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ATOMIC STRUCTURE alcoholsphenolsaldehydes amines
carboxylic ketones
iminesetheresteramideanhydrideschiobase
nucleus protons neutrons
make
up mostof the mass of sulferatoms steroids proteinogenicaminoacids

EEnfmiIEff.on
an atom
charge matineman
T.EE
Edgars mnopmowan_anbea
he Eamonn amanuenses chem organic
2000 negligible

anatom is electronicallyneutral P α e cancel

atomic no 2 protonnumber is the number eagchpfohhso.fmlens
mass number A atomic mass is the protons neutrons
neutrons is A 2

X
Ions
ions are formed when an atom element gains or loseselectrons
to an element is defined
by of protons 2
Isoelectricions are ions that have the same no ofe's
Isotopes are atoms the sameelement withthe same P but
of diff n
similar chemicalproperties and interactions sameelectrons
they have
they have different physical properties and interactions
DaltonThomson Rutherford Bohr contributed to the model oftheatom

Electronic configuration
electrons are arranged in energylevels calledshells
eachshell is given a number calledthe principle quantum
thefurthera shell is fromthe nucleus thehigherits energyα thelarger
istsprinciple quantum no
not all electrons in a shell have the same energy so there are
further subshells within a shell s p d f
the subshells have diff no of orbitalswhich is a region in spacewhere
there is a max probability offinding an electionOrbitals can hold up to
2 electrons in the opposite direction ofelections
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Rule I electronsfill the lowestenergysub shellsfirst
up
Rule2 electrons
fill up in the subshells singlybeforepairing
Nitrogen
oxygen

Rule3
forconfigof ions fromthe s o p blocks just add remove theelectro
to or from the highestenergyoccupied subshell

Aufbau'sprinciple
order method of showinghow orbitals are filled in a definite

Exceptions
É
ChromiumG α Copper Cu donate one of their 4s electronsto the 3d
sub shellbecause its more stable to have a
halffull or full d subshell
to E ans
whentransitionmetals loseelectrons the
firstlose from 4selectrons
FEE 3388452

IonisationEnergies I E
1st I E is the energyneededto remove 1moleof e s from 1 moleof
gaseous atom to form 1 mole of gaseous It ions
Oig Oig e

the lower the ionisationenergythe easier it is to form a positiveion

each successive I t is higher than previous one because as its are
removed protons e attractionbetweenprotonsnucleus remaining
electrons increases
successive t.ES have large s removedfromlower
jump in their valuewhene
energy shell
factors affecting ionisationenergy
I f means there's a high attraction betweenelectronanucleus
a
high
so more
energyisit needed to remove the election
mania 3thingsaffect
info Nuclear charge the more protons in nucleus the more the charge
the stronger the attraction theelectrons
greater nuclear
for
ionisation
chargegreater energy
 U
MANE
Atomic radius distancefromnucleus as number ofelectronshells
increases atomic radius increases
electronscloser to nucleuswould be a lot more
attractedthan one further away
greater radius lower it
Shieldingeffect inner shells repeloutermoste shieldingthemfrom
the nucleus
the more e shells thegreaterthe shielding
greatershielding lower 1
Bonus highe I E neededto remove e from completely halffilledorbitals

General 1st Ionization EnergyTrends

decreasesdown a
gap due to moreshieldingso electrostaticattraction
the outer e to the nucleus decreases
ofincreases across a periodbecause while shieldingstaysthe same
the nuclear chargeincreases decreasing the atomic radius in the
to process and increasing i
In
pre 3 t.Eoftttddhhnfg.ieremoved
in Al is from a higherenergywhich
is
alsofurther away from removed
e
fromMg
Ngmise si es d
t.eqs ffhtxtt.de removed
from
P is in a half filled morestableorbital
than S whose pairingresult in increased
repulsion
In gp 2
due to shielding

iL
second
07g e
mania Value depends on nuclearcharge shielding a atomicradius
are greater than 1st I E's the electron is beingremovedfroma
info They
ve ion which will require more energy
 U
MANE
Successive 1 he from1stshell

If
witheach shell successive1
increases because e are
being
In 1 e from the 3rdshell
removed
from
positive ion
an increasingly
lessrepulsionbetween
is weaklyattractedtonucleus the remainingelectrons
is when a new shell
A
big jump
is brokeninto closertonucleus

ATOMS MOLECULESα STOICHIOMETRY

RelativeMass
Ar relative atomic mass is the weightedaveragemassof an atom
Relative atomic mass is described as the relative mass of a an atom
compared to 412 of the C 12 atom
Molecular mass Mr is the average mass a molecule compared to
42 of C 12 atom of
to
aggff isotopicmass isthemass of an atom of an isotope compared to Yaof C 12
Etonmula
mass is one formula unit
of a compound
Calculating
Ar isotopic abundance or isotopicmass relativeabundance
mass totalrelativeabundance
Mr relative atomic mass of all elements
Formulamass
100
RelativeAbundance Affability

The Mole
amount of a substance that has the sameno of particles atomsions
molecules or electrons as there are atomsin exactly12g C 12 isotope
of
One mole is roughly 6.02 1023particles aka Avogadro's constant
1mole of C 6.02 1023
I mole ofNat
I mole ofCMN
moles Avogadro'sconstant moles n mass substance
mania particles of
info Mr

math
E
 moles concentration volume

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Empirical α MolecularFormulae
empirical gives the simplest ratio ofdifferentatomspresentinmolecule
molecular gives the actual number of each
typeof atom
molecularformula empiricalformula r
where r mohydermatase
empirical formula
1 turn into masses assumingthere's100gof the compoundthen
calculate no of moles
2 divide eachnumberby the smallestnumberofmoles
0
eg 56.5 of K 8.70C of C 34.8
0 of
100g 56.5g K 8.7g 34 8g
moles 5,8 a 48 msec
0

2 1 3
to 42003

Chemical field
Theoreticalyield the mass of a product that should be formed in a
chemical reaction It assumes no chemicals are lost in the process
theoreticalyield mol Mr
Percentageyield
in
any reaction the actualyield mass of the productwill alwaysbe
less than the theoreticalyield
percentageyield
Effect
AtomEconomy
a measure of the proportionof reactantatoms that becomepartof the
desiredproduct in the balanced chemequation
highatom economymeans less waste ofmaterials its also more sustainable
atom economy TmfsoEdhtmsssfta9d_ants too
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info
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BONDING
IonicBonding
the electrostatic attraction betweenoppositelycharged ions
ions are formedwhen electrons are transferredfrom one atom
to another
simplest ions are singleatoms which have eitherlost gained 1,2or 3
electrons in orderto get a full outer shell
compound ions are ions that are made up ofgroups of atoms with
an overall charge
Nick the Creepy Camel ate clams for Supper in Phoenix
FFite diatomite cassin folate sifate phosphate

Ammonium NHI Oxygen

giant ionic lattice a
havehighmelting boilingpointsdueto thestrongelectrostaticforces
conductselectricitywhenmolten ordissolved but not whensolid
to ionic compounds tend to dissolve in waterdue to waterspolarity
attractingthe ions away anddissolvingthe lattice

CovalentBonding
moleculesformwhentwo or moreatoms bondtogether the sharing
by
of electrons between the nuclei of the atoms so they both
ofpairs outer
get full shells

covalent compounds are madeofmolecules held together weak

intermolecular forcesThese intermolecularforcesdetermineby
theproperties
they generally have low meltinga boiling points don'tconductelect
some dissolve in waterdepending on howpolar themoleculesare

macromolecules giant covalent structures

graphite carbon atoms are arranged in sheetsof fathexagons
covalentlybonded with 3 bonds each Thesheets are bondedtogether
weak van der Waals forces Highmeltingpoint and insoluble as
by
covalent bonds difficultto breakConductselectricityduetodelocalised e
mania
info diamond C atoms are covalentlybondedto 4 other Catoms Arranged
in a tetrahedral shape Extremely
highmeltingpoint abreakingpoint
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CoordinatedativeBonding
one atomdonates thetwo atoms needed forthe covalentbondtoform
an atomhas to have a lone pair ofelectrons α another atom has to
need a pair ofelectrons
Ammonium NHat re

Dots a CrossDiagrams
NaCl Nacl
Na
of anions ve ions

ionic Na wa a cations tve ions

g
C2HH
covalent

I
µ C of H H H c e

H C of H

to Polarisation α Electronegativity
electronegativityis the abilityto attract thebondingelectrons in a
covalent bond is called electronegativity It is measured on thePaulingscal
Thehigherthe number the better an elementis able to attractthebonding
electronsDepends on the atomsmallerradius higherelectronegativity
Nuclear attraction is directlyproportionalto electronegativity
dipolemoment the slightcharges on atoms in a covalentbondduetodifferences
in electronegativityThe differencedeterminesthe overalldipolemomenta
polarity of compound A largedifference in electronegativitywill makethebond
morepolar more ionic in nature
as opposed to a re
Ea
if a chargeis distributedunevenlyover a whole moleculethenthe molecule
willhave a permanent dipole knownas molecules
polar
A molecule
beingpolardependson if it has polarbonds andits overallshape
86 E polarityis cancelled
08 due toshape
bonds are arrangedso
I
f
add they all point in roughly
mania
mg not the same
info g.ci yfpdar direction the
chargewouldbe unevenly
spread polarmolecule
 U
MANE
Shapesof Molecules
depends on the ofpairs ofelectronsin the outershell of the centralatom
Pair of electrons can be shared in a covalentbond bondedpairs or
can be unshared lonepairs

Electron pair repulsion

charge clouds repel each otherbecausethey are all ve charged
lone pair charge clouds repel more than bonding paircharge
clouds
aka USEPR Valence Shell ElectronPairRepulsiontheory
lone lone lone bonded bonded bonded
working out the no pairs
1 Find the central atom
2 Work out how electrons are in outer shell grp no
3 Add I e many
4 foreveryatom the central atom is bonded
For ions add e for each we charge a remove e forevery we
5 Add up all electrons and divide 2 to get no electronpairs
by
6 Find no lonepairs a no bondingpairs
to
Eg PH
Molecular shapes
2 pairs of e a a
2 bonded Bece
180 as electrons want to be as far as possible
3pairs of e
3bonded BE
trigonalplanar B 120
1200

2 bondingpairs a 1 lonepair
Id20 generally 2.50 4 20
4 pairsof e
4 bonded Cola
tetrahedral
609.50 4 2709.50

mania 3 bonded I love

info pyramidal pie
107
IF
 2 bonded 2 done H2O
angular bent non linear
104.5 re 5H
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5pairs é
of
bonded I
5 PF
trigonalbipyramid I
90 α 020
F
bonded.com
188 8 1020
3 bonded alone
toffg.in gonal It
OF
Ifeed E Ée
6pairs of é
6 bonded SFG
octahedral
90 all round

to 5 bonded 1 lone
very rare Clt

farepyramidal I I
bonded 2 lone eFy
square planar

Eg BFI 43bonded
tetrahedral

Bonds
Bondenergy theenergyneeded to break one mole of a givenbond
in one mole gaseousmolecules
of
Bondlength distancebetweenthe centersof two nuclei oftwoadjacent
atoms
Doublebonds are shorter than singlebondsbecausedoublebondshave
a greater negative chargedensitybetweenthe twoatomicnuclei greater
attraction
Bondlengthdepends on radii ofthe twobondedatomslargerthevadines
mania thelongerthebondlength
info strength of the bonddepends on length
 U
MANE
MetallicBonding
strongelectrostaticforces of attraction betweenmetalcations and
delocalisedmobileelectrons
lattice structure of the metal ion surroundedby a seatdelocalized
electrons
strengthof metallicbond increases with
increasingpositive charge the ions in lattice
on
decreasing sizeof metal ions in lattice
increasing no of mobile e peratom
high melting points due to the strongelectrostatic attraction
the no of delocalisedelectronsperatomaffectsthe meltingpoint
the more there are the strongerthe bond highermeltingpoint
size of metal ion latticestructure also affects themeltingpoint
malleable α ductile because no bondsholdingspecificionstogether
greatconductors because of delocalisedelectrons that can move carrychar
insolublebecause bonds
ofstrengthof
7
85 0 1
Na I my ae it ottt it

to ttt ttt

IntermolecularForces
weakforcesbetween molecules
Hydrogen permanent dipole van der Waals

HydrogenBonds
strongesttypeof intermolecularforce
happenswhenHe is covalentlybondedto F O N or when
only
F O N atoms have lonepairs
substances with H bonds have a higherboilinga meltingpointsthan
similarmolecules becauseextraenergy is needed to break H bonds
Stsitcoolstoformice the moleculesmake more hydrogenbonds α
arrangethemselves in a regularlattice structuremakingitlessdense
Van der Waals induceddipole londonforces dispersionforces
very weakforces between non polarmolecules
electrons in chargeclouds are in constantmotion causingtemporary
dipoles Oneatomstemporarydipole can induce a tempdipole in another
atom The twodipolesdevelop a furtherattraction
mania van der Waals forces increase with increasing no contractpointsbtwn
info moleculespointwhere molecules come together as well as increasingthe
no electrons protons in molecule
 Permanentdipole dipoleforces
weakforcesbetweenpolarmolecules between the stand 8
U
MANE
Typically solidshave its particles closetogethergivingit a high
very
density α making it incompressibleTheparticlesvibrate about a fixed
point and can't move about freelySolubilityincreases with temp
intermolecular bonds are beingovercomemakingiteasier to dissolve
A typicalliquid has a similar densityto a solid α isvirtually
incompressible The particles move about freelya randomlyallowing
it to move freely
Particles of gases have a lot more and are furtherapartThe
energy
densityis prettylowand its verycompressibleThe particles move freely
with little attraction betweenthem theydiffusequickly
Solubilitydecreases as temp increases because the particlesbecome
morereactive α the pressure increases

to

Polarity

I
defeated

BalancingEquation
atoms cannot be created or destroyedduringchemicalreaction
the number atoms on eachsideofequationmustbethe same
of the formula
do not change
HaSOn NaOH Na 04 2H20
Carlo 102 802 3H20
0 2 0 3 6246 7202 2002 3H20

an ionic equation shows the reacting ionparticles

only
HNOsay NaOHrags Nano cags H2Ois
mania
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OH H2O
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491 a

Reacting masses
2Mgiss 02cg2mg iss GgofmgmakeshowmuchMgo
molofmg 6k4gmol
i 8285m i
mol mak
mgo mass mol Mr
mass 0.25 40
of Mgo 10
Volumes α Concentrations
the concentration a solution is the amount solutedissolved in a
of
solvent to make 1dm of Sol of
often water
to a concentrated solution has
high concentration of solute
a dilute solution is a solution with a low concentrationof solute

amel C molldm's n Cx V
Caco 2ha Calls H2O CO2 calculate volume

8 44 19mmol'm 32.5
0 025
HA n 0.05mol
00
0 0.05dm
25.0 cm of 0.050 dm 3 NazCO was completelyneutralisedby20.00cm
of HCl Calc concentration of HCl
NaCl H2O CO2
NazCg 2H26
n
of Na CXV 251000 0.050 0.00125mol 1.25 10 3mol
i n HCl 0 00250mol
of 2.50 10 3 mol
mania
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of HCl 028
86 0.125molden 3
info
 U
MANE
Volume
ofgases
Avogadro suggested that equalvolumesofgasescontainthe same
no molecules
At roomtemp120 C and pressure 1 atm one moleof has a
volume 24.0dm This is themolar volume 24dm mot anygas
of gas
mod gas
of Volyn
IdealGasEquation
P Pressure Pa
PV nRT m
YIYung
thevolumethat an idealgas D Gasconstant8.31Jk mol
occupiesdepends on its pressure I temp K
α temperature
when a gasisheated at constantpressure theparticlesgainmorekinetic
energyundergoing more frequentcollisions
to keepthe pressure constant the molecules must furtherapart
i thevolumeincreases get
to the volume is proportional to thetemperature at constantpressure
directly
limitations
kg
volume
at
verylowtemperature ahighpressure
real gases do notobey the kinetic theory
as themolecules are closetogethercausing
81 most instantaneousdipole induceddipoleetc
theseforcespull the molecules
awayfrom
container wall
f
273 op
m
n 98
8.67dm
I moe

0.12
n f Mr_may
6 39 0.12

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 U
MANE
ENERGETICS
Enthalpy
Enthalpy change AM is the heatenergytransferred in a reaction
at constantpressure
Energy is needed to overcome attractiveforcesbetween atoms
Bond breakingis endothermic energy in whileenergyin the form
is releasedwhen new bonds are formed exothermic
of heatsum
The ofenergy in a out determines whether the reaction is overall
exo or endothermic
Atl is kj mol AH means that the reactants aproducts are in their
standard conditions 100hPa Latin pressure and a statedtemp
usually room at 298k 25 C
Exothermicreactions
products end up withlessenergythan reactants
so AH will benegative

to Endothermicreactions
productsend up withmoreenergythan reactants
Atl will be positive
Bondenthalpy
The energy needed to break a bond Theydiffer depending
on which atoms are attached on either side of the band

Energy level diagramsshowthe energies of reactants the transition

state and the products of the reaction as the reaction proceeds

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Exothermicreaction Endothermic

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reactants are closer in
energytothe
Et
reactants are furtheraway in
info transition state energyto thetransitionstate
exothermicreactionshave a lower endohave a higheractivation
activationenergythanendothermic energy
 U
MANE
Exothermic
products have lessenergy than reactants
heat is given off into surroundings which can bemeasured with a
thermometer
the energy of the systemdecreases
AN

Endothermic
products have more energythan reactants
heat energy is absorbed the reactionfromthe surroundings which
by
can be measuredwith a thermometer
the energy of the system increases

LEAN
to Enthalpychangeofreaction totalenergyabsorbed totalenergyreleased
Diff types ofAM
Reaction IMF enthalpychangewhen thereactants in the stoichiometri
Both productsunderstandard
equation react togivethe
conditions

Formation SHF the enthalpychangewhen onemoleof acompoundis

Both formedfrom its elements under standard conditions

CombustionAHE theenthalpychangewhen one mole of a compoundis

Exothermic combusted burnt in excess02understandardconditions

Neutralisation AHFent theenthalpychange when one moleof water

Exothermic alkaline USC
is formed byreacting an acid a

Calorimetry

q mcΔT qin heat

mass
transferred J
water
of g
c specificheatcapacity 4.18 C1
mania AT temp change c
Jg
info
AH MCAT
or are an Hma
 U
MANE
Ethetotalenthalpychange reaction is independentofroutetaken
for a
AH Stly AHI
gnarco Na coast 00219 420
At reactants products ΔH
f Tfr
common 2Nat 20 302 H2
elements
Combustion

2C 3H 420 02H30H
Ater Atl Atl
reactants pro
200 3H20
combustion
to products

use combustiondiagram
Atf propanone

3Cis 3kg1 2021g ctescoctls.in

2 8 644 gg Alf Eardeactants EAHc products

AHocreactants 286
3C 34274202 CHCOCH 3 891113

394 2866 1821 AHC products 1821Kfmol1

3002 3420 AMO

391 2 182
394
3 I
Atflethane Ater Atle products AHCreactants
2C 342 31202 0246 311202
3 1559.7
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info 393.5 58 I 1559.7 21 325 3 28
2602 3H20 164
84 7 kfmot
 U
MANE
Entropy
tells how much disorderthere is It is a measure of the
number of ways that particles can be arranged and the
ways that the energy can be shared out between the particles
A few thingsaffectentropy
Physical state
solid particlesjust wobble abt a fixedpoint there's hardly
any disorder sothey have the lowest entropy
around and are the mostdisordered
gas particles whizz arrang
have thement
of particles so they highestentropy
solid hot liquid th gas

n
Dissolution
dissolving a solid also increases its entropy

to www
ii
Number of particles
more particles more entropy the more particlesyou'vegot
the more ways they and their energy can be arranged
NaOH NO2

ΔS Sproducts S reactants

mania
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 U
MANE KINETICS
Collisiontheory
a chemical reaction to occur the particles need to collide
for
with each other in isthe correct orientation α with enoughenergy
collision frequency the number of collisionsper unit time
the higherthe collisionfrequency the more particles with energy
the fa increases
Activationenergy Ea is the minimum amount of kinetic energy
particles need toreact

Catalysts are substances that increase the rate of reaction

withouttaking part themselves providing the particles an alternati
mechanism with a lower to
Maxwell BoltzmannDistribution Theory
explains the effect oftemp α catalyst on rate ofreactionbased on
distribution of amongreactingmoleculesunder
energy
differentconditions
to Engle
thing
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astronaut
of that
kinetic affiliations
maundering
energy some

slowly
Effect oftemp
temp shiftright
highertempmore have
molecules
at leasttheEadue to more
kinetic
energy

Effectof conc
nieces are
mania
info iii
availableto collide sotheno particles
 Ea

Effect of catalyst they lower activationenergy

U
MANE

catalystmoreparties have ta
Fanciful
ta
Rates
MeasuringReactionthe
fesction is change in the amt ofproductreactantovertime
Tgfof
amount ofreactaugmentedproductformed
rate of reaction

EQUILIBRIA
Reversible reaction whichproducts can be changed
a reaction in
back to reactants
byreversing the conditions
Dynamic Equilibria the state of a reversible reactioncarried outαin a
closed containerwhere the rates of forward
to Tackwardreactions are equal a constant
Le Chatelier'sPrinciple
when thedynamicequilibrium is disturbed A conctemppressure
the chemical system wouldrespond in a to opposethe change so
a new equilibrium is set way
up
If temp is increased the system will shiftto try to cool it down
Concentration
is increased equilibrium shifts to
If concentration of reactant
the right
left
in order to make more products vice versa
ke not affected
increasing metre so will be made

Pressure
the equilibriaofgases
onlyaffectsthe
Increasing shifts
pressure equilibrium to the side with fewer
the
gasmoleculestherebyreducingthe pressure
2502 02 2503
increasingpressure would cause more 50 because
mania the lefthas more gasmolecules than right
info
Temperature
 a ols
it shifts to the exothermic sidewhen the temp islowered

2502 02 2503 AH 197bymolt

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more reactantsform the equilibriumshiftsfeed
MANE
if tempincreases
if tempreduces more product is made to create moreheatshiftright
Haker Process is all about compromise setting the
condittois
justness

that the process isfast but too expensive

Equilibrium Constant he
AA bB CC told 42 12 2 ME

he
8 Eateries diff
only liquids a gas
dEaskfi.sk am
REDOX iii
lineshowsdecrease
of
concentration
ofproducts
any
to Oxidation is loss of electronshydrogen or gainof Oxygen
Reduction is gain of electrons hydrogen or loss of Oxygen
Oxidation StatesNumber
atoms are neutral
Cations are positive so need to be reducedand are oxidisingagents
Anions are negative so needto be oxidised and are reducingagents

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Ca Cast 2 Ugt 2é 20
Flourine is always I
Hydrogen is I excepts in metal hydrideslikeNatewhereits I
Oxygen is 2 except in peroxides 1 and Fe20 2

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PERIODICITY
developed byDmitri Mendeleev
Periods are in the horizon forevery
girl
Elements periodicityaffectstheirfunction Samegroups have similarreactions
and periods have similar reactions
Period3
with 02
Na heated with oxygenreactsvigorouslywith a brightyellowflame
4Wacss 02191 2N920 s forms a whitesolid basic
with0greactsvigorously with whiteflame
mgheated 2M
bright
white solid basic
2mgis 021g go s forms
Al powdered reacts with 02fast Brightwhiteflame
Ales 3021g 2Also31s forms white powder amphoteric
mania
info Si powdered heatedstrongly reacts slowlywithbrightwhitesparkles
Sics 02191 8021st formswhitepowder weakacid
 Kpis Yell
reading gorously whiteclouds
502cg Paolo forms strongacid
S powdered isheatedreactinggentlyα producinga blueflame
U
MANE Siss Org So g formstoxicfumes strongacid
with Cl
Na in a heatedconditionreactsvigorously
2NaasstClaig 2Naclass neutral
a heatedconditionreactsvigorously
Mg in
Mgis Clangs Mgclass neutral
Al in a heated conditionreactsvigorously
2AlessBClags Abyss acidic
Si in a heatedconditionreactsslowly
Silas 292gs 28021g strongacid
P in a heated condition with excesschlorine reactsslowly
Rest 502cg 2Pa51st strong acid
with H2O
Na reacts vigorouslywithcoldwater bymeltinginto a ball movingacros
to watersurface til it disappears givingof Agas andformingNaOH
2Nass 2H20us 2NaOHcags thigh strong alkaline PH145
Mg reacts extremelyslowly with cold water forming a weak alkaline
Mgis 2420111 mg re tags Haig pre9 10
Myreactsvigorously withissteamtoform MgO hydrogengas
Mgis MaOigs Mgo May

Atomic radius decreases across aperiod butincreased down a grip

nuclearchargeincreaseswhile shieldingstays the same across but
shielding increases down grip
Ionic radius is the atomic radius for ions Cations tend to be smaller
than theirparentatoms Nat to Siti sees a decrease However anions are
bigger due to more repulsionfrom the extra electronssotheir radii are
larger than the cations in same period but withinthemCanious there's
a generaldecrease

mania
info
 U
MANE
Group 2 Alkaline Earth Metals
have 2 valence electrons
become more reactive as theygo down a grip
C atomic radius increases with increased shielding
m.pt b p reducesbecause its easier to breakthe bonds
Reactions
with 02
all app2metalstarnish in air formingtarnish coatings
burn vigorously in 02formingwhite solids
2Miss 021g 2M Ois

withH2O
M mat 2e
Miss 2H20 e more at Macgs
Oxides reacting with water become morealkalinedown
more lager 02091 t H2Oe
grp
Mocs 420in 20H lag
thehigher concentrationofOre ionsformed the more alkaline
m OM lag matraq 20H lag
to Sulphates M 504 solubility decreasesdowngroup
Mis H2504197 MSOniaastHaig
HClforms colorless solutionof metal salts α Mygasreleased
Misstading MazlaghtHzig
oxide water hydroxide

is.in 1 Tae nata

carbonate dilute sulfuricacid sulfate water carbondioxide

carbonate dilute hydrochloric acid s chloride water carbondioxi

Uses
Calcium carbonate limestone forbuildingmaterial cement etc
for extraction of iron glass industry neutralise soil Chemwaste
calciumoxide lime basic oxide used to neutralise acidicsoil α
mania used as a dryingagent for drying ammonia
info
 diatomic agent's
U
MANE
Group 7117
arusesinweku.it
Halogens jtfig
as fame retardanta fireextinguishers
Éalitydecreases
electronegativity
MPIGases
Flourine Fa pale yellow gas
Chlorine U2 yellow green gas
Bromine Bra red brown liquid
Iodine 12 grey blue solid
Astatine black solid
Theyare oxidisingagents and the oxidisingabilitydecreasesdowngrp

Regfft Haig 2k4g

HF reacts explosivelyin all conditions
HCl reacts explosively in sunlight
H Br reacts slowly on heating
HI forms an equilibriummixture on heating
hydrogenhalides
thermal stabilityof halogenhydridesdecreasesdownthe grip
to size ofhalogen atom increases
nuclear attraction decreases
the H Xbond becomeslongerand weaker
lessenergyneeded to breakthebond

halogens are oxidisingagents and takeplace in displacementreactions

but they become lessreactivedownthe appthe becomelessoxidising
KU Kbr K1
colourless
92 noreaction Braformed 12formed
orange Br noreaction Is formed

broon I noreaction

sub halide ions act as reducingagents

fga.fiqiofffaq99fiheg p reducingpowerincreases
Nitrate diluteeagsammonia comeaq ammonia solubility
g gyves
whiteppt ppt dissolves
defeases
79yetinIF I pipefissolves
mania
info formscomplexionAgxis 20H caq AgNM3 2 Tag X
called 1
diamine silver ion
 U
MANE
withsulphuricacid concentrated producestoxic
gases
Nax Has
0H Nah
hydrogenhalide
2HX HSSON X2 502 2H20
A NaCl Myson HCl Nates0 white fume
or
858 38'21.8.1 mail.info
I NAI H2SON HIT NateSO4 Than owngas

witethodegapour
T I 58854 8 1228
smellofbadeggs
Chlorine NaOH
disproportionation both reducedaoxidisedsimultaneouslyproducing 2
diff products
Uat 2NaOH Nacl
Nayo H2O
to sodium chlorate i sulation
aka bleach

ACID BASES pH
an acid is
a substance that neutralises a baseforming a salt a water
HAcaqs Brag I BH A_
acids are also substances that releaseshydrogen ions when
theydissolve
in water Mcligi Htag Cl cags
monoproticinorganicacids such as HCl fullydissociate into their ions
organic acids such as carboxylicacids do notfullydissociate
Brousted Lowryacids are protondonorsYou never getHtions themselves
combined
in waterthey're always
by
with H2O toformhydroxiumions430
HAlag H2Oin Hotrag A lags
Brousted howrybaces are protonhydrogenacceptordstheytake it from
watermolecules Brags Moon Bretags ONTags
mania
a basethat'ssoluble in water is calledan alkali
info
Adage Nottool note kt tote NH NMat OH
 speciesthat act as both as acidsand bases are called amphoteric

U
MANE
acid a basedissociation
strongacids
an acid that dissociatesalmostcompletely inaqueoussolution
the equilibrium is so
a reversiblereaction
far to the right so it can be representedas
A not A
thesolutionformed is highlyacidic due to the concof H 1H30
sincepHdepends on the concentration of H high
Motions thepH
the
can be calculated if conc
of the strong acid is known Mtag
pH log retlags
someacids are bothstrongor weak
weak acids
partiallydissociates most organic acids
theequilibriumpost theleftand an equilibrium establish
ofisfff.to
solution is less acidicdue to the lower conc of Mt1H30 ions
finding the pH is a bit more complicated as now the conc of Ht is
notequal to the conc ofacid
use ha to find Ht
to
strongbases
dissociates completely in aqueous solutions grp1 a Na hydroxide
the equilibrium is so to the right so it can be representedas
a reversiblereaction far
tips OH Bt
high conc of Ofl means the solution is highlybasic

weak bases
partiallydissociates NHz amines α somehydroxidesoftransitionmetals
and an equilibrium establishes
the equilibriumposition f
fee theleft
lessbasic due to lower conc of on ions

hydrochloricacid makes a chloride salt

nitric acid makes nitrate salt
sulfuric acid makes a sulfate salt
ethanoicacid makes ethanoate

metal acid Fake waffle

extent of reaction depends on the reactivityof the metal astrengthofaci
mania
info
Faster reaction seen as
ma's effervescence ma's color
 fast

U
MANE
water
waterdissociates into net MsOt and Ott ions
420us Mags ONtag
theequilibriumconstant is
he
water dissociates a small amount so the equilibriumfavorsthe left
only
there's so much water compared to the amount Mt a one that the conc
of
ofwateris said to have a constantvalue
constantofwater H2O equilibrium constant he gives
KC 1H20 Nt OH theionicproductofwater hw
KW Nt OH
He H2O 1 1014mordm3 at 298k 25 C
water at 298k hasequalparts OF α Ht with 1 10 moldm3 respectfully
betα OH_are 1 I ret OH so it can bewritten as kw Mt

acidshavemais tt so At is always 1 10i'moldm 3

bases have lessMt so At is always 1 107m oldm3

to strong weakacids can be distinguishedfromeachotherbytheir

value
pH
electricalconductivity i maisMt strongacids conductbetter
reactivity
greaterconcentrationofbetmeansmoreHeproduced

if the pH ofasolution proofed and the Ht is asked

for

ha aciddissociationconstantforweakacids HIT
tofinite

EfÉEIfÉÉÉ or
pre logical
Titrations
methylatorange phenolphthalein
red lowpH colourless at lowpH
startstochange a 3.1 4.4 8.3 10
yellowat highpH pink at highpH

mania
info
 U
MANE Organic Chem
the study hydrocarbons α their derivatives
of
C is tetravalent
C C bonds can be singledouble ortriple
functional group is an atom or group ofatoms in an organicmolecule
that determinethe characteristicreactions of a homologous series
a series of compounds
of similar structures
Formulas
molecular gives the actual number of atomsof eachelement06th
structural showstheatoms carbon carbon CHSCMCHZCHCM.CH
by

yqyyfyfyyfyfyyff
yyyyufggggg.ggzigzagging
eachmemberhas the same functionalgroup
to each member has the same generalformula
each has similar chemicalproperties
each successive member differs by Chi
member have gradually
changingphysicalpropertiesieb.p.imp
skeletal simplifieddisplay with all the C H bondsremoved I

63LCM OR Cth 2CHCHION CHCHOCH2CHz

More Non non
general an algebraic formula than can describe member
compounds these are CHany of a
family of homologous 2

Nomenclature
C
of format
CHA
damone isthankey
methane meth
2 C2H6 ethane eth
Calls propane prop
5
Catlio butane but
mania 5H12 pentane pent
info 66His hexane hex
G heptane kept
 9 Catla
10 Cloths decane dec

U
MANE
there are sidechainsfunctionalgapspresentthenthe position
if
is indicated any the C atoms in the longest chain
by numbering
with the end that the lowest possiblenumbers inthename
starting gives
the hydrocarbon side chain is shown in brackets in the structuralf
CHzCM CH3 Creates
the side chain is named by adding 1 yl to the normal alkanestem
this type of is an alkylapp
gyp galley
d 3 methyl butane
g g 2
methybbutan .li
there are more than one ofthe same alkylsidechain functionalapp
if
di tri or tetra is addedto thefront of name
adjacent numbers have a them
comma between
numbers are separatedfromwords
by a hyphen

to d 2,3 dimethyl pentane

g
if there's more than
alphabeticalorder of alkyl side chain they'relisted in
one type

ere are 2 882 cats

4 ethyl 2 methylhexane eye

Functional Grps
Functional nomenclature Example Name Formula
Alkane grp are Cutlanta
aka hydrocarbons propane
saturated
Alkene ene ethene Cntean
hydrocarbon
doublebond
fairlyreactive
Halogen alkane halo are Cl chloroethane
chlorine flourine
mania iodine bromine
info Alcohols ol one ethanol CutlanteOH
can bereacted
intoalkene viceversa
 al E ethanol
Aldehyde
p.ge
offsite
U
MANE in one end isdouble

one propanone
cnn.no
R CO R antlano
Tesfaye
0 0 but not at
office Ra R'arealkylapps
that or not
ends may
bethe same may
CarboxylicAcid
288 46 c one
oic acid
µ f one methanoie R coom
Curant COOH
Ester alkyl oate c R 0002
carboxylicacid
c natatate
in thepresenceof

Amine alkyl amine NH ethylamine R NHL

one or more
of the
hydrogens inammonia
isreplaced with an
or aromaticgrip
alkyl
Nitrile nitrile
CNgroup M CIN ethanentile R CEN
to CEN held by
triple bond
Hydroognitrile hydroxymane HEFLIN 2 hydroxyethanenitrile
Yokoone
Eg
G
C
9 63 2 5,5 hexene
e
yet CHz CHz 215,5 trimethylhex 2 end
2 a 2 propylpent 1
a eng

3
QI CMs propan 1 ol propanal
0 CH 3
4,7 OF
methyebffsfhhfhtendanyw tt
one off c c c butanoic
acid
mania
info 6 2 chlorobutant
CH Ha Cha Ctl
 U
MANE
Orderof priority
Halogens Alkylgrps Alkenes otherfunctionalgaps
lowest highest
Isomerism
2types Isomers structural stereoStereo has molecules same
of of
structure but different spatialarrangement in 3DspaceFurthersplit.int
geometric optical

structural same molecularformula but differentstructuralformula

Typechain isomers same functionalgaps butdifferentarrangement
same chem CHz Cola CHz Cola Chs CHz CLCHI Chez
propertiesslightly
pentage 2,2 dimethyl propane
cliffphysical Costlia
positionalisomers differentpositionof functionalgrp
to same chem Colz CH CHICHIOH CHz H2 CHLOH CHz
propertiesslightly 2 butanol
cliffphysical cutoff CateoO
i

functional differentfunctionalgaps result inthe samemolecular

formula
differentchem
physicalproperties CHz Cola Ctg CYLON Colz CMO org Chs
ETFs ethoxyethane
Cathoo

eg
Estienne 4 4 44 Ii
isomers H a I
Catacla
2 isomers Mff
f e file te te
mania
info
 U
MANE
stereoisomerism have the same atoms connectedto each other
but arranged differentlyin space
2types geometric 12 is seen in unsaturated doublebond or
ring compounds that have the same molecular formula
orderof atoms but differentshapes
2 cis have functional on the same side of the
gaps
double bond carbon
ring If cis.gr
cyclohexane

48 action god
re or
00cg
Ekg 2
re
cis 1,2 ethenediol Y Been
on an
trans have functionalapps on oppositesidesofdoublebond
Eg carbon
ring one
Egg 8 was 1,4

I
cyclohexadia

Fee or
to E trans 1,2kethenedid bad

one
OWN
Alkanes
Fractional Distillation
Crude oil but useful as it is but it can be separated
very
into fractions more usefulbits via fractionaldistillation their
boiling points
the size length of eachhydrocarbon molecule determines
whichfraction it'll be separated into C 4
refinerygases
bottled gas
40 C C 5 12
MAY
Coot 7 gasolinepetrol
fuel for cars cooking
kerosene1180C paraffin Can is
Mpfp aircraftfuel
qgfffyfzzyyyygyq.gg.gg
yggggggqa
mania
fuelforships powerstations
info motfoil residue
bitumen foods roofs waxgrease
 U
MANE
crude oil enters fractionating column and is heated so vapours rise
vapours of hydrocarbons withveryhigh b p willimmediatelycondense
into a gooey residue and are tapped at bottom
of column
off
with lower b p will rise up the column condense at diff
vapours
points and are tappedoff
hydrocarbons with lowest bp dont condenseand leave the top of
column as gases
crude oil contains small amounts ofothercompounds likesulfner
and whenburned can produce sulfurdioxide one of the causes ofacid
rain

Cracking endothermic reaction

breaking large less useful alkanes into usefulmore energy
of
value smaller products using heat α catalyst
an alkane or alkene is produced
the large hydrocarbons are fed into a steal chamber a heated
to a high temp and the passed over an aluminium oxide catalyst
the chamber is devoid of O2 to prevent combustion
2 types
of cracking andThermal requires a hightemp upto1000C
to high pressure
alkanes and lots
upto 70 atm to produ
alkenes
of
uses lower temp 450 and
Catalytic in the
aslight pressure presence of a catal
such a zeolite or aluminium oxide to make
aromatic hydrocarbons α the alkanes
needed to produce motor fuels

Combustion Alkanes
alkanes areof burnt combusted on a scale for their use in
to produce energy large
fuels
when they are burnt in excess02 completecombustion occurs α
H2O and CO2 are produced
however when there's a limited supplyof02 incomplete
combustion occurs and not all carbons are oxidisedproducing
particulat C soot carbon monoxide water
oftentakes place in car engines CO ispoisonous and binds
to the same sites on haemoglobin molecules in RBC Luckily
CO can be removedfrom exhaust gases
build up in engines limitingby
catalytic converters in cars
soot can their functionality
Nitrogenoxides NO IN 2 are toxic poisonous molecules
α
mania Further unburnt hydrocarbons can react with NOx in sunlight
to ground level ozone 03 a componentof smog
NOx can also dissolve α react in watermajor
form
info
with 02 to form nitric acid
a cause of acid rain
 5H12 802 5002 6H20 complete
3202 500 6H20 incomplete
U
MANE
chlorination of Alkanes
Free radical substitution hydrogen atom getssubstituted
halogen chlorine bromine
by a

3 steps IPT
Initiation
halogen bond brokendownby UVentitgyto form 2 freeradicals
Cl 29 in hemolyticfission
freeradicalsvery reactive electricallyneutral
Propagation progress
free radicals attack unreactive alkanes
a C H bond breakshomolytically and an
alkylfree radical
is produced
this
alkyl freeα radical can further attack a halogen to form a
halogenoalkane regenerate the halogenfree radical
the free radical can then repeat the cycle until all 012 CAN
do Cola Chest HCl moleculesare
Chest Cly CH Cl Cl usedup
if there is
enough Cl Br all halogens in alkane will ventually
to get substituted egethane Callo Cabro
reaction is not very suitable for preparing specifichalogenoalkane
as a mixture ofsubstitutionproducts are formed

Termination
no more free radicals so chain reaction stops
free radicals join up together to make a stablemolecule
Cl t.cl Cl

CFCs chlorofluorocarbons
when all the atoms of H have beenreplacedby Cl α F
although pretty unreactive nonflammable nontoxic they can
cause a lot of problems I free radical of Cl fromCFCs can destroy
loads of ozone molecules
203 302 with Cl as the catalyst

Halogenoalkanes
an alkane with atleast 1 halogen in the place a re atom
most are polarmolecules due to the halogen of
being more
mania electronegative than the C
the St C doesn't have enough electrons so it is an target
info
nucleophiles
easy
electron pair donors Nucleophiles must have lone
for
pair of electrons
 U
MANE
Nucleophilic substitution
a nucleophile attacks thepolar moleculekicks out thefunctioning
group and takes its place
Chocolat t Nu ColzCH Nu

f Ef.nu Na

Halogen alkanes hydroxides to produce alcohols

will afyhf
one
the.ae B
Bromoethane ethanol
fluoroalkanes are lesslikelyto undergo substitutionreactions because
to their bond to C is too strongThey are the least reactive halogenoalk
Halogen alkanes will react with ethanolic potassiumcyanideto
produce a nitrile CEN heated underreflux
Glycol Br KEN OH CHIN KBr
the KEYdissociates to form

f n
can
b
bromoethane propanenitrile
Halogenoalkanes willreactwith ethanolic ammonia to form an amine
warmed up under pressure Col Col Br NH Crescoe Nat HB
step 1 f 42 iq I I theI
to
nearing
or
Jarrett
Step 2 theme
mania
µre i i i of
info
D ethylamine ammonium
ion
 U
MANE
Elimination reaction
if a halogenoalkane a hydroxideions dissolved in ethanol is
warmed up an elimination reaction occurs resulting in a alkene
Col KOH
CHyCHBr CH CHCH H2O KBR
H H M
H2O

IL B

a halo alkane with water under will more often

reacting reflux
than not produce an alcohol via nucleophilic substitution
whereas reacting a holo alkane with ethanol under reflux will
predominantlyundergo an reaction with a
elemination alkene
produced
if both H2O and CH CH OH both reactions will occur and so
will a mixture the two products alkene alcohol
of

to Alkenes
IntheThsaturated hydrocarbon
C C bond is neutrophilic
that isprettyreactive
they'reattracted to lack ofelectrons
Electrophilic addition
electrophiles are electron pair acceptors so they'reattractedto areas with
a lot electrons like doublebonds

Colycbly X Y Cola CHLY

intermediate
steel does toboggan
g g
ster

hydrogenation alkene H2 produces an alkane catalyst nickel

steam alkene alcohol catalyst phosphoric acid
hydrogen halides alkene halogenoalkane
mania halogen alkene halogenalkane
info
Bra is used to test for alkenes
 U
MANE
carbocations α Markovnikov'sprinciple
markovnikov's principlestates that an electrophile adds to an
unsymmetrical alkene so that the most stable carbocation is formed
as an intermediate
carbocationsare positively charged Catoms with
bonds instead of 4
only 3 covalent
alkanes
3typesofcarbocationsPrimary secondary tertiarytheropod
secondary tertiary
primary
Rx H R H RAIER
leaststable moststable
the alkyl R groups are electiondonatinggaps that pushelectrons
away fromthemselvestowards the positivelychargedcarbonreducing
how positively charged it is As a result thecharge is spread around
to the carbocation makingit more energeticallystable lie whytertiaryis
most stable
the most stable carbocation is the major intermediate carbocation
during an electrophilicadditionreaction
Syntheticpolymere leg polyethene formed by additionalpolymerisat
n C
Q f In f n
3 ethene forms 6 c longpolyethene

Polythene HDPE clingwraphHDPE waterpipes wireinsulation

Polychloroethene PUC water pipes insulation of wires

i L FEET
polyalkenes are saturated and very unreactive and nonpolar
polychloroethenepolyvinyl chloride PVC are polar due to the presence
of Cl makingPVC more hard but brittle than flexible
addingplasticisers makes polymersmoreflexible
maniaThesecarbopolymersare non biodegradable α the burningofthem
info heavilycontributeto global warming 502 CO2 HCl fromPVCs
However
they can be recycled or if starch is added biodegradable
 U
MANE
Alcohols
general formula of CnHanteOH
There a primary secondary tertiary alcohols
Primary
the C atom bonded to the Or gap is connected to 1 other carbon
atom alkyl gripThey are given the notation 1
secondary
the atom bondedto the OH gap is benchedtwo othecarbons
alkyl grp and are given the notation 2
Tertiary
the C bonded to OH is also bonded to 3 other carbons alkyl
gaps and have the notation
3

Dehydrating an alcohol gives an akene elimination reaction

CutlanteOH ChMant H2O
this reaction allows alkenes to be producedfromrenewable
resources Glucosefromplants can be fermented to ethanol
to which can be dehydrated to ethene
eg

f f In no

ethanol
2
H2O Ht
dehydration oflonger unsymmetricalalcohols results in morethan
I product because the double bond can go on either side ofthe
C that had the ore on it
grp
Oxidation of alcohol aka hydration
an alkene forms an

Electrophilicaddition to alkenes also makes an alcohol when the

alkene reacts with steam and phosphoric IV or sulfuricacid as

catalytic
ethene It no
Heat
s re
otherand

mania
info F C C
ethene
420 10 HO Igorethane 1,2 diol
only primary secondarygetoxidised
 Nurse of Deaththwayhetby

U
MANE
Nucleophilic substitution of haloalkanes

noon bats re
H Ey Br
if of one Nabr
bromoethane ethanol
Reduction of aldehyde ketone by agents such as Nabha orLiAlH4
Aldehydes are reduced to primaryalcohols
re ft E 214 re
if if one

ethanol ethanol primaryalcohol

ketones are reduced to secondaryalcohols
I
to
re I'm

propanone
re are re In
IfEyre
propan 2 ol secondaryalcohol

Reductionofcarboxylicacids by Nabtly or LiteHa to primaryalcohols

they can also be reduced byH2using a nickelcatalystα heat
re In E 4H te one the
ethanoic acid ethanol

re In E are 44k te fi one no

Hydrolysis of ester
Esters are made a condensation reaction between an alcohol α
carboxylic acid
by
É i i one
re o n no re
EE re
I H
ethanoic acid ethanol
ethylethanoate
mania
info Hydration of ethene from crude oil is fasterthan fermentation but
oil is finite resource may producepureethanol comparison
a It is
and have lowerlabourcosts but a lot more expensiveequipment is
 ed

U
MANE
Biofuel
fuelmadefrombiologicalmaterial
a that'srecentlydied
sugarcane can be fermented produce alcohol
to
eg sugarsfrom
which can be addedtopetrol
Advantages a lot more sustainable
most are carbon neutral
Disadvantagesfood vs
fuel land used to growcropsforfuel
that landcan't be used to growfood
deforestation whichdestroys habitats and removes
trees that can reduce CO2 production
fertilisers can pollutewaterways and somerelease
qq.qqyyygqgmegg.ae geman man

hatethe machinery atransport still releases moreCO2

smaller alcohols mixcompletelywith water sincestronghydrogen

to bonds occur betweenalcohols α water
as hydrocarbon nature increase the non polarcharacteroutweigh
the ability of the Oreto formhydrogenbonds and solubilitydecreases
small alcohols egethanol are good solvents for bothpolar a non polar
compounds as they havepolar and non polar components
Oxidising Alcohols
the simpliest way is to burn the alcohol but the better
way
is to use the oxidising agent acidified potassium dichromate VI
KyCr207 to mildlyoxidise 1 2 alcohols
1 is oxidised to an
aldehyde then furtheroxidised to a carboxyl
Affis oxidised to a ketoneonly
the primaryalcohol is added to the oxidisingagent whichgets
reduced and warmed
Because thealdehyde has a lower boilingpoint than the alcohol
so it can be distilled as soon as it
forms
offdistilled
the aldehyde is not
If off would react with the
it
excessoxidisingagent to form a carboxylic acid
0
cidified
mania
726207
info
re In on re E re
for
minor
ethanol ethanate ethanoicacid
Feedal
U
TIE to mtg it 420
MANE HHH propanone ketone
propan 2 ol

426207 is orange and is reduced to green G ᵗ ions

K mnOn is purple and is reduced to colourless motions

Testingforaldehydes ketones
Fehling's solution clear blue
an alkaline solution
containgcopper II ions whichact as oxidising
agent is warmed up with a supposed aldehyde
is it is oxidised into a α the offanaldehyde
reduced
present carboxylicacid
to cut The clear blue colour turns opaquered due to theformation
of copper I oxide ppt
ketones cannot be oxidised and will produce a negativeresult
Tollen's reagent aka ammoniacal silver nitrate solution
an
aq alkaline solution of silver nitrate in excess ammonia solution
when warmed with an aldehyde thealdehyde is oxidised to a
carboxylic acid andthe Agtions are reduced to Agatoms TheAg
to atoms
form a silver mirror on the inside thetube
ketones cannot be oxidised and will
of a result
produce negative

Testingfor carboxylicacids
add small sodium carbonate If the solutionbegins to fizz bubble
the gas through some lime water If it turns cloudy an acid is
present

99m.EEEast
st 5

nucleophilicsubstitution

nucleophilic
Oxidation addition

Oxidation
mania
info
 U
MANE
Nitriles Hydroxyritiles
Nitriles are compounds with a CN functionalgroup
can be produced from nucleophilic substitution of haloalkanes

H d d C'IN the C bonded to the N is always C 1

proplanehitrile

halogenreacts with nucleophile K CN in ethanolheated under

reflux to produce a nitrile

a In
CN Br

bromoethane propanentile

hydroxynitriles are compounds with both a hydroxyCones a cyanide

C CN functionalapp
can be produced fromnucleophilic addition of aldehydes ketones
to H C E CEN
H
2 hydroxy propanentile
Ketone or aldehyde react with recN and the hydroxynitrile is
produced in 2 steps
stept Nucleophilic attack
re I Si805 re often
M Yin reactive intermediate
ethanol
step Protonation

m i heE.INT fnatisre
if
i c n

2 hydroxypropanenittle

a dilute acid or dilute alkali followed

Nitriles are hydrolysed
acidification to by
produce a carboxylicacid and ammonium salt
by
acids or a sodium carboxylate salt land ammonia Acidification for is
mania
info required to change the carboxylate ion into a carboxylic acid
 re CEN HU 2H20 he NHace
fishing
U
ambition
MANE propanenitrile
NaOH 40
H 0 NH
no ammonia
sodimmopanoate

facidification

Amines α Amides
amines are compounds with the amine 1 NHz functionalapp
they can be produced when a holoalkane is heatedunder pressure
with ethanolic ammonia NM in ethanol in a nucleophilicsubstitut
reaction a mix
ofanprimary secondary tertiarybe
orquatinery

written
ma
re t a nytimes.int
to bromoethane
ethylamine

amides are derivatives carboxylicacids that contain the functional

of
group CONHI
0 carbonylapp
R c
n Nra gp
I
CarboxylicAcids α Esters
compounds with a COOH functional grp
can be produced oxidation of alcohols aldehydes
C CEsters
by
are formed from the condensationreactionbetween an alcohol
α a carboxylic acid with concentrated Mason as a
catalyshification
t
430 tweeps use Method
men
ethyl ethanoate ethanoic acid ethanol

mania
info
Mgc E men
Naoh wants
a c on
as eeranate man a not
hydrolysed 88th
 gq igggggaa
ae
U
MANE

p
1 look at the
alkyl app from the alcohol forthe firstpart ofthe
flock at the carboxylic acid
2 and swapthe oic acid with date
for the second part of the name

n
CI I I methyl ethanoate
i

i i to i i
ethanoic propylethanoate
acid

to Fats α oils
are esters of glycerol acids
fatty carboxylic acids
the
fattyacids can be saturated orlong
unsaturated

fats are mainlysaturated hydrocarbonchains fittingneatelytogether

increasing the van der Waals forces meaning that highertemps are
needed to meet them and they are solid at rtp

oils unsaturated hydrocarbons so they

are are
easyto melt and
are liquid at rtp

Acyl Chlorides the functional

acylacid chlorideishave
onHan grp
cool and their
general formula Ich
all their names end with
oyl chloride
withofater chlorides react vigorouslyto produce a carboxajid
acyl
H I H2o H one feel
ethanoyl ethanage
chloride
mania
info with alcohols at room temp
they react vigorouslytoproduce
an ester
M O cry the
 C C s
thanoyl methanol methylethanoate
chloride andfaster easierwaytoproduce
irreversible
U an ester than via esterification
MANE

with ammonia at v t p they react vigorouslyto produce a amide

H I NHz H NH recl

ethanogl ethanamide
chloride
with primary amines at rtp they react vigorously producing
an N substituted amide

H I Creatures re ÉN oh the

ethanoyl methylamine N methylethanamide

chloride
All reactions
for acyl chlorides are nucleophilic
substitutthation

to Acid Anhydride
made from 2 identical carboxylic acid molecules via a
condensation reaction

reso
R
E R_C ether minus the doublebonds
CHS one
acid anhydride
Lethamoics
Nucleophilicaddition elimination
they react with water in a hydrolysis reaction to produce a
carboxylicacid
they react with alcohols to give an ester and carboxylicacid

they react with ammonia to give an amide a carboxylicacid

they react with amines to give an N substitude amide

much like an acige chloride
mania
info Aspirin is an esther and is produced by reacting salicylicacid
with either an acyl chloride or an acid anhydride
0H
 n't
Ches
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Cres c ago
MANE salicylicacid ethanogande aspirin ethaggie

ethanoicanhydride is cheaper than ethanolchloride and alsolesscorosive

Sulfur
Disulfide bonding S S occurs residuesof cysteine an aminoacid
whichis part of a protein aka a residue Cysteine contains a thiol
which can loseits H atom and then join toformthe
group SH bond
disulfide

sites
ii
to s

disulfide bond
thioester
esters midhfqmthaecaseifi.EE'endentaltaught b Maid
sulfur
anhydrid and a thiol in a dehydration
reaction
H s re common intermediates in biochem
they are
H re eg acetyl CoA etc
methyl

Ether
R O R
compound that has an oxygen bonded to two
a
alkyelarge
groups
similar to esters in that theyjoin
O to function but
organyl groups
mania
info
y
I
Y y
ethers don't join
6 0
groups
any carbonyl
 U
MANE more on esters
phosphodiester bonds in nucleotides making
the spine backbone in a condensation
sugerbase reaction

get F is
PT sterband
sugerbase

pfo
ester bond

to

mania
info