Chap5 Eng Force

Chapter 5
Force and Motion Measurement
Nguyen Viet Dung

Department of Electronic Technology and Biomedical Engineering, Hanoi University of Science and Tech
5.1. OBJECTS OF MEASUREMENT
5.2. MOTION MEASUREMENTS
5.3. FORCE MEASUREMENTS
Sensors and Measurements in Biomedicine Chapter 5: 2/

5.1. OBJECTS OF MEASUREMENT
5.1.1. Units of Quantities

- The fundamental motion quantities are time and length that have SI
unit are second (s) and meter (m)
- SI units of velocity and acceleration: m/s and m/s2
- SI units of angle, angular velocity, and angular acceleration: radian
(rad), rad/s, and (rad/s2), respectively
- SI unit of force: newton (N) = kg. m/s2
- The force acting on a mass under gravity is the weight but the gravity
field is not uniform → weight of a unit mass is convenient → kilogram
force (kgf)
1kgf = 9.806 (N)
- Units of momentum and torque (moment of force): kg.m/s and N.m
Units of angular momentum and moment of inertia: kg.m2/s, kgm2
- Unit of work: joule (J) = N.m
Unit of power: watt (W) = J/s
5.1.2. Objects of Measurement
- Objects of measurement
+ Body motions generated by muscular activities (main concern)
+ Passive motions due to externally applied forces
- Three types of muscle: skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth
muscle having different characteristics of mechanical activities
- The body motion generated by muscles depends

+ Characteristics of the muscle as an actuator
+ Mechanical characteristics of the body as the load to the actuator
A large muscle can generate a large tension can’t contract very quickly
as the mechanical load is large
5.1.3. Coordinate System
- To be selected to describe the body motion

- Adequate choice → simplify the theory and data analysis
- Coordinate system: where the observer stand on. Static or moving
- Moving coordinate system: to observe a specific part of the body
relative to the resting part
If the body motion is not linear and/or the velocity is not constant →
inertial forces may appear
where: A0 is acceleration and ω is angular velocity of origin of the

moving coordinate, and r’ and u’ are position, velocity of a mass m
relative to the moving coordinate
+ 4 components: linear inertial force, the Coriolis force, the centrifugal
force, and the apparent force due to the angular acceleration
- Difficult to select reference points for the coordinate system
5.2. MOTION MEASUREMENTS
- Velocity and acceleration of linear motion can be calculated by first

and second order derivatives of the displacement
- Direct measurements of velocity and acceleration, in many situations,
are much easier and more convenient than to compute derivatives of
displacement data
5.2.1. Displacement and Rotation Contact Measurements
5.2.2. Noncontact Measurements of Displacement and Rotation
5.2.3. Linear and Angular Velocity Measurements
5.2.4. Translational and Angular Acceleration Measurements

5.2.1. Displacement and Rotation Contact Measurements
5.2.1.1. Displacement and rotation measurements of the body and an

extracted tissue
- Using various types of sensors: such as resistive potentiometers,
photoencoders, capacitive and magnetic sensors
Translational potentiometer Rotational potentiometer

Resolution: 0.1 mm Resolution: 0.01%
Nonlinearity: 0,1% Nonlinearity: 0.1%
Friction:10gf Torque: 3 gcm

➢ Translational potentiometer
- Stroke length: 60 mm
- For recording the displacement of the
chest and abdominal walls, and other
body parts of laboratory animals
- The weight of the slider system: ~ 1 g
- Force to overcome the friction: 20 -50
gf
- Resolution: ~ 0.1 mm
A sensor for measuring tissue

displacement under blast experiment

➢ Rotational potentiometer
- Used to measure
rotational motions
Goniometer: an instrument
attached to the body and
measures angular
displacements of a joint
- Friction may cause errors

when the force is small
→ using optical, capacitive,
or inductive sensors
Electrogoniometer systems: (a) A goniometer consists of a rotational

potentiometer (b) A flexible goniometer consists of conductive rubber

➢ Photopotentiometer
- A strip of photoconductive material placed between a resistor and
conductor elements
- Apply a constant.current to the resistor element
When a light spot falls on the photoconductive strip → potential output
proportional to distance between the light spot and the end of the
resistor
Photopotentiometers: (a) consisted of a conductor and a resistance element (b) consisted of a

thin layer of n-type silicon formed on a p-type silicon substrate
- To determine light spot location: 1D image sensor
MOS type CCD type
Each photodiode is connected to Outputs of all photodiodes are
the output port through a transferred simultaneously to the
switching transistor driven CCD which then transfers the
sequentially by a scanner outputs sequentially to the
common output port
Image sensors to determine location of light spot

- The photoencoder: a translational or rotational sensor in which the
displacement is converted into a pulse sequence, or a series of coded
signals, by interrupting light beams at a plate with a slit pattern
Rotary encoder

- Capacitive displacement sensor:
primarily used in industry
Measurement range: 250 mm, độ
phân giải 0,5 m. Capacitive sensor for large displacement
- Differential transformer: a core attached to the moving element and

primary and secondary coils
Higher linearity
Higher sensitivity
Inertia of the moving
element is increased
by the attached core
Differential transformer

A variable
inductance/reluctance pick up
A variable reluctance pickup for isotonic

muscle contraction measurements

- Hall effect displacement sensors:
+ Bladder motility detection
+ Apex cardiography
+ Mandibular position
measurement
+ Diaphragmatic motion
detection
Different configurations of
Hall-effect displacement sensors

Magnetic scale
- The magnetic scale: a magnetic head detects the magnetization

pattern on the moving element
Typical resolution: 0.2 mm
Measurement range: 0.2 - 3 m

- Clinometer (độ nghiêng kế) or inclinometer (góc nghiêng): instrument
of measure inclination
Simple clinometers:
+ Potentiometers with a pendulum,
+ The swing of the pendulum has to be damped when measuring an
angle by attaching it to a moving body
+ Using silicon oil of suitable viscosity, appropriate damping can be
obtained
→ responds to frequencies below a few Hz in order to reduce
extraneous oscillation
- Possible to measure displacement of liquid surface
Ex: AccuStar clinometer have range 600; resolution 0.0010;
repeatability 0.050; time constant 0.3 s

Cap
Displacement of the Upper electrode Air buble Upper electrode
electrolyte is detected by
change of impedance
between two electrodes
Electrolyte Common
Glass cover
Different characteristic electrode
curves for different designs
Output Inclination
Simple clinometer

5.2.1.2. Displacement measurements in vivo
- Organs and tissue deformation can be
observed only in the physiological
environment → in vivo measurement
- Commercial sensors are hardly applicable
→ laboratory-made sensors
- A strain-gauge sensing element is attached

to a c-shaped, highly compliant beam
Two prongs are inserted into the
ventricular wall
Weighed: ~ 25 g
Frequency response: up to 30 Hz
Maximum load on the ventricular muscle: < A displacement sensor for
myocardial contraction study
10 gf
➢ Sonomircometer (trắc vi kế
siêu âm)
- To measure ventricular diameter
- The distance between two
crystals can be estimated by the
transit time of the ultrasonic pulse
Sonomicrometer and
sensor arrangement
Error < 2% when placing crystals 50 mm apart in water

Accuracy 0.15mm with 10 MHz clock for time measurement and 0.03
mm with 50 MHz clock for time measurement
In a chronic experiment: operation > 5 months

➢ Pulse-echo technique
- To track displacement of surfaces that reflect ultrasound
An ultrasound crystal is placed at chest wall
The motion of the reflecting surface (cardiac valves) can be traced by
the change in transit time
Display in M-mode
Observing motion of the mitral valve using M-mode display

- Use phase-locked echo tracking system to improve axial resolution
for a small displacement detection
Vascular diameter changes as small as 2 μm could be resolved using 7.8
MHz pulses
- However, absolute accuracy of vascular diameter measurement is
limited by the wavelength of the ultrasound

5.2.2. Noncontact Displacement and Rotational Angle
Measurements
5.2.2.1. Optical methods

- Motion picture and other photographic methods have been widely
used to investigate body motion
➢ Gait analysis system
- Illuminate, near-
infrared light passive
retro-reflecting markers
attached to some specific
parts of the body
- The subject’s gait
motion is observed by a
video camera and
tracking algorithm
- Error: < 0.1 %
Gait analysis system

- Three-dimensional analysis can be performed using two or three
cameras, or a depth camera
- Light emitting diodes (LEDs) can be used as the markers
https://www.youtube.com/wat
ch?v=sA3Kkq9kEiM
Tracked gait

➢The position of a light spot in 2D space can be directly determined
by 2D position-sensitive detector
Working principle similar to that of photopotentiometer
2D position-sensitive detector’s configurations
Tetralateral position-sensitive detector (left): less dark current

Duolateral position-sensitive detector (right): small image distortion

➢The 3D position of a light marker in can be determined by using
three 1D position sensors
Sensors are placed at the focal plane of the cylindrical lens
Sensor axis is orthogonal to the nodal axis of the lens
The target light spot and the nodal axis of the len → a plane
Position of the target: intercept of these three planes
A measurement method of the position of a light

marker using three 1D position sensors

➢ Polarizing filter to determine rotational angle noncontactly
- The transmitted light intensity depends on the angle between the
planes of polarization of two filters
- Higher resolution and accuracy are achieved using rotating polarizers
The intensity of a light
beam passed through
polarizers varies
sinusoidally
The phase angle of the
sinusoidal intensity
variation changes
when the polarization
orientation of the
stationary polarizer is Determining rotational angle of joint using rotating
and stationary polarizers
changed
5.2.2.2. Magnetic methods
- Determine magnetic field distribution → determine location of
magnetic pole attached to subject by coils, Hall-effect sensor or
magnetometer
Simple magnetometers are used for monitoring chest wall or abdomen
movements
Displace measurements using inhomogeneous magnetic fields

➢A three-axis magnetic dipole source and a three-axis magnetic sensor
to measure the relative position and orientation in 3D space
The source and sensor consist

of three orthogonally arranged
coils wound around a ferrite
core
Three source coils are excited
sequentially
Applications: track the

wearer’s line-of-sight; wrist
motion analysis and lumbar
spine mobility measurement Determination of relative position and
orientation in 3D space

5.2.3. Linear and Angular Velocity Measurements
5.2.3.1. Electromagnetic velocity sensor

- Based on electromagnetic induction effect
Magnet moves within a solenoid coil Moving coil is placed in stationary

magnetic field

➢ Tachometer: vận tốc góc kế
An angular velocity sensor which generates an electromotive force
roughly proportional to the rotational speed
Rotor Rotor Rotor
Stator
Stator
Stator
D.c tachometer A.c tachometer Drag-cup tachometer

Magnet: stator Magnet: rotor 2 stators: coils
Rotor: cup-shaped
Angular velocity sensors

- Tachometer can be used to measure translational motion if combined
with pulley
A measurement system for level walking using a tachometer

5.2.3.2. Doppler methods
- Detecting motions such as the fetal heart beat and breathing
- Perform fetal measurements through the thick abdominal and uterine
wall → use relatively low ultrasound frequency as the absorption
coefficient is almost proportional to the frequency
Ultrasound frequency < 2 MHz → Doppler shift for a 3 cm/s motion is
about 80 Hz
- If many moving objects exist in the measurement space → use the
pulsed Doppler measurement
(see section “Range discrimination” in Chapter 4)

5.2.3.3. Angular velocity sensors
- Angular velocity can be measured by gyroscope (con quay chuyển
hồi)
- Can also be detected directly using tuning fork (âm thoa)
Four piezoelectric
elements (bimorphs)
Two for driving and two
for sensing
Through electric excitation
→ driving element bends
→ sensing element swings
due to Coriolis force
An angular velocity sensor: the tuning fork

5.2.4. Translational and Angular Acceleration Measurements
5.2.4.1. Translational accelerometer

- Most accelerometers having a sensitivity in the acceleration range of
body motion are of the beamtype
Accelerate the seismic mass, the beam bends elastically in proportion to
the acceleration force
- Need to avoid resonant oscillation of the seismic mass → adequate
damping coefficient
Can use diaphragm, spring,

or any other elastic material
instead of the beam
Single-axis and tri-axis accelerometers

- The seismic displacement can be detected by piezoresistive,
piezoelectric, or capacitive principle…
Strain-gauge type: widely used
Piezoelectric type: used when ac component is needed
Charge amplifier
Output proportional to charge
High time constant by using high quality capacitor
The sensitivity is not affected by the stray capacitance of connection
cable and of the piezoelectric element
Working range: 0.1 g
Seismic mass: 14.7 mg
Capacitive accelerometer by silicon
Electrode distance: 7 m fabrication technology
Dimension: 8.3 x 5.9 x 1.9 mm
Tần số cộng hưởng 126 Hz.

➢ Using electrostatic servo control
- Produce electrostatic force to balance force of mass by acceleration
→ mass at equilibrium point
→ avoid nonlinearity and fracture
Servo-control accelerometer

IMU (Inertial Motion Unit)
- Accelerator
- Gyroscope
- Magnetometer
Manufactures
- Invensense-TDK, Bosch, ST, Microchip…
Application: Body motion tracking

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KqKa2Gc7lh8

5.2.4.2. Angular accelerometers
- Measuring a torque appearing on a body having a moment of inertia
around the axis of rotation
If the axis of rotation is fixed →the angular acceleration is T/I
where: T is the torque
I is the moment of inertia
(a) The momentum appeared.

at a rigid body supported
by a shaft is measured by
the displacement of the spring
(b) A liquid is used instead of a
rigid body, and the flow generated
by angular acceleration is detected
by the force exerted on a paddle
Angular accelerometers

5.3. FORCE MEASUREMENTS
5.3.1. Muscle Contraction Measurements

5.3.2. Ground Force Measurements

5.3.1. Muscle Contraction Measurements
- The contractile force of the isolated muscle is measured in

physiological studies of the muscles
One end of the muscle is connected to a force sensor, and the other end
is fixed
- In isometric contraction studies, the muscle length is kept constant
→ the displacement of the moving part of the force sensor should be
kept to a minimum
→ beam-type sensor is commonly used in such cases
Force is converted into a small displacement of the beam.
The sensitivity and the displacement of the sensor depend on the
beam’s design

5.3.1.1. Design elastic beams
- Commonly use cantilever beams
- The sensitivity is largely affected by the geometry
→ an accurate design is required to realize the desired sensitivity
- The displacement δ at the end of the beam

 = 4L3 F Edh 3
 = 64L3 F 3Ed 4
 = 4L3 F 3Ed 3 t
where:
E is Young’s module
Cantilever beams for muscle contraction measurements

5.3.1.2. Force measuremens in isolated muscles
- As it is difficult to prepare a large muscle specimen
→ small isolated muscle strips of only a few mm
→ force sensor should be sensitive, low compliant, low drift, fast
response
➢ Hamrell’s force sensor
- Cantilever-type, capacitive detection
Force: > 10-2 N →
Displacement: < 0,25 mm
Resonant frequency: 600 Hz
S/N: 100
A cantilever-type force sensor

with capacitive detection

➢ Optical method to detect small displacement of cantilever or spring
- One end of muscle specimen is held by a forceps, the other end is
held by a tube with a clamp coupled to a pair of phosphor bronze leaf
springs
The tube carries a vane which blocks the light beam partially
Range: 5x10-6 to
9x10-3 N
Compliance:18
mm/N
Time constant: 0.02 s
An isometric force recording system

➢ Using grating
- Parallelly arranged gratings with equally spaced alternating clear
and opaque bands
- Two beams for differential
operation so as to compensate
the fluctuation of the light
source
250 lines/inch gratings

Force range:10-7 – 2×10-5 N
Compliance: 160 mm/N
Resonant frequency: 105 Hz
Detection of small forces using light
beams and gratings

5.3.3. Ground Force Measurements
- A human body standing on the ground exerts a gravitational force on

the ground.
The reaction force is exerted from the ground on the body (ground
force) that varies in its strength and direction
- The ground force measurements have been performed clinically
+ In the gait analysis
+ In stabilometry (phép đo độ ổn định)
+ In evaluation of athletic capacity in sports medicine
- Can be measured either by sensors placed on the ground or attached
to the foot

5.3.3.1. Force plates
- Force plate or force platform:
The instrument installed on the
ground to measure the ground
force
Measure one vertical and two
horizontal (shear) components
→ strength, direction, point of
application, and torque of the ground
force
4 4 4
Fx =  Fx i ; Fy =  Fy i ; Fz =  Fz i
i =1 i =1 i =1 Force plate
−  Fz i .x i −  Fz i .y i 4 − 4 −
Mz =  Fy i (x i − x) −  Fx i (y i − y)
i =1 Fx i =1 Fy
x= + z; y= + z
Fz Fz Fz Fz i =1 i =1

The platform is supported by four
metal pipe pylons
Strain gauges are attached on the
pylons
→ compression, bend, and twist of
the pylon can be detected
Strain-gauge force plate

➢ Piezoelectric type force sensor by Kistler Instrument®
Three quartz disks sandwiched between the steel bases
Outputs corresponding to the three orthogonal components of the
applied force
Time constant: 1000 s

Horizontal sensitivity: 5 mN
Vertical sensitivity: 10 mN
Range: -10  10 kN
Resonant frequency: 800 Hz.
Piezoelectric force sensor

5.3.3.2. Stabilometer
- Stabilometer: force place designed for examination of stability of the
posture
b(F3 − F2 ) aF1 − c(F3 + F2 )
x= ; y=
F F
https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=k87V2uzWVP8
Stabilometer

5.3.3.3. Instrumented shoe
- Instrumented shoe: measure ground force
exerted on the foot
- Can be performed for as many steps as in
natural locomotion without any estriction
Two load cells attached at the toe and heel

Each load cell consists of an end support
spring element on which strain gauges are
mounted
Provides outputs corresponding to the
anterior–posterior and medial–lateral
shears, axial compression, and torque.
Instrumented shoe

➢ Capacitive sensor
- A foam rubber sheet is sandwiched between two copper sheets
- Capacitance between the copper sheets varies when the rubber sheet
is compressed
Error:  10%
https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=9RNYH1Dnaco
A capacitive sensor for a simple instrumented shoe

5.3.3.4. Foot force distribution measurements
- The distribution of the ground force exerted on the sole (lòng bàn
chân), has been measured for investigating the function of the foot
relating to the postural control of the body
➢ Kinetograph (Kỹ thuật chuyển động đồ)
- A corrugated rubber mat and inked fabric → difference in pressure is
recognized as different density
- Quantitative force distribution can be estimated from the obtained
footprint by using the calibrated pressure-sensitive sheet
➢ Barograph (Quan sát trực tiếp dùng khí áp kế)
- A black rubber mat having many small protrusions of pyramidal
contours
- The footprint appears as a matrix of black dots

✓ Photo-elastic sheet
- The applied load is
discretized by many
hemispherical solids
- Diameter of appeared
circular interference pattern
is a function of the force
exerted by the solid on the
layer
- Process by computer →
quasi 3D plots of the ground
force distribution
✓ Matrix force plate consisting of many cells
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R_WTQ89Lbjs

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Chapter 5

Force and Motion Measurement

Nguyen Viet Dung

Sensors and Measurements in Biomedicine Chapter 5: 2/

5.1.1. Units of Quantities

- The body motion generated by muscles depends

- To be selected to describe the body motion

where: A0 is acceleration and ω is angular velocity of origin of the

- Velocity and acceleration of linear motion can be calculated by first

Sensors and Measurements in Biomedicine Chapter 5: 7/

5.2.1.1. Displacement and rotation measurements of the body and an

Translational potentiometer Rotational potentiometer

Sensors and Measurements in Biomedicine Chapter 5: 8/

A sensor for measuring tissue

Sensors and Measurements in Biomedicine Chapter 5: 9/

- Friction may cause errors

Electrogoniometer systems: (a) A goniometer consists of a rotational

Sensors and Measurements in Biomedicine Chapter 5: 10/

Photopotentiometers: (a) consisted of a conductor and a resistance element (b) consisted of a

Image sensors to determine location of light spot

Sensors and Measurements in Biomedicine Chapter 5: 12/

Sensors and Measurements in Biomedicine Chapter 5: 13/

- Differential transformer: a core attached to the moving element and

Sensors and Measurements in Biomedicine Chapter 5: 14/

A variable reluctance pickup for isotonic

Sensors and Measurements in Biomedicine Chapter 5: 15/

Sensors and Measurements in Biomedicine Chapter 5: 16/

- The magnetic scale: a magnetic head detects the magnetization

Sensors and Measurements in Biomedicine Chapter 5: 17/

Sensors and Measurements in Biomedicine Chapter 5: 18/

Sensors and Measurements in Biomedicine Chapter 5: 19/

- A strain-gauge sensing element is attached

Error < 2% when placing crystals 50 mm apart in water

Sensors and Measurements in Biomedicine Chapter 5: 21/

Observing motion of the mitral valve using M-mode display

Sensors and Measurements in Biomedicine Chapter 5: 22/

Sensors and Measurements in Biomedicine Chapter 5: 23/

5.2.2.1. Optical methods

Sensors and Measurements in Biomedicine Chapter 5: 24/

Sensors and Measurements in Biomedicine Chapter 5: 25/

2D position-sensitive detector’s configurations

Tetralateral position-sensitive detector (left): less dark current

Sensors and Measurements in Biomedicine Chapter 5: 26/

A measurement method of the position of a light

Sensors and Measurements in Biomedicine Chapter 5: 27/

Displace measurements using inhomogeneous magnetic fields

Sensors and Measurements in Biomedicine Chapter 5: 29/

The source and sensor consist

Applications: track the

Sensors and Measurements in Biomedicine Chapter 5: 30/

5.2.3.1. Electromagnetic velocity sensor

Magnet moves within a solenoid coil Moving coil is placed in stationary

Sensors and Measurements in Biomedicine Chapter 5: 31/

Rotor Rotor Rotor

D.c tachometer A.c tachometer Drag-cup tachometer

Sensors and Measurements in Biomedicine Chapter 5: 32/

A measurement system for level walking using a tachometer

Sensors and Measurements in Biomedicine Chapter 5: 33/