Conceptual foundation

Traditional grammar was defined as both an art (tekhnē) and a form of practical expertise
(empeiria) (P. H. Matthews p.20). These definitions highlight the dual nature of grammar as both
a theoretical discipline and an applied skill.

Grammar is an experimental knowledge of the usages of language as generally current among

poets and prose writers. It is divided into six parts, (1) trained reading with due regard to prosody
[i.e. aspiration, accentuation, quantity, emphasis, metre, etc.], (2) exposition according to poetic
figures [literary criticism], (3) ready statement of dialectical peculiarities and allusions
[philology, geography, history, mythology], (4) discovery of etymologies, (5) accurate account
of analogies [accidence and syntax], (6) criticism of poetical productions, which is the noblest
part of the grammatic art [ethics, politics, strategy, etc.].—DIONYSIUS THRAX.

Greek Foundation

Traditional grammar dates back to last century BC (P. H. Matthews p.18). the groundwork was
laid by Graeco-Roman grammarians such as……Aeschylus, Herodotus, Hippocrates,
Heroclitus, Sophocles, Aristotle

Plato laid the groundwork for future grammatical classifications by identifying the basic
elements of language. He distinguished between "onoma" (name) and "rhēma" (utterance)

The Library of Alexandria was a crucial center for early traditional grammar. The library aimed
to collect, put together and preserve works of the past and make it available for future
generations. Notable figures there were Aristarchus, a prominent figure in the 2nd century BC
and his pupil Dionysius Thrax, a Greek grammarian, who expanded on these early ideas,
identifying eight parts of speech: nouns, verbs, participles, articles, pronouns, prepositions,
adverbs, and conjunctions in his famous manual of grammar (Tekne Grammatike). Dionysius
work became immensely influential as a model for the analysis of other languages (P. H.
Matthews p30).

Roman adaptation
The adaptation of these grammatical categories to Latin was not exact due to differences between
Greek and Latin. For example, Latin did not have a direct equivalent of the Greek article.
Despite these differences, the Romans adopted and adapted the Greek grammatical framework to
fit Latin's structure

Roman grammarians placed importance on the order of these categories, reflecting their
functional relationships. For instance, adverbs were listed adjacent to verbs due to their syntactic
relationship

Roman educator Quintilian, in middle of the first century AD first described the discipline that
emerged into details. He divided grammar into two parts: correct speech (recte loquendi scientia)
and interpretation of poets (poetarum enarratio) (P. H. Matthews p19) by adapted the eight parts
of speech for teaching Latin.

Remmius Palaemon is the earliest known author of a grammatical manual (now lost) in Latin. (P.
H. Matthews p21) ……modified the Greek system to suit the specific needs of Latin, such as
noting the absence of articles in Latin. (P. H. Matthews p.21)

Varro, a roman Scholar, also intergrated Greek grammatical concepts into his works on latin
grammar

Donatus created a structured approach to Latin grammar, influencing the way parts of speech
were taught and understood. His classifications included nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs,
participles, conjunctions, prepositions, and interjections ((P. H. Matthews p.30). His work
extended into what are called in Latin the vitia et virtutes, literally the ‘vices and virtues’, of
usage. (p. 31)

According to Sextus Empiricus, the parts of grammar were a topic of wide and never-ending
dissension; but, for his purposes, he distinguished three. One was ‘historical’, in the sense that it
supplied explanations called historiai. Another was ‘more specific’, and was concerned with the
establishment of literary texts. The third was ‘technical’ and dealt with letters, parts of speech,
and so on (P. H. Matthews p.21).
Then came the medieval period and the Renaissance, scholars such as Erasmus preserved and
expanded upon the Greek and Roman frameworks, but began to incorporate more syntactic and
functional criteria into their definitions.

Philosophical foundation

* Grammar scholars at the time, identified words in available texts and traced their origins for
their meanings.

* Prescriptivism: Traditional grammar is deeply rooted in a prescriptive approach, which means

it sets out rules for how language should be used. This approach aims to maintain linguistic
standards and correctness. It reflects the belief that language should adhere to established norms
to preserve clarity and effectiveness in communication. This highlights a fundamental
philosophical difference: traditional grammar is normative and rule-based, whereas modern
linguistics is observational and descriptive

* Linguistic Purity: The preservation of linguistic purity is a significant aspect of traditional

grammar's philosophy. This stems from its origins in classical languages like Latin and Greek,
where maintaining the integrity and correctness of these languages was paramount. The focus
was on avoiding corruption and ensuring that the language remained unchanged and true to its
classical roots.

* Analytical Approach: The classification of words into eight parts of speech demonstrates an
analytical approach to language. This categorization helps in understanding the structure and
function of language, reflecting a systematic and logical method of studying grammar. The goal
is to dissect language into its fundamental components to better understand and teach it.

* Structured Framework: The article emphasizes that traditional grammar provides a

structured framework that is practical for teaching. This structure is part of its philosophical
foundation.

*The terminology of grammar is more consistent and stable than the terminology of
structural linguistics, “Every new book on structural linguistics presents the teacher with new
terms, often new terms for old concepts, new terms which she is forced to translate into terms
provided by traditional grammar.”

*Cross-linguistic relevance- It is good for studying other languages. “Its Latin-derived

description of language is used not only by teachers of English, but also by teachers of French,
German, Spanish, and Italian. Each of these languages has roughly the same formal classification
of the parts of speech.” Only in the teaching of traditional English grammar is it possible to
prepare the student for his increasing need to learn foreign languages.

The philosophical foundation of grammar is rooted in the analysis of language structure and the
categorization of parts of speech based on their semantic and morphological characteristics. This
is how they() did it

Goals:

Maintain Linguistic Purity: One of the core goals of traditional grammar is to preserve the purity
and integrity of classical languages like Latin and Greek. This is achieved by adhering to
established grammatical rules and avoiding linguistic corruption.

Ensure Correct Language Use: Traditional grammar sets out clear rules for the correct use of
language, aiming to standardize communication and avoid misunderstandings. This prescriptive
approach is designed to provide a consistent framework for writing and speaking correctly.

Educational Standardization: In educational contexts, traditional grammar aims to create a

standardized method for teaching language. This ensures that learners receive a consistent and
thorough grounding in the fundamental aspects of language structure and usage.

Categorize Language: By defining and categorizing the eight parts of speech (noun, pronoun,
verb, adverb, participle, conjunction, preposition, interjection), traditional grammar aims to break
down language into manageable and understandable components. This systematic approach
helps learners grasp the different functions and relationships within language
Facilitate Learning: The goal is to make language learning more accessible and systematic by
offering a clear framework. This enables students to build a solid foundation in grammar, which
is essential for advanced language use and comprehension.

The primary goal of grammar, as outlined in the excerpts, is to establish clear definitions and
distinctions for parts of speech

PARTS OF SPEECH

It looked at 8 parts of speech: Noun, verb, participle, article, pronoun, preposition, adverb and
conjunction.Case-Distinguishing Parts: Common Characteristics: Nouns, participles, pronouns,
and articles all distinguished cases, setting them apart from verbs. These parts were collectively
referred to as ptōtika in Greek (having the property of ptōsis, meaning ‘falling’) and casuales in
Latin (from casus). Contrast with Verbs: Verbs were defined as lacking case distinctions, unlike
the aforementioned parts

Meaning in Context: Each part of speech had a specific sēmasia (meaning) in Greek or
significatio in Latin. The distinctions between parts of speech were based on their specific
significations.

Parts of Speech

In this grammar,8 parts of speech were identified and define

1. Noun

Both Greek and Latin grammarians began their lists of parts of speech with the noun.

Dionysius Thrax defines it as a part of an utterance "subject to case which signifies a material or
non-material entity both in a strict sense and a common." For example, Sōkrátēs signifies in one
way; ánthrōpos ‘man’ in another.

Apollonius Dyscolus & Priscian says a noun is inflected for case and assigns to every material or
non-material entity that is the subject of predication a shared or individual "what-sort-ness."

According to Priscian, nouns signify substantia (substance) and qualitas (quality), terms derived
from Greek philosophy. Substantia corresponds to the Greek ousia, meaning "being" or essential
nature. Qualitas, coined by Cicero, translates Plato's concept and means "what-sort-ness" or the
intrinsic characteristics of something.

Nouns had 'cases' or inflections to indicate grammatical roles. The term for a noun, onoma in
Greek and nomen in Latin, referred to names in general. Distinctions were made between proper
nouns (like personal names) and common nouns (like boy or human being).

A noun was also seen as a declinable part of speech, signifying something

concrete (as stone), abstract (as education), common (as man), proper (as Socrates)

Also, nouns have the following 5 accidents: gender (masculine, feminine, neuter), species
(primitive, derivative), forms (simple, compound, super-compound), numbers (singular, dual,
plural) and cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, ablative)

2. Verb

Dionysius Thrax says a verb is a part of an utterance "without case, admitting times and persons
and numbers, representing an activity or an experience."

Donatus confirms that a verb is a part "with time and person, without case, signifying either
doing something or experiencing it or neither."

Priscian also says it is a part of an utterance "with times and moods, without case, signifying
what is done or experienced."

They all converge on it lacking case distinctions (unlike the noun and others) and its ability to
signify actions performed or experienced and by their capacity to indicate different times
(tenses).

A verb was thus seen as an indeclinable word, indicating time, person, number, showing activity
or passivity and has 8 accidents: moods (indicative, imperative, optative, subjunctive, infinitive),
dispositions (activity, passivity, modality), tenses (present, past (imperfect, pluperfect, aorist)

Future), species, numbers, persons.

3. Participle

Dionysius Thrax defines it as a word which "shares the specific character of verbs and of nouns."
Donatus sees it as a word "so called because it takes a part of the noun and a part of the verb,"
receiving "genders and cases" from nouns, and "times and significations" from verbs.

According to Priscian, a participle is a part "which is admitted in place of a verb, from which it is
also by nature derived, which has gender and case like a noun, and properties applying to a verb
without distinction of persons and moods."

Separate from Verbs: Participles were distinct from verbs because they had cases and genders
like nouns but did not have moods. Their lexical meaning derived from verbs, placing them
between nouns and verbs in the grammatical hierarchy

A participle is a word partaking of the nature of nouns and verbs. It has all the accidents which
belong to nouns as well as to verbs, except mood and person

4. Article

Dionysius Thraxsats an articles is subject to case and "ordered before and after the inflection of
nouns." Articles "ordered after" are now described as relative pronouns.

Priscian noted that the article in Greek had no direct equivalent in Latin.

Relative Pronouns: What we now call relative pronouns, which begin relative clauses, were
historically described as articles postposed to nouns. This indicates that the ancient grammarians
viewed them differently than we do today.

An article is a declinable part of speech prefixed or subjoined to the various cases of nouns. It
has 3 accidents: gender, number and case

5. Pronoun

Dionysius Thrax defines a pronoun as a word "employed in place of a noun, making clear
definite persons."

Donatus confirms that is a part "placed instead of a noun," which "signifies barely as much" and
"sometimes admits person."

Apollonius Dyscolus also says pronoun is "a word indicative, in place of a noun, of definite
persons, distinguished according to case and number."
Priscian also adds that a pronoun "is admitted in place of a proper noun of an individual, and
receives definite persons."

Pronouns (antōnomia in Greek) signified in place of nouns. They were used to denote specific
persons or things, making them a distinct category.

A pronoun is has 6 accidents: person, gender, number, case, form, and species.

6. Preposition

Dionysius Thrax defines it as "placed before all other parts of the utterance in both composition
and syntax."

Donatus agrees that it is "placed before other parts of an utterance and either fills out or changes
or reduces their signification."

Priscian also says a preposition is "uninflected" and "is placed before other parts either in
juxtaposition or in composition."

7. a) Adverb

Dionysius Thrax explains adverb simply as "said of or in addition to a verb."

Donatus also says it is a part which "added to a verb makes clear and fills in its signification."

Apollonius Dyscolus also says an adverb is "uninflected" and "is predicated of the moods of
verbs, wholly or partly, without which it does not conclude a thought."

Priscian: corroborates that an adverb is an uninflected part "whose signification is added to

verbs."

Adverbs, named adverbium in Latin and epirrhēma in Greek, were defined by their relationship
to verbs. They were placed with verbs and could not have complete meaning without them.

An adverb is an indeclinable part of speech and may be classified in terms of: simple/compound,
time, manner, quality, quantity, number, place
8.a) Conjunction

According to Dionysius Thrax: a conjunction is a part that "binds a thought in an ordered way
and makes clear a gap in interpretation."

Donatus says it "ties together and orders a thought."

Priscian also defines it as an uninflected part "conjoining other parts of an utterance, together
with which it signifies, making force or order clear."

Conjunctions, termed sundesmos in Greek and conjunction in Latin, were defined by their ability
to join together different words, including nouns, verbs, and adverbs.

Conjunctions did not signify meaning on their own but only in conjunction with other words, a
concept reflected in both Greek and Latin grammatical traditions.

The different types were identified as: copulative, disjunctive, conjunctive, praeter-conjunctive,
causative, conclusive and expletive.

1. And to be able to interpret these texts,the process was

a) to identify the words which constitute the texts

b) to determine their meanings

2. To be able to determine the meaning of words, it wais necessary to

consider the origin of each word

3.

To be able to collect and describe the words,recurrent patterns in

grammar were identified as a basis to formulate general rules,

based on the principle of analogy

summary: Fundamental Parts of Speech: Nouns and verbs were considered primary and essential
for constructing meaningful utterances. Other parts of speech were seen as appendices or
secondary to these main components.
Criteria for Completeness: Priscian and other grammarians argued that for an utterance (logos or
oratio) to be complete, it must contain at least a noun and a verb. Other parts of speech were
optional and could be omitted without rendering the sentence incomplete.

Ancient grammarians developed a sophisticated system for defining parts of speech based on
their functions, relationships, and inflections. Nouns, participles, pronouns, and articles shared
the property of distinguishing cases, while verbs were marked by their lack of case distinctions.
Prepositions had fixed positions and could form compounds, adverbs were closely tied to verbs,
and conjunctions linked different parts of speech together.

Despite the passage of millennia, the basic framework of categorizing words into nouns, verbs,
adjectives, and other parts of speech has persisted.

WEAKNESSES
 According to Wolfe, Structural linguistics involves inherently a knowledge of phonetics
which is useless in an average high school classroom.
 Weaknesses may include limitations in accurately capturing the fluidity and complexity
of natural language, as well as variations in grammatical conventions across different
languages and time periods.
STRENGHS
 A good instrument for classroom work as against structural because of the proliferation
of nomenclature.
 Traditional grammar is easy to study all levels but Structural should be at the college and
graduate level.
 Traditional grammar is easy to study all levels but Structural should be at the college and
graduate level.
 Cross-linguistic relevance- It is good for studying other languages. “Its Latin-derived
description of language is used not only by teachers of English, but also by teachers of
French, German, Spanish, and Italian.
 Each of these languages has roughly the same formal classification of the parts of
speech.” Only in the teaching of traditional English grammar is it possible to prepare the
 student for his increasing need to learn foreign languages. Motivates for Learning new
languages.
 The structural linguists also expanded the new linguistic terminology and were difficult
to define which was uncharacteristic of grammar with fewer terms and easy to define.