Sensors and Measurement Techniques in

Biomedicine
 Class Materials

• Lecture notes
 Class Materials

• Lecture notes
• Measurement and Instrumentation Principles-Alan Morris

• The Measurement, Instrumentation, and Sensors Handbook-John

Webster
• Sensors in Biomedical Applications-Harsanyi

• Handbook of Modern Sensors-J. Fraden

•
•
 Gradings

➢ Progress: 30%
- Report on a measurement method in biomedicine or for heathcare
purposes (by each invidual for group project)
- Attendance
➢ Final: 70% (group project)
Each group (3-4 students) select a topic on designing a circuit that
realized a specific measurement method in biomedicine or for
heathcare purposes in biomedicine or for heathcare purposes
- Report: 35%
- Presentation: 35%
 Chapter 1
SENSOR CHARACTERISTICS
 1.1. DEFINITION

◼ Sensor: a device that receives and responds to a signal or stimulus

 SENSORS

Natural Artificial
sensors sensors

-In living things -Not in living

things
-Respond with -Respond with
signals having signals having
electro-chemical electrical character
character (ion (electron
transport) transport)
◼ Narrow definition
“A sensor is a device that receives a stimulus and responds with an
electrical signal”
Electrical signal: in form of voltage, current, charge…or amplitude,
frequency, digital code…
◼ The stimulus is the quantity, property, or condition that is sensed

and converted into electrical signal.

A different term, measurand, to stress on quantitative characteristic
of sensing
- Transducer: a converter of one type of energy into another

Sensor vs Transducer
+ Energy conversion efficiency
+ Linearity
- Actuator: a converter of one type of energy into another, normally
mechanical energy
Part of a machine or system that moves or makes something work
 Sensor classification

✓ Need of excitation signal

- Passive sensor: piezoelectric sensor
- Active sensor: thermistor
✓ Contact to object
- Contact sensor: thermistor
- Noncontact sensor: radioactive sensor
✓ Conversion mean
- Direct sensor:
- Indirect sensor:
✓ Need of reference
- Absolute sensor
- Relative sensor
 1.2. SENSOR CHARACTERISTICS/SPECIFICATIONS

- There may have several conversion steps before an electrical output

signal is produced
Example???

- Consider a sensor as a “black box”, regardless its physical nature or

conversion steps
- Concern only relationships between sensor’s output signal and input
stimulus.
 1.2.1. Transfer function

- Represent an ideal or theoretical output-input relationship

- Establish dependence between output electrical signal S and input
stimulus s: S=f(s)

Linear function: S = a + bs
Logarithm function: S = a + b ln s
Exponential function: S = ae ks
Power function: S = a0 + a1s k

- b: sensor’s sensitivity
dS ( s0 )
b=
ds
Ex: thermal radiation sensor

V = G (Tb4 − Ts4 )

V
b= = 4GTb3
Tb
 1.2.2. Span (Input full scale-FS)

- A dynamic range of stimuli which may be converted by a sensor

- Can be expressed in dB scale

P2 s2
1 dB = 10 log 1 dB = 20 log
P1 s1
 1.2.3. Full scale output (FSO)

- The algebraic difference between the electrical output signals measured

with maximum input stimulus and the lowest input stimulus applied.
- Include all deviations from the ideal transfer function
 1.2.4. Accuracy

- Means inaccuracy: a highest deviation of a value represented by the

sensor from the ideal or true value at its input
Can be described as a difference between the value which is computed
from the output voltage and the actual input value.
Expressed in term of measured value, percent of input span or output
signal
Ex: linear displacement sensor
- Ideal sensitivity: b=1mV/mm
- s=10mm→S=10,5mV
→sx=S/b=10,5mm
→in a 10-mm range, the sensor’s absolute inaccuracy is 0.5 mm, or in
the relative terms, inaccuracy is = 5%.
- Expressed in term of measured value, percent of input span or output
signal
A piezoresistive pressure sensor has 100-kPa input FS and a 10Ω FSO
→its inaccuracy: ±0.5% or ±500 Pa ±0.05 Ω.
 1.2.5. Calibration error

- Inaccuracy permitted by a
manufacturer when a sensor is
calibrated in the factory
- It is added to all possible real
transfer functions (systematic
nature)
- Not necessarily uniform over the
range and may change depending
on the type of error in the
calibration
 1.2.6. Hysteresis

- Deviation of the sensor’s output

at a specified point of the input
signal when it is approached from
the opposite directions
- Typical due to friction and
structural changes in the materials
 1.2.7. Nonlinearity (linearity)

- Maximum deviation of a real transfer function from the approximation

straight line

- Methods to determine approximation line

+ Using terminal points
+ Least square
+ Tangent
+ Independent linearity
 1.2.8. Saturation

- Range that any further increase in stimulus does not produce a desirable
output
 1.2.9. Repeatability

- Inability of a sensor to give

the same value under identical
conditions.
- Expressed as the maximum
difference between output
readings as determined by two
calibrating cycles
- Error sources: thermal noise,
buildup charge, material
plasticity, …
 1.2.10. Dead band

- The insensitivity of a sensor in a

specific range of input signals
- In that range, the output may
remain near a certain value (often
zero) over an entire dead-band
zone.
 1.2.11. Resolution

- The smallest increments of stimulus which can be sensed

- The output signals of some sensors will not be perfectly smooth, even
under the no-noise conditions. the step size may vary over the range,
hence, the resolution may be specified as typical, average, or “worst.”

Ex: angular sensor having 270◦ FS, the 0.5◦ resolution may be specified
as 0.181% of FS
 1.2.12. Output impedence

- Zout: important when interfacing sensor to electronic circuit

- Connection with electronic circuit’s Zin
+ Parallel (voltage connection).
+ Series (current connection).

1 1
V = Vs I = Is
1 + Z out Z in 1 + Z in Z out
 1.2.13. Excitation

- Needed for the active sensor operation

- Variations in the excitation may alter the sensor transfer function and
cause output errors
 1.2.14. Dynamic characteristics

- When an input stimulus varies, a sensor response generally does not

follow with perfect fidelity because the sensor and its coupling with the
source of stimulus cannot always respond instantly
➔a sensor may be characterized by time-dependent or dynamic
characteristics
- Sensor does not respond instantly→ measured values are somewhat
different from the real→the sensor responds with a dynamic error.
✓ Warm-up time
- Duration from time of applying excitation signal to time when sensor
works within its specified accuracy
✓ Frequency response
- Specifies how fast a sensor can react to a change in the input stimulus
✓ Phase shift
- Defines how the output signal lags behind in representing the stimulus
change
✓ Resonant frequency
- Where the sensor’s output signal increases considerably
- Operating frequency range should be selected well below (at least
60%) or above the resonant frequency
✓ Damping
- The progressive reduction or suppression of the oscillation in the
sensor having higher than a first-order response
F A B
damping = = = = ...
A B C
 1.2.15. Environmental factors

✓ Storage conditions
- Nonoperating environmental limits to which a sensor may be
subjected during a specified period without permanently altering its
performance under normal operating conditions
✓ Short- and long-term stabilities
- Short-term stability: manifested as changes in the sensor’s
performance within minutes, hours, or even days. Another term for
repeatability
- Long-term stability: related to aging of the sensor materials, which is
an irreversible change in the material’s electrical, mechanical,
chemical, or thermal properties; usually unidirectional.
It happens over a relatively long time span, such as months and years
✓ Dải nhiệt độ hoạt động
- Dải nhiệt độ bên ngoài mà sensor vẫn giữ được độ chính xác đã
cho.
- Được chia thành nhiều khoảng nhỏ có dung sai (tolerance) do tác
động nhiệt khác nhau.
✓ Tự nung (self-heating)
- Năng lượng điện của nguồn cung cấp bị sensor hấp thụ làm cho
nhiệt độ sensor thay đổi và tác động đến độ chính xác của sensor.
 1.2.16. Reliability

- Ability of a sensor to perform a required function under stated

conditions for a stated period.
- Probability that the device will function without failure over a specified
time or a number of uses
- Specifies a failure, either temporary or permanent, exceeding the limits
of a sensor’s performance under normal operating conditions
- It is rarely specified by the sensor manufacturers. Probably, by the
absence of a commonly accepted measure
In US, predict in-service reliability of many electronic devices by
calculating MTBF (mean time between failure): individual failure rates
of the individual components used and by factorizing in the kind of
operation the device will see (temperature, stress, environment,
screening level)
- MTBF only reflects reliability indirectly and often hardly applicable to
everyday use. MTBF test doesnt qualify for important impacts as fast
temperature changes
➔most appropriate method would be accelerated life qualification.
+ Procedure that emulates the sensor’s operation, providing real-world
stresses, but compressing years into weeks.
+ Goals:
Establish MTBF
Identify first failure pointsthat can then be strengthened by design
changes
Identify the overall system practical lifetime
- One possible way to compress time is to use the same profile as the
actual operating cycle, including maximum loading and power-on,
power-off cycles, but expanded environmental highest and lowest ranges
(temperature, humidity, and pressure)
Number of test cycles (n) is estimated by empirical formula
2,5
 T 
n = N  max 
 Ttest 

N: estimated number of cycles per lifetime

ΔTmax: the maximum specified temperature fluctuation
ΔTtest: maximum cycled temperature fluctuation during the test
Ex: provided that a sensor has normal temperature 25◦C, the maximum
specified temperature is 50◦C, cycling was up to 100◦C, and over the
lifetime (10 years), the sensor was estimated to be subjected to 20,000
cycles,

➔Number of test cycles: ???

- Additional performance tests
+ High temperature/high humidity: detecting contaminations and
evaluating packaging integrity
+Mechanical shocks and vibrations: simulate adverse environmental
conditions, especially in the evaluation wire bonds, adhesion of epoxy
+ Extreme storage conditions
+ Thermal shock or temperature cycling: to uncover die bond, wire
bond, epoxy connections, and packaging integrity
 1.2.17. Uncertainty

- Nothing is perfect, at least in the sense that we perceive it

- Measurement always has error. An error can be compensated to a
certain degree by correcting its systematic component
- In spite of a small error, the uncertainty of measurement may be very
large so we cannot really trust that the error is indeed that small
- An error is what we unknowably get when we measure, whereas
uncertainty is what we think how large that error might be.
+ Type A: arise from random effects, evaluated by statistical methods
+ Type B: arise from systematic effects, evaluated by other means
Previous measurement data
• Experience with or general knowledge of the behavior and property of
relevant sensors, materials, and instruments
• Manufacturer’s specifications
- Relevant information to evaluate a type B standard uncertainty
+ Previous measurement data
+ Experience with or general knowledge of the behavior and property
of relevant sensors, materials, and instruments
+ Manufacturer’s specifications
+ Data obtained during calibration and other reports
+ Uncertainties assigned to reference data taken from handbooks and
manuals
- Combined standard uncertainty: for all uncertainties