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Smart Charging Solutions for
Hybrid and Electric Vehicles
Scrivener Publishing
100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J
Beverly, MA 01915-6106
Advances in E-Mobility
Series Editor: Sulabh Sachan, PhD, Sanjeevikumar Padmanaban, PhD, and Sanchari Deb, PhD
Scope: The world’s ever-escalating energy demand accompanied by concerns of greenhouse gas
emissions from the use of Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) driven vehicles have pushed mankind
to look for alternative energy options for mobility. This in turn, has paved the path for electrification
of road transport. Electric Vehicles (EVs) are considered as a clean and unpolluted mode of transport
as well as an environmentally friendly option to tackle the problem of poor air quality. The scope
of this series is to cover all of the aspects of e-mobility, including design, concepts, practical
applications, and the latest trends and important developments in the science.
Publishers at Scrivener
Martin Scrivener (martin@scrivenerpublishing.com)
Phillip Carmical (pcarmical@scrivenerpublishing.com)
Smart Charging Solutions for
Hybrid and Electric Vehicles
Edited by
Sulabh Sachan
P. Sanjeevikumar
and
Sanchari Deb
This edition first published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA
© 2022 Scrivener Publishing LLC
For more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
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Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty

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between when this work was written and when it is read.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 978-1-119-76895-1
Cover image: EV Charge Station Image: Artinun Prekmoung | Dreamstime.com

EV Battery: Svyatoslav Lypynskyy | Dreamstime.com
Cover design by Kris Hackerott
Set in size of 11pt and Minion Pro by Manila Typesetting Company, Makati, Philippines
Printed in the USA
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
Preface xv
1 Smart Charging: An Outlook Towards its Role and Impacts,
Enablers, Markets, and the Global Energy System 1
Bikash Sah and Praveen Kumar
1.1 Introduction to Smart Charging 2
1.1.1 Context of SMART 3
1.1.2 Approaches 5
1.1.3 Contributions 5
1.2 Types of Charging 6
1.2.1 Uncoordinated Charging 6
1.2.2 Coordinated Charging 7
1.2.3 Smart Charging 8
1.3 Impact of Smart Charging on Global Energy Systems 14
1.3.1 On the Grid Side 15
1.3.2 On the Demand Side 15
1.3.3 Overall Infrastructure 16
1.4 Types of Smart Charging 16
1.5 Entities of a Smart-Charging System 18
1.5.1 Operators: Generation, Transmission, and Distribution 19
1.5.2 Controllers 19
1.5.3 Aggregators 20
1.5.4 Communication System 20
1.5.5 Stakeholders 22
1.5.5.1 Policymakers 22
1.5.5.2 Manufacturers 23
1.5.5.3 Service and Support Providers 23
1.5.5.4 Consumers 23
1.5.6 Market 24
1.6 Enablers of Smart Charging 24
1.7 Control Architectures 26
v
vi Contents
1.7.1 Centralized 26
1.7.2 Decentralized 27
1.7.3 Comments on Suitability 28
1.8 Outlook towards Smart Charging 30
1.9 Conclusion 31
References 32
2 Influence of Electric Vehicles on Improvements in the Electric
Distribution Grid 39
Michela Longo, Wahiba Yaïci and Dario Zaninelli
2.1 Introduction 39
2.2 Evolution of the Distribution System 41
2.2.1 Present and Next Challenges of the Distribution
System 41
2.2.2 Energy Planning 43
2.2.3 Impacts on the Consumption of Energy Sources 45
2.2.4 Impacts of the Consumption on Distribution Networks 45
2.2.5 Evolution towards Smart Grids 46
2.3 Electric Mobility 50
2.3.1 Electric Vehicle Classification 51
2.3.2 Electric Mobility Maturity in Italy 53
2.3.2.1 Technological Maturity 54
2.3.2.2 Regulatory Maturity 54
2.3.2.3 Market Maturity 54
2.3.3 Electric Vehicle Market 57
2.3.4 Italian EV Market 58
2.3.5 The Influence of Batteries 59
2.3.6 Future Scenarios 61
2.3.7 Plans for the Diffusion of Charging Systems
in Italy – PNIRE 64
2.3.8 Models and Diffusion Plans 65
2.3.8.1 The ANCI Guidelines 66
2.3.9 Charging Infrastructure 66
2.4 Charging Infrastructure for Electric Vehicles 68
2.4.1 State-of-the-Art Charging Infrastructure 68
2.4.2 Charging Modes 69
2.4.2.1 Mode 1: Charging in Domestic Environment,
Slow (6-8 h) up to 16 A 70
2.4.2.2 Mode 2: Charging in Domestic Environment,
Slow (3-4 h) up to 32 A 71
Contents vii
2.4.2.3 Mode 3: Recharge in Domestic and Public

Environment, Slow (6-8 h) or
Fast (30 min – 1 h) 71
2.4.2.4 Mode 4: Charging in Public Environment,
Fast (10-30 min) (Charging in Direct Current) 71
2.4.3 Charging Poles 72
2.4.4 Charging Connectors 75
2.4.5 Pilot Circuit 77
2.4.6 Complete Pilot Circuit 78
2.4.7 Simplified Pilot Circuit 78
2.5 Conclusion 79
References 79
3 Smart Charging Strategies for the Changing Grid 83
Chandana Sasidharan and Shweta Kalia
3.1 Introduction 83
3.2 Charging Strategy based on Vehicle Type 86
3.3 Mapping of Charging Strategies 90
3.4 Evaluation of Charging Strategies 99
References 100
4 Pricing Schemes for Smart Charging 105
Ahad Abessi, Vahid Safari and Mohammad Shadnam Zarbil
Abbreviations 105
Nomenclature 106
4.1 Introduction 108
4.2 Concepts and Issues in Charging Pricing 109
4.3 Different Models of Charging Stations’ Dynamic Pricing 111
4.4 Classification of Charging Pricing Models 112
4.4.1 Stochastic Dynamic Pricing 114
4.4.1.1 Profit of Charging Stations 116
4.4.1.2 Customer Satisfaction 117
4.4.1.3 Effect on the Power Grid 117
4.4.1.4 Multi-Objective Optimization Framework 118
4.4.2 Distributed Dynamic Pricing Policy Method 119
4.4.2.1 Distributed Dynamic Pricing Strategy 119
4.4.2.2 Usage-Based Dynamic Pricing (UDP) 121
4.4.2.3 Distributed Demand Response Pricing (D2R) 122
4.4.2.4 Quadratic Cost Function Pricing (QCF) 123
4.4.3 Integrated Dynamic Pricing and Scheduling of EV
Charging Stations 123
viii Contents
4.4.4 Competitive Charging Station Pricing 124

4.4.4.1 Charger Station Pricing Game (CSPG) 125
4.4.5 Negotiation Pricing in Charging Stations 126
4.4.5.1 Initial Price of EV User 127
4.4.5.2 Charging Station Operator Initial Price 127
4.4.5.3 Strategy of Price Adjustment for Charging
Station Operator 128
4.4.5.4 Price Adjustment Strategy of EV User 128
4.4.6 Charging Pricing of Fast Charging Stations for the
Voltage Control of Distribution Network 129
4.4.6.1 The Lower-Layer Optimization Model 129
4.4.6.2 The Upper-Layer Optimization Model 131
4.4.7 Online Reinforcement Learning Approach for
Dynamic Pricing 132
4.5 Electricity Pricing of Vehicle Discharging to Grid 134
4.5.1 Scheme of Discharge Pricing 135
4.5.2 Some Common Schemes of Discharge Pricing 137
4.6 Electricity Pricing Currently Used at Charging Stations 137
4.7 Effect of Charging Pricing on Economic Competitiveness
of Electric Vehicles 139
4.8 Conclusion 140
References 141
5 Management of Electric Vehicles Using Automatic Learning
Algorithms: Application in Office Buildings 143
Andres Alonso Rodriguez, Luis Perdomo, Ameena Al-sumaiti,
Francisco Santamaria and Sergio Rivera
5.2 Proposed Charging Strategy 145
5.3 Test Bed and Implementation Results 150
5.4 Conclusion 155
References 156
6 High-Power Charging Strategies of EV Batteries
and Energy Storage 159
Marta Zurek-Mortka and Jerzy R. Szymanski
Abbreviations 159
6.2 EV Battery Set Model 163
6.3 Case Study of Charging High Power Li-Ion Battery for
Energy Storage and Electric Work Machines 165
Contents ix
6.4 Proposed Constant Current and Constant Voltage Method

for EV Battery Charging 169
6.5 Simulation Tests of EV Battery Charging 170
6.6 Conclusions 172
References 173
7 Integration of Fast Charging Stations for Electric Vehicles
with the Industrial Power System 175
Marta Zurek-Mortka and Jerzy R. Szymanski
Abbreviations 176
7.2 Structure of Hybrid EV Fast Charging Station 178
7.3 Use of Drive Voltage Frequency Converter for Charging EV
Batteries 180
7.4 Fast Charging Converter Integrated with 600V DC Microgrid 183
7.5 Simulation and Experimental Study of Drive Voltage
Frequency Converter Used to Charge EV Batteries 187
7.6 Conclusions 192
References 193
8 Regulatory Framework for Smart Charging in Hybrid and
Electric Vehicles: Challenges, Driving Forces, and Lessons
for Future Roadmap 195
Rajkumar Viral and Divya Asija
List of Abbreviations 196
8.1.1 Status of Adopted EV Technology 199
8.1.2 Prospects and Current Market for Smart Charging 202
8.1.3 Status of International Intervened Framework 204
8.2 EV Charging Technology and Smart Charging 205
8.2.1 EV Charging Technology 205
8.2.1.1 Existent Charging Technologies for EVs 207
8.2.1.2 Emergent Charging Technologies for EVs 208
8.2.2 Smart Charging 209
8.2.3 Smart Charging: Current Status and Technological
Advancement 211
8.2.3.1 Smart Charging Powered by Service
Provider or Grid Operator Needs 211
8.2.3.2 Smart Charging Powered by EV Owners
or Building Needs 211
8.2.4 Affordability and Current Infrastructure 214
x Contents
8.2.4.1 Charging Stations 214

8.2.4.2 The Charger 215
8.2.5 Major Threats in Smart Charging 218
8.3 Smart Charging Standards 220
8.3.1 Standards Developed by IEC 220
8.3.1.1 IEC61851 Standard 220
8.3.1.2 IEC 61980 Standard 221
8.3.1.3 IEC62196 Standard 221
8.3.2 SAE Standards 221
8.3.2.1 SAEJ2293 Standard 221
8.3.2.4 SAEJ2847 and SAEJ2836 Standard 222
8.3.2.6 SAEJ2954 and SAEJ2954 Standard 222
8.3.3 Safety Standards for EV 222
8.3.3.1 NFPA Standards 222
8.3.3.2 NEC 625 223
8.3.3.3 NEC 626 223
8.4 Regulatory Framework 223
8.4.1 International Smart Charging Framework 223
8.4.2 Role of Agents in Smart Charging 226
8.4.3 Regulatory Challenges of Smart Charging and
Impact on Global Energy Market 227
8.5 Conclusions and Discussion 229
References 230
9 EV Fast Charging Station Planning with Renewable Energy
Sources: A Case Study of Durgapur System 233
Dr. Ashish Kumar Bohre, Dr. Partha Sarathee Bhowmik
and Dr. Baseem Khan
9.2 Modeling of System 236
9.2.1 Solar PV 236
9.2.2 Battery Storage System (BSS) 237
9.2.3 System Converter 237
9.2.4 Diesel Generator 237
9.2.5 Load Profile 238
9.2.6 Electric Vehicle Fast Charging Station (EV-FCS)
Characteristics and Performance 238
9.3 Case Study on Solar and Wind Data 240
Contents xi
9.4 Problem Description and Methodology 242

9.4.1 Cost of Energy (COE) 245
9.4.2 Annual Savings 245
9.4.3 Internal Rate of Return 245
9.4.4 Simple Payback 245
9.4.5 Pollutant Emissions 246
9.5 Results and Discussion 246
9.5.1 System Analysis without EV Fast Charging Stations
(EV-FCS) 247
9.5.2 System Analysis with EV Fast Charging Stations
(EV-FCS) 261
9.6 Conclusions 278
9.7 Acknowledgment 279
References 279
10 Game Theory Approach for Electric Vehicle Charge
Management Considering User Behavior 283
Lokesh Kumar Panwar
Nomenclature 284
10.2 Problem Formulation 288
10.3 Profit Maximization Game 292
10.4 Existence and Uniqueness of Nash Equilibrium of Profit
Maximization Game 294
10.6 Conclusion 302
Appendix A 302
References 304
11 A Novel SMES Based Charging System for Electric Vehicles
in Smart Grids 307
Ubaid ur Rehman
Nomenclature 307
List of Abbreviations 307
List of Variables 308
11.2 System Modeling 310
11.3 Impact Analysis of SME’S on SG Performance while
Accommodating EVs 314
11.4 Conclusion 318
References 319
xii Contents
12 A Novel Intelligent Route Planning Framework for Electric

Vehicles with Consideration of Waiting Time in Delhi 321
Lokesh Kumar Panwar
12.2 Problem Description 324
12.2.1 Travelling Cost between Two Edges 325
12.2.2 Charging Cost at CS 325
12.2.3 Travelling Time Between Two Edges 325
12.2.4 Waiting Time at CS 326
12.3 Reinforcement Learning (RL) Based EV Navigation System 326
12.3.1 Objective Functions 327
12.3.2 Online Learning and Estimation Waiting Time 328
12.3.3 RL Based Navigation Method 329
12.4.1 Simulation Environment 331
12.4.2 Benchmark Cases 333
12.4.3 Distributed Learning Simulation 336
12.5 Conclusion 338
References 338
13 Smart Charging Management for Autonomous Vehicles:
A Smart Solution for Smart Cities & Societies: COVID 19 341
Nadia Adnan, Sharina Md Nordin, Malik Fawaz Saleh
and Shouvik Sanyal
13.2 Autonomous Vehicles: A Promise for
Next-Generation Transportation Systems 345
13.3 How Autonomous Vehicle Standards Ensure Safety 346
13.4 Autonomous Cars and Smart Cities 347
13.5 Benefits of Autonomous Vehicles 348
13.6 Adoption Perspectives for Autonomous Vehicles:
COVID 19 Situation 349
13.7 During the Fight of Pandemic Situation: How Autonomous
Vehicles are Used 349
13.8 Smart Charging Management for Autonomous Vehicles 349
13.9 Challenges Involved in Self Driving Vehicles (V2X) Driving
the Development of Autonomous Vehicles 352
13.10 Discussion 354
13.11 Conclusion 354
13.12 Acknowledgment 355
References 356
Contents xiii
14 Electric Vehicle Integrated Virtual Power Plants:

A Systematic Review 361
Sanchari Deb, Sulabh Sachan, Mohammad Saad Alam
and Samir M Shariff
Abbreviations 361
14.2 Overview of VPP 364
14.2.1 Definitions of VPP 364
14.2.2 Components of VPP 365
14.2.3 Classification of VPP 366
14.2.4 Benefits of VPP 366
14.3 Global Scenario 366
14.4 Framework for VPP 368
14.5 Research Initiatives 370
14.6 EV Integrated VPP 370
14.7 Conclusions 375
References 375
15 Optimal Location of EV Charging Stations by Modified
Direct Search Algorithm 381
Sanchari Deb, Sulabh Sachan and Toni Zhimomi
Abbreviations 381
15.1.1 Background 382
15.1.2 Existing Works 383
15.1.3 Contribution 383
15.2 Problem Formulation 383
15.3 Methodology 389
15.3.1 Division of Search Space 390
15.3.2 Arrangement of Elements of Search Space 391
15.3.3 Size Reduction of Search Space 392
15.3.4 Evaluation of Objective Function 393
15.4 Numerical Analysis 393
15.5 Conclusion 395
References 395
16 Recent Trends and Technologies of Electric Vehicles and
Their Wireless Charging Methods: A Review 399
D. R. Karthik, Mallikarjunareddy Bandi, Naveenkumar Marati,
Balraj Vaithilingam and Kathirvel Karuppazhagi
xiv Contents
16.2 FAME Status 401

16.3 Basic Operation of WPT of EVs 403
16.4 Components of WPT System 405
16.5 Advancements in WPT and Electric Vehicle Technology 407
16.6 Electric Vehicle Status in India 408
16.7 Standards of Electrical Vehicles, Infrastructure, and WPT 411
16.8 Conclusion 416
References 416
17 Techno-Economic Issues of Grid Connected Large Photovoltaic
Plants of Smart City Prayagraj to the EV Charging Station:
A Case Study (A Case Study of 5 MW Photovoltaic Power
Plant at Prayagraj) 419
Satendra Kumar Singh Kushwaha, Satyprakash,
Akhilesh Kumar Gupta, Akbar Ahmad, Bandi Mallikarjuna
Reddy and Narendra Kumar Ch
17.2 PV Generation Feasibility Study for Prayagraj for EV
Charging Stations 422
17.3 Modeling and Challenges of Grid Integrated Photovoltaic
System 425
17.4 Real-Time Challenges of 5MW Solar Plant at Naini,
Prayagraj, India 429
17.5 Whole System Layout and Description 430
17.6 Cost Analysis of Complete PV System 431
17.7 Conclusion 433
References 433
Index 437
Preface
Future energy resources entirely depend on locally available renewable

resources due to the fossil fuel supply’s uncertainty, growing mobility
demand, and increasingly stringent regulations. Furthermore, fuel con-
sumption and emissions are facilitating the transition to sustainable trans-
portation. The market for Electric Vehicles (EVs) has been increasing
steadily over the past few years throughout the world. With the increasing
popularity of EVs, a competitive market between charging stations (CSS)
to attract more EVs is expected. This edited book’s outcome is intended to
serve as a resource for engineers, researchers, and practitioners interested
in getting acquainted with smart charging for Electric Vehicle technolo-
gies. It includes seventeen original chapters dealing with state-of-the-art
studies on EV smart charging, along with charging infrastructure.
In Chapter 1, Bikash Sah and Praveen Kumar present a comprehensive
review of smart charging’s role and impacts. They also describe charging,
followed by the categorization of smart charging and the smart charging
system’s requirements and components.
In Chapter 2, Michela Longo, Wahiba Yaïci, and Dario Zaninelli ana-
lyze a detailed examination of the distribution grid’s evolution, a thorough
analysis of electric mobility, and a survey of the state-of-the-art charging
infrastructure for electric vehicles.
In Chapter 3, Chandana Sasidharan and Shweta Kalia describe charging
strategies based on vehicle type. They also represent different charging
strategies against four objectives: peak management, green charging, flexi-
bility resources, and cost optimization.
In Chapter 4, Ahad Abessi, Vahid Safari, and Mohammad Shadnam
Zarbil present a dynamic charging pricing model. Also, pricing models
of discharging power to the grid are discussed, followed by some of the
charging pricing currently used globally.
In Chapter 5, Andres Alfonso Rodriguez, Luis Perdomo, Ameena Al-sumaiti,
Francisco Santamaria, and Sergio Rivera present a charge strategy for charging
xv
xvi Preface
electric vehicles in office buildings using automatic learning algorithms offer-

ing benefits to its implementation.
In Chapter 6, Jerzy R. Szymanski and Marta Zurek-Mortkal present the
different charging strategies and EV battery model. They also perform
a case study of charging high-power Li-ion batteries for electric work
machines.
In Chapter 7, Jerzy R. Szymanski and Marta Zurek-Mortka describe a
hybrid EV fast charging station’s structure to integrate with the industrial
power grid.
In Chapter 8, Rajkumar Viral and Divya Asija present a theoretical
regulatory framework for smart charging EVs and HVs.
In Chapter 9, Aashish Kumar Bohre, Partha Sarathee Bhowmik, and
Baseem Khan present an actual case study for efficient charging infrastruc-
ture planning with renewable sources, supporting EVs’ adoption as an effi-
cient alternative for transportation.
In Chapter 10, Lokesh Kumar presents a real-time price-competitive
market structure based on game theory for EV charging stations consid-
ering various practical parameters, including wait time and reputation
function.
In Chapter 11, Ubaid Rehman presents a Super-Conducting–Magnetic
Energy Storing (SME’S) System to regulate the system’s voltages during
charging of an EV. This enhances battery life and increases the EVs charging
efficiency in the smart grid (SG).
In Chapter 12, Lokesh Kumar presents an actual case study for a novel
intelligent route planning framework for an electric vehicle with consider-
ation to waiting time.
In Chapter 13, Nadia Adnan, Sharina Md Nordin, and Shouvik Sanyal
present intelligent charging management for autonomous vehicles. They
also describe a brilliant solution for smart cities and societies.
In Chapter 14, Sanchari Deb, Sulabh Sachan, Mohammad Saad Alam,
and Samir M Sharif present a comprehensive review of an EV integrated
virtual power plant (VPP).
In Chapter 15, Sanchari Deb and Sulabh Sachan present the single objec-
tive modeling of EV charging station placement problems regarding super-
imposition of roads and a distribution network.
In Chapter 16, D. R. Karthik, Mallikarjunareddy Bandi, Naveenkumar
Marati, Balraj Vaithilingam, and Kathirvel Karuppazhagi present a review
on recent trends and technologies of electric vehicles and their wireless
charging methods.
In Chapter 17, Satendra Kumar Singh Kushwaha, Satyprakash, Akhilesh
Kumar Gupta, Akbar Ahmad, Bandi Mallikarjuna Reddy, and Narendra
Preface xvii
Kumar Ch discuss techno-economic issues of grid-connected large photo-

voltaic plants of the smart City Prayagraj to the EV Charging Station.
We hope that this edited book includes a broad collection of state-of-
the-art studies on the theme. Readers are expected to find these chap-
ters inspiring and helpful while carrying out their research in the subject
domain.
Acknowledgments
The editors would like to thank all the authors who have made their valuable
contributions to this edited book. We also thank all the reviewers who have
generously spared their time in reviewing the chapter manuscripts. Our
sincere thanks go to the Scrivener Publishing and John Wiley Publication
and staff for their cooperation and continuous support throughout this
edited book’s production process.
– Editors
1
Smart Charging: An Outlook Towards
its Role and Impacts, Enablers, Markets,
and the Global Energy System
Bikash Sah* and Praveen Kumar
Department of Electronics and Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of

Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, Assam, India
Abstract
The push for transport electrification has increased worldwide due to grow-
ing concerns about carbon emissions by conventional fossil fuel based vehicles.
With the push of transport electrification, the exiting power systems utility grid
is also evolving. Electric vehicles (EVs) are becoming popular and gaining the
market share in due course of time. The increase in EVs demands more power
to charge which results in a significant impact on the utility grid. Dependency
on renewable energy sources and the use of local energy storage has increased.
Inculcating the incremental addition of EVs and the integration of renewables and
local energy storage requires overhauling the planning, monitoring, operation,
and maintenance of the power system and its components. Smart charging is an
EV charging technique that focusses on reducing the impact of increased power
demand and helps in the integration of renewables and local energy storage. Smart
charging adds flexibility in the operation of power system components with added
functionalities that give augmented monitoring and control to EV users and the
power system operator. The goals of smart charging are set to unleash coherency
between transport electrification, low-carbon emission generation, and utilization
of electricity. This chapter will define the context of “smart” with respect to “smart
charging”, present an outlook towards its role and impacts on the utility grid and
connected entities, and describe the enablers of smart charging, markets, and the
operation of the global energy system.
Keywords: Energy system, smart charging, role, market
*Corresponding author: bikash.2015@iitg.ac.in
Sulabh Sachan, P. Sanjeevikumar, and Sanchari Deb (eds.) Smart Charging Solutions for Hybrid
and Electric Vehicles, (1–38) © 2022 Scrivener Publishing LLC
1
2 Smart Charging Solutions for Hybrid and Electric Vehicles
1.1 Introduction to Smart Charging

Organizations worldwide are working to ensure the usage of low carbon
generating entities meet day-to-day requirements such as power generation
and transportation [1, 2]. The use of renewables has helped meet the tar-
get in the case of power generation. At the same time, a paradigm shift in
the transportation sector with the introduction of electric vehicles (EVs)
is evident. This paradigm shift rolled out challenges to the existing power
systems due to an increase in the demand for electricity to charge, the use of
EVs as distributed energy storage, and regulating the power quality. Smart
charging techniques for EVs emerge as a solution to meet the challenges [3].
Smart charging of EVs supports the convergence of EV owners’ behav-
ior and requirements, charging, the grid, and all participants involved in
the system. Support is provided by various system enablers, which include
supporting technologies, policies, and stakeholders. The benefits of smart
charging extend to the efficient management of charging during peak and
off-peak load hours, increased penetration of renewable energy, reduced
transmission losses, economic and technical benefits to users, and much
more [1, 4-6]. The smart charging system will unleash more benefits when
the users’ and service providers’ requirements are a defined set of opera-
tional standards that are coherently aligned.
The literature presents a broader range of developments in the smart
charging systems [5, 7]. Most of the works are on developing algorithms
to either maximize, minimize, or compute an optimal parameter to define
an efficient working of the smart charging system. Although it is desirable
to approach the smart charging system’s design to inculcate the interests of
all the stakeholders, most of the work did not consider the evolution of the
market or the competitiveness of service providers and their outlooks [8].
Cars in general and EVs spend more than 90% of their lifetime parked.
The parking period can be used for a variety of purposes, such as local
energy storage, mobile energy storage, backup support to homes and
buildings, active power support to the utility grid, ancillary services sup-
port, and much more. The services rendered by EVs generate income
for the EV users as well. An EV can effectively be customized for both
mobility and micro-grid connected systems. Apart from the mentioned
services, EVs support renewable integration as well. The power generated
from renewables is intermittent but attractive as the contribution of carbon
emissions in this generation is reduced drastically. The EVs, when used as
local energy storage devices, act as a bridge between the utility grid and
renewables.
Smart Charging 3
Smart charging also renders a fascinating opportunity to scale-up,

improve reliability, automate operation monitoring and control, and over-
haul the existing power systems. Although the increased penetration of
EVs has a serious impact on the operation of the utility grid, the added
potential of EVs with goals of smart charging make the power system flex-
ible at the consumer end, as well as to the power system operator and con-
nected entities. This chapter will focus on the various aspects of dealing
with increased penetration of EVs using smart charging. Worldwide, the
definition and context of “smart” may vary depending on the requirements
of the users. The next subsection will introduce the context of “smart” and
describe various approaches to develop a smart system.
1.1.1 Context of SMART

The term “smart” is the most commonly added word to every applica-
tion, service, and technology in recent times. The context of “smart” varies
based on the definition of the manufacturer, user, and the objectives for
which the application, services, and technology are developed. Any prod-
uct that implies making life simpler and better than its previous counter-
part is termed as “smart”. Hence, defining the context of “smart” is utterly
dependent on added functionalities in a product. The functionalities may
include intelligence in operation, internet connectivity in devices such
as IoT, data-driven operation and analysis, learning capabilities from the
deployed environment, communication between devices or entities of a
system, or a combination of any or all the mentioned functionalities.
The term “smart” originates from an acronym: Self-Monitoring,
Analysis, and Reporting Technology. “Smart” technologies can be broadly
categorized in the following ways:
a. Smart automation devices are devices automated by pro-

gramming and learning data to operate based on an intu-
itive interface included in the smart automation device. A
geyser that operates at a particular interval of time to heat
water automatically considering the environment’s ambient
temperature is an example of a smart automation device.
b. Smart software devices are application based and pro-
grammed to perform analytics, display data to the user,
request data from the connected subsystems in a system,
or any other functionalities for which it is programmed.
Such devices mostly require internet connectivity or any
communication link between the connected subsystems.

An example of a smart software device is an application
installed in a computing system to control and monitor a
factory’s operation. Smart software devices are considered to
be easily scalable and upgradeable.
c. Smart hardware devices, as the name suggests, include
remotely connected, monitored, and operated devices. Such
devices mostly require a software-based user interface and
connectivity using any communication technology to mon-
itor and operate. Smart appliances at homes, such as smart
bulbs, are one of the examples of a smart hardware device.
d. Smart computational environment: Computational environ-
ment in recent days has upgraded diversely but converges to
a common theme of “smart”. The environment here refers to
all the connected devices or smart devices in a system that
give a platform to the user to develop and execute an opera-
tion for which the environment is proficient. The operation’s
development and execution is made possible by establishing
necessary communication between each internal device and
required external entities. The IBM Cloud, Microsoft Azure,
and Google Cloud are examples of a smart computational
environment. Users have access to a variety of applications
and devices that can be configured as required.
The categorization of “smart” devices is broad and not limited to the

types mentioned earlier. Enhancement in existing technologies and new
developments have shown vast possibilities of making existing devices
smart and accessible. The addition of smart functionalities in any system
should increase product capabilities, utilization, reliability, and transcend
conventional product boundaries.
The context of smart charging is an amalgamation of all the “smart”
technologies. The smart charging infrastructure involves the need of auto-
mation devices, software run devices, and supporting software, hardware
devices, and the computational environment. Each of the mentioned enti-
ties is built with intelligence added by various algorithms that help make
relevant decisions and implement them.
Any “smart” system requires proper coordination while developing
and operating. The next subsection briefly explains approaches taken by
the developers to ensure the addition of functionalities, which make the
system smart and reliable to the users and renders market value to the
developers.
Smart Charging 5
1.1.2 Approaches
The paradigm of “smart” is relatively novel and rupturing the conventional
product developing organization. The conceptualization of connotation
demands a systematic approach. The approaches vary based on the utility
and target users. A developer takes three different approaches, considering
the target, to determine which functionalities are to be added. The first
approach is to add smartness to the target applications accessible to users
of the device. Adding functionalities to an application so that the users can
monitor, control, and execute the workings of a connected system smartly
is an example of the first approach.
The second approach adds functionalities to the device instead of the
application that connects the user and the device. An example of the sec-
ond approach is adding sensors and programmed microcontrollers to a
device to operate intelligently based on the sensor data and computed
parameters. The user interface connected in the second approach can be
limited to data visualizations and minimal control operations. The third
approach is an amalgamation of both the first and second approaches.
Both the target user application and the devices connected are upgraded to
develop a smart environment.
The developers of smart charging take the third approach. The third
approach ensures that the overall system is intelligent to make decisions even
when it is not able to coordinate with the connected devices or software. For
example, while in operation, the cable connecting the distribution transformer
and the charging station of a smart charging system experience a higher cur-
rent than the normal value. As per the first approach, the information of fault
will be conveyed to the operator of the monitoring station and the fault will
continue until the operator signals to shut down the operation. There is a pos-
sibility that the cables will be damaged by the time operator responds, the
operator did not respond due to negligence, or there was a communication
breakdown leading to non-receipt of information at the operator end. If the
second approach is taken, although the system will shut down due to fault, the
operator will have no information to detect the cause of the fault. However,
if the third approach is taken, the operator will get information about the
fault and the system will shut down operation on its own. The third approach
ensures the safety of the system and saves time working on fault correction.
1.1.3 Contributions
This chapter has described the types of charging followed by the categori-
zation of smart charging, the requirements and components of the smart
charging system, the enablers who coherently support the development,

operation, and management of the smart charging system, and control
architectures developed so far for implementation and integration with the
conventional grid. They commenced an outlook on commerce, evolution,
and competitiveness in the smart charging system market.
This section is structured to give readers an understanding of the term
“smart” and its applicability in an EV charging infrastructure. The first
section defines “smart” and explains the context and approaches to add-
ing smartness. The second section deals with different types of charging:
viz., uncoordinated, coordinated, and smart. The third and fourth sec-
tions describe the impact and requirements of the smart-charging system,
respectively. The fifth section defines each smart-charging system’s compo-
nents, followed by a discussion on various control architectures that can be
used for smart charging in the sixth section. The commerce and outlook of
smart-charging are explored in the seventh section, followed by a conclu-
sion in the eighth section.
1.2 Types of Charging

The charging of EVs needs power from a source. The power source can
be the conventional utility grid, local energy storage system, renewable
energy systems, or a hybrid system developed by combining any of the
sources mentioned. Apart from charging EVs, the power sources also feed
load connected and cater services to increase the utility grid’s reliability.
Charging EVs adds an extra load to the power sources. Three types of
charging consider the management and distribution of power due to the
addition of load from EV charging are widely discussed in the literature:
viz., uncoordinated, coordinated, and smart [9, 10].
1.2.1 Uncoordinated Charging

The utility grid connecting to the load from a power source is designed to
meet a particular region’s power demand. Further, the utility grid opera-
tors perform demand response or load distribution analysis to serve con-
sumers with reliability. If an unprecedented load is added to the utility
grid, the possibility of voltage fluctuations and blackouts increases [11].
Uncoordinated charging transpires when the EV’s charge is done in the
form of unprecedented loads, i.e., the time to charge EVs is not scheduled
in coordination with the utility grid [12, 13].
Smart Charging 7
The impact of uncoordinated charging to the utility grid can be

described in two ways: increased load demand and change in the shape of
load profile. Increased load demand refers to the need for more kilowatts at
a particular instant, as noted previously. In contrast, the change in shape of
the load profile corresponds to a change in the timing of peak load and off-
peak load hours. Literature reports that even a low adoption of EVs could
significantly change the load profile and affect electricity infrastructure.
The impacts of uncoordinated charging are not limited to the load demand
and shape; phase imbalance, power quality issues, such as an increase in
total harmonic distortion, increased power loss, line loading, and equip-
ment degradation, such as transformers and circuit breakers, also impact
the utility grid [11]. However, the impact of uncoordinated charging is
seen on all three segments of the utility grid, namely, generation, transmis-
sion, and distribution systems, but the distribution section of the utility
grid is the worst affected [14].
1.2.2 Coordinated Charging

Coordinated charging is characterized by charging EVs in coordination
with the utility grid. The coordination is required to identify the present
condition (load connected) of the grid or power source that will supply
the power to charge EVs. The peak load and off-peak load hours of a util-
ity grid vary based on residential, industrial, or commercial regions. In
general, for the residential area, the utility grid is in peak load at evening
and night hours, while the off-peak load hours are noted during late nights
when people sleep. The load demand for an industrial area will depend on
the working shifts and operation of factories. For commercial areas, the
peak load hours will be at consumer visiting hours, i.e., during the evening.
The off-peak load hours will be during the morning [6, 15].
In the case of coordinated charging, based on the regions, the process of
charging is scheduled during off-peak load hours. However, it is ensured
that EV owners are not barred from the services. The literature is flooded
with works done to perform coordinated charging by developing optimiz-
ing algorithms, demand response strategy, load scheduling, controllers,
dynamic pricing methodology, electricity market operation strategy, and
time of use (ToU) [16-22]. Although the works in the literature are diverse,
each of them shares the following common goals:
a. The EV owners’ need to charge at any time of the day should

not be denied, irrespective of the loading in the utility grid
b. The power system operator (PSO) constraints should be

coordinated and supported in the quest to charge EVs
c. Necessary support services from the EV owner to the PSO
and the PSO to the EV owners should be provided via nec-
essary coordination
d. Increased penetration of local energy storage and renewable
energy sources in the utility grid
Coordinated charging of EVs is complicated, expensive, and needs stan-

dard infrastructure support for implementations. However, the benefits
are immense compared to uncoordinated charging. Coordinated charging
helps solve two major issues: first, congestion management, which is
defined as an increase in thermal loading in transformers and cables and,
second, voltage drops, which are most commonly experienced due to the
addition of any unprecedented load, such as EVs [15, 23-25].
The type of charging is also a significant factor to be considered when
working with coordinated charging [8, 11]. A fast-charging requires a
higher amount of power to be transferred to the EV batteries in a short
duration of time. In contrast, in slow charging, the requirement of power
is reduced, but time is increased. The ToU and dynamic pricing algo-
rithms are the most commonly presented in the literature to cater to the
requirements of power for different charging types. Although coordinated
charging solves the basic requirements of charging EVs in consideration
to the utility grid’s constraints and managing EVs as a load, it fails to be a
future proof system where both the EV owner and the PSO are guaranteed
an optimized charging process [10, 18].
1.2.3 Smart Charging

Uncoordinated and coordinated charging worked on two different objec-
tives. Uncoordinated charging prioritizes the requirements of EV users. In
contrast, coordinated charging tries to optimize utility grid operation con-
sidering the grid’s requirements and ensuring satisfactory service to the EV
users. Although coordinated charging, to some extent, meets the requirement
of both the utility grid and EV users, the algorithms and controller developed
are inclined to only one segment of operation, the utility grid [9, 26].
The smart charging process, on one hand, lets the EV user decide the
priority and, on the other hand, adapts the charging process to meet the
requirements of the PSO. For example, suppose a user opts to charge EV
during off-peak load hours. In that case, incentives are given in the form
of cost reduction in electricity billing. If a user prioritizes to charge rather
Smart Charging 9
than considering the grid’s condition, especially during peak-load hours,

the electricity billing is higher. The user is not barred from getting the
desired service, but an optimal solution is met between the EV owner and
the PSO [27]. The smart control ensures the charging of batteries in EVs
within a given time and considers PSO constraints, such as voltage and
frequency regulations. The smart charging’s prime concern is to reduce the
impact of EV charging and enhance grid reliability and stability. For a bet-
ter understanding, Figure 1.1 shows the list of expected functionalities to
define the level of smartness in the charging system.
The platform for electro-mobility (2016) in the European Union (EU)
defines smart charging as: “consist[ing] of adapting EV battery charging
patterns in response to market signals, such as time-variable electricity
prices or incentive payments, or response to acceptance of the consumer’s
bid, alone or through aggregation, to sell demand reduction/increase (grid
to vehicle) or energy injection (vehicle to grid) in organized electricity mar-
kets or for internal portfolio optimization” [26]. Smart charging demands
intelligent monitoring, control, and operation [1, 3, 4]. Hence, communi-
cation and coordination between the charging infrastructure entities is a
must to realize smart charging. In smart charging, the entities are not just a
mere power transfer system, but rather a data-rich monitoring system that
can monitor, control, coordinate, communicate, forecast, and optimize the
operations [2, 7]. A brief description of the various approaches presented
in the literature is shown in Figure 1.2.
Level of smartness
Low Medium High
1. Uncoordinated EV Charging 1. Subscribing to grid for charging. 1. Bidirectional services rendered

2. Manual switching of charging by 2. Charging EVs based on ToU by EVs
EV users 3. Grid coordinates to EV user 2. Integration renewables and
3. EV users encouraged to charge about grid conditions and energy storage technology
during off-load hours. encourage by providing 3. Local load management
incentives. (V2B/V2H)
4. Load management by 4. Use of EVs for ancillary services
scheduling. for grid stability
5. Robust controller and
supporting entities with
increased reliability
Figure 1.1 Flow diagram to understand and judge the level of smartness based on
functionalities.
Unidirectional Bidirectional Dynamic

User based Scheduling of Time of Use
(ToU) based The power flows (V2G, pricing based
control charging and only from the
charging V2B/V2H) control
The user perform discharging electricity grid
towards the EVs to The power flow The user in this
the process of The tariff is
The user subscribe collected from the
charge. A from EV to the grid case is charged
charging and to the grid controlled (G2V) as well as based on the
EV user based on
discharging based services. Based on the time in which
unidirectional flow grid to the EV charging or
on the information consent between of power based on (V2G). Valley filling discharging rate
EV user charge or and grid
on grid conditions. EV user and grid the requirements or peak shaving
discharge. The cost conditions. The
User manually of EV user, and pricing
operator, of charging during
condition of grid, policies for both pricing varies in
control charging automatic charging peak load hour will real time based on
and load V2G and G2V is
and discharging. and discharging is be higher as which the user
management set-up to reduce
performed. compared to off- decide to charge or
ensures least the impact on
load peak hours. discharge.
impact on the grid. electricity grid.
Smart charging techniques
Figure 1.2 A brief on different approaches to smart charging techniques.
The definitions and requirements to call a charging infrastructure smart

vary, but all the ideas converge to the following goals:
i. Guaranteed service to the users as required by optimizing

all the entities’ operations and energy management in the
system
ii. Grid-friendly charging of EVs considering peak shaving;
grid-friendly charging of EVs is done when the utility grid
has required or surplus power (off-peak hours) after meet-
ing the need of a precedented connected load
iii. Renewable integration: the smart charging of EVs should
promote the use of renewables. The use of local energy
storage systems (ESS) has shown promising results in inte-
grating renewable energy sources to the utility grid. The
energy generated from the renewables can be stored in
the ESS and supplied to the utility grid when the grid is at
stress. EVs act as distributed energy sources by allowing
the bidirectional flow of power, hence, EVs can pivot the
integration of renewables.
iv. Increase reliability and stability: smart charging monitor-
ing and control algorithms should focus on the utility grid’s
demand and supply of power. The requirements of all the
stakeholders in a power system should be met optimally.
Based on the discussions in the previous paragraphs, a comparison is

presented in Table 1.1. Meeting the goals of smart charging is challenging,
but its implementation gives an assurance of meeting the specified goals.
The impact of smart charging is discussed in the next section.
Table 1.1 A comparison between different types of charging techniques for EVs.
Types of
charging Impact on the grid Advantages Disadvantages Maturity
Uncoordinated Leads to issues such 1. It is user friendly 1. Increased power losses High
as increased load and the deployment in transmission line (Product readily
demand and change does not demand any and components available in the
in the shape of load support services or 2. Voltage and frequency market and used
profile, imbalance establishment fluctuations by consumers)
in phases, and lower 2. The capital 3. Phase imbalance
power quality investment cost is the 4. Power quality issues
least such as an increase
in total harmonic
distortion
5. Degradation of
transformers and
transmission lines
(Continued)
Smart Charging
11
12
Table 1.1 A comparison between different types of charging techniques for EVs. (Continued)
Types of
Coordinated Reduces negative 1. Performs peak 1. The cooperation of EV Medium
impact by providing shaving and demand users is required, which (pilot project
ancillary services response is uncertain implementation)
and frequency 2. Increased utilization 2. The incoming and
control options to EV users outgoing of EVs is
such as providing not predictable, hence
ancillary services relying on EVs for
and support to the ancillary services and
grid by charging regulation can put the
and discharging power system at risk
considering grid 3. The requirement
conditions of communication
3. Load management infrastructure will
which reduces power demand huge capital
loss and deterioration investment
in the transmission 4. The assurance of a
line and transformers positive impact on
4. Opportunity to the electricity grid is
engage users in the missing
electricity market
(Continued)
Smart Charging Solutions for Hybrid and Electric Vehicles
Table 1.1 A comparison between different types of charging techniques for EVs. (Continued)
Types of
Smart Helps in peak shaving 1. Eases the integration 1. Implementation Low
or valley filling, of renewable energy challenge due to
power management sources in the grid complexity
on the grid side and 2. The use of local 2. Higher risk operation
energy management energy storage adds as the operation
on the EV side, flexibility to select and control in
ancillary services, power source- grid the infrastructure
voltage and or energy storage for are dependent on
frequency regulation, charging communication
improvement in 3. Improved grid systems
power quality, and stability and 3. Demand commitment
renewable energy reliability from both EV users and
integration 4. Control, operation, PSO
management, and 4. Variability in market
monitoring of system operations interferes
at ease with the workings of
5. Promotes usage of the infrastructure
EVs due to increased
satisfaction of EV
owners and PSO
Smart Charging
13
1.3 Impact of Smart Charging on Global Energy

Systems
The global energy system is characterized by the interconnected electric-
ity grid which comprises of generation, transmission, and distribution
systems, as well as the utilization of renewable energy sources. The price
of electricity varies for regions around the world. Each country tries to
ensure energy security by planning generations within the boundary. In
most cases, renewables come to the rescue because recent advancements
in local energy storage systems have not increased energy security. EVs
are also considered as mobile/local energy storage due to the capacity of
batteries used to power the drivetrain. Hence, an increase in the num-
ber of EVs in a country has achievable implications to impact the global
energy system.
The direction of the flow of power plays a significant role in deter-
mining the impact of smart charging. In the case of charging, two types
of viz., unidirectional and bidirectional, are described in the literature.
In the case of unidirectional, there is a controlled power flow from the
utility grid to the EVs to charge, while in bidirectional the power flow is
exchanged between EVs and the utility grid [3, 5, 23, 24, 28-31]. When
the grid is in peak load hours, controlled power flow from EVs to the
utility grid meets the surplus demand and while during off-peak hours,
the EVs charge using surplus power in the grid. Note that the charging
process is spread out over the day and mostly controlled using algorithms.
Of the two, the bidirectional flow of power is found to be better in reduc-
ing the impact of uncoordinated charging. A study by the International
Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) states that, in the short term, bidirec-
tional smart charging is able to reduce more curtailment when compared
to unidirectional smart charging [32].
Further, CO2 emissions are also reduced more in the bidirectional case,
compared to the unidirectional. The long-term analysis by IRENA is done
considering renewables’ integration, which includes solar and wind-based
isolated systems. For the long-term, a reduction in CO2 is noticeable in
bidirectional viz. when power renewables augment power production as
compared to unidirectional. Hence, smart charging promotes the integra-
tion of renewables [27, 32].
The impact of smart charging is not limited to supporting the integra-
tion renewables, it also helps reduce stress on various equipment in the
utility grid’s infrastructure. The impact is widely discussed in the subse-
quent subsections.
Smart Charging 15
1.3.1 On the Grid Side

Smart charging’s grid-side infrastructure consists of transmission lines,
transformers, substations, connected loads, and the PSO. Uncoordinated
charging is widely discussed for various negative impacts it superimposes
on the utility grid, such as components (transmission lines, transformers)
overloading, power loss, voltage and frequency instability, and increased
peak demand [24, 31]. With an increase in load due to the charging of
EVs, the utility grid’s existing components are overloaded, which increases
the demand for generation and transmission. The lifespan of all the com-
ponents is adversely affected. Increased demand for active power leads
to an increase in power loss in the distribution system [23-25]. Further,
the financial losses incurred due to the components’ damage are mostly
not reported in the literature, however, the PSO suffers huge losses due to
added investment capital.
Subsection 2.3 described the goals of smart charging. Each goal finds a
way to reduce the negative impacts mentioned in the previous paragraph.
Smart charging has added the functionality of power management and
renewable energy integration. The scheduling of the charging and discharg-
ing of EVs over the whole day optimizes power exchange between EVs and
the utility grid. Peak load demand is met by using EVs as an energy source.
Further, renewable energy’s intermittency is curbed by using EVs as energy
storage or for charging using renewables. Added benefits of smart charging
are the regulation of voltage (by absorbing and supplying reactive power)
and frequency (by the exchange of active power), peak shaving and valley
filling, and improved utility grid stability [33-35].
1.3.2 On the Demand Side

The demand side comprises of different types of load: residential, commer-
cial, and industrial. The connected loads are vulnerable to power quality
changes. The power quality parameters are defined based on voltage and
frequency changes and the harmonics in the power supply [31, 36, 37].
With the integration of renewables and EVs in the system, a balance in
the whole power system’s flow is achieved. Balance reduces voltage surges
caused due to surplus power during off-peak load hours and uncoordi-
nated addition of renewables or energy storage. Voltage flickers that dam-
age various equipment, especially in the residential sector, are smoothed.
The harmonics are reduced with added control and optimization tech-
niques for smart charging. Power flow management and distribution con-
strains the phase imbalance on the demand side [38, 39]. Thus, consumers’
reliability, on the demand side, is weighted with loads of added benefits

from smart charging.
1.3.3 Overall Infrastructure

The infrastructure of the existing utility grid is dominated by outdated
equipment to monitor and operate. The implementation of smart charging
requires robust communication, controller, and fault tracking systems. A
possible solution to meet robustness requires using data-rich monitor-
ing systems to perform necessary forecasting and optimization. Another
possibility is upgrading the utility grid by replacing current components
with smart components. For example, the conventional transformer can be
replaced by a smart transformer. Conventional monitoring systems in sub-
stations can be replaced with high-performance systems that can perform
monitoring, forecasting, and real-time computation of necessary parame-
ters for fault detection, prevention, and correction. Upgrading the utility
grid adds a financial burden to the PSO. Further, renewables integration to
the utility grid helps reduce capital expenditure spent on increasing gener-
ation [40-43], hence, the PSO prefers to add precision sensors, communi-
cation systems, and data storage devices to upgrade rather than replacing
the components.
The possibilities of changing infrastructure are immense. Every addi-
tion or upgrade to implement smart charging will help make the utility
grid infrastructure smart, thereby improving reliability and stability and
helping the PSO perform necessary day ahead or month ahead planning to
reduce losses, both power and financial.
1.4 Types of Smart Charging

Smart charging is categorized based on the direction of flow of power: uni-
directional or bidirectional. Smart unidirectional charging of EVs is imple-
mented in conjunction with the ToU. EV users are encouraged to charge
during off-peak load hours. The implementation of unidirectional smart
charging is simple and requires the least technically advanced upgrades of
existing components but proves to be effective in reducing uncoordinated
charging. Further, the charging rate (slow, medium, or fast) in unidirec-
tional charging is also monitored and controlled.
Bidirectional charging is called a “vehicle to everything” or V2X. The
V2X is implemented in two standard configurations (shown in the sche-
matic presented in Figure 1.3).
Smart Charging 17
Electricity grid
Grid
operator
Voltage
Electricity
Controller
pricing
Power Energy
Aggregator Communication signals

Power transfer
V2G V2G
EV EV
Charger Charger
V2H V2H
Figure 1.3 A schematic to differentiate V2H/V2B and V2G.
i. Vehicle to the Building (V2B) or Vehicle to Home (V2H):

EV users park EVs in the home, hence, V2B/V2H is prom-
inently used and is a preferred option. The EVs are charged
from the supply from the utility grid or a local energy stor-
age device (ESS). The local ESS has energy stored from any
renewable energy sources or when the utility grid is in off-
peak hours. An additional benefit of V2H/V2B is the use of
EV batteries for residential power backup during utility grid
outage periods. Further, the simplicity in operation, direct
benefits provided to EV users on deploying V2B/V2H, and
technology maturity have attracted the market [9, 10, 35, 44].
ii. Vehicle to Grid (V2G):
In V2H/V2B, EVs are used as a residential power backup.
However, when the EVs are used to provide support to the grid
by discharging during peak load hours and charging during
off-peak load hours, it is called V2G. V2G renders a notice-
able impact on the grid’s operation compared to V2H/V2B [45,
46]. V2G requires intelligent controllers to provide ancillary
services such as voltage and frequency control and secondary
power reserve. The ToU is also implemented in conjunction
with V2G systems [47]. The complexity in the implementation
of V2G is higher than V2B/V2H and the technology requires
mature and sophisticated solutions to draw market attention.
Table 1.2 Differences between V2B/V2H and V2G systems in smart charging
architecture.
Type Merits Benefits
V2B/V2H 1. Simple with least capital 1. EVs can be used as a backup
investment power supply or a generator
2. Local control and 2. A step to the development of
monitoring the micro-grid
3. Ease in scaling and 3. Reliability of electricity usage
installment 4. EVs acts as mobile energy
4. Low power losses and storage; local energy deficit
degradation of any power can be catered to by moving
supply equipment EVs
V2G 1. Give an option to EV user 1. EVs, instead of being a
to be a partner to PSO and burden to the utility grid,
earn by selling electricity coordinate to reduce the
2. Flexibility in operation impact of the unprecedented
3. Chance to build load
infrastructure, which 2. Improved voltage and
will result in increased frequency regulation
reliability 3. Increased stability of the grid
4. Large scale control and 4. Demand maturity of
management technology or sustainable EV
5. If implemented and market
operated successfully,
it promotes EV usage
and renewable energy
integration
The difference between different types of smart charging is presented in

Table 1.2.
1.5 Entities of a Smart-Charging System

Smart charging systems are evolving. The entities participating in the exe-
cution of smart charging algorithms vary based on the countries’ organi-
zation structure and policy. For example, in India, power transmission is
dominated by the Power System Operation Corporation (POSOCO) under
the Ministry of Power and state power distribution subsidiaries take care
of the distribution systems. Here, the implementation of smart charging
Smart Charging 19
would require the involvement of POSOCO and state power distribution

subsidiaries. Based on the works presented in the literature, smart charging
entities are listed and briefly explained below.
1.5.1 Operators: Generation, Transmission, and Distribution

The power transfer between source and connected loads involves three
units of viz.: generation, transmission, and distribution. Smart charging
influences all the three units, therefore, they are considered as entities of
the system. The addition of EVs as a load to the grid demands more power
at the node in which charging takes place. The increase in load is reflected
in all segments and generation capacity must be increased to meet the
demand. With an increase in the load, transmission line losses, transform-
ers, and connected components increase. Further, deterioration of the dis-
tribution transformer’s life and the power quality on the distribution side
is observed. Hence, the implementation of smart charging requires proper
coordination with each unit of power system operators.
Literature reveals the positive impact of smart charging on generation,
transmission, and distribution systems. The requirement of additional gen-
eration due to the addition of load is substantially reduced in bidirectional
smart charging. However, the uncertain availability of EVs is a concern
during peak load hours. In the transmission system, smart charging helps
improve grid security by performing economic operations and time ahead
planning to cater to the requirements by scheduling the charging and dis-
charging of EVs. Improvement in the regulation of voltage, frequency, and
load management on the distribution side is one of smart charging’s goals
[6, 24, 31, 38]. If smart charging is implemented, the assertion of a positive
impact on the operators becomes a reality.
1.5.2 Controllers
Controllers are an integral part of smart charging. Smart charging is
described in conjunction with power management, optimal control, and
operation, satisfying the need for the PSO and EV user. Hence, a robust
controller is required to meet the requirements. The controller decides on
automatic scheduling, power flow, pricing, and the charging rate of EVs.
Two types of controllers are widely discussed in literature: centralized
and decentralized [9, 10]. When all the control actions are performed by
a single controller connected to all other smart charging system entities, it
is called a centralized controller. Alternatively, the distribution of control
actions at different segregated units is described as decentralized control.
In decentralized control, a centralized controller is connected to all the

decentralized controllers to perform central control actions. Each of the
control techniques is described in subsequent sections of this chapter [48].
1.5.3 Aggregators
As the name suggests, aggregators aggregate EVs. Aggregators require
group EVs connected at different charging infrastructure areas so that
visible, beneficial impacts can be created in the utility grid. The aggre-
gator interface is between the PSO and connected EVs at charging sta-
tions, homes, or any location to perform bidirectional or unidirectional
charging. Further, the aggregator coordinates with the market to enable the
participation of EVs. The aggregator provides the controller with required
information to decide whether to enact generation or storage systems and
provide ancillary services to the grid [49].
In some cases, aggregators also act as decision-makers. For example,
suppose the electricity pricing information is coordinated by the aggrega-
tor. In that case, the decision to command the charging locations based on
pricing is performed by aggregators [50].
A smart charging system might have one or multiple aggregators. EV
owners have options to select their aggregators based on the benefits con-
ferred. The aggregators help the PSO perform day-ahead planning. The
planning includes deciding to buy or sell electricity prices; the aggregators’
data is sent to the PSO to help with on demand forecasting. The uncer-
tainties involved in EV charging, such as arrival and departure timings,
the power required to charge or available to discharge, and preferences of
slow or fast charging are also dealt with by the aggregator. The uncertainty
management involves the decision to store energy in local ESS during peak
load hours and sell to the EV owners at any time. The use of local ESS helps
minimalize the impact of charging on the utility grid [51-53]. The informa-
tion exchanged by the aggregator requires robust communication systems
to monitor and operate [54]. The details of the communication systems are
explained in the next subsection.
1.5.4 Communication System

The requirements of the communication system are already established
based on the description of the above entities. Robust management,
control, and operation of smart charging infrastructure depends on an
effective communication system. Wired and wireless are two types of com-
munication technologies used in smart charging infrastructure based on
Smart Charging 21
the area’s demography. The application of wired and wireless communica-

tion technology is made in different types of networks, such as a local area
network (LAN), home area network (HAN), building area network (BAN),
industrial area network (IAN), office area network (OAN), wide area net-
work (WAN), field area network (FAN), and any many more, based on the
location and definitions of the deploying organization [10, 13, 49, 54, 55].
A layout of the communication system to exchange information between
different entities of smart charging systems is shown in Figure 1.4. All the
entities connected by dotted lines depict the communication channels. The
channels can be wired or wireless based on the requirements of the com-
munication link to be established [55].
Wired communication technologies, such as optical fiber cable, Ethernet
cable, and power line communication (PLC), are suitable for long-distance
data exchange. PLC has gained popularity over time. It uses the same power
line to share information between connected entities and is more reliable
and robust. HomePlug 1.0, HomePlug turbo, HomePlug AV, HD-PLC, and
UPA are examples of charging protocols that use PLC [56, 57]. Optical
fiber technology is also accessible due to the higher data rates offered.
Policy makers
Electricity grid
Grid operator in
Ancillary service electricity
market market
Pricing, load, power level,

supports required, instructions and
other data.
Central
management All relevant data
Manufacturer Central Database
Communication
architecture
Support service
provider
Consumers
EV user with V2G
EV
Charger
EV user with V2B Operation monitoring
Figure 1.4 Communication between various entities in smart charging infrastructure.

Moreover, a higher transmission range, less impact from electromagnetic

interference, and increased reliability due to lower bit error rates are a few
other perks to using optical fiber. Apart from PLC and optical fiber, a dig-
ital subscriber line (DSL) can also be used, especially in home setups for
smart charging. DSL does not require any sperate communication line, but
instead uses telephone lines for data exchange [58].
Wireless communication setups are preferred in areas where connected
devices are mobile. For example, in charging stations, the incoming and
outgoing of EVs are uncertain. Hence, infrastructure developers prefer to
use wireless communication technologies. Zigbee, WiFi, cellular network,
WiMAX, and satellite networks are popular wireless technologies. The net-
work used the most is called wireless LAN, which is a hierarchical mesh
structure for data exchange [54, 58, 59].
Note that more communication channels and entities can be added
appropriately.
1.5.5 Stakeholders
The previous subsections described the components which actively partic-
ipate in the operation and management of smart charging systems. Some
entities are involved mostly in the planning stages but are not involved in
real-time control. Such entities are manufacturers of various products for
the deployment of smart charging, the service providers who perform reg-
ular maintenance, and the policymakers who promote the deployment and
usage of EVs and the smart charging infrastructure. All are components
of the smart charging infrastructure. Each of these is described in the next
subsections.
1.5.5.1 Policymakers
Policymakers are individuals or organizations who participate in discus-
sions and policy design processes for smooth and firm implementation of
an idea. In the case of smart charging, policymakers focus on increasing
EVs utilization in the transportation sector. With increased utilization, the
requirements of infrastructure for charging EVs should also be considered.
Hence, research and studies are performed to frame policies that converse
consumers to think, plan, and use EVs. Policymakers are one of the inte-
gral drivers of the paradigm shift in using EVs in the transportation sector.
An example of policy is the Faster Adoption and Manufacturing
of (Hybrid &) Electric Vehicles (FAME) by the Department of Heavy
Industries under the Union Ministry of Heavy Industries and Public
Smart Charging 23
Enterprises. The first phase of FAME, FAME I, was started in 2015 and
completed on March 31st, 2019. FAME-II started on April 1st, 2019 and is
planned to be completed by March 31st, 2022 [60, 61]. FAME aims to pro-
mote eco-friendly vehicles, including electric vehicles and hybrid vehicles,
and EV buyers, increasing the demand and production of EVs. The promo-
tion includes providing incentives to both the manufacturer and buyers by
reducing taxes and electricity cost. Further, support to set up manufactur-
ing plants for EVs and related technologies are also promoted.
1.5.5.2 Manufacturers
Manufacturers design, develop, and sell the products. In smart charging,
the products include EVs, equipment to support power exchange between
the grid and EVs, products that are required to develop the communi-
cation infrastructure, and the accessories to support the maintenance
of all the products and equipment in the smart charging infrastructure.
Manufacturers are provided support by policymakers in developing EV
infrastructure subsidies for electricity cost, lease of land, and taxes.
1.5.5.3 Service and Support Providers

All the equipment and products used in smart charging need services, such
as the internet and electricity, to operate. Further, regular maintenance to
reduce the capital cost of replacement due to damage is required. Hence,
service and support providers are an integral component. The manufac-
turer and policymakers consider inputs from service and support providers
in both framing policies and manufacturing products. The manufacturer
ensures that spare parts of their product are readily available to the support
providers. The personnel involved is trained to check and repair by the
manufacturers.
1.5.5.4 Consumers
Consumers are the front divers for the implementation of smart charging
infrastructure. The demand for EVs and their supporting products and
equipment is wholly dependent on consumers’ needs. Hence, the man-
ufacturer, policymakers, and service providers do promotions, provide
incentives, and assure consumers’ maturity and reliability. The consum-
ers also draw constraints, such as charging speed, battery life, and cost of
replacing batteries, before buying an EV. If the demand for a product by
the consumers’ increases, it shows the technology’s acceptance [62, 63].
An appropriate business model with policies benefitting all the stakehold-

ers and fulfilling consumers’ requirements will be needed for the imple-
mentation of smart charging [64].
1.5.6 Market
With the maturity in EV technologies and push of governments worldwide
for e-mobility, the EV market has expanded in the past few years. Research
to reduce range anxiety, enhance the trust of EV users, reduce the weight
of the battery, and establish user-friendly charging stations are a few ways
the EV and supporting equipment manufacturers are working to build a
momentum of sales in the market. Oil and gas companies are also prepar-
ing to operate towards sustainable e-mobility. The smart charging infra-
structure market is reported to segmented into EV sales, mobility services,
electricity sales to charge EVs, installation and maintenance of charging
infrastructure, operation of smart charging stations and the utility grid,
and ancillary services [21, 65].
EV sales include the different types of EVs sold in the market, such as
consumer vehicles, private vehicles, public transport service vehicles, and
heavy vehicles. Mobility services include app development and manage-
ment to provide services at the users’ fingertips, perform data collection
and analysis to increase reliability in operation, EV fleet management,
booking of slots, and much more. The market keeps evolving with com-
petition between both well-known and emerging companies, each of them
seeking to increase their share of the market.
1.6 Enablers of Smart Charging

Smart charging requires enablers to implement it. Consumers and tech-
nology are two important enablers. The consumers have a varied aspect
of expectations and interpretation for any new technology released in the
market. The success and failure of the product depends on the acceptance
of consumers. On the other hand, recent times have experienced a rapid
transition in technology with new products with desired functionalities
released almost daily. The technology required for smart charging should
add functionalities that make the system intelligent in operation. Artificial
intelligence (AI) and data analytics, popularly called Big Data, are technol-
ogy enablers [20, 66, 67].
When looking into EV technology, the driving range, charging speed,
and availability of charging stations to charge while traveling are the three
Smart Charging 25
main constraints for large scale acceptance of electrification of transporta-

tion [68]. However, transportation is one of the basic requirements, hence,
EV penetration is certain if policymakers’ direct policies that incentivize
EV users and manufacturers. The flexibility requirements of each individ-
ual will be different, but a customer may compromise if usage results in
earning [49, 64, 65, 67]. Apart from policymakers, the PSO should also
sincerely participate by giving incentives in electricity pricing for EV users
prioritizing coordinated and smart charging. A comprehensive approach
to promote the use of EVs should be taken with due consideration of the
challenges: driving range, charging time, availability of charging stations,
the health of EV batteries, and buying cost of EVs and batteries.
The previous sections and subsections have described the requirements
of intelligent systems for the deployment of smart charging architectures.
The development of intelligent systems demands data. The data in the elec-
tricity grid is generally saved in separate database servers which are used
for future planning and expansion of the operation [57, 69, 70]. Hence,
designing an intelligent system using AI at the electricity grid side can be
attempted, but, when a developer looks to develop intelligent systems for
the consumers, lack of data is a big challenge. Hence, the digitalization of
the complete smart charging infrastructure can be an initial step to plan for
smart charging [67].
Digitalization with an assurance of data analytics can help in develop-
ing business models, components, software, and connected hardware and
an understanding of the expectations of the consumers. The data logged,
when analyzed, can reveal various day and night charging patterns, user
preferences, the requirement of power to charge, and various ancillary
services that can be attached to EVs [71]. Further, the deployment of
communication architecture requires decisions to be made on the com-
munication channel to be used. The data analyzed can also help to provide
useful insights to decide the data rate. Based on the data rate, communi-
cation channels can be selected. Thus, data analytics and AI are important
enablers of the smart charging system.
Apart from technologies that add intelligence, billing and payment ser-
vices are also an essential part of smart charging systems. Advancements
in technologies such as blockchain, which provides secured transactions
and maintains a ledger, are being utilized. Blockchains have distrib-
uted architectures and the operation is based on secured databases that
maintain a record of all transactions. The transactions are verified by the
users’ computational or connecting devices (computer, mobile phone, or
any smart devices) called nodes. The technology is preferred to be used
in smart charging systems due to security and distributed architecture.
Thus, blockchain technology has also emerged as an enabler in smart

charging systems [67, 69].
1.7 Control Architectures

Communication channels interconnect the components in a smart
charging system, but the interconnection does not result in a successful
operation. The operation requires controllers which either command cen-
trally or are distributed in the subsystems to make decisions. The next
subsections will describe different architectures in which the controller is
deployed in smart charging systems for smooth monitoring and operation
[10, 13, 15, 27, 31, 33, 43].
1.7.1 Centralized
The centralized control system for smart charging systems demands robust
communication infrastructure. In a centralized control, necessary data
is transmitted from each connected entity to the central controller. The
controller performs decision making by determining the optimal solution
considering constraints of both the EV user and the utility grid. The solu-
tion can be related to the direction of power flow, electricity cost, allowable
charging rate, scheduling of charging and discharging of EVs, and power
management. The central control, in a few cases, is supported by the nec-
essary algorithms that process the data. The processing of data includes
error check, relevant parameter estimations, data storage, and analysis.
Nonetheless, the centralized control system determines solutions or makes
decisions considering information from the entire system [9, 10]. A sche-
matic of the centralized controller is shown in Figure 1.5. Each of the enti-
ties shown connected by dotted lines depicts communication links.
The major drawback of the central controller in a smart charging sys-
tem is an optimization problem. The optimization problem becomes very
large and complex as it involves numerous parameters from different enti-
ties. The controller’s failure in the centralized control system will result in
a complete halt in operation or incur huge losses to the connected com-
ponents. Further, scalability is another challenge when the optimization
problem exceeds the constraints, such as the maximum number of EVs or
charging stations [72-74]. The drawbacks of the centralized controller are
outfitted by adopting hierarchical control architecture. Several controllers
are deployed to administer a particular function. In contrast, the central
controller is given the responsibility to monitor and perform load demand
Smart Charging 27
Electricity grid
Grid operator in
Ancillary service electricity
market market
Grid load
data service
Electricity
Ancillary Central pricing
services management data
pricing controller
data
Aggregator
EV
Charger
EV
V2H Charger
Communication
architecture Charging stations
EV
Charger
Standalone charger 1
EV
Charger
Mixed
V2B/V2H
EV and
Charger
standalone
charger
Standalone charger 2
V2B/V2H
Figure 1.5 Schematic of centralized controller in smart charging architecture.
response. The hierarchical architecture resulted in reduced computational

requirements [75, 76]. However, the risk of a negative impact on the smart
charging system due to centralized control is not largely reduced.
1.7.2 Decentralized
Decentralized control, contrary to centralized, has distributed control
and optimization modules. Charging of EVs takes place spatially in a dis-
tributed manner. Hence, the planning of decentralized control in smart
charging systems is considered to be safe and reliable. In decentralized
control, decision making takes place locally, where the EV charging takes
place. The requirement of extensive and reliable communication systems,
large and complete optimization, and the risk of damage due to a con-
troller’s incorrect decision is readily reduced [74, 77]. The only challenge
is performing load management. The data exchange between the utility
grid and EV users still demands communication systems. The schematic of
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One inheritance, however, was left to their ruin: the deposed and
reduced princes of Western Russia, and the boyars who formed
somewhat later that body of magnates which took to itself the
political power of the Commonwealth, and reduced the crown to a
plaything. And since there was no central force in the
Commonwealth, that Commonwealth went to pieces. The struggle
which for centuries had raged among Russian princes was repeated
in Poland on a far broader scale, and with more destructive intensity.
We must now go back to events which took place in Russia during

the last six years of Vitold’s life. Though the Mongol yoke weighed
yet on Russia, and liberation seemed still at a distance, the weight of
the yoke was not what it had been, even in the reign of Dmitri. In
general, people began to look on the Mongols as neighbors whom
they might, with gifts and flattery, keep in peace, and make
endurable. They were no longer masters in the old sense. Their
power had reached its greatest height and was declining. Wars and
disturbances were unceasing among the various Horde fragments,
hence a Moscow prince might favor one fragment in opposition to
others, and thus in time bring it over to his side.
In 1424 the Grand Prince, Vassili, fell ill, and his illness continued
half a year, till death came to him. In days preceding his illness, he
had turned his main effort to securing the inheritance to his eldest
son, also Vassili by name. He took every measure of prudence, and
expressed so much confidence in Vitold, his father-in-law, that he
made him chief guardian of this young Vassili. Vitold then took an
oath to see that his grandson inherited the throne of his father. Of
course the brothers of the Grand Prince knew of this oath. But Vassili
did not think that active steps would be taken against his son by that
son’s uncles. In his illness he turned to his brothers, Andrei and Yuri,
and begged them not to oppose the will by which he had made his
son Grand Prince. In commending Vassili to Vitold, one of the most
powerful sovereigns [422]of Europe, he must have intended to
threaten his brothers. Vassili was the only son of the Grand Prince;
the other sons born to him had died earlier, so this was a favorable
condition for inheritance by the eldest from his father. But the Grand
Prince himself had brothers: Yuri, Andrei, Peter, and Constantine.
The eldest would not recognize his nephew as senior. In his will,
therefore, Vassili gave the guardianship of his heir to Vitold, and to
his own brothers, Andrei, Peter and Constantine, taking no note of
Yuri.
Vassili was only ten years of age when his father died. The
metropolitan invited Yuri, then in Zvenigorod, to be present in
Moscow at the installation of his nephew. But Yuri hastened off to his
own land beyond the Volga to prepare for hostile action. Vassili’s
mother, his uncles, and some boyars sent the metropolitan to bring
Yuri to peaceful methods. Yuri would not listen and, angered by his
refusal, the metropolitan left Galitch without blessing that city.
Straightway the plague appeared in Galitch, as the chronicler
informs us. The prince hurried after the prelate, and with difficulty
brought him back to give his blessing. Yuri now sent two envoys to
Moscow with this message: “I will not seek the principality with
violence. Let the Khan say who shall have it.”
But no one visited Sarai, and quiet reigned in Russia for a season.
Yuri’s yielding was caused not so much by the metropolitan, as by
fear of Vitold, who had declared that he would permit no man to
offend his grandson. Meanwhile the plague spread through Russia
and brought devastation to Moscow, Tver, and Novgorod. “Suddenly
and without warning the victim would feel a sharp pain in the chest,
or between the shoulders as though struck with a dagger; blood
would flow from the mouth, intense fever would be followed by
intense cold; the entrails were as though consumed by fire; tumors
appeared under the arms, on the neck or hips. Death was inevitable
and swift, but terrible.” The scourge continued for more than two
years, and caused the death of many members of the ruling house,
among others four sons of Vladimir the Brave, as well as Andrei and
Peter, two uncles of Vassili.
Vitold died, as we remember, in 1430, and Svidrigello, son of Olgerd,

reigned in his stead. Svidrigello was a friend of Vassili’s uncle, Yuri,
and Yuri laid claim at once to the Grand Principality. The following
year, after various councils and discussions, Vassili [423]set out for
the Horde; then Yuri went also to get the Khan’s judgment.
The rule of the Horde over Russia had weakened greatly, but it was
strengthened anew by this quarrel. Both sides had friends at Sarai.
Mindulat, an official who had looked after tribute in Moscow, was
Vassili’s chief ally among the Mongols. On Yuri’s side was the Murza
Tiginya, who took Yuri to the Crimea, boasting that he would make
him Grand Prince in Russia. Among boyars attending Vassili, the first
place was held by Ivan Vsevolojski, a man who had served Vassili’s
father and grandfather. This shrewd boyar took advantage of
Tiginya’s absence, and his boasting. “Tiginya says,” declared Ivan to
the Mongols, “that the Khan yields to him in all things, that every
Mongol magnate is his servant. If this be true, Yuri will succeed, for
to him Tiginya has promised the Grand Principality.” Made indignant
by these biting speeches, which were repeated to him, the Khan, Ulu
Mohammed, promised to put Tiginya to death if he even tried to help
Yuri. Then he began to show favor to Vassili. Of course gifts played a
very large part in the question.
When Tiginya returned in the spring of 1432, and heard of the

Khan’s threats, he dared not assist Yuri. The Khan appointed a day
to decide the question. The Horde magnates and both princes were
present. Vassili rested his claim on inheritance from his father and
grandfather; Yuri on ancient custom, as proven by chronicles, and on
the will of his father Dmitri. Then Vsevolojski stepped forth and
began speaking: “O free Tsar, my sovereign,” said he, “grant a word
to me, the servant of Vassili of Moscow, who seeks the Grand
Principality by thy gift and patent. Prince Yuri seeks the same
through the dead letter of ancient custom, and not, O free Sovereign,
by thy document, through which our recent sovereign gave the
Grand Principality to his son now reigning in Moscow by thy will, as
thou, our lord, knowest.”
This speech pleased the Khan, who, well disposed toward Vassili,
adjudged him the patent, and proposed that he mount a horse which
Yuri was to lead by the bridle. But Vassili had no wish to humiliate his
uncle.
As there was a war between Ulu Mohammed and Kutchuk

Mohammed, the Khan, fearing the treason of the murza Tiginya,
granted at his request an enlargement of Yuri’s domain by giving
[424]him Dmitroff, which had belonged to Peter, his brother, but
afterward Vassili took this town.
A Horde envoy, named Mansur, returned with Vassili to Moscow, and

enthroned him, that is, was present at the ceremony which took
place in the Assumption Cathedral. This is the first account of the
coronation of a Grand Prince in Moscow.
By confirming direct heirship from father to eldest son, the Khan

aided greatly in assuring single rule in Moscow, and prepared for the
downfall of Mongol supremacy. But a consistent policy at the Horde
was at that time impossible, for each Khan had to fight for his office.
A new uprising occurred soon, and this gave Yuri, the uncle, a
chance to win the Grand Principality, without reference to the
previous Khan’s decision.
Yuri’s chief inciter in this struggle was that same Vsevolojski, who
had previously secured triumph to Vassili. This boyar had not toiled
without reason. He had received Vassili’s promise to marry his
daughter; such a thing being usual in those days. Princes often
married daughters of boyars, and gave their own daughters in
marriage to boyars. Vsevolojski was of the Smolensk princely house,
and his eldest daughter had married a son of Vladimir the Brave. But
Vassili’s mother was opposed to this marriage, and brought about his
betrothal to Maria, the granddaughter of Vladimir. Vsevolojski was
mortally offended, and passed over, or to use the phrase of the
period, “went away to take service” with Yuri, and rouse him to seek
the headship of Russia.
While Yuri was preparing to move on his nephew, there was a

collision in Moscow, which hastened and embittered the beginning of
action. Yuri’s sons, Vassili Kosói and Dmitri Shemyaká, were at a
wedding in the palace of the Grand Prince. Vassili Kosói was
wearing a girdle of gold set with jewels. All at once an old Moscow
boyar noted the girdle, and told its whole history to Sophia, the
mother of the Grand Prince. The girdle had been received by Dmitri
of the Don from the Suzdal prince as a gift with his daughter
Yevdokia, but at the time of the wedding Velyaminoff, commander of
Moscow, put in the place of this girdle another of less value, and
gave this, the real one, to Nikolai, his own son, who was married to
another daughter of that same Dmitri, the Suzdal prince. This
Nikolai, who later on fell at Kulikovo, gave the girdle as a gift to his
daughter when she married [425]Vsevolojski, and Vsevolojski gave it
with his daughter to Prince Andrei, son of Vladimir. After Andrei’s
death, his daughter was betrothed to Vassili Kosói, who received this
same precious girdle with his bride.
On learning these details Sophia commanded to strip the famed

girdle from Kosói. It is difficult to credit the chronicler that she would
insult a guest so rudely, remembering the length of time since the
first substitution had taken place. It is likely that there were other
reasons of enmity, and the girdle, if the story is true, was only a
pretext. In every case Kosói and his brother left the feast, burning
with anger and fully determined to make Vassili and his mother pay
dearly for the insult.
The Grand Prince, attacked unexpectedly by Yuri, could not collect

warriors in sufficient number; he was defeated in battle, and
captured. Yuri took Moscow, but in favor of the captive now
appeared Yuri’s famed boyar and counselor, Morozoff, who was
either bribed by friends of Vassili, or provoked by the triumph of
Vsevolojski. He persuaded Yuri to give Vassili the town of Kolomna,
as a portion, but barely had Vassili arrived there, when Moscow
boyars and nobles rallied round him, and refused to serve Yuri. Thus
became evident the devotion of men to that mode of inheritance
which secured the possession of rights, lands and property in
permanence. Princes from smaller places, on coming to Moscow,
brought with them attendants and boyars, who drove out the old
servitors. This new turn enraged Yuri’s sons greatly, so they slew
Morozoff with their own hands, and escaped from Moscow. Then
Yuri, being almost abandoned, retired straightway to Galitch, and
Vassili came back to Moscow.
By a new treaty between Yuri and his nephew, Yuri recognized the
seniority of the nephew. Vsevolojski, the old boyar, paid dearly for his
treason. He was seized and blinded at command of Vassili, and his
lands were confiscated. As Kosói and Shemyaká had not joined in
the treaty, and had continued their warfare, Yuri himself broke that
same treaty soon after it was made. With his sons he drove out
Vassili, and in 1434 took the throne a second time, but that same
year he died. Kosói, his eldest son, tried to succeed him, but Kosói’s
brothers, Dmitri Shemyaká and Dmitri Krasni, refused to accept him
as Grand Prince, preferring their [426]cousin, Vassili. Kosói, however,
did not abandon his claim, and continued the struggle.
In this conflict a great part was taken by the warlike and riotous
people of Vyatka, a Novgorod colony bordering on Galitch. The
princes of Galitch had completed their regiments with the wild Vyatka
warriors, and these added immensely to the fierceness of the
struggle. After ruinous attacks on northern districts Kosói met the
Grand Prince at Sokrotin, in Rostoff regions. But there he saw the
superiority of his enemy and, seeking advantage by perfidy,
concluded a truce till the following morning. Vassili, relying on this
truce, sent his men for provisions. Kosói then attacked him, but
Vassili did not lose his head; he sent messengers quickly to all sides
to collect his forces. He seized a trumpet himself, and sounded it.
His men rushed in, and won a complete victory. Kosói was taken
prisoner, and led to Moscow (1436). Kosói’s Vyatka warriors
committed a desperate deed: The Grand Prince’s lieutenant in
Pereyaslavl, Prince Bryuhati, was encamped near the junction of the
Kotorosl and the Volga. Some tens of those Vyatka men sailed up in
the night, and at daybreak, in a fog, crept to Bryuhati’s tent, seized
him with his princess, and rushed to the boats with them. An alarm
was raised quickly, but the robbers flourished axes over the
prisoners, stopped pursuit, and reached the other bank of the river.
From there they bargained, and got four hundred rubles as ransom.
Then, keeping both captives and money, they hurried off to Vyatka.
For such perfidy Kosói suffered heavily. Vassili had his eyes put out.
This cruelty called for a similar deed in retaliation, which later on was
committed. [427]
[Contents]
CHAPTER XVIII
SINGLE RULE ESTABLISHED
Foti, the metropolitan, died in 1431. His successor was Iona, who
was born at Soli-Galitch, a place north of the Volga. The late
metropolitan had favored Iona, and foretold his elevation. On Foti’s
death the Grand Prince wished to make Iona metropolitan. He was
appointed, and needed only ordination by the Patriarch, but civil war
in Moscow delayed this. In view of Moscow disorders, another
metropolitan was chosen in Western Russia and Lithuania. The
Smolensk bishop Gerásim was ordained to the office in Tsargrad.
But in 1435 Gerásim met a tragic death, because of his negotiations
with Sigismund of Poland,—Vitold’s successor, Svidrigello, seized
the metropolitan and burned him at the stake. Then Vassili of
Moscow, in agreement with the Lithuanian Grand Prince, sent Iona
to Tsargrad, but before he arrived there the Emperor and Patriarch
had made Isidor, a Greek, metropolitan of Russia.
The Emperor Ioann was well known for his discussions with Rome
touching union of the Churches. Surrounded by the Osmanli on
every side, he sought safety in church union, trusting that the Pope
would bring aid to him from all Europe. Church union had been a
question at Basle, to which council Ioann had sent three envoys,
who agreed on conditions for union. One of these three, the most
zealous for union, was Isidor. Wishing to involve Russia in the union,
the Patriarch made Isidor metropolitan of Kief and all Russia. He
came to Moscow with Iona. The Grand Prince was dissatisfied; still
he received the new metropolitan, not knowing the plans of the
Emperor and Patriarch. Isidor was barely in office when he asked to
make a journey to Italy to be present at the Eighth Oecumenical
Council, assembled in Ferrara at that time, 1437, to unite the two
Churches. The Grand Prince was very [428]unwilling to grant the
metropolitan leave of absence, and demanded from him a promise to
preserve Orthodox purity in church belief.
At Ferrara were the Byzantine Emperor, with his brother Dmitri and
the Patriarch Iosif. The Council was opened 1438. Pope Eugene IV
presided. Some months later the plague appeared at Ferrara and the
Council was taken to Florence. Two parties were acting among the
Greek members; one favored union with Rome, hoping thus to get
aid against Islam, while the other would not sacrifice religion to
politics for any cause. This party refused to recognize papal
supremacy, procession of the Holy Ghost from the Son as well as
the Father, and some other articles of faith. The soul of the party was
Mark, metropolitan of Ephesus. At the head of the other, and more
numerous party, stood the Emperor and the Patriarch. Its most
eloquent representative was Vissarion, metropolitan of Nicaea.
Isidor, the metropolitan of Russia, was attached to this man through
long friendship; he was bound heart and soul to his project of union,
and did much for its temporary triumph.
In July, 1439, in the Cathedral of Florence, was proclaimed the union

of Churches. One of the cardinals read the Latin text of the bull
containing the decision of the Council, and Vissarion read the Greek
version. Among the names of the twenty metropolitans who signed
the bull is that of Isidor. The Greek minority, headed by Mark of
Ephesus, refused every signature. Eugene IV appointed Isidor papal
legate for Livonia, and Eastern and Western Russia; with this title he
left Florence in October. In Western Russia his first act was to
publish the decision of the Council. On his return to Moscow a Latin
crucifix was borne in front of him. This confused people greatly. In
his first mass he prayed for the Pope before others, and at the end of
the service the bull was read announcing Church union. In this bull
those doctrines were proclaimed which, according to Russian ideas,
form the main errors of Latinism. This reading produced immense
scandal among both the clergy and laity. The Grand Prince
denounced Isidor as a wolf, not a pastor and teacher. He
commanded that he should be removed from office at once, and
conveyed to the Chudoff monastery. Then he assembled bishops to
judge the recreant.
This was in 1440. Isidor did not await a decision; he fled from [429]the
monastery, and, going through Tver and Lithuania, halted not till he
reached the Pope’s palace. The Grand Prince did not pursue him,
being satisfied, it seemed, with ending the matter in that way.
In Tsargrad the union of Florence met firm resistance. The Emperor

and Patriarch dared not proclaim it in the Sophia Cathedral. The new
Patriarch, Gregory Mana, a determined advocate of the union, was
forced from his office, and withdrew to Rome. Events showed very
soon that the plans made in Rome were fruitless. The Turk was not
driven from Europe. The Pope roused Yagello’s son, Vladislav, to
attack the Osmanli, but Vladislav fell in battle. In 1444 the Christian
army was thoroughly defeated by Murad II at Varna. The remnant of
the Byzantine Empire received no aid from Western nations.
Isidor was welcomed by the Pope with open arms, and made
cardinal. He continued, however, to call himself metropolitan of
Russia. The next Pope, Nicholas V, favored Isidor also, who was
perhaps the chief agent between Rome and Byzantium. After the
death of Gregory, who had been driven from his office by adhering to
the union, the Pope appointed Isidor Patriarch. Of course the
position was titular only.
There was no obstacle now to the installation of Iona. The Grand

Prince sent an envoy to the Patriarch to explain Isidor’s heresy, and
ask him to install a new metropolitan. But while the envoy was on the
road tidings met him from Mount Athos that the Patriarch and
Emperor had joined the church union, hence he returned to Moscow,
and for eight years there was no metropolitan in Russia.
In the autumn of 1438 Ulu Mohammed (Big Mohammed) was

expelled from the Horde by his rival, Kutchuk Mohammed (Little
Mohammed). Ulu Mohammed seized the town of Bailoff on the
boundary of Lithuania, and thought, as it seems, that he could win
back his throne with the aid of Vassili, to whom he had given the
Grand Principality. But Vassili, either wishing to be rid of Mongol
robbery, or not desiring to quarrel with the Khan then occupying the
throne, sent against Ulu voevodas with whom Dmitri Shemyaká and
Dmitri Krasni, his two cousins, joined their forces. This army
besieged the Mongols in Bailoff. In vain did Ulu beg for peace,
promising to defend Russia from other Mongols, and never [430]again
to ask for tribute. The Russian commanders would listen to nothing.
But with them at Bailoff was the voevoda Gregori Protasieff, sent, as
it seems, by the Lithuanian Grand Prince to help Moscow. This man
betrayed his allies. He joined the Khan’s forces and made it possible
for him to inflict a defeat upon Moscow. After this victory Ulu
withdrew and halted near Nizni. At that point many Mongols came to
him, and thus strengthened he was able to make raids against
Russia, and even to hold Moscow besieged for several days in
succession.
In the spring of 1445 the Grand Prince received news that Mongols
under Mohmutek and Yagup had been sent against Moscow. Vassili
summoned a number of smaller princes and marched out in person
to drive back those forces. July 6 he halted near Suzdal, and an
encounter with the enemy took place. The Russians attacked the
Mongols with vigor, and dispersed them after a short and sharp
conflict. But, while hunting the enemy, Vassili’s men scattered, and
some fell to stripping the dead. The Mongols now employed their
usual tactics. They turned suddenly and attacking on all sides,
defeated the Russians. A number of important boyars and princes
were captured, among others the Grand Prince Vassili.
The Mongol commander took the cross, which Vassili wore next his
body, and sent it to Moscow to his wife and his mother, but Vassili
they led away with them to Nizni. Before going, however, they
plundered many places in Vladimir and Murom.
There was weeping and wailing when news came to Moscow that
the Grand Prince was a captive among Mongols; all looked for great
woe, and a speedy attack on the capital. But the Mongols did not
come, and the excitement gradually died away.
Vassili’s captivity was not of long duration. From Nizni, the Khan with
his forces went eastward to the edge of Moscow regions; thence he
sent Baigitch, his murza, to Dmitri Shemyaká, who heard of Vassili’s
misfortune with gladness, and straightway sent an envoy to work
against liberating the prisoner. The envoy, however, was delayed for
a long time; hence the Khan thought Shemyaká an enemy, and
liberated the Grand Prince, who took an oath to give a large price for
his freedom.
Vassili returned to Moscow in the autumn of 1445. With him went

Horde magnates, and a crowd of attendants to receive the
[431]promised ransom. Some of these men, pleased with Moscow,
remained in Russia as subjects. It must be noted that Vassili, in
those days of Horde quarrels, had attracted princes and murzas to
his capital. He had taken these men to his service, and given land to
support them. Many Russians, not understanding his policy, were
displeased to see Mongols treated as if they were people of Moscow.
Hence, when the Grand Prince had to find his large ransom,
dissatisfaction rose straightway on all sides. Shemyaká took
advantage of this and brought over to his plans Vassili’s cousin, Ivan,
son of Andrei, and grandson of Vladimir the Brave. This Ivan had
fought nobly at Suzdal, where Vassili was captured. Wounded and
thrown from his horse, he had succeeded with great difficulty in
mounting another, and escaping. Discontented with a slender
inheritance, as he thought it, he hoped to divide the lands of the
Grand Prince with Shemyaká, the new claimant. He and Shemyaká
now arranged with the malcontents of Moscow, and going to a place
near the city, held communication daily with those conspirators.
Vassili, not knowing the plot which his enemies were weaving, went
on a pilgrimage to the Troitski monastery, with Ivan and Yuri, his two
little sons. His attendants were a few intimate boyars, and a small
number of servants. Shemyaká and Ivan rushed with all haste to
Moscow and took possession of the city at night, through the help of
confederates, who opened the gates to them. The Grand Prince’s
mother, Sophia, and his wife were both captured; the treasury was
pillaged; boyars faithful to Vassili were made prisoners and their
property taken; wealthy citizens were robbed without ceremony.
That same night, February 12–13, 1446, Shemyaká sent Ivan to the
monastery to capture the Grand Prince. Vassili was at mass when a
man named Bunko rushed in and declared that an enemy was
approaching. Bunko had served the Grand Prince somewhat earlier,
but had left him for Shemyaká’s service. Vassili, therefore, suspected
the man of plotting, and commanded to expel him, but at the same
time he sent guards out to learn what was happening. Ivan’s men
saw those guards and reported. The conspirator had sent in a long
line of sleighs, each carrying two armed men hidden under mats and
other covering. Behind each sleigh walked a [432]third man, who
seemed to be a peasant following his load. Vassili’s guards let a
number of these sleighs pass unchallenged. All at once the line
halted, and armed men sprang out and seized the guards. As there
was deep snow at each side of the road, no man could escape to
give warning to Vassili. Ivan’s men were seen only when near the
monastery. The prince rushed to the stable, but no horse was ready.
The old monks were helpless; among the younger monks some were
opposed to Vassili. The prince hastened to the stone Church of the
Trinity. He entered and the sexton closed and barred the heavy door.
The attackers stormed like wolves in winter; they burst into the
monastery, and ran to the Church of the Trinity. “Where is the Grand
Prince?” shouted Ivan. Hearing Ivan’s voice, Vassili opened the door,
and implored for his eyesight. Ivan commanded to seize him. Nikita,
a boyar, obeyed his command. “Thou art taken,” said he, “by Dmitri,
son of Yuri, Grand Prince of Moscow.” “God’s will be done,” replied
Vassili.
They placed him in a rough country sleigh and conducted him to

Moscow. His attendant boyars were seized also, but in their haste
the attackers forgot the two young princes, Ivan and Yuri, who had
hidden, and when Ivan and his men had left the monastery the boys
and those who were with them found refuge with Prince Ryapolovski
in his village, Boyar Kovo. Later Ryapolovski and his brothers took
the princes to Murom, and shut themselves up in the city, where a
large force of warriors soon assembled.
February 14, Prince Ivan reached Moscow and lodged Vassili at

Shemyaká’s court, where three days later his enemies blinded him,
accusing him thuswise: “Thou didst bring Mongols to Russia, and
give them land. Thy love for those enemies and their speech is
beyond measure; thou givest gold, lands, and silver to them; thy
oppression of churches is unsparing. Also thou didst blind Prince
Vassili, son of Yuri.” Then they sent him, with his princess, to Uglitch.
Sophia, his mother, they sent to Chuhloma.
Shemyaká began then to reign as Grand Prince in Moscow; his

success was short-lived, however. Many princes would not recognize
this new man. In Moscow not all the boyars took the oath, and soon
complaints and indignation rose mightily against [433]him. His Galitch
boyars and attendants seized the best places. People were not
gratified when they saw that he was beginning to divide Moscow
lands, consolidated with so much toil by preceding princes.
Shemyaká soon felt his weakness, and determined to get Vassili’s
sons into his power. At his request the nominated metropolitan, Iona,
went to Murom and, by promising that Vassili should be liberated,
persuaded the Ryapolovskis to surrender the little princes.
Not merely was Vassili not liberated, but his sons were imprisoned
with him in Uglitch. A great movement began then throughout
Moscow regions in favor of the imprisoned and blinded prince. It was
agreed by the Ryapolovskis, by Obolenski, and others to meet at
Uglitch, storm the town, and free Vassili. Some reached the place,
but others were waylaid by Shemyaká’s warriors. Thereupon they
attacked and defeated those warriors, and brought in fresh
assistants. Seeing that more and more men were leaving him,
Shemyaká listened at last to Iona, who ceased not to complain that
he had been used as a tool in taking the sons of Vassili from Murom.
“What can a man without eyesight do?” asked Iona. “Besides, his
sons are little children. Bind him to peace by an oath, and the
bishops.”
Shemyaká went to Uglitch with abbots, boyars, and bishops, freed

Vassili from prison, and begged forgiveness. The blind man said that
he had suffered for his sins; he showed great mildness, blaming only
himself. Shemyaká, after taking an oath from Vassili that he would
not seek power for himself or for his children, gave a great feast as
evidence that they were reconciled. Vassili promised that he and his
sons would live in distant Vologda. But barely was he free when the
new oath was ignored, and the rôle changed completely. From
Vologda Vassili went, as it were, on a pilgrimage to the Cyril
Bailozero monastery. There many boyars and other men came to
him, deserting his opponent. Trifon, the abbot of Bailozero, freed
Vassili from the oath given his enemy, taking on himself the sin of
breaking it. Then Vassili set out for Tver to obtain the co-operation of
Prince Boris and make a league with him against Shemyaká. The
alliance was made, and Boris betrothed his daughter to Ivan,
Vassili’s eldest son.
Meanwhile those attendants of Vassili who had fled to Lithuania

gathered their warriors and marched to free the Grand Prince,
[434]but on the way they learned that he was already free. They met
Mongol troops and fell to fighting. “Who are ye?” inquired the
Mongols. “We are men of Moscow hastening to free Prince Vassili,
our sovereign.” “We too,” replied the Mongols, “are going with our
two princes, Kasin and Yagup, to rescue Prince Vassili in return for
kindness.” Both parties now advanced to aid Vassili.
Shemyaká and Prince Ivan had despatched troops to block the

Moscow road before the boyar Pleschyeff, sent by Vassili to Moscow.
But Pleschyeff marched around Shemyaká’s troops very cleverly,
and reached Moscow Christmas morning. The gates had just been
thrown open for the Princess Julianna, a daughter-in-law of Vladimir
the Brave. Vassili’s uncle, Pleschyeff, and his men rushed in behind
her suite, and seized the Kremlin immediately. Learning that warriors
were marching from Tver with Vassili, that other forces were hurrying
from the west, and that the Kremlin was taken, Shemyaká and Ivan
fled to Kargopol. At Vassili’s demand they now freed his mother,
Sophia. They then begged for peace, and it was granted, but
Shemyaká did not keep the conditions which he himself had put
forward. He began at once to work against Vassili, who, when he
had received undoubted proof of the perfidy, placed the question
before the clergy.
Then in the name of all spiritual persons a letter was written to
Shemyaká. It began by reminding him of the offenses of Yuri, his
father; it recounted his own crimes, comparing him to Cain, the first
murderer, and to Sviatopolk the Accursed. It reproached him with
treason, with robber attacks on the Grand Prince; with the blinding of
Vassili, and other offenses. In conclusion, it asked him to observe his
own treaty, otherwise he would be cursed and deprived of
communion.
Threatened not only with a curse, but with warriors of the Grand
Prince, Shemyaká strengthened the treaty with a new oath. But soon
he was false to this oath also, and renewed the civil war, which
continued a number of years. At last Vassili’s troops, led by
Obolenski, reached Galitch, now fortified strongly, and armed well
with cannon. After a stubborn engagement Shemyaká was defeated
and fled to Novgorod. Galitch yielded to Vassili, and in 1450 its
citizens took the oath to him.
The battle of Galitch was the last struggle of note between

[435]Russian princes. After that Shemyaká made a number of efforts.
He marched against Ustyug and Vologda, but his acts were mere
senseless destruction of property. At last, in Moscow, it was thought
best to bring his intimates, by rewards, to abandon him. It is stated
that he died in Novgorod in 1453, after eating a chicken which his
own cook had poisoned. Vassili Baida came galloping to Moscow
with news of his death. For this news he received a good office.
Thus ended a strife which had lasted two decades. It cost Moscow
dearly, and delayed for a time the final ending of subjection to
Mongols. But it had its own value also in developing single rule
strongly in Russia. This struggle showed how firmly the new order
was established. All classes stood on its side now, and favored its
triumph. During Shemyaká’s warfare, Vassili the Dark (that is, blind),
as men called him, spared all the other small princes lest they might
join his rival, but when Shemyaká, that last champion of the old order
of things, had vanished, Vassili was unsparingly stern to opposition,
and seized the land of all warring princes.
His cousin Ivan, grandson of Vladimir the Brave, who had aided
Shemyaká, and betrayed the Grand Prince very often, even trying to
bring the Polish king, Kazimir, to Moscow, was expelled from Mojaisk
forever. He fled to Lithuania, and his portion was added to Moscow.
Vassili of Serpukoff, who had formed a conspiracy against the Grand
Prince, was seized and died later in prison. His son, Ivan, went to
Lithuania, as did Shemyaká’s son, and Ivan of Majaisk; there the
exiles spent their time in framing fruitless plots against Moscow.
Toward the end of Vassili’s reign all minor places had been
incorporated, save only Vereisk. The prince of that place had always
been faithful, and Vassili did not disturb him.
While assimilating the land of small princes, Vassili extended his

influence over the Tver and Ryazan principalities. He undertook a
campaign against Novgorod which ended in establishing Novgorod’s
dependence on Moscow; he also subjected Vyatka, that disorderly
nest of freebooters.
Iona had aided Vassili more than many, and Vassili determined to
make him metropolitan. He could not turn then to Tsargrad, for Isidor,
who had fled from Moscow, not only continued to call [436]himself
metropolitan of Russia, but was recognized as such by the Patriarch
and Emperor. At the call of the Grand Prince, the bishops of Russia
held a council in the Archangel Cathedral. Referring for authority to
the rules of the Apostles and early churches, they ordained Iona
December 5, 1448. Thus was created the first Russian metropolitan
entirely independent of Tsargrad.

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Smart Charging Solutions for Hybrid

and Electric Vehicles Sulabh Sachan

Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles 1. Edition James

Electric Vehicles for Smart Cities: Trends, Challenges,

Hybrid Intelligent Approaches for Smart Energy:

Power Flow Control Solutions for a Modern Grid Using

Nickel-Titanium Smart Hybrid Materials: From Micro- to

Wearables : Smart Textiles and Smart Clothes Dominique

Hybrid Energy Systems for Offshore Applications Ibrahim

Multifunctional hybrid nanomaterials for sustainable

Wiley Global Headquarters

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Cover image: EV Charge Station Image: Artinun Prekmoung | Dreamstime.com

Printed in the USA

2.4.2.3 Mode 3: Recharge in Domestic and Public

4.4.4 Competitive Charging Station Pricing 124

6.4 Proposed Constant Current and Constant Voltage Method

8.2.4.1 Charging Stations 214

9.4 Problem Description and Methodology 242

12 A Novel Intelligent Route Planning Framework for Electric

14 Electric Vehicle Integrated Virtual Power Plants:

16.2 FAME Status 401

Future energy resources entirely depend on locally available renewable

electric vehicles in office buildings using automatic learning algorithms offer-

Kumar Ch discuss techno-economic issues of grid-connected large photo-

Department of Electronics and Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of

*Corresponding author: bikash.2015@iitg.ac.in

1.1 Introduction to Smart Charging

Smart charging also renders a fascinating opportunity to scale-up,

1.1.1 Context of SMART

a. Smart automation devices are devices automated by pro-

communication link between the connected subsystems.

The categorization of “smart” devices is broad and not limited to the

charging system, the enablers who coherently support the development,

1.2 Types of Charging

1.2.1 Uncoordinated Charging

The impact of uncoordinated charging to the utility grid can be

1.2.2 Coordinated Charging

a. The EV owners’ need to charge at any time of the day should

b. The power system operator (PSO) constraints should be

Coordinated charging of EVs is complicated, expensive, and needs stan-

1.2.3 Smart Charging

than considering the grid’s condition, especially during peak-load hours,

Low Medium High

1. Uncoordinated EV Charging 1. Subscribing to grid for charging. 1. Bidirectional services rendered

Unidirectional Bidirectional Dynamic

Smart charging techniques

Figure 1.2 A brief on different approaches to smart charging techniques.

The definitions and requirements to call a charging infrastructure smart

i. Guaranteed service to the users as required by optimizing

Based on the discussions in the previous paragraphs, a comparison is

1.3 Impact of Smart Charging on Global Energy

1.3.1 On the Grid Side

1.3.2 On the Demand Side

reliability, on the demand side, is weighted with loads of added benefits

1.3.3 Overall Infrastructure

1.4 Types of Smart Charging

Aggregator Communication signals

Figure 1.3 A schematic to differentiate V2H/V2B and V2G.

i. Vehicle to the Building (V2B) or Vehicle to Home (V2H):

The difference between different types of smart charging is presented in

1.5 Entities of a Smart-Charging System