation sprang?
The gods themselves came later into being,
Who knows from whence this great creation sprang?
He from whom all this great creation came,
Whether his will created or was mute,
The most high Seer that is in highest heaven,
He knows it—or perchance e’en He knows not.

This hymn is important, not only by what it says, but by what it

presupposes. Whatever date we may ascribe to it as incorporated in
the Rig-Veda, many generations of thinkers must have passed before
such questions could have been asked or could have been answered.
As yet we see the Vedic age only as through a glass darkly. The first
generation of Vedic scholars is passing away. It has done its work
bravely, though well aware of its limits. Let the next generation dig
deeper and deeper. What is wanted is patient, but independent and
original work. There is so much new ground still to be broken, that
the time has hardly come as yet for going again and again over the
same ploughed field.
I must now part with my Vedic Friends. I can hardly hope that I
have persuaded many of my English friends to share my feelings for
my antediluvian acquaintances. All I care for is to make others
understand how my heart was caught, and what I saw in my Indian
love, not only in her Vedântic dreams and aspirations, but in the
simplicity of her earliest utterances of trust in powers invisible, yet
present behind what is visible, and in her faith in a law that rules
both the natural and the supernatural world.
 MY INDIAN FRIENDS.

V.

A Prime Minister and a Child-wife.

I have often had to give expression to a certain disappointment at
not being able, when speaking of my Indian friends, to reveal more of
their inner life. That life, we may be certain, is not absent, but it is
kept hidden, just as Indian women are kept behind their purdahs or
curtains and hidden under veils, more or less transparent. Some of
our own distinguished men and women are perhaps too much given
to perform their confessions and moral ablutions in public, while in
India such books as Rousseau’s Confessions, or the Confessions of St.
Augustine, nay, of Amiel or Marie Bashkirtseff, to mention some
well-known instances only, can hardly be imagined. Introspection or
self-examination exists no doubt among the men and women of
India as well as anywhere else. But unless such inward searchings
take a definite form in words, nay, in written and published words,
they can hardly be said to exist. A man may enter into a dark cave
and see visions, but unless he can find his way back into the bright
light of day, unless he can find words for what was vaguely passing
through the twilight of his memory, all vanishes again and leaves
nothing behind but a nameless sentiment, like the feeling that is left
by a dream, when we know indeed that we have been dreaming, but
cannot recall what we saw in our dreams.
Even in the prayers which we possess of the people in India we
find no very deep delvings into the soul of man. They consist chiefly
of praises of the greatness of the gods or of God, of general
confessions of human weakness or sin, but we hardly ever come
across the agonised sufferings of self-reproachful saints, and we see
little of that moral vivisection which, painful as it is to witness, often
reveals to us some of the most secret springs of human nature which
nothing else will bring to our view.
I cannot, therefore, even in the two cases of Indian friends which I
have selected for my purpose here, promise anything like that
minute moral and spiritual analysis which we find in the works of St.
Augustine, of Rousseau, or Marie Bashkirtseff. One of my friends
belonged to the highest, the other to the lowest ranks of Indian life;
the one was a Prime Minister, the other what we should call a poor
peasant-girl. I was brought into contact with them, not indeed face to
face, but by correspondence only. The Prime Minister was the well-
known Gaurîshankar Udayshankar Ozá, Minister of Bhavnagar. I am
afraid that when people see these long and unpronounceable names
they will at once put down the book. Names such as Rudyard Kipling,
Bashkirtseff, or Pobedonostzeff may be mastered in time, but
Gaurîshankar Udayshankar Ozá is too much for most people’s
memories; and how can people, even if they manage to pronounce
such a name, attach any meaning whatever to it? It might be better,
perhaps, to give the name in its Sanskrit form, viz. Gaurî-samkara;
we could then see some kind of meaning in it, provided we knew a
little of Sanskrit. So far as one may guess the meaning of any proper
names, Gaurî-samkara would be the name of the divine couple, Siva,
sometimes called Samkara, and Gaurî, better known under the name
of Pârvatî, his wife. Of course the name may be interpreted
differently also, but when we know that Gaurî stands for Pârvatî, and
Shankar for Siva, we move at once in more or less familiar spheres,
and we may look on the name as something like the Christian name
Joseph Maria, which is not unusual as a Christian name in Roman
Catholic countries. But when I call Gaurî-samkara the well-known
Prime Minister of Bhavnagar, I anticipate another shrugging of the
shoulders. What is Bhavnagar, where is it, and what is there really
known about its “well-known” Prime Minister? Here are our
difficulties, when we want to rouse the sympathies of our readers for
anything connected with India. Yes, if Gaurî-samkara of Bhavnagar
were Fergus McIvor, chief of Glennaquoich, all would go well. But to
most people, except those who have been in India, Bhavnagar is
almost a terra incognita, and as there are now no separate postage-
stamps for the independent states of India, even children would say
that there is no such state as Bhavnagar anywhere. Still there is a
native state of that name in Kathiawar, with about 500,000
inhabitants, and there is a Râjah, who is called the Thakur Sahib of
Bhavnagar. There is also a town of Bhavnagar, the capital of the
state. Like most of the protected Rajput states, Bhavnagar enjoys as
much freedom as is compatible with the welfare of its neighbours
and the imperial interests of India. Under such conditions conflicts
are, no doubt, inevitable, and it required no little statesmanship in
the Râjah, and in his Dewân, or Prime Minister, to reconcile the
interests of their subjects with those of their neighbours and with
those of the British Empire. Quite a new class of native statesmen
seems to have sprung up of late in these various dependent states,
who are enabled, through the moral support which they receive from
the Central Government, to reform the abuses of a personal and
autocratic régime, to revive education, and to improve the sanitary
condition of the towns and villages, to open commercial
communications, and altogether to raise the political and moral
status and character of the people committed to their charge. In
many cases they had at the same time to keep on good terms with the
English residents, who are not always the most amiable, and to
protect the Râjahs themselves against the corrupting influences of
their little courts and harems. Taking all this together, it is not
difficult to see that their position was by no means an easy one, and
that it required high qualities indeed in these native statesmen to
enable them to hold their own, to satisfy the claims of all the parties
with whom they had to deal, and at the same time not to stifle the
voice of their own conscience.
But when an opening had once been made for native talent in this
direction, native talent was not wanting. The names of such men as
Sir Salar Jung in Hyderabad, Sir T. Madao Rao in Travancore,
Indore, and Baroda, Sir Dinkar Rao in Gwalior, are well known, not
in India only, but in England also, and not the least successful among
them was our friend Gaurî-samkara.
With all the narrow prejudices of Oriental society, particularly in
India, there was always a carrière ouverte aux talents. Gaurî-
samkara was the son of a poor man, though he belonged to a good
Brâhmanic family. His education would not, perhaps, have enabled
him to pass the Indian Civil Service Examination, and yet what an
excellent Civil servant would he have made. Examinations prevent
many evils, but they cannot create or even discover the qualities
necessary for a ruler of men.
Like Mr. Gladstone, Gaurî-samkara became known in India as the
Grand Old Man, or, better still, as the Good Old Man, and, like Mr.
Gladstone, he represented in himself a striking combination of the
thinker and the doer, of the meditative and the active man. His
deepest interest lay with the great problems of human life on earth,
but this did not prevent him from taking a most active part in the
great and small concerns of the daily life and the daily cares of a
small state. He acted as Minister to four generations of the rulers of
Bhavnagar, and he was a constant referee on intricate political
questions to successive Political agents of Kathiawar. He could
remember the first establishment of British authority in the Bombay
Presidency, and he had been the contemporary and fellow-worker of
Mountstuart Elphinstone at the time when the settlement of Guzarat
and Kathiawar had to be worked out between the Gaikwar on one
side and the English Government, as successor of the Peshwa, on the
other. He came in contact not only with Mountstuart Elphinstone,
who visited Kathiawar in 1821, but with Sir John Malcolm also, with
Lord Elphinstone and Sir Bartle Frere—nay, as late as 1886, with
Lord Reay, then Governor of the Bombay Presidency. After a
conference with the old man—he was then eighty-one years of age,
having been born in 1805—Lord Reay declared that he was struck as
much by the clearness of his intellect as by the simplicity and
fairness and openness of his mind; “and if we admire
administrators,” he added, “we also admire straightforward advisers
—those who tell their chiefs the real truth about the condition of
their country and their subjects. In seeing the man who freed this
State from all encumbrances, who restored civil and criminal
jurisdiction to their villages, who settled grave disputes with
Junaghad, who got rid of refractory Jemadars, I could not help
thinking what could be done by such men of purpose and strength of
character.
These words contain a rapid survey of the work of a whole life, and
if we were to enter here into the details of what was actually achieved
by this native statesman we should find that few Prime Ministers
even of the greatest states in Europe had so many tasks on their
hands, and performed them so boldly and so well. The clock on the
tower of the Houses of Parliament strikes louder than the repeater in
our waistcoat pocket, but the machinery, the wheels within wheels,
and particularly the spring, have all the same tasks to perform as in
Big Ben himself. Even men like Disraeli or Gladstone, if placed in the
position of these native statesmen, could hardly have been more
successful in grappling with the difficulties of a new state, with
rebellious subjects, envious neighbours, a weak sovereign, and an all-
powerful suzerain, to say nothing of court intrigues, religious
squabbles, and corrupt officials. We are too much given to measure
the capacity of ministers and statesmen by the magnitude of the
results which they achieve with the immense forces placed at their
disposal. But most of them are very ordinary mortals, and it is not
too much to say that for making a successful marriage-settlement a
country solicitor stands often in need of the same vigilance, the same
knowledge of men and women, the same tact, and the same
determination or bluff which Bismarck displayed in making the
treaty of Prague or of Frankfurt. Nay, there are mistakes made by the
greatest statesmen in history which, if made by our solicitor, would
lead to his instant dismissal. If Bismarck made Germany, Gaurî-
samkara made Bhavnagar. The two achievements are so different
that even to compare them seems absurd, but the methods to be
followed in either case are, after all, the same; nay, it is well known
that the making or regulating of a small watch may require more
nimble and careful fingers than the large clock of a cathedral. We are
so apt to imagine that the man who performs a great work is a great
man, though from revelations lately made we ought to have learnt
how small—nay, how mean—some of these so-called great men have
really been.
Gaurî-samkara found nothing to begin with—or rather, less than
nothing, for he found not only an unorganised but a disorganised
state. General Keatinge, who was Political Agent of Kathiawar during
the years 1863 to 1867, found the transformation that had been
wrought by Gaurî-samkara so complete that he could hardly believe
that Bhavnagar was the same town which he had known in former
days. Splendid buildings had arisen, devoted either to education or
to the relief of the sick, the poor, and the needy. The harbour had
been improved, and roads for trade and communications of every
kind had been newly laid out or made serviceable. There was a large
reservoir to supply the town with water; there were paddocks, a new
jail, two medical dispensaries, and an immense hospital; there were
telegraph and post offices, a High School, and a High Court of
Justice. A railway had been built from Bhavnagar to Gondal, and so
well was it administered, without syndicates or any other kind of
jobbery, that it yielded annually a fair revenue to the state. The
responsibility for all these undertakings rested on the shoulders of
one man, and the credit for them should rest there also.
All this, however, is not what interested me in the old man, nor
will it, I fear, interest many of my readers. He is after all but one of
the many unknown ants that build up hills which, for all we know,
one stroke of a stick may destroy again. Nor was it his moral
character, noble and pure as it doubtless must have been, that
riveted my attention chiefly. A man could hardly have achieved what
he did, unless he stood high above the reach of the vulgar vices and
failings of mankind. In that direction, I may quote a few more
judgments from the mouths of those who had known him during his
long active life. “His chief strength,” as one of his friends writes, “was
to be found in his exemplary private character—
“His words were bonds, his oaths were oracles,
His love sincere, his thoughts immaculate;
His tears pure messengers sent from his heart;
His heart as far from fraud as heaven from earth.”

This is beautifully expressed; but does it give us an image of the man

himself? Even the strongest words seem so colourless when they are
meant to give us the picture of a living man. It may be quite true that
he enjoyed in private and domestic life a veneration that was due to
his noble and patriarchal character, and that his influence was, as we
are told, invariably and unerringly exerted in putting an extinguisher
on private feuds and disagreements among a wide and ever-widening
circle of relations, friends, and members of his caste. We read that
“in order to promote harmony among them he often made personal
sacrifices, and that he proved himself a friend of the needy and the
helpless, of genius and talent struggling to rise. If it was not to be a
blessing to others, life seemed to him not worth living.”
All this is very strong testimony; and yet of how many people has
the same been said, particularly by mourners at the grave of one
whom they loved, and who had loved them! Funeral eloquence has
its bright, but it also has its very dark side. It is delightful to see how
much can be forgotten and forgiven at the grave, how gently all faults
can be passed over or accounted for, how none but the noblest
motives can then be imputed. But all is spoiled at once if rhetorical
exaggeration comes in, so that even the truth contained in the
panegyrics is hidden and choked by a rank growth of adulation and
untruthfulness.
But though I was quite prepared to believe all that we were told
about the private as well as public character of Gaurî-samkara, what
attracted me most in him was that the same man should through life
have been a true philosopher, nay, what men of the world would call
a dreamer of dreams; and should yet have proved so excellent a man
of business. Plato’s dictum, which has so often been ridiculed, that
philosophers are the true rulers of men, has indeed been signally
vindicated in Gaurî-samkara’s case. And his philosophy was not what
may be called useful philosophy—a knowledge of nature and its laws.
This might be tolerated in a Prime Minister, even in Europe. No; it
consisted in the most abstruse metaphysics which would turn even
the hardened brains of some of our best philosophers perfectly giddy.
And yet that very philosophy, so far from unfitting Gaurî-samkara
for his arduous work, gave him the proper strength for doing and
doing well whatever from day to day his hands found to do. He felt
the importance of his official work to the fullest extent, but he always
felt that there was something more important still. Though devoting
all his powers to this life and its duties, he felt convinced that this life
would soon pass away, that there was no true reality in it, that it was
Mâyâ, illusion, arising from Avidyâ, nescience, and that there was
behind, beneath, and above, another and higher life which alone was
worth living. It was his faith in, or his knowledge of, that higher life
which best fitted him to perform his work in the turmoil of the world.
Thus it was that when any of his schemes ended in failure,
disappointment never upset him, and that though he was often
deceived in the friends he had trusted, he never became a pessimist.
It is very difficult to describe what was the faith or the philosophy
which supported him throughout his busy life. From his early youth
he was impressed with certain views of the Vedânta philosophy,
which form the common spiritual property, so to say, of all the
inhabitants of India. That philosophy seems to have entered into the
very life-blood of the nation, but it assumed, of course, very different
forms as believed in by men of talent and education, and by the
drudging tillers of the soil throughout the land. The number of those
who study the Vedânta in the works of such minute philosophers as
Bâdarâyana and Samkara is naturally very small, but the number of
those who have drunk in the spirit of it, it may be in a few sayings
only, is legion.
It seems almost impossible to give a short and clear account of that
ancient philosophy, though, when once known, it can be, and has
been, described and epitomised in a few very short lines. The
approaches to it are very various, but anybody accustomed to Greek
or European forms of thought is sorely perplexed how to find an
entrance into it from exactly the same point as the Hindus
themselves. The Vedânta philosophy is meant to be an interpretation
of the world, different from all other interpretations, whether
philosophical or religious. It was to lead to a new birth, and therefore
remained unintelligible and unmeaning to souls that will not be
regenerated. It is partly an advantage, partly a disadvantage, that for
several of their most important tenets the Vedântists simply appeal
to the Vedas, their Bible, as containing the absolute truth, as being
the highest seat of authority, or the last Court of Appeal on questions
which with us would require very different arguments to prove that,
given our reasoning powers, such as they are, and the world, such as
it is, certain doctrines are inevitable, or that at all events their
opposites are unthinkable. To make the results at which the
Vedântists arrive intelligible, it is best for us to start with a few
maxims which seem to underlie their philosophy, and which,
whether true in themselves or not, do not at all events offend against
our own rules of reasoning.
If, then, we start with the idea of the Godhead, which is never quite
absent in any system of philosophy or religion, we may, excluding all
polytheistic forms of faith, allow our friends, the Vedântists, to lay it
down that before all things the Godhead must be one, so that it may
not be limited or conditioned by anything else. This is the Vedânta
tenet which they express by the ever-recurring formula that the Sat,
the true Being or Brahman, must be Ekam, one, and Advitîyam,
without any second whatsoever. If, then, it is once admitted that in
the beginning, in the present, and in the future, the Godhead must be
one, all, and everything, it follows that nothing but that Godhead can
be conceived as the true, though distant cause of everything material
as well as spiritual, of our body as well as of our soul. Another maxim
of the Vedântist, which likewise could hardly be gainsaid by any
thinker, is that the Godhead, if it exists at all in its postulated
character, must be unchangeable, because it is perfect and cannot
possibly be interfered with by anything else, there being nothing
beside itself. On this point also all the advanced religions seem
agreed. But then arises at once the next question, If the Godhead is
one without a second, and if it is unchangeable, whence comes
change or development into the world; nay, whence comes the world
itself, or what we call creation—whence comes nature with its ever-
changing life and growth and decay?
Here the Vedântist answer sounds at first very strange to us, and
yet it is not so very different from other philosophies. The Vedântist
evidently holds, though this view is implied rather than enunciated,
that, as far as we are concerned, the objective world is, and can only
be, our knowledge of the objective world, and that everything that is
objective is ipso facto phenomenal. Objective, if properly analysed, is
to the Vedântist the same as phenomenal, the result of what we see,
hear, and touch. Nothing objective could exist objectively, except as
perceived, by us, nor can we ever go beyond this, and come nearer in
any other way to the hidden, subjective part of the objective world, to
the Ding an sich supposed to be without us. If, then, we perceive that
the objective world—that is, whatever we know by our senses, call it
nature or anything else—is always changing, whilst on the other
hand, the one Being that exists, the Sat, can be one only, without a
second, and without change, the only way to escape from this
dilemma is to take the world when known to us as purely
phenomenal, i.e. as created by our knowledge of it, only that what we
call knowledge is called from a higher point of view not knowledge,
but Avidyâ, i.e. Nescience. Thus the Godhead, though being that
which alone supplies the reality underlying the objective world, is
never itself objective, still less can it be changing. This is illustrated
by a simile, such as are frequently used by the Vedântists, not to
prove a thing, but to make things clear and intelligible. When the sun
is reflected in the running water it seems to move and to change, but
in reality it remains unaffected and unchanged. What our senses see
is phenomenal, but it evidences a reality sustaining it. It is, therefore,
not false or illusory, but it is phenomenal. It is fully recognised that
there could not be even a phenomenal world without that postulated
real Sat, that power which we call the Godhead, as distinguished
from God or the gods, which are its phenomenal manifestations,
known to us under different names.
The Sat, or the cause, remains itself, always one and the same,
unknowable and nameless. And what applies to external nature
applies likewise to whatever name we may give to our internal,
eternal, or subjective nature. Our true being—call it soul, or mind, or
anything else—is the Sat, the Godhead, and nothing else, and that is
what the Vedântists call the Self or the Âtman. That Âtman, however,
as soon as it looks upon itself, becomes ipso facto phenomenal, at
least for a time; it becomes the I, and that I may change. The I is not
one, but many. It is the Âtman in a state of Nescience, but when that
Nescience is removed by Vidyâ, or philosophy, the phenomenal I
vanishes in death, or even before death, and becomes what it always
has been, Âtman, which Âtman is nothing but the Sat, the Brahman,
or, in our language, the Godhead.
These ideas, though not exactly in this form or in this succession,
seem to me to underlie all Vedântic philosophy, and they will, at all
events, form the best and easiest introduction to its sanctuary. And,
strange as some of these ideas may sound to us, they are really not so
very far removed from the earlier doctrines of Christianity. The belief
in a Godhead beyond the Divine Persons is clearly enunciated in the
much-abused Athanasian Creed, of which in my heart of hearts I
often feel inclined to say: “Except a man believe it faithfully, he
cannot be saved.” There is but one step which the Vedântists would
seem inclined to take beyond us. The Second Person, or what the
earliest Christians called the Word—that is, the divine idea of the
universe, culminating in the highest concept, the Logos of Man—
would be with them the Thou, i.e. the created world. And while the
early Christians saw that divine ideal of manhood realized and
incarnate in one historical person, the Vedântist would probably not
go beyond recognising that highest Logos, the Son of God and the
Son of man, as Man, as every man, whose manhood, springing from
the Godhead, must be taken back into the Godhead. And here is the
point where the Vedântist differs from all other so-called mystic
religions which have as their highest object the approach of the soul
to God, the union of the two, or the absorption of the one into the
other. The Vedântist does not admit any such approach or union
between God and man, but only a recovery of man’s true nature, a
remembrance or restoration of his divine nature or of his godhead,
which has always been there, though covered for a time by
Nescience. After this point has once been reached, there would be no
great difficulty in bringing on an agreement between Christianity,
such as it was in its original form, and Vedântism, the religious
philosophy of India. What seems to us almost blasphemy—a kind of
apotheosis of man, is with the Vedântist an act of the highest
reverence. It is taken as man’s anatheosis, or return to his true
Father, a recovery of his true godlike nature. And what is or can be
the meaning of God-like? Can anything be godlike that is not
originally divine, though hidden for a time by Nescience? After all,
though Nescience may represent Manhood as the very opposite of
Godhead, what beings are there, or can be imagined to be, that could
fill the artificial interval that has been established long ago between
God and man, unless we allow our poets to people that interval with
angels and devils? The real difficulty is how that interval, that abyss
between God and man, was ever created, and if the Vedântist says by
Nescience, is that so different from what we say “By human
ignorance”?
It was necessary to give these somewhat abstruse, explanations—
though in reality they are not abstruse, but intelligible to every
unsophisticated and childlike mind. These, then, were the ideas that
supported our friend Gaurî-samkara, and which support, under
different disguises, millions of human beings in India—men, women,
and children. On such simple but solid foundations it is easy to erect
ever so many religions, to build ever so many temples, and to find
room for the most elevated and the most superstitious minds, all
yearning for the same Peace of God, and for the same Giver of Peace
and Rest. Names may differ and truth may adopt different disguises.
But, after all, the peace which Gaurî-samkara enjoyed amid the daily
cares of his official life, and which arose from his forgetting himself
and finding himself in God, or, as he would say, forgetting his
phenomenal in his real Âtman, could it have been so very different
from what we call the peace of God that passes all understanding?
Such a view of the world as his was, is generally supposed to unfit a