Critical Reading
3. Analyze how the text is organized. The
Strategies for Effective Critical Reading
Aside from employing strategies, you have
to read the text with an open mind. From
here, you can see how ideas are developed
and organized. Remember to think critically
all throughout the reading process and ask
higher-order questions whenever possible.
The statements in the text must also be
evaluated. Examine the facts and examples;
try to check if there are gaps and
inconsistencies. Check for the accuracy and
reliability of the sources and distinguish
facts from opinions. Aside from evaluating,
look for what is not presented as well. Based
on all the facts presented, assess if the
conclusions are acceptable.
Critical Reading as Looking for Ways of
Thinking and as Reasoning
The key element in critical reading is
treating it as looking for ways of thinking
and as reasoning. It can be done through the
following steps:
1. Determine the purpose or central claim of
the text and how it is developed and argued.
2. Assess the evidence used to support the
claim. Evidence may be in the form of
supporting details and examples.
You may use the following questions when
assessing the evidence:
• Which evidence is essential?
• What type of evidence is used (e.g.,
statistical, historical)?
• What is the quality of sources used?
• Are the sources primary or secondary?
way the text is organized is called rhetorical
move. You may use the following questions
when analyzing the rhetorical moves of the
text:
• How does the author break down the
ideas?
• How is language used?
• What text type is used?
4. Assess the context of the text. Do this by
addressing the following questions:
• Who is the audience of the text?
• What is the historical context in which the
text is written?
• What is the persona used or perspective
taken by the writer?
5. Link the reasoning contained in the text to
other available texts.
• How do other texts confirm or refute the
evidence provided in the text?
• Are there theories, concepts, or methods
that support the evidence in the text?
Hypertext vs Intertext
Among the many factors that contribute to
the context of reading is whether they are
classified as intertext or hypertext.
An intertext refers to a work whose
meaning is shaped by referencing or calling
to mind other texts. Basically, other texts
help add meaning to the current text. The
reader gets to understand the context of the
piece through other texts which parallel it in
terms of plot, characters, premise, and the
like.

Hypertext is characterized by the external
links embedded in a text by the writer. In a
hypertext, the reader can read the text in a
non-linear way, because he/she is led to
other links outside the main text.
Types of Claim
When reading a text critically, it is
imperative that you identify the types of
claim or the approach to the topic it uses to
see the main argument. Although we focus
on critical reading, it is useful to note that
these types of claim may also be used when
you write your own paper.
To identify the claims, focus on the first and
last sentences of a paragraph. The details in
each paragraph will also guide you as to
whether a text supports or opposes a certain
claim or argument. Take note of the
transitional devices used.
The three general types of claims are
claim of fact, claim of policy, and claim of
value.
A claim of fact is an argument about a
quantifiable topic. Note that a claim of fact
is not fact; it only asserts a stand regarding a
debatable topic. For example, a claim of fact
may argue that climate change does not
exist, because these are simply natural
cycles of weather change. In this case, you
cannot easily check whether this is indeed a
universally accepted and undisputable fact,
as there are other evidences and arguments
which disagree with it.
A claim of value argues whether something
is good or bad. It is based on judgment and
evaluation on a philosophical, aesthetic, or
moral standpoint. However, note that it is
not merely a statement of subjective
judgment; a claim of value is also assessed
based on accurate information.
A claim of policy is an argument which
asserts the implementation of a certain
policy.
This is driven by the need to present a
solution to problems that have arisen;
sometimes it is given as a response to claims
of fact. It generally states solutions and
plans that are procedural and organized. A
claim of policy also incorporates judgment
coupled with supporting information.
Logical Fallacies
False Dilemma
● occurs when an arguer presents
his/her argument as one of only two
options despite the presence of
multiple possibilities
Appeal to ignorance
● occurs when something is instantly
concluded to be true just because it is
not proven to be false, and vice versa
Slippery Slope
● occurs when a series of increasingly
superficial and unacceptable
consequences is drawn
Complex Questions
● occurs when two or more points are
rolled into one and the reader is
expected to either accept or reject
both at the same time, when one
 point may be satisfactory while the
other is not
Appeal to force
● occurs when a threat, instead of
reasoning, is used to argue
Appeal to pity
● occurs when the element of pity is
used instead of logical reasoning
Appeal to consequences
● occurs when unpleasant
consequences of believing something
are pointed out to show that the
belief is false
Bandwagon
● occurs when an argument is
considered to be valid because it is
what the majority thinks
Attacking the person
● occurs when someone tries to refute
an argument by attacking the
character of a person instead of
attacking the ideas of the argument
Appeal to authority
● occurs when the argument quotes an
expert who is not qualified in the
particular subject matter
Anonymous authority
● the authority in question is not
mentioned or named
Hasty generalization
● occurs when a sample is not
significant or enough to support a
generalization
False analogy
● occurs when it is assumed that two
concepts that are similar in some
ways are also similar in other ways
Accident
● occurs when a general rule is applied
to a situation, even when it should be
an exception
Post Hoc
● occurs when the arguer claims that
since event A happened before event
B, A is the cause of B
Wrong direction
● occurs when the direction between
cause and effect is reversed
Complex cause
● occurs when the explanation for an
event is reduced to one thing when
there are other factors which also
contributed to the event
Irrelevant conclusion
● occurs when an argument which is
supposed to prove something
concludes something else instead
Straw man
● occurs when the position of the
opposition is twisted so that it is
easier to refute
Affirming the consequent
● any argument of the form: If A is
true then B is true; If B is true,
therefore A is true
Denying the antecedent
● any argument of the form: If A is
true then B is true; If A is not true
then B is not true
Inconsistency
● occurs when arguments contradict
one another
Principles of Effective Writing
A composition can either be a paragraph or
an essay. A paragraph is a group of
interrelated sentences that talk about one
main idea while an essay is a group of general parts, namely the introduction, body,
paragraphs that talk about one central idea. and conclusion. Below are the specific parts
Below are the differences between the two. of an essay.

Paragraph I. Introduction
- Organized around a topic sentence A. Lead or Attention-getter
- Contains an introductory sentence B. Transitional Statement
- Uses sentences to explain major C. Thesis Statement
points
- May use a concluding sentence II. Body
A. Major Point 1
Essay 1. Minor Detail 1
- Organized around the thesis 2. Minor Detail 2
statement B. Major Point 2
- Contains an introductory paragraph 1. Minor Detail 1
- Uses paragraphs to explain major 2. Minor Detail 2
points C. Major Point 3
- Always uses a concluding paragraph 1. Minor Detail 1
2. Minor Detail 2
A paragraph is composed of three major
parts: the topic sentence, the body which III. Conclusion
consists of the supporting details, and the A. Reiteration of the thesis statement
closing sentence. B. Transitional statement/Reiteration of the
purpose, benefit, and recommendation
Topic Sentence - contains the main idea of C. Closing statement
the paragraph; it may present a stand, a
question, or a statement Since the essay is made up of individual
Closing Sentence - concludes the paragraphs, the rules of writing a paragraph
information or arguments presented in the still apply.
text
Supporting Sentences - provide additional Introduction
information or details that prove or explain A lead or attention-getter is the first
the main idea statement in the essay, and it aims to hook
Cohesive Devices - words such as pronouns, the readers. A composition can have an
conjunctions, and other transitional devices effective lead through the use of a
that show how the parts of the text are provocative rhetorical question, statistics, a
connected startling statement, an anecdote, a quotation,
humor, or analogy. This is followed by a
Unlike a paragraph, an essay has a more transitional statement or the sentence
elaborate structure. It is divided into three which links the lead to the thesis statement.
Generally, a transitional statement provides
a background on the topic. In an
argumentative essay, it includes the
statement of the case and the arguments that
will be refuted. The last part of the
introduction is the thesis statement which
states the central idea or argument of the
essay.
Transitional Paragraph In some cases, a
paragraph that does not directly provide
support to a thesis statement is included in
an essay. It is called a transitional
paragraph. Its major function is to bridge
one paragraph to another.
Body
The body is the meat of the essay. It
discusses the thesis statement in detail
through its paragraphs. This is where the
topic is developed and where the arguments
are laid out and discussed.
Conclusion
The concluding paragraph begins with the
restatement of the thesis statement using a
different structure and wording from the
original thesis statement while still
upholding the language style of the essay.
This part is followed by a transitional
statement that talks about the
recommendations, the benefits of ideas
presented, or the purpose of writing the
essay. Finally, a closing statement is used to
wrap up the essay. One strategy used for
ending an essay with a bang is to link it to
the attention-getter in the introduction.
Properties of a Well-written Text
Knowing the parts of a paragraph and an
essay will help you form the framework of
your composition and knowledge of the
aspects that make a well-written text will
enable you to ensure the quality of your
work and effectively communicate your
message.
Unity
- is achieved when a composition
focuses on one idea. In unified text,
all the supporting ideas are relevant
to the main thought. without unity,
the text will be confusing.
Coherence and Cohesion
Coherence and cohesion are achieved when
ideas are logically, clearly, and smoothly
linked to one another; without it, the reader
may not be able to comprehend your
composition. Although these two concepts
are interrelated, they are distinct.
Coherence occurs when ideas are
connected at the conceptual or idea
level. It can be seen through
well-defended arguments and
organized points.
Cohesion, on the other hand, is the
connection of ideas at the sentence
level. It can be readily seen in a
text through the smooth flow of the
sentences and the connection of the
ideas. Cohesion can be applied using
three techniques. One is the use of
pronouns to refrain from using a
specific word repeatedly. Another is
the use of transitional devices to
connect sentences with linked ideas.
 The last is the repetition of keywords
to tie up the paragraphs subtly.
Organization
is achieved when ideas are logically
and accurately arranged.
Knowledge of the parts of a
composition is a great help in
adhering to the correct organization
of ideas. The sentences within a
paragraph must also be organized
logically.
Language Use
The way language is used is one of the
clearest indicators of a well-written text. It
enables the writer to effectively
communicate ideas without confusing the
reader. Effective language use is achieved
by observing the following time-tested
principles in writing.
Mechanics
The technical aspect of writing,
also known a, should not be
overlooked when writing. It is
characterized as a set of conventions
on how to spell, abbreviate,
punctuate, and capitalize a organization, structure, and language use of
composition. In academic and formal
texts, the following
should be observed.
1. Always use standard English.
2. Avoid contractions (e.g., shouldn't).
3. Avoid exclamation marks unless they are
part of a direct quotation.
4. Mention the full name of an institution or
organization with the abbreviation in
parenthesis during the first mention.
Thereafter, use the abbreviation.
5. Spell out numbers from zero to ten and
write in figures those that are higher than
ten.
6. Use proper citations when writing texts.
Typically, more citations are used in
academic texts than in business texts.
The Writing Process
Preparation
During this stage, you have to establish
your purpose first. Ask yourself: "Why do
I want to inform, entertain, or persuade the
audience about my topic?" Once you
identify your purpose, you need to specify
your persona as a writer. Will you be a
magazine columnist, an activist, a politician,
or a lawyer? This will set the tone, language,
and level of formality in your paper.
Modeling
is the process by which you, the writer, look
at different works which are similar in
nature with the paper you are about to
write. For instance, if you will write an
argumentative paper, you can check at least
two samples of argumentative essays.
Analyze the features such as the
the sample texts to determine how they
achieved their purpose. Be sure that the
model papers that you will use are of
excellent quality.
Generating Ideas
To come up with ideas, you can do any of
these prewriting activities: brainstorming,
clustering, or freewriting. As you already
know, brainstorming is the process in
which you list as many ideas as you can
think of without censoring them.
In freewriting, you let the ideas flow freely
by writing them down in sentences. Note
that there is little need to pay attention to
grammar and logic at this point; simply let
the ideas run.
Also known as mapping, clustering is a
technique that uses visual representations
to show connections between ideas. The
process of clustering uses the same steps in
making an idea map: start by writing a main
thought inside a circle, and then link related
concepts to it until you create a cluster of
interrelated ideas.
Focusing on a Topic
The next thing you do with the general topic
you came up with is to narrow it down.
Focus on a topic by thinking of a question
related to your specific purpose.
Afterwards, answer the question with at
least two details. The answer to your
question will most probably lead to your
initial thesis statement.
Organizing Ideas
The next step in writing is organizing your
idea in an outline.
In preparing an outline, begin by answering
the question that leads to your thesis
statement. Two or three main ideas can be
generated using this technique. Use these
main ideas as your main heading (level 1).
Then, write the subtopics for each main idea
(level
2). Finally, write the supporting details for
each of the subtopics (level 3).
You can use various outlines based on the
structure you prefer: you can use a topic
outline (using words and phrases as entries),
a sentence outline (using complete sentences
as entries), or a paragraph outline (using
paragraphs as entries).
Drafting
Once you have outlined your ideas, it is time
to write your first draft. At this stage, you
need to focus on the content and
organization not on the grammar and
mechanics. Build the credibility of your
paper by using reliable and valid sources.
When using the Internet, you should check
the website address and look at the Uniform
Resource Locator (URL). The last part in
its domain name is known as the top-level
domain, and it indicates who owns the site.
Top-level Domain Owner
.com Company
.org Nonprofit
organization
.edu Educational
institution
.gov Government
agency
Feedback
is an important component of the writing
process. It is a response to the written work
which focuses on all aspects of writing.
During the drafting stage, the feedback
focuses more on the content, structure,
organization, and clarity of the message.
Feedback can be classified into three:
self-feedback, peer feedback, and teacher
feedback.
Revising
Revision is the act of improving the
original paper by applying changes based
on the feedback. You also need to apply
critical thinking and evaluation skills when
considering the comments on your paper.
You do not have to accept all the comments
as long as there are valid reasons for doing
so. If time permits, give yourself two to
three days before starting your revision
because having a break allows you to have a
fresher look at your paper.

Editing
The finishing stages of writing are editing
and proofreading. While editing focuses on
grammar and language use, proofreading
focuses on typography and mechanics.
During this stage, you need to use
standardized editing symbols to note the
corrections.

Publishing
After exerting effort in writing a good paper,
you can showcase your work to other
people. This stage is known as publishing.
One way to publish your work is by
posting it on social networking sites such as
blogs, Facebook, and other more reputable
research-sharing websites such as
academia.edu. You can also publish your
work collectively with your classmates by
coming up with a book or magazine out of
your essays or by creating a class blog
which will feature everyone's works.