entropy
Article
Detection of Internal Defects in Concrete and Evaluation of a
Healthy Part of Concrete by Noncontact Acoustic Inspection
Using Normalized Spectral Entropy and Normalized SSE
Kazuko Sugimoto * and Tsuneyoshi Sugimoto *






Citation: Sugimoto, K.; Sugimoto, T.
Detection of Internal Defects in
Concrete and Evaluation of a Healthy
Part of Concrete by Noncontact
Acoustic Inspection Using
Normalized Spectral Entropy and
Normalized SSE. Entropy 2022, 24,
142. https://doi.org/10.3390/
e24020142
Academic Editor: Philip Broadbridge
Received: 30 November 2021
Accepted: 14 January 2022
Published: 18 January 2022
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Entropy 2022, 24, 142. https://doi.org/10.3390/e24020142
Graduate School of Engineering, Toin University of Yokohama, 1614 Kurogane-cho, Aoba-ku,
Yokohama 225-8503, Japan
* Correspondence: kazukosu@toin.ac.jp (K.S.); tsugimot@toin.ac.jp (T.S.)
Abstract: Non-destructive testing, with non-contact from a remote location, to detect and visualize
internal defects in composite materials such as a concrete is desired. Therefore, a noncontact acoustic
inspection method has been studied. In this method, the measurement surface is forced to vibrate
by powerful aerial sound waves from a remote sound source, and the vibration state is measured
by a laser Doppler vibrometer. The distribution of acoustic feature quantities (spectral entropy and
vibrational energy ratio) is analyzed to statistically identify and evaluate healthy parts of concrete.
If healthy parts in the measuring plane can be identified, the other part is considered to be internal
defects or an abnormal measurement point. As a result, internal defects are detected. Spectral entropy
(SE) was used to distinguish between defective parts and healthy parts. Furthermore, in order to
distinguish between the resonance of a laser head and the resonance of the defective part of the
concrete, spatial spectral entropy (SSE) was also used. SSE is an extension of the concept of SE to
a two-dimensional measuring space. That is, based on the concept of SE, SSE is calculated, at each
frequency, for spatial distribution of vibration velocity spectrum in the measuring plane. However,
these two entropy values were used in unnormalized expressions. Therefore, although relative
evaluation within the same measurement surface was possible, there was the issue that changes
in the entropy value could not be evaluated in a unified manner in measurements under different
conditions and environments. Therefore, this study verified whether it is possible to perform a
unified evaluation for different defective parts of concrete specimen by using normalized SE and
normalized SSE. From the experimental results using cavity defects and peeling defects, the detection
and visualization of internal defects in concrete can be effectively carried out by the following two
analysis methods. The first is using both the normalized SE and the evaluation of a healthy part of
concrete. The second is the normalized SSE analysis that detects resonance frequency band of internal
defects.
Keywords: spectral entropy; spatial spectral entropy; SSE; non-destructive testing; defect detection;
noncontact acoustic inspection
1. Introduction
Spectral entropy is often used in the time domain in recent years in the field of
speech [1,2] and electroencephalography (EEG) analysis [3,4]. Spectral entropy is a feature
that represents the whiteness of a signal. In information theory, entropy was first defined
by Shannon and Weaver in 1949 [5] and further applied to the signal power spectrum by
Johnson and Shore in 1884 [6]. Entropy used in this paper is based on Shannon’s entropy
and applied to the frequency domain.
In recent years, collapse accidents due to the aging deterioration of concrete structures
(tunnels, buildings, bridges, etc.) have occurred all over the world. At the inspection
site of concrete structures, most of the on-site inspections are tap inspections and visual
inspections. The tapping inspection largely depends on the skill and experience of the
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/entropy
Entropy 2022, 24, 142 2 of 15

inspector, and there is a problem that it is expensive to install scaffolding in a high place, so
it is expected to develop a method that can measure from a long distance without contact.
In order to solve this problem, a noncontact acoustic inspection method has been
studying using acoustic irradiation induced vibration [7,8]. In this method, vibration energy
is radiated to the entire surface by sound waves, and the vibration velocity distribution
of the target surface is measured by a scanning laser Doppler vibrometer (SLDV). It has
been clarified that cracks or cavity defects existing in the shallow layer of concrete can
be detected even by the vibration of sound waves, because flexural resonance is likely to
occur [9]. On the other hand, if the return light of the SLDV cannot be sufficiently obtained
depending on the surface condition, an abnormal measurement point is observed and it
is a problem at the time of measurement. However, since the vibration velocity spectrum
measured in that case can be regarded as white noise, the defect detection algorithm [10]
and the healthy part extraction algorithm [11] using the vibrational energy ratio [9] and the
spectral entropy were devised. Further, since a scanning laser Doppler vibrometer (SLDV)
for measuring the target surface two-dimensionally has high sensitivity, there is the issue
that it is affected by strong reflected sound waves and causes a resonance phenomenon in
the internal mechanism such as a Galvano mirror of a laser head. However, in a case of
resonance of the SLDV, the same phenomenon occurs at all measurement points. Therefore,
in order to distinguish it from the resonance phenomenon due to the defective part of
concrete, spatial spectral entropy (SSE) [12] was devised that extended the concept of
spectral entropy (SE) to a two-dimensional measuring space. By using SSE, it is possible to
distinguish between the resonance due to the laser head of SLDV and the resonance of the
defective part of concrete.
Conventionally, these two entropy amounts have been used without normalization.
For that reason, although relative evaluation within the same measurement plane was
possible, there was the issue that changes in the entropy value could not be evaluated in a
unified manner in measurements under different conditions and environments. Therefore,
in this paper, it is verified whether it is possible to perform a unified evaluation of different
defective parts of concrete specimen using normalized SE and normalized SSE.

2. Experimental Method
Figure 1 shows the fundamental experimental setup of the noncontact acoustic in-
spection method [7–9]. As a sound source, a long-range acoustic device (LRAD; Genasys
Inc., San Diego, CA, USA; LRAD-300X) is used. In order to detect and visualize internal
defects in composite materials from a distance, especially concrete, LRAD emits powerful
aerial sound waves to the measuring plane. Vibration energy is given to the measuring
plane, and the vibration velocity distribution of the two-dimensional surface is measured
by a scanning laser Doppler vibrometer (SLDV; Polytec GmbH, Waldbronn, Germany;
PSV-500Xtra). If there are internal defects (cracks, peeling, cavities, etc.), flexural
Entropy 2022, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW vibration
3 of 16
occurs, and the resonance vibration state is measured.

Figure 1. Experimental setup.

Figure 1. Experimental setup.
After performing “Time–Frequency gate” processing [8] to reduce noise and improve
the signal-to-noise ratio, the vibration velocity spectrum is calculated, and FFT analysis is
performed. As a result, internal defects are detected, and an acoustic defect image is cre-
ated.
Entropy 2022, 24, 142 3 of 15

After performing “Time–Frequency gate” processing [8] to reduce noise and improve
the signal-to-noise ratio, the vibration velocity spectrum is calculated, and FFT analysis
is performed. As a result, internal defects are detected, and an acoustic defect image is
created.

3. Normalization of Two Types of Entropy for Defect Detection

There are two methods to detect internal defects for noncontact acoustic inspection.
One is a method to draw a scatter plot using two acoustic feature quantities (vibrational
energy ratio and spectral entropy), and to identify a healthy part, a defective part, or an
abnormal measurement point by the measured point’s existence area. The other is a method
to detect the resonance frequency bands observed on the measurement surface by using
spatial spectral entropy. These two methods have been applied individually but can be
combined to perform internal defect detection in concrete.

3.1. Normalized Spectral Entropy

Spectral entropy (SE) is a feature quantity that expresses the whiteness of a signal.
It has a high value for a signal with a uniform spectrum, such as white noise, and a low
value for a signal with a non-uniform spectrum, such as an audio signal. The spectral
entropy [10] previously used was expressed by the following equation.

H = − ∑ f Pf log2 Pf
Sf (1)
Pf = ∑f Sf

In the previous paper, S f was defined as the amplitude spectrum of vibration velocity,
but after that, the power spectrum of vibration velocity is more suitable as S f for entropy
to detect defects.
Normalized spectral entropy has been reported for signal analysis in the time do-
main [13,14]. For internal defect detection using entropy, spectral entropy has not been
normalized, so normalized spectral entropy is introduced to verify the detection of internal
defects. Normalized spectral entropy is defined by the following equation.

∑ P log2 Pf
f
H = − logf { N [f1 , f 2 ]}
2
Sf (2)
Pf = ∑ S
f f

Here, S f is the power spectrum of the vibration velocity at a measurement point.

N [ f 1 , f 2 ] is the number of sampling points in the vibration velocity spectrum at a measure-
ment point. That is, N is the number of samples. The frequency range of the spectrum is
selected as a frequency band of used emitted waves, in some cases, a frequency range to
analyze.

3.2. Normalized Spatial Spectral Entropy (SSE)

Figure 2 shows a conceptual diagram of SSE analysis. Spatial spectral entropy
(SSE) [12] is spectral entropy extended to space. In noncontact acoustic inspection, a
power spectrum of vibration velocity observed at a measurement point is regarded as a
probability distribution, and SE is calculated in the measured plane for each frequency.
In this way, information entropy is calculated. Using each vibration velocity spectrum at
all measured points, SSE analysis can detect not only the resonance frequency of internal
defects of concrete but also the resonance frequency of a laser head of SLDV. When SSE
was introduced, SSE was not normalized, but the normalized SSE needs to be defined. It is
defined by the following equation.
∑im=1 ∑nj=1 Pi,j ( f ) log2 Pi,j ( f )
HSSE ( f ) = − log2 (m·n)
S (f) (3)
Pi,j ( f ) = ∑m ∑i,jn S ( f )
i =1 j=1 i,j
 points, SSE analysis can detect not only the resonance frequency of internal defects of con-
crete but also the resonance frequency of a laser head of SLDV. When SSE was introduced,
SSE was not normalized, but the normalized SSE needs to be defined. It is defined by the
following equation.
∑𝑚 𝑛
𝑖=1 ∑𝑗=1 𝑃𝑖,𝑗 (𝑓) 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑃𝑖,𝑗 (𝑓)
Entropy 2022, 24, 142 𝐻𝑆𝑆𝐸 (𝑓) = − 4 of 15
log 2 (𝑚 ∙ 𝑛)
𝑆𝑖,𝑗 (𝑓) (3)
𝑃𝑖,𝑗 (𝑓) = 𝑚 𝑛
∑𝑖=1 ∑𝑗=1 𝑆𝑖,𝑗 (𝑓)
whereH𝐻
where f ) isisspectral
𝑆𝑆𝐸((𝑓)
SSE spectral entropy
entropy thatthat
extended
extended to real spacespace
to real and isand
a function of frequency
is a function of fre-
fquency
. Si,j ( f ) 𝑓.
is the frequency
𝑆𝑖,𝑗 (𝑓) f [ Hz] component
is the frequency of the power
𝑓[𝐻𝑧] component spectrum
of the obtained by
power spectrum discrete
obtained by
Fourier
discrete Fourier transforming a signal of vibration velocity measured at a measured point.
transforming a signal of vibration velocity measured at a measured point r i,j
The
𝑟𝑖,𝑗 . subscript
The subscripti andi jand are jthe
aregrid pointpoint
the grid numbers numbers for the
forvertical and and
the vertical horizontal direction,
horizontal direc-
respectively.
tion, respectively.P i,j ( f ) is probability that S ( f ) exists in the measured plane. Multiplying
𝑃𝑖,𝑗 (𝑓) is probabilityi,j that 𝑆𝑖,𝑗 (𝑓) exists in the measured plane. Multi- m
by n gives the number of all measurement
plying m by n gives the number of all measurement SSE points. H ( f ) indicates information entropy
points. 𝐻𝑆𝑆𝐸 (𝑓) indicates information
obtained by calculating the probability that
entropy obtained by calculating the probability that the frequency the frequency f [Hz] component of vibration
f [Hz] component of
velocity spectrum exists in the measurement
vibration velocity spectrum exists in the measurement plane. plane.

Figure 2. Conceptual diagram of SSE analysis.

Figure 2. Conceptual diagram of SSE analysis.

4.4.Why
WhyNormalize
NormalizeSpectral
SpectralEntropy?
Entropy?
Fromthe
From thedifference
differencebetween
betweenspectral
spectralentropy
entropyand andnormalized
normalizedspectral
spectral entropy,
entropy,ititisis
explainedwhy
explained whyititisisnecessary
necessarytotonormalize
normalizespectral
spectralentropy.
entropy.Using
Usingthe
theresult
resultof
ofconcrete
concrete
specimen,ititisisexplained
specimen, explained how
how general
general defect
defect detection
detection is performed
is performed and how
and how a healthy
a healthy part
part
of of concrete
concrete is identified,
is identified, and it and it becomes
becomes clearthe
clear why why the normalization
normalization of spectral
of spectral entropyen-is
tropy is necessary
necessary in the detection
in the detection ofdefects
of internal internalofdefects
concrete.of concrete.

4.1.
4.1.Spectral
SpectralEntropy
Entropyand
andNormalized
NormalizedSpectral
SpectralEntropy
Entropy
Figure
Figure33shows
showsthetheexperimental
experimentalresults
resultsfor
foraacircular
circularcavity
cavitydefect
defect(Φ200,
(Φ200,60).
60).The
The
notation (Φ200, 60) indicates that the diameter of a circular cavity defect is 200
notation (Φ200, 60) indicates that the diameter of a circular cavity defect is 200 mm, and mm,
and the embedded depth of the defect is 60 mm. From the measured vibration velocity
distribution, the vibrational energy ratio and spectral entropy at each measured point
was calculated. Figure 3 shows scatter plots of the vibrational energy ratio and spectral
entropy. Data analysis is performed (a) in the frequency band of 2000–6000 Hz and (b) in
that of 3000–5000 Hz. The analysis frequency bandwidths of (a) and (b) are 4000 Hz and
2000 Hz, respectively, and the sampling numbers in the frequency domains of (a) and
(b) are 4400 and 2200, respectively. The values of spectral entropy take influence from
sampling numbers and cannot be evaluated unifiedly as they are.
In general, the analysis frequency band is determined by the frequency band of the
emitted sound waves, and the frequency band of the emitted sound waves is selected to
include the resonance frequency band of internal defects. In order to compare data under
different measurement conditions, it is necessary to eliminate the influence of the difference
in the number of samplings due to different analysis frequency bands. The solution is to
normalize.
If normalized spectral entropy is used, it is possible to evaluate on the same scale.
(a) and (b) in Figure 4 are the normalized figures of (a) and (b) in Figure 3, respectively. The
distribution of a healthy part of concrete is at the same level. It is possible to distinguish
between a healthy part of concrete and a defective part on the same scale.
 bers and
ence cannot
in the be evaluated
number unifiedly
of samplings due toas they are.analysis frequency bands. The solution
different
In general,
is to normalize. the analysis frequency band is determined by the frequency band of the
emitted sound waves, and the frequency band of the emitted sound waves is selected to
include the resonance frequency band of internal defects. In order to compare data under
different measurement conditions, it is necessary to eliminate the influence of the differ-
Entropy 2022, 24, 142 ence in the number of samplings due to different analysis frequency bands. The solution5 of 15
is to normalize.

(a) 2000–6000 Hz (b) 3000–5000 Hz

Figure 3. Scatter plot of spectral entropy and vibrational energy ratio. The analysis frequency range
is (a) 2000–6000 Hz, (b) 3000–5000 Hz.

If normalized spectral entropy is used, it is possible to evaluate on the same scale. (a)
(a) 2000–6000 Hz (b) 3000–5000 Hz
and (b) in Figure 4 are the normalized figures of (a) and (b) in Figure 3, respectively. The
Figure 3. Scatter
distribution aplot
of plot of spectral
healthy entropy
partentropy and vibrational
of concrete energy
is at the same ratio. The
level. analysis frequency range
Figure 3. Scatter of spectral and vibrational energy ratio.ItThe
is possible to distinguish
analysis frequency range
is (a)
between2000–6000 Hz,
a healthy (b)
part3000–5000 Hz.
of concrete
is (a) 2000–6000 Hz, (b) 3000–5000 Hz. and a defective part on the same scale.

If normalized spectral entropy is used, it is possible to evaluate on the same scale. (a)
and (b) in Figure 4 are the normalized figures of (a) and (b) in Figure 3, respectively. The
distribution of a healthy part of concrete is at the same level. It is possible to distinguish
between a healthy part of concrete and a defective part on the same scale.

(a) 2000–6000 Hz (b) 3000–5000 Hz

Figure 4. Scatter plot of normalized spectral entropy and vibrational energy ratio; Analysis frequency
range is (a) 2000–6000 Hz, (b) 3000–5000 Hz.

4.2. General
(a) 2000–6000 Hz Defect Detection and Normalized Spectral (b)
Entropy
3000–5000 Hz
As shown in Figure 5, if a scatter plot is drawn using two acoustic feature quantities
(vibrational energy ratio and spectral entropy), it is possible by the measurement point’s
existence area to identify a point of a healthy part, a point of a defective part, or an
abnormal measurement point. The figure is obtained from the measured result of the
vibration velocity distribution using a cavity defect (Φ200, 60). The notation (Φ200, 60)
indicates that the diameter of a circular cavity defect is 200 mm, and the embedded depth
is 60 mm. In Figure 5, three areas of a healthy part, a defective part, and an abnormal
measurement point can be seen. These areas are separated by a black dotted line. In the
Figure, the measured points of a healthy part are dotted in blue, and the other measured
points such as a defective part and an abnormal measurement point are dotted in red.
In general, there are the following tendencies: the healthy part has low vibration
energy and high spectral entropy; the defective part has high vibration energy and low
spectral entropy; and an abnormal measurement point has high vibration energy and high
spectral entropy. This is summarized in Table 1.
 mal measurement point. The figure is obtained from the measured result of the vibration
velocity distribution using a cavity defect (Φ200, 60). The notation (Φ200, 60) indicates that
the diameter of a circular cavity defect is 200 mm, and the embedded depth is 60 mm. In
Figure 5, three areas of a healthy part, a defective part, and an abnormal measurement
point can be seen. These areas are separated by a black dotted line. In the Figure, the
Entropy 2022, 24, 142 6 of 15
measured points of a healthy part are dotted in blue, and the other measured points such
as a defective part and an abnormal measurement point are dotted in red.

Figure 5.
Figure 5. Scatter
Scatter diagram of the
diagram of the normalized
normalized spectral
spectral entropy
entropy versus
versus vibrational
vibrational energy
energy ratio.
ratio.

TableIn Defect detection

1. general, algorithm
there are judgement.
the following tendencies: the healthy part has low vibration en-
ergy and high spectral entropy; the defective part has high vibration energy and low spec-
Judgement Vibrational Energy Ratio Spectral Entropy
tral entropy; and an abnormal measurement point has high vibration energy and high
Healthy part low
spectral entropy. This is summarized in Table 1. high
Defective part high low
Abnormal measurement point high high
Table 1. Defect detection algorithm judgement.

Judgement
4.3. Healthy Part Vibrational
Identification and Normalized Energy
Spectral Ratio
Entropy Spectral Entropy
Healthy part low high
In defect detection, it is necessary to identify a healthy part of concrete in the measure-
Defective part high low
ment plane. If a healthy part can be identified, the other parts are the defective part or an
Abnormal measurement point high high
abnormal measurement point.
For one measurement point, two acoustic feature quantities (vibrational energy ratio
4.3. Healthy Part Identification and Normalized Spectral Entropy
and spectral entropy) are calculated from its vibration velocity spectrum. It has been found
In defect
that each detection,
distribution it is acoustic
of two necessary to identify
feature a healthy
quantities part ofpart
in a healthy concrete in the follow
of concrete meas-
urement plane. If a healthy part can be identified, the other parts are
the normal distribution. Taking advantage of this fact, measuring points in a healthy part the defective part or
an abnormal measurement point.
can be found by statistical methods. Using the healthy part extraction algorithm [11], a
Entropy 2022, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW Forpart
healthy one of
measurement
concrete canpoint, two acoustic
be identified as shownfeature quantities
in Figure (vibrational
6. Since energy 7ratio
it is not necessary of to
16
and spectral
divide entropy)
the three areas byare calculated
a straight line from
in thisits vibration
method, velocity
it can spectrum.
be effectively It has
applied to abeen
real
found that
concrete each distribution
structure. If the value of two acoustic
of the spectralfeature
entropyquantities in a healthy
at a measured pointpart of concrete
is smaller than
follow
the
is smallerthethan
normal
distribution distribution.
of a distribution
the healthy ofTaking
part of aconcrete,
healthyadvantage
itpart
is highlyoflikely
this fact,
of concrete, that measuring
it isithighly likelypoints
is a defective part,itin
that is aa
and
healthy
if part can
the valuepart,
defective of the
andbe found
spectral by
if the entropystatistical
value ofisthe methods.
larger Using
than entropy
spectral the
that, it may healthy part
be an abnormal
is larger extraction
than that, measurement algo-
it may be an
rithm
point.
abnormal[11],measurement
a healthy partpoint.of concrete can be identified as shown in Figure 6. Since it is not
necessary to divide the three areas by a straight line in this method, it can be effectively
applied to a real concrete structure. If the value of the spectral entropy at a measured point

Figure 6.
Figure 6. Scatter
Scatter diagram
diagram of
of normalized
normalized spectral
spectral entropy
entropy versus
versus vibrational
vibrational energy
energy ratio.
ratio.

In defect detection, a defective part and a healthy part are discriminated based on the
distribution of a healthy part of concrete. So, defect detection will be robust if the distri-
bution of spectral entropy at a healthy part shows the same level value without depending
on the measuring conditions. It is possible to compare the measurement results of differ-
Entropy 2022, 24, 142 7 of 15

In defect detection, a defective part and a healthy part are discriminated based on
the distribution of a healthy part of concrete. So, defect detection will be robust if the
Figure 6. Scatter diagram of normalized spectral entropy versus vibrational energy ratio.
distribution of spectral entropy at a healthy part shows the same level value without
dependingInon thedetection,
defect measuring conditions.
a defective part andIta healthy
is possible to discriminated
part are compare thebased measurement
on the results
distribution
of different actualof aconcrete
healthy part of concrete.
structures So, defect
with detection
a unified will be robust if the distri-
standard.
bution of spectral entropy at a healthy part shows the same level value without depending
on the measuring conditions. It is possible to compare the measurement results of differ-
5. Why Normalize Spatial Spectral Entropy (SSE)?
ent actual concrete structures with a unified standard.
Spatial Spectral Entropy and Normalized Spatial Spectral Entropy
5. Why 7
Figure Normalize
shows the Spatial Spectral Entropy
experimental (SSE)?
results for a circular peeling defect (Φ200, 60). The
Spatial Spectral Entropy and Normalized
notation (Φ200, 60) indicates that the diameter Spatial Spectral
ofEntropy
a circular peeling defect is 200 mm, and
the embeddedFiguredepth
7 shows isthe
60 experimental
mm. Figureresults7 showsfor a the
circular peeling velocity
vibration defect (Φ200, 60). The at the center
spectrum
notation (Φ200, 60) indicates that the diameter of a circular peeling defect is 200 mm, and
of thethe
circular peeling defect (Φ200, 60). The measurement grid points are 121 (11 × 11)
embedded depth is 60 mm. Figure 7 shows the vibration velocity spectrum at the cen-
pointsterfor (a)circular
of the and 81 (9 ×defect
peeling 9) points for The
(Φ200, 60). (b).measurement
The SSE value depends
grid points on×the
are 121 (11 11) number of
measurement
points for grid
(a) andpoints
81 (9 × due to the
9) points for equation
(b). The SSEof SSEdepends
value analysis. So,number
on the comparison
of meas-is performed
using urement
the same gridcircular
points due to thewith
defect equation of SSE analysis.
different So, comparison
measurement is performed
grid points. Comparing the
using the same circular defect with different measurement grid points. Comparing the
vibration velocity spectra at the center of the circular peeling defect in (a) and (b), the
vibration velocity spectra at the center of the circular peeling defect in (a) and (b), the
frequency of the
frequency resonance
of the resonance peak due
peak due to to a circular
a circular peel does
peel defect defectnotdoes not
change, change,
and the and the
magnitude of the peak is almost the same level. The level of vibration velocity
magnitude of the peak is almost the same level. The level of vibration velocity in a healthy in a healthy
part ofpart of concrete
concrete is aboutthe
is about the same.
same.

Entropy 2022, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 16

Figure 7. Vibration velocity spectrum at the center of a circular peeling defect (Φ200, 60). The meas-
urement grid points are (a) 121 (11 × 11) points and (b) 81(9 × 9) points. The measured point number
(a) 121 points (b) 81 points
is (a) 61, (b) 41.

Figure 7. Vibration velocity

Figures 8 and 9 showspectrum
the resultsat
of the
SSE center
analysisoffora acircular
circular peeling defect
peeling defect (Φ200, 60). The
(Φ200,
60). The grid
measurement measurement grid
points are (a)points are ×
121 (11 12111)
(11×11) points
points andfor and×
(b)(a)81(9 819)
(9×9) points
points. for measured
The (b). point
numberThe resonance
is (a) 61, (b) frequency
41. of an internal defect in the measurement plane can be detected
by SSE analysis. That is, the resonance frequency band of a circular peeling defect in Fig-
ure 7 is detected by SSE analysis in Figures 8 and 9, so that the SSE value decreases. In the
Figures 8 and 9 show the results of SSE analysis for a circular peeling defect (Φ200,
case of a healthy part of concrete, the SSE value takes a value that fluctuates around the
60). The measurement
median grid points are 121 (11×11) points for (a) and 81 (9×9) points for (b).
of its fluctuation.
The resonance frequency
In Figure of anofinternal
8, the median SSE valuedefect in the
fluctuation measurement
is 6.28 in (a) and 5.71plane can
in (b). M in be
the detected by
figure indicates
SSE analysis. That is, thethe
median of SSE value
resonance fluctuation,
frequency band andofσ aindicates
circularitspeeling
standarddefect
devia- in Figure 7
tion. The
is detected bystandard
SSE analysisdeviation
inσFigures
is 0.13 in 8
(a)and
and 0.18
9, sointhat
(b). The
thelarger
SSE the number
value of meas- In the case
decreases.
urement grid points, the larger the SSE value. The number of measurement grid points on
of a healthy part of concrete,
the measurement the SSEtovalue
plane corresponds takesofa data
the number value whenthat fluctuates
calculating SSEaround
by equa- the median
of its fluctuation.
tion (3), and SSE value is affected to the number.

(a) 121 points (b) 81 points

Figure 8. SSE analysis result of a circular peeling defect (Φ200, 60). The measurement grid points are
Figure (a) SSE(11
8. 121 analysis result
× 11) points and of
(b)a81(9
circular peeling defect (Φ200, 60). The measurement grid
× 9) points. points are
(a) 121 (11 × 11) points and (b) 81(9 × 9) points.
Therefore, in Equation (3), the SSE is normalized to eliminate the influence of the
number of data, that is, the number of measurement grid points. In Figure 9, the median
M of the normalized SSE value fluctuation is 0.908 in (a) and 0.901 in (b). σ is 0.019 in (a)
and 0.029 in (b). According to the result of normalized SSE, it is expected that the value of
SSE can be evaluated on the same scale under different measurement conditions regard-
less of the number of measurement grid points. From this result, the resonance frequency

Entropy 2022, 24, 142
Therefore, in Equation (3), the SSE is normalized to eliminate the influence of the
number of data, that is, the number of measurement grid points. In Figure 9, the median
M of the normalized SSE value fluctuation is 0.908 in (a) and 0.901 in (b). σ is 0.019 in (a)
and 0.029 in (b). According to the result of normalized SSE, it is expected that the value of
SSE can be evaluated on the same scale under different measurement conditions regard-
less of the number of measurement grid points. From this result, the resonance frequency 8 of 15
band, surrounded by the red dotted line frame, due to a circular peeling defect is the same
in Figures 8 and 9. Therefore, it is not affected by the number of measurement grid points.

(a) 121 points (b) 81 points

Figure 9. Normalized SSE analysis result of a circular peeling defect (Φ200, 60); Measurement grid
points is (a) 121 (11 × 11) points, (b) 81(9 × 9) points.

In Figure 8, the median of SSE value fluctuation is 6.28 in (a) and 5.71 in (b). M
in the figure indicates the median of SSE value fluctuation, and σ indicates its standard
deviation. The standard deviation σ is 0.13 in (a) and 0.18 in (b). The larger the number
of measurement grid points, the larger the SSE value. The number of measurement grid
points on the measurement plane corresponds to the number of data when calculating SSE
by equation (3), and SSE value is affected to the number.
Therefore, in Equation (3), the SSE is normalized to eliminate the influence of the
number
Entropy 2022, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW
of data, that is, the number of measurement grid points. In Figure 9, the median M
9 of 16
of the normalized SSE value fluctuation is 0.908 in (a) and 0.901 in (b). σ is 0.019 in (a) and
0.029 in (b). According to the result of normalized SSE, it is expected that the value of SSE
can be evaluated on the same scale under different measurement conditions regardless of
Figure
the 9. Normalized
number SSE analysis
of measurement gridresult of a From
points. circular peeling
this defect
result, (Φ200, 60); Measurement
the resonance grid
frequency band,
points is (a) 121 (11 × 11) points, (b) 81(9 × 9) points.
surrounded by the red dotted line frame, due to a circular peeling defect is the same in
Figures 8 and 9. Therefore, it is not affected by the number of measurement grid points.
6. Effects of Normalization by Two Types of Internal Defects
The effect
6. Effects of normalization
of Normalization wasTypes
by Two investigated for two
of Internal types of defects, such as a cavity
Defects
and The
a peeling as an internal defect of concrete.
effect of normalization was investigated for two types of defects, such as a cavity
and a peeling as an internal defect of concrete.
6.1. Cavity Defect and Peeling Defect
6.1. Cavity Defect and
The concrete Peeling
wall Defecthas a size of 2000 mm × 2000 mm × 300 mm and a weight
specimen
The concrete wall
of approximately 1200specimen has a size
kg. The shape 2000 mm ×
andofembedded 2000of
depth mm × 300 mm
a circular anddefect
cavity a weight
are
of
asapproximately
shown in Figure 1200 kg.When
10a. The shape and embedded
the concrete depthStyrofoam
was poured, of a circular cavity
with defect are
a thickness of as
25
shown
mm was in Figure
embedded10a. When the concrete
to simulate a cavitywas poured,
defect. TheStyrofoam
shape andwith a thickness
embedded depthof of
25 amm
cir-
was embedded
cular to simulate
peeling defect are as ashown
cavity in
defect.
FigureThe shape
10b. andconcrete
When embedded wasdepth of aacircular
poured, styrene
peeling
sheet with a thickness of 0.5 mm was embedded to simulate a defect such as a crackwith
defect are as shown in Figure 10b. When concrete was poured, a styrene sheet and
aathickness
peeling. of 0.5 mm was embedded to simulate a defect such as a crack and a peeling.

(a) Cavity (b) Peeling

Figure 10. Shape and embedded depth of a circular defect; (a) cavity, (b) peeling.
Figure 10. Shape and embedded depth of a circular defect; (a) cavity, (b) peeling.

6.2. Measurement Conditions

The concrete wall with a cavity defect (Φ200, 60) or a peeling defect (Φ200, 60) was
installed about 5.0 m from an LRAD of sound source. The distance from a laser Doppler
vibrometer to the measurement surface is approximately 7.7 m for the cavity defect (Φ200,
60), 8.0 m for the peeling defect (Φ200, 60). The notation (Φ200, 60) indicates that the di-
ameter of a circular defect is 200 mm, and the embedded depth is 60 mm. As an emitted
waveform, a single-tone burst wave [8,15] (frequency range 2000–6000 Hz, modulation
Entropy 2022, 24, 142 9 of 15

6.2. Measurement Conditions

The concrete wall with a cavity defect (Φ200, 60) or a peeling defect (Φ200, 60) was
installed about 5.0 m from an LRAD of sound source. The distance from a laser Doppler vi-
brometer to the measurement surface is approximately 7.7 m for the cavity defect (Φ200, 60),
8.0 m for the peeling defect (Φ200, 60). The notation (Φ200, 60) indicates that the diameter
of a circular defect is 200 mm, and the embedded depth is 60 mm. As an emitted waveform,
a single-tone burst wave [8,15] (frequency range 2000–6000 Hz, modulation frequency
200 Hz, interval time 50 ms, pulse width 3 ms, overall waveform length 1050 ms) was used.
The signal of the vibration velocity at one measurement point was measured 5 times. In
order to realize stable laser measurement, the median value of five signals, which were
measured repeatedly, was adopted as an average value. The measured grid points were
121 (11 × 11) points in one measurement. The vertical or horizontal measurement intervals
for the cavity defect (Φ200, 60) were both approximately 3.7 cm. The vertical and horizontal
measurement intervals for the peeling defect (Φ200, 60) were both approximately 3.9 cm.

6.3. Vibration Velocity Spectrum in the Center of Circular Defect

Figure 11 shows the vibration velocity spectrum at measurement point 61 in almost
the center of a circular defect. (a) and (b) are the results obtained from each experiment of
the circular cavity defect (Φ200, 60) and the circular peeling defect (Φ200, 60), respectively.
Entropy 2022, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 16
Each vibration velocity spectrum in the frequency domain was calculated by FFT from the
target signal extracted using Time-Frequency gate [8].

(a) Cavity (b) Peeling

Figure 11. Vibration velocity spectrum at measurement point 61 near the center of a circular defect;
Figure 11. Vibration velocity spectrum at measurement point 61 near the center of a circular defect;
(a) cavity, (b) Peeling.
(a) cavity, (b) Peeling.

The time–frequency
The time–frequencygate gate makes
makes good
good use use of
of the
the propagation
propagation timetime difference
difference between
between
light and sound waves to extract the target signal. The sound
light and sound waves to extract the target signal. The sound wave is intermittent andwave is intermittent and its
its
frequency changes
frequency changes stepwise.
stepwise. Therefore,
Therefore, the the vibration
vibration is is performed
performed at at aa specific
specific frequency
frequency
at a specific time. That is, when the time zone in which the sound waves
at a specific time. That is, when the time zone in which the sound waves make the concrete make the concrete
surface vibrating and emission frequency band at that time are
surface vibrating and emission frequency band at that time are known, the target signal known, the target signal
can be extracted in the time domain and the frequency domain respectively.
can be extracted in the time domain and the frequency domain respectively. As a result, it As a result,
it possible
is is possible to reduce
to reduce the the influence
influence of reflected
of reflected waves waveson theonhigh-sensitivity
the high-sensitivity scanning
scanning laser
laser Doppler
Doppler vibrometer
vibrometer by the by thewave
direct directfromwave thefrom
sound thesource,
soundthe source, the reflected
reflected wave from wave
the
from thesurface,
concrete concreteand surface, and the reverberation
the reverberation from the surroundings.
from the surroundings.
Since the
Since the frequency
frequency range range ofof the
the emitted
emitted waveform
waveform is is 2000
2000 to
to 6000
6000 Hz,
Hz, the
the analysis
analysis
frequency range was set to the same frequency range, and
frequency range was set to the same frequency range, and the FFT was calculated in the FFT was calculated in that
that
frequency range.
frequency range.
In Figure
In Figure 11a,
11a, aa sharp
sharp peakpeak due
due to to aa circular
circular cavity
cavity defect
defect (Φ200,
(Φ200, 60) 60) is
is seen
seen at
at about
about
4100 Hz. Moreover, a small
4100 small peak,
peak,that
thatseems
seemstotobe bethetheresonance
resonanceofofa alaser
laserhead,
head,is is
seen
seenat
around
at around 2500
2500Hz. Since
Hz. Sincethis method
this method uses strong
uses strongsound
soundwaves, resonance
waves, resonance may occur
may in the
occur in
mechanism
the mechanism suchsuch
as theas Galvano
the Galvano mirror of a laser
mirror head,head,
of a laser and resonance
and resonance peakspeaks
may bemay seen.
be
seen. Such resonance peaks due to a laser head may vary
Such resonance peaks due to a laser head may vary in magnitude depending on the ar-in magnitude depending on
rangement of a sound source and a laser Doppler vibrometer and the surrounding envi-
ronment including the measurement surface. In a case, such a peak may not emerge.
In Figure 11b, a broad peak due to a circular peeling defect (Φ200, 60) can be seen at
around 4200 Hz. The circular cavity defect (Φ200, 60) has a sharper peak and a larger am-
plitude than the circular peeling defect (Φ200, 60).
Entropy 2022, 24, 142 10 of 15

the arrangement of a sound source and a laser Doppler vibrometer and the surrounding
environment including the measurement surface. In a case, such a peak may not emerge.
In Figure 11b, a broad peak due to a circular peeling defect (Φ200, 60) can be seen
at around 4200 Hz. The circular cavity defect (Φ200, 60) has a sharper peak and a larger
amplitude than the circular peeling defect (Φ200, 60).

6.4. Scatter Diagram of Normalized Spectral Entropy vs. Vibrational Energy Ratio
At each measured point, the vibrational energy ratio and spectral entropy are calcu-
lated from its vibration velocity spectrum. As shown in Figure 12, when looking at a scatter
plot based on spectral entropy and vibrational energy ratio, many measured points in a
Entropy 2022, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 16
healthy part are gathered in the upper left, and the remaining measurement points of the
defective part are scattered while descending to the lower right.

(a) Cavity (b) Peeling

Figure 12. Scatter diagram of normalized spectral entropy versus vibrational energy ratio; (a) cavity,
Figure 12. Scatter diagram of normalized spectral entropy versus vibrational energy ratio; (a) cavity,
(b) peeling.
(b) peeling.

Figure 12a,b use

In the scatter the same
diagram, redenergy
or bluereference value (1.01
points indicate × 10-11points,
measured [m/s]2)and
when
thecalculating
number to
the vibration energy ratio. As the energy reference value of the vibration
the right of its point is a measurement grid point number. The blue points are the measured energy ratio, the
minimum value of vibration energy in the circular cavity defect (Φ200,
points judged to be a healthy part of concrete, and the red points are the measured points60) was adopted.
Since defective
including spectral entropy
part or an is abnormal
normalized, a cavity defect
measurement and a peel defect can be com-
point.
paredFigure
on the12a,b
sameusescale.
theAsame
healthy partreference
energy of concrete can (1.01
value × 10−11 by
be evaluated normalized
[m/s] spec-
2 ) when calcu-
tral entropy
lating and vibrational
the vibration energyAs
energy ratio. ratio
theon the same
energy scale. value
reference The value ofvibration
of the spectral entropy
energy
in a healthy
ratio, part of concrete
the minimum value ofisvibration
distributed in the
energy inrange of 0.93–0.95.
the circular cavityThe value
defect of vibration
(Φ200, 60) was
energy
adopted. ratio in a healthy part of concrete is distributed in the range of 0–3 dB.
In a cavity
Since defect,
spectral entropythe is
measurement
normalized, apoints
cavityof the defective
defect and a peelpart arecan
defect scattered in the
be compared
lower
on theright
samedirection
scale. Afrom the distribution
healthy of a healthy
part of concrete can bepart of concrete.
evaluated On the other
by normalized hand,
spectral
in a peeling
entropy and defect, sinceenergy
vibrational the vibration
ratio onenergy of the
the same defective
scale. The valuepartofisspectral
about the same as
entropy in
that of a healthy
a healthy part of part of concrete,
concrete the measurement
is distributed in the rangepoints are scattered
of 0.93–0.95. below
The value of avibration
healthy
part
energyof concrete. In orderpart
ratio in a healthy to distinguish
of concretebetween a healthy
is distributed in thepart andofthe
range 0–3defective
dB. part of
In aitcavity
peeling, defect,to
is necessary the measurement
evaluate points ofspectral
by normalized the defective
entropy. part are scattered in the
lower right direction from the distribution of a healthy part of concrete. On the other hand,
6.5.
in a Acoustic Defect Image
peeling defect, since thewithvibration
Evaluation of a Healthy
energy Part of Concrete
of the defective part is about the same as that
of a healthy part of concrete, the measurement points are scattered
Figure 13 shows acoustic defect images. Those images are represented below a healthy
by the part of
vibra-
concrete. In order to distinguish between a healthy part and the defective
tional energy ratio (see Figure 12). The black or white dotted circle in Figures 13 and 14 part of peeling, it
is necessary to evaluate by normalized spectral entropy.
shows the exact size and approximate location of a circular defect. In the acoustic defect
images, dots indicate measurement grid points, and the number to the right of its dot is a
6.5. Acoustic Defect Image with Evaluation of a Healthy Part of Concrete
measurement grid point number. Figure 13a was visualized using vibrational energy ratio
Figure
at each 13 shows point
measurement acoustic
for defect images.
a circular Those
cavity images
defect (Φ200,are
60)represented
(See Figure by theFigure
12a). vibra-
tional energy ratio (see Figure 12). The black or white dotted circle in Figures 13 and
13b was visualized using vibrational energy ratio at each measurement point for a circular 14
peeling defect (Φ200, 60) (See Figure 12b).
Comparing (a) and (b) in Figure 13, in the case of the cavity defect, the defect can be
sufficiently identified by an acoustic image obtained by simply calculating the vibration
energy ratio in the emission frequency band. But in the case of peeling defect, it is difficult
 measurement conditions differ. In particular, the frequency range of the emitted wave-
form affects the spectral entropy value. By normalizing spectral entropy, this problem can
be resolved. It is possible to accumulate and utilize data on a healthy part of concrete on
Entropy 2022, 24, 142 the same scale even if the measurement conditions are different. 11 of 15

Entropy 2022, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 16

shows the exact size and approximate location of a circular defect. In the acoustic defect
images, dots indicate measurement grid points, and the number to the right of its dot is
ameasurement
measurementconditions
grid pointdiffer.
number. Figure 13athe
In particular, was visualized
frequency using
range of vibrational
the emittedenergy
wave-
ratio
form affects the spectral entropy value. By normalizing spectral entropy, (See
at each measurement point for a circular cavity defect (Φ200, 60) Figure 12a).
this problem can
Figure 13b was
be resolved. It isvisualized using
possible to vibrational
accumulate andenergy
utilizeratio
data at
oneach measurement
a healthy point foron
part of concrete a
circular peeling defect (Φ200, 60) (See Figure 12b).
the same scale even if the measurement conditions are different.

(a) Cavity (b) Peeling

Figure 13. Acoustic defect image for a circular defect; (a) cavity, (b) peeling.

It is identified statistically whether each measured point is a healthy part of concrete

or not using the healthy part extraction algorithm. In Figure 14, the vibrational energy
ratio of a measured point identified as a healthy part of concrete is set to 0 dB and dis-
played. By doing so, the fluctuation noise at a healthy part is eliminated, the defective part
is emphasized, and the defect image becomes easier to see.
(a) Cavity
In this way, robust defect detection can be performed (b) Peeling
by evaluating the distribution
of a healthy part of concrete using normalized spectral entropy and vibrational energy
Figure 13. Acoustic defect image for a circular defect; (a) cavity, (b) peeling.
13. Acoustic
FigureMoreover,
ratio. it defect
is alsoimage for a circular
applicable defect;
to actual (a) cavity,
concrete (b) peeling.
structures in various environments.
It is identified statistically whether each measured point is a healthy part of concrete
or not using the healthy part extraction algorithm. In Figure 14, the vibrational energy
ratio of a measured point identified as a healthy part of concrete is set to 0 dB and dis-
played. By doing so, the fluctuation noise at a healthy part is eliminated, the defective part
is emphasized, and the defect image becomes easier to see.
In this way, robust defect detection can be performed by evaluating the distribution
of a healthy part of concrete using normalized spectral entropy and vibrational energy
ratio. Moreover, it is also applicable to actual concrete structures in various environments.

(a) Cavity (b) Peeling

Figure 14. Acoustic defect image for a circular defect (Φ200, 60); (a) cavity, (b) peeling. The vibra-
Figure 14. Acoustic defect image for a circular defect (Φ200, 60); (a) cavity, (b) peeling. The vibrational
tional energy ratio in a healthy part of concrete is set to 0 dB and displayed.
energy ratio in a healthy part of concrete is set to 0 dB and displayed.

6.6. Normalized
Comparing SSE
(a)Analysis
and (b) in Figure 13, in the case of the cavity defect, the defect can be
sufficiently identified by an acoustic image obtained by simply calculating the vibration
energy ratio in the emission frequency band. But in the case of peeling defect, it is difficult
to distinguish between a healthy part and a defect part. This is because, as shown in
(a)Figure
Cavity12b, the levels of the vibration energy of a healthy (b) Peeling
part and the defective part are
almost theAcoustic
Figure 14. same, sodefect
that the
imagedefective part isdefect
for a circular buried in a 60);
(Φ200, healthy part in
(a) cavity, (b)the acoustic
peeling. Theimage.
vibra-
tionalTherefore,
energy ratioininorder to distinguish
a healthy between
part of concrete is set toa0 healthy part and the defective parts,
dB and displayed.
it is important to evaluate a healthy part on the second axes called spectral entropy. In
6.6. Normalized SSE Analysis
Entropy 2022, 24, 142 12 of 15

order to cause resonance and efficiently vibrate the defective parts, the optimum emitted
waveform is selected depending on the type, size, and buried depth of internal defects,
so the measurement conditions differ. In particular, the frequency range of the emitted
waveform affects the spectral entropy value. By normalizing spectral entropy, this problem
can be resolved. It is possible to accumulate and utilize data on a healthy part of concrete
on the same scale even if the measurement conditions are different.
It is identified statistically whether each measured point is a healthy part of concrete
or not using the healthy part extraction algorithm. In Figure 14, the vibrational energy ratio
of a measured point identified as a healthy part of concrete is set to 0 dB and displayed.
By doing so, the fluctuation noise at a healthy part is eliminated, the defective part is
emphasized, and the defect image becomes easier to see.
Entropy 2022, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW In this way, robust defect detection can be performed by evaluating the distribution of
13 of 16
a healthy part of concrete using normalized spectral entropy and vibrational energy ratio.
Moreover, it is also applicable to actual concrete structures in various environments.
For a circular
6.6. Normalized defect
SSE (Φ200, 60), a vibration velocity signal was observed at each meas-
Analysis
urement grid point by a scanning laser Doppler vibrometer (SLDV). After Time-Fre-
For a circular defect (Φ200, 60), a vibration velocity signal was observed at each
quency gate processing, those signals were transformed to vibration velocity spectrum by
measurement grid point by a scanning laser Doppler vibrometer (SLDV). After Time-
FFT. Using 121 spectra obtained at each measurement grid point, SSE analysis was per-
Frequency gate processing, those signals were transformed to vibration velocity spectrum
formed using Equation (3).
by FFT. Using 121 spectra obtained at each measurement grid point, SSE analysis was
Figure 15 shows the result of SSE analysis. In the figure, the vertical axis is the SSE
performed using Equation (3).
value,Figure
and the horizontal
15 shows axis isofthe
the result SSEfrequency.
analysis. In The
thered frame
figure, thewith a decreasing
vertical axis is theSSE
SSE value
value,
shows
and thethe resonance
horizontal axisfrequency band due
is the frequency. Thetored
anframe
internal
withdefect. The SSESSE
a decreasing value tends
value to
shows
decrease at the resonance frequency of internal defects in concrete. In
the resonance frequency band due to an internal defect. The SSE value tends to decrease atFigure 15, (a) repre-
sents a circularfrequency
the resonance cavity defect (Φ200,defects
of internal 60), andin(b) represents
concrete. a circular
In Figure peeling
15, (a) defect
represents (Φ200,
a circular
60).
cavity defect (Φ200, 60), and (b) represents a circular peeling defect (Φ200, 60). M value,
M on the right side of the Figure indicates the median fluctuation of the SSE on the
and
rightσside
indicates
of the its standard
Figure deviation.
indicates the medianIn (a), M is 0.912,
fluctuation andSSE
of the σ isvalue,
0.02. In
and(b), M is 0.908,
σ indicates its
and σ is 0.019.
standard deviation. In (a), M is 0.912, and σ is 0.02. In (b), M is 0.908, and σ is 0.019.

(a) Cavity (b) Peeling

Figure 15. Result of SSE analysis for a circular defect (Φ200,60); (a) cavity, (b) peeling.
Figure 15. Result of SSE analysis for a circular defect (Φ200,60); (a) cavity, (b) peeling.

As
As aa result
result of
of SSE
SSEanalysis,
analysis,the
theSSE
SSEvalue
valueinin a healthy
a healthy part
part of concrete
of concrete shows
shows fluctu-
fluctuation
ation in a certain range with respect to the median value of the distribution
in a certain range with respect to the median value of the distribution of SSE values. By of SSE values.
By normalizing
normalizing thethe
SSE,SSE, different
different internal
internal defects
defects cancan be evaluated
be evaluated on the
on the samesame scale.
scale.
Suppose
Suppose you you have
have glasses
glasses that
that can
can see
see aa specific
specific frequency,
frequency, such
such asas infrared
infrared rays.
rays.
When
When looking
looking at at the
the measurement
measurement surface,
surface, aa local
local peak
peak can
can be
be seen
seen onon the
the measurement
measurement
surface.
surface. In Inthat
thatcase,
case, the
the SSE
SSE value
value decreases
decreases at at that
that frequency.
frequency. In In other
other words,
words, in in SSE
SSE
analysis,
analysis, itit is
is possible
possible to to detect
detect aa local
local peak
peak on
on the
the measurement
measurement surface
surface inin the
the frequency
frequency
domain.
domain. In Inparticular,
particular, when
when aa resonance
resonance peak peak duedue toto an
an internal
internal defect
defect appears
appears on on the
the
measurement
measurement plane, plane, the
the SSE
SSE value
value decreases
decreases at at that
that resonance
resonance frequency.
frequency. When
When itit hashas aa
uniform
uniform distribution
distribution or or aa normal
normal distribution
distribution on on thethe measurement
measurement surface,
surface, such
such as as the
the
case
case of
of resonance
resonance of of aa laser
laser head,
head,the theSSE
SSEvalue
valuerisesrisesaccording
accordingtotothe thenature
natureofofentropy.
entropy.
The detected resonance frequency of a laser head is excluded from the calculation of the
vibrational energy ratio.
By SSE analysis, both the resonance frequency bands of a cavity defect and a peeling
defect were detected. As shown in Figure 16, acoustic defect images are created by vibra-
tional energy ratio, which is calculated using the detected resonance frequency band as
Entropy 2022, 24, 142 13 of 15

The detected resonance frequency of a laser head is excluded from the calculation of the
vibrational energy ratio.
By SSE analysis, both the resonance frequency bands of a cavity defect and a peel-
ing defect were detected. As shown in Figure 16, acoustic defect images are created by
vibrational energy ratio, which is calculated using the detected resonance frequency band
as an analysis frequency range. (a) is a cavity defect, and the analysis frequency
Entropy 2022, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of range
16 is
4000–4250 Hz. (b) is a peeling defect, and the analysis frequency range is 4120–4310 Hz.

Entropy 2022, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 16

(a) Cavity (b) Peeling

Figure 16. Acoustic defect image for a circular defect (Φ200, 60); (a) cavity, (b) peeling. The analysis
Figure 16. Acoustic defect image for a circular defect (Φ200, 60); (a) cavity, (b) peeling. The analysis
frequency range for calculating the vibrational energy ratio is (a) 4000–4250 Hz and (b) 4120–4310
frequency
Hz. range for calculating the vibrational energy ratio is (a) 4000–4250 Hz and (b) 4120–4310 Hz.
(a) Cavity (b) Peeling
TheIf black
the dotted circle
resonance in Figure
frequency band 16
of shows
the the exact
internal defectsize and approximate
is known location
by SSE analysis, a of a
Figure 16. Acoustic defect image for a circular defect (Φ200, 60); (a) cavity, (b) peeling. The analysis
circular
clear defect.
acoustic In
imagethe ofacoustic
the defect
internal image,
defect can bedots indicate
obtained simplymeasured
by grid
calculating
frequency range for calculating the vibrational energy ratio is (a) 4000–4250 Hz and (b) 4120–4310 points,
the and
vibra- the
number
tional
Hz. to the
energy right
ratio of
at its
the dot
range is a
of measurement
the resonance grid
frequencypoint number.
band.
Figure
If the 17 is a scatter
resonance frequencydiagramband of of
normalized spectral
the internal defectentropy versus
is known by vibrational
SSE analysis, en-a clear
ergy ratio
acoustic thecalculated
Ifimage of the in
resonance each resonance
frequency
internal bandcan
defect frequency
of the band.defect
internal
be obtained A measurement
simplyis known point
by SSEinanalysis,
by calculating a healthy
the a
vibrational
part
clear is indicated
acoustic by
image aofblue
the dot, and
internal a measurement
defect
energy ratio at the range of the resonance frequency band. can be point
obtained of the
simplydefective
by part is
calculating indicated
the vibra-
by a red
tional
Figure dot.
17 isThe
energy ratio vibration
at thediagram
a scatter energy
range ofofnormalized
of the measurement
resonance points band.
frequency
spectral in the defective
entropy versus part is largerenergy
vibrational
than that
Figureof measurement
17 is a scatter points
diagram in of
a healthy part.spectral entropy versus vibrational en-
normalized
ratio calculated in each resonance frequency band. A measurement point in a healthy part
ergy ratio calculated in each resonance frequency band. A measurement point in a healthy
is indicated by a blue dot, and a measurement point of the defective part is indicated by a
part is indicated by a blue dot, and a measurement point of the defective part is indicated
red dot. The vibration energy of measurement points in the defective part is larger than
by a red dot. The vibration energy of measurement points in the defective part is larger
thatthan
of measurement
that of measurement pointspoints
in a healthy part.part.
in a healthy

(a) Cavity (b) Peeling

Figure 17. Scatter diagram of the normalized spectral entropy and vibrational energy ratio for a
circular defect (Φ200, 60); (a) cavity, (b) peeling.

(a) Cavity
Figure 17a,b use the same energy reference value(b) Peeling
(2.75 × 10-1³[m/s]2) when calculating
the vibration
Figure energy
17. Scatter ratio.ofAs
diagram theannormalized
energy reference
spectral value
entropyofand
the vibrational
vibration energy ratio,for
energy ratio thea
Figure 17. Scatter
minimum value
circular defect
diagram
of vibration
(Φ200,
of the normalized
energy
60); (a) cavity,
spectral
in the circular
(b) peeling.
entropy
cavity and
defect vibrational
(Φ200, 60) wasenergy
adopted.ratio for a
circular Vibration
defect (Φ200, 60); is
energy (a)calculated
cavity, (b)within
peeling.
the range of frequency band where resonance
occurs, so the vibration energy at measurement
Figure 17a,b use the same energy reference value points(2.75
where
× 10the internal
-1³[m/s] defect
2) when exist be-
calculating
comes large, and
the vibration the defect
energy ratio. As image becomes
an energy clear. value of the vibration energy ratio, the
reference
minimum value of vibration energy in the circular cavity defect (Φ200, 60) was adopted.
Vibration energy is calculated within the range of frequency band where resonance
Entropy 2022, 24, 142 14 of 15

Figure 17a,b use the same energy reference value (2.75 × 10−13 [m/s]2 ) when calculat-
ing the vibration energy ratio. As an energy reference value of the vibration energy ratio,
the minimum value of vibration energy in the circular cavity defect (Φ200, 60) was adopted.
Vibration energy is calculated within the range of frequency band where resonance
occurs, so the vibration energy at measurement points where the internal defect exist
becomes large, and the defect image becomes clear.

7. Conclusions
Normalization is defined for two types of entropy used in noncontact acoustic inspec-
tion method and experimental and analysis results are showed for internal defect such as
a cavity or a peeling. One is spectral entropy (SE) used to detect the internal defects of
concrete in a non-destructive test. SE can also be used to evaluate a healthy part of concrete.
The other is SSE (spatial spectral entropy), which can detect the resonance frequency band
of internal defects in the measuring plane. Through two kinds of entropy, the effective
detection and visualization of internal defects in concrete was verified. Each entropy can
be used separately or together, depending on a situation of concrete structures.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, K.S.; Formal analysis, K.S.; Methodology, K.S.; Supervi-
sion, T.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number JP19K04414.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: We would like to thank Noriyuki Utagawa of SatoKogyo Co., Ltd. for providing
the concrete specimen and the experimental site.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Shen, J.; Hung, J.; Lee, J. Robust entropy-based endpoint detection for speech recognition in noisy environments. In Proceedings
of the 5th International Conference on Spoken Language, Sydney, Australia, 30 November–4 December 1998.
2. Renevey, P.; Drygajlo, A. Entropy Based Voice Activity Detection in Very Noisy Conditions. In Proceedings of the EUROSPEECH
2001 Scandinavia, 7th European Conf. on Speech Communication and Technology, Aalborg, Denmark, 3–7 September 2001.
3. Inouye, T.; Shinosaki, K.; Sakamoto, H. Quantification of EEG irregularity by use of the entropy of the power spectrum.
Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 1991, 79, 204–210. [CrossRef]
4. Rezek, A.; Roberts, S.J. Stochastic complexity measures for physiological signal analysis. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 1998, 45,
1186–1191. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
5. Shannon, C.E. A mathematical theory of communication. Bell Syst. Tech. J. 1948, 27, 379–423. [CrossRef]
6. Johnson, R.W.; Shore, J.E. Which is the better entropy expression for speech processing, -S log S or log S? IEEE Trans. Acoust 1984,
ASSP-32, 129–137. [CrossRef]
7. Akamatsu, R.; Sugimoto, T.; Utagawa, N.; Katakura, K. Proposal of non contact inspection method for concrete structures using
high-power directional sound source and scanning laser Doppler vibrometer. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 2013, 52, 07HC12. [CrossRef]
8. Akamatsu, R.; Sugimoto, T.; Utagawa, N.; Katakura, K. Study on Non contact acoustic imaging method for concrete structures
–improvement of signal to-noise ratio by using tone burst wave method. In Proceedings of the IEEE International Ultrasonics
Symposium, Prague, Czech Republic, 21–25 July 2013; p. 1303.
9. Katakura, K.; Akamatsu, R.; Sugimoto, T.; Utagawa, N. Study on detectable size and depth of defects in noncontact acoustic
inspection method. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 2014, 53, 07KC15. [CrossRef]
10. Sugimoto, K.; Akamatsu, R.; Sugimoto, T.; Utagawa, N.; Kuroda, C.; Katakura, K. Defect-detection algorithm for noncontact
acoustic inspection using spectrum entropy. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 2015, 54, 07HC15. [CrossRef]
11. Sugimoto, K.; Sugimoto, T.; Utagawa, N.; Kuroda, C.; Kawakami, A. Detection of internal defects of concrete structures based
on statistical evaluation of healthy part of concrete by the noncontact acoustic inspection method. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 2018, 57,
07LC13. [CrossRef]
12. Sugimoto, K.; Sugimoto, T.; Utagawa, N.; Kuroda, C. Detection of resonance frequency of both the internal defects of concrete
and the laser head of a laser Doppler vibrometer by spatial spectral entropy for noncontact acoustic inspection. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys.
2019, 58, SGGB15. [CrossRef]
13. Viertio-Oja, H.; Maja, V.; Talja, P.; Tenkanen, N.; Tolvanen-Laakso, H.; Paloheimo, M.; Vakkuri, A.; Yli-Hankala, A.; Meriläinen, P.
Description of the EntropyTM algorithm as applied in the Datex-Ohmeda S/5TM entropy module. Acta Anaesthethesiol. Scand.
2004, 48, 154–161. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Entropy 2022, 24, 142 15 of 15

14. Zaccarelli, N.; Li, B.-L.; Petrosillo, I.; Zurlini, G. Order and disorder in ecological time-series: Introducing normalized spectral
entropy. Ecol. Indicat. 2011, 28, 22–30. [CrossRef]
15. Sugimoto, T.; Sugimoto, K.; Kosuge, N.; Utagawa, N. High-speed noncontact acoustic inspection method for civil engineering
structure using multitone burst wave. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 2017, 56, 07JC10. [CrossRef]